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Inadequate diagnosis and suboptimal control of hypertension is a major driver of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in Africa. Understanding the levels of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension and the associated factors has important implications for hypertension control efforts.
The PubMed database was searched for original articles related to awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Africa published between 1993 and 2013. The key search terms were: Africa, awareness, treatment, control, and hypertension. Exploration of bibliographies cited in the identified articles was done to provide further studies. Full texts of the articles were obtained from various internet sources and individual authors. A data extraction sheet was used to collect this information.
Thirty eight studies drawn from 23 African countries from all regions of the continent met the inclusion criteria. The levels of awareness, treatment and control varied widely from country to country. Rural populations had lower levels of awareness than urban areas. North African countries had the highest levels of treatment in the continent. There was generally poor control of hypertension across the region even among subjects that were aware of their status and those that were treated. On the whole, the women had a better control status than the men.
There are low levels of awareness and treatment of hypertension and even lower levels of control. Tailored research is required to uncover specific reasons behind these low levels of awareness and treatment, and especially control, in order to inform policy formulation for the improvement of outcomes of hypertensive patients in Africa.
Keywords:Hypertension; Awareness; Control; Gender; Associated factors
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in developing countries where it causes nearly as many deaths as HIV, malaria and tuberculosis [1,2]. Africa, a continent of 53 countries and one billion people is not only beleaguered by a huge burden of infectious disease but also bears a considerable proportion of the world's CVD burden [3]. Presently, the age-specific mortality rates from CVDs are much higher in younger age groups in both men and women in Africa than in the developed world [4]. CVD is the second leading overall cause of death in Africa, after HIV/AIDS, and is the leading cause of mortality among individuals over the age of thirty [5]. The World Health Organisation (WHO) projects that over the next ten years Africa will experience the largest increase in death rates from CVD and therefore the negative economic impact of CVD will be more felt on the continent [3].
Hypertension is the driver of the CVD epidemic in Africa where it is a major, independent risk factor for heart failure, and stroke and kidney failure [6]. The management of these complications is difficult to sustain in sub-Saharan countries where resource-intensive care is not very feasible. Insufficient diagnosis of hypertension and suboptimal blood pressure control in the diagnosed patients increases morbidity and mortality with an increased burden to health care resources [7]. In developed countries, the improved control of hypertension has led to considerable reduction in overall morbidity and mortality over the last fifty years [8,9]. Evidence from large clinical trials has shown a 40% reduction in stroke and a reduction of at least 25% in myocardial infarction associated with treatment and control of hypertension [10,11].
The increasing awareness of hypertension as an important cause of morbidity and mortality in Africa over the last twenty years has resulted in numerous publications documenting the burden of hypertension in Africa which now calls for systematic reviews to provide a comprehensive understanding of the situation in order to inform the design of tailored control and research efforts. In 2007, Addo et al. published a systematic review which showed extensively varying prevalence of hypertension with higher prevalence rates in the urban than rural areas in Sub-Saharan. There was marginal reporting on the levels of awareness, treatment or control in that publication [12]. Since then, there have been several studies conducted that have further highlighted the challenge of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension. This systematic review is therefore intended to evaluate the available data on levels of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Africa with a view of suggesting measures that could improve control among hypertensive patients.
This systematic review followed the guidelines set out by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement [13]. We considered articles published in all languages between 1993 and 2013 to give a more comprehensive and current appraisal of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Africa. Journal articles in other languages were translated to English. To ensure relative homogeneity and comparability of the studies, we considered only community based cross-sectional studies that reported awareness, treatment and control of hypertension. We considered articles that defined hypertension as a measured blood pressure of >140 systolic and >90 diastolic; awareness as the prior knowledge of hypertensive status; treatment as any attempted pharmacological therapy for hypertension in patients who were aware of their status and control as a blood pressure of <140 systolic and <90 mmHg diastolic in treated hypertensive subjects. We included studies that used both automated and mercury sphygmomanometers as blood pressure measuring devices, and surveys that had a sample size of at least 350 participants. Non-pharmacological therapy is an important way of controlling hypertension and indeed a first line for pre-hypertension. However, the studies included, described only control with pharmacological therapy because this is a more demonstrable way of therapy. We excluded studies in which hypertension status was determined using one blood pressure reading.
We searched in PubMed using the key search terms: Africa, awareness, treatment, control, and hypertension. We also used individual country names for the 53 African countries and hypertension as additional key search terms to obtain articles on the subject. Eligible articles were assessed by one member of the team (JK). We excluded all studies that were hospital based and all data whose definitions of awareness, treatment and control differed from the agreed-on definitions. The abstracts of all potentially relevant papers were reviewed and full articles were accessed through Pub Med or Google Scholar or HINARI. The references of all the relevant research articles were scrutinised for additional potential data sources. The full texts of these studies were also accessed in a similar way. The authors whose full texts papers could not be accessed by the numerous internet based sources used were requested to provide them.
A data extraction sheet was used to collect information about the country, the year of publication, the number of participants, the prevalence of hypertension and the levels of awareness, treatment or control. Where the factors that predicted the levels of awareness, treatment and control were provided, these too were extracted. Where possible, results from multinational studies were disaggregated to show the status of awareness, treatment and control within individual countries. Where it was not possible to disaggregate the data by country, the study was presented as one and the countries in which the study was done were shown. In the publications considered, level of awareness was measured as a proportion of the total numbers of hypertensive subjects that were aware of their hypertensive status; level of treatment as a proportion of the subjects who were aware of their hypertensive status who were on pharmacological therapy and level of control as the proportion of treated patients who attained a blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg. The threshold statistical significance for factors that predicted hypertension was a p-value < 0.05. We also recorded odds ratios in those publications that reported them. Owing to the heterogeneity of the study designs and the lack of reported confidence intervals in most the studies, a combined analysis of the reported data could not be done.
Figure 1 shows the schema of the process of choosing the studies that were included in the review. The primary PubMed search identified 40 articles. The country-specific searches led to the identification of an additional 52 studies. We excluded six studies that considered maternal hypertension; eight that described awareness as "knowledge of the effects of hypertension" rather than "awareness of hypertensive status"; 19 review papers and guidelines and 6 studies among Africans in the diaspora (living outside the continent). Fifteen additional studies were extracted from the bibliographies of the eligible articles and included for review. Eventually 44 studies were included in the review of the awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Africa.
Figure 1. Flow chart of literature search.
Figure 2 shows the countries on the African continent represented in the review. Overall, 26 of the 53 African countries were represented from all the regions of the continent. East Africa was represented by fourteen studies from seven countries [14-27]. Central Africa [28-33] and North Africa [34-39] were each represented by six studies. West Africa was represented by eleven studies [21,40-49]. An additional four studies from South Africa and Namibia were included in the survey [21,50-52].
Figure 2. Map of Africa distribution of studies reviewed.
Table 1 summarises the findings of the systematic review including any factors associated with diagnosis, treatment and control where available. The populations represented in this review were diverse and included both rural and urban subjects. Two of the articles were from multinational studies [21,35]. An additional six studies were nation-wide survey [29,30,36,37,53,54]. The special communities represented in the studies were slum dwellers in Kenya, gold miners in South Africa and the market community in Nigeria [19,44,50].
Table 1. Results of systematic review of hypertension awareness, treatment, control, and any associated factors from 44 studies in Africa, 1993-2013
The total number of participants in the review was 121, 220. The sample size ranged from 375 subjects in a market place in Nigeria [44] to 27296 in a multinational study in North Africa [35]. The age of the participants ranged from 15 years to 99 years. Five studies focused on the middle aged and elderly populations above forty years [25,32,34,38,39]. All the studies had both genders (male and female) represented. In most of the studies, the women participants were more than the men. In studies that targeted special communities- gold miners, slum dwellers and market communities- the men had more representation.
Prevalence of hypertension
There was a wide variation in prevalence of hypertension. Most of the prevalence rates were not age-standardised which made comparisons difficult. Among the studies that considered younger populations under 35 years, the prevalence ranged from 9.3% in an Ethiopian population to 48.1% in a Mozambican population [16,22]. As expected, those studies that involved the elderly populations had higher prevalence of hypertension reaching 70% in an urban Tanzanian population aged more than 70 years [25].
Awareness in this review was described as prior knowledge of hypertensive status. The lowest levels of awareness were found in rural communities in Nigeria (8%), Uganda (10%) and Gabon (9%)[21,27,32]. The lowest prevalence of awareness in urban areas was 12.3% among slum dwellers in Nairobi. The highest awareness rates were found in the studies that considered elderly subjects reaching 81% in urban elderly populations of Tunisia [39]. Generally, studies from North African countries showed the highest levels of awareness. The large multinational Epidemiological Trial of Hypertension in North Africa (ETHNA) that included 27296 subjects revealed awareness rate of 71% among hypertensive patients [35]. West and central Africa seemed to have the lowest levels of awareness of hypertension status.
The treatment of hypertension ranged from 5% in a rural Nigerian community to 91.2% in urban North African populations [21,35]. East African populations had the lowest levels of treatment while North African countries had the highest levels. In studies done in Tanzania, for example, the treatment rates ranged between 6.1% and 11% whereas those done in North Africa varied between 24% in an Egyptian national wide survey and 91.2% in the ETHNA study [24,25,35,36]. There was no clear difference in treatment rates between urban and rural populations across the regions.
Control rates
Despite varying rates of awareness and treatment, the control rates were uniformly low and never exceeded 45%. Tanzanian populations- both urban and rural- had the lowest levels ranging from as low as <1% and never exceeding 6.5% in all the four studies that spanned twelve years. As with awareness and treatment rates, the North African studies showed the highest rate of control. The least levels of control in North Africa were recorded in Egypt at 8% with the highest recorded in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria in the multinational ETHNA study [35,36].
Factors affecting treatment awareness and control
Only 24 out of the 44 studies attempted to review any factors associated with awareness, treatment and control status. In all the studies, the older age group had better awareness and treatment rates. However, this did not universally translate into better control of the blood pressure. In fact, two studies reported better control in the young hypertensive patients [35,41]. Additionally, most studies revealed better prevalence of awareness, treatment and control among the women. Even the two studies that showed better awareness of hypertensive status in men eventually revealed superior treatment and control status in the women [25,47].
All the studies that had a comparison of rural and urban dwellings showed generally better hypertension treatment and control status in the urban areas. Additionally, subjects with better formal education and literacy levels seemed to have better control. While socio-economic status was not a frequently recorded variable in the studies, the patients who had health insurance or who had access to private care had better control [52]. Moreover North African countries, most of which have access to universal health insurance had better detection and treatment profiles, although these did not translate into better control rate [39].
There has been a wealth of information on the prevalence of hypertension on the African continent. A 2007 systematic review by Addo et al. had illustrated the high prevalence of hypertension in numerous African states [12]. Although our search terms did not include prevalence, this systematic review reveals varied levels of prevalence across countries, a great many of which confirm persisting high rate. In a high prevalence setting like Africa, it is of utmost importance to describe not only the detection rate but also awareness, treatment and control as well as the factors that influence these rates. This would enable the formulation of relevant tailor-made control strategies in order to reduce the complications of uncontrolled hypertension. This systematic review is, to our knowledge, the most comprehensive analysis on awareness, treatment and control on the African continent to date.
Our results show generally low levels of awareness of hypertensive status with North African countries having relatively better levels. The levels in Africa are much lower than those in North America and Europe where temporal reviews have shown an improvement in awareness from twenty years ago when the levels where similar to the level currently seen in Africa to the present rate of over 65% [53]. Most of this improved awareness has been attributed to rigorous education programs on hypertension after the realization that hypertension was a major player in morbidity and mortality in these countries. Whereas the heterogeneous nature of the designs of the study reviewed here could not allow the establishment of a temporal trend in this review, no improvement was realised in countries that had multiple consecutive studies such as Tanzania. It is possible that similar appreciation of hypertension as leading cause of death would lead to improved education and therefore improved awareness.
The treatment rates found by our review in North Africa were much higher than those found elsewhere on the continent. It is possible that the availability of health insurance in countries such as Tunisia which covers both diagnosis and treatment steers these high levels of treatment. In Massachusetts USA, universal health insurance coverage has led to improved diagnosis and control of hypertension leading to a reduction in hypertension related hospitalisations and deaths [54]. It is possible that hypertension status will improve in countries aiming to attain universal health coverage such as South Africa. In other parts of Africa, nationalized health insurance remains out of reach. Most Africans pay out-of-pocket for their health expenses, which are supplemented somewhat by a few free services from government and donor organizations which mainly focus on infectious disease treatment with HIV/AIDS control efforts taking a lion's share of this funding [55]. This calls for more innovative ways of financing care for chronic non-communicable disease on the continent.
The studies considered in this review revealed generally dismal rates of control of hypertension. The lowest rates of control were seen in Tanzania in studies spanning 10 years. Even in countries that had impressive rates of treatment, control of blood pressure to target remained elusive in many. This means that treatment of hypertension does not guarantee control, the ultimate predictor of outcomes. Several of the included studies from different countries blamed various factors for poor blood pressure control. These can generally be categorised as such as the health-system deficiencies, patients' non-adherence and the physicians' inertia in treating hypertension and they seem to be in play on the African continent. For example, the lack of anti-hypertensive medication at health facilities and the long distance to the health facilities reported in some studies are characteristic health system shortcomings hindering the achievement of control [28,44]. On the other hand the lack of time and reported competing priorities are classical patient and physician factors adding to the problem [45].
Blood pressure in women was generally better controlled than in men in Africa. In two studies in Tanzania and Nigeria, the men were more aware of their status and were more likely to receive treatment. Still, the women achieved better control rates. The issue of gender differences in hypertension has been a subject of intense research. It is now recognised that young men are more likely to develop hypertension than women, a dynamic that has been blamed on androgen mediated abnormalities in pressure natrieusis [56]. However, large meta-analyses of hypertension treatment trials have failed to document gender differences in response to antihypertensive medication meaning that the poor control of hypertension documented in men is probably due to socio-economic and cultural factors [57]. In other parts of the world, control of blood pressure seems to be poorer in women. This is possibly because these studies have largely considered elderly men and women [58,59]. In our review women of all age groups seemed to have better control. In various studies in the African setting, the women seem to have better health seeking behaviour for chronic disease than men [60,61]. It is also possible that women benefit from screening due to more contact with healthcare facilities during the reproductive years [62]. The men, on the other hand, are less enthusiastic in seeking care. Indeed in one included study from Angola, men reportedly did not pick up their antihypertensive medication because they lacked time [28]. The finding supports the establishment of gender-specific programs for the treatment and control of blood pressure.
There were certain limitations in this review. The use of one database may have limited the number of articles obtained for the review. However, by searching the PubMed database we limited our search to peer-reviewed sources which offered a firm guarantee that the publications used were appropriate for review [63].
As previously mentioned, these studies were heterogeneous in nature which made further analysis difficult. In addition, the cross-sectional nature of the considered studies complicated efforts to discuss the trends in awareness, treatment and control. In Tanzania, frequent studies have been done in the capital Dar es Salaam over time and so we commented on trends [24,26]. There is need to carry out surveillance or follow-up cohorts in order to study the trends of hypertension status. A further limitation with most of the reviewed studies was the failure to study the factors that contributed to the current hypertension status on the continent which calls for systematic study of these factors to inform interventions and policy. Other draw-backs included non-random selection of participants in some of the studies [30,44] the under-representation of the central African region.
This systematic review confirms the low levels of treatment and awareness. Most notably, the level of control is abysmal in most countries in Africa, which implies that diagnosis and treatment does not guarantee reaching targets of control. This situation explains the poor outcomes of patients affected with hypertension on the continent. While health system factors play a key part in perpetuating this state of affairs, patient factors are also important determinants of control. These factors may differ in gender and on different parts of the continent necessitating tailored research and policy formulation to improve the outcomes of patients affected by hypertension. In addition, there is need to design tailored chronic care models on a continent whose focus has thus far been the control of acute infectious disease.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contribution
JK designed the review, conducted the literature search and drafted the first version of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript and contributed to its content.
We thank Dr. Alison Kinengyere, the librarian at the Makerere University College of Health Sciences School of Medicine, Evelyn Bakengesa of the Publication and Information Centre, Makerere University College of Health Sciences and Rhoda Namubiru, Administrator of the MEPI- Linked Cardiovascular program for assisting in the literature search and submission of the manuscript.
This work was supported by Grant R24TW008861 (MEPI- Linked: Building Capacity for cardiovascular research and Training in Uganda.) funded by Office of the United States Global Aids Coordinator, National Institutes of Health and Health Resources and Services Administration. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the supporting offices.
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Falagas ME, Pitsouni EI, Malietzis GA, Pappas G: Comparison of PubMed, Scopus, web of science, and Google scholar: strengths and weaknesses.
FASEB J 2008, 22:338-342. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:


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Articles from RotoWire's fantasy archives that mention Jeremy Johnson's name.
September 2, 2014
Waiver Wire Watch: Players to Pick Up Week 2
Justin Thomas looks to have given Georgia Tech something it has not had recently -- a capable passer.
July 28, 2014
Offseason Barometer: Derrick Henry Moving Up
Derrick Henry was a playmaking revelation for Alabama late in his freshman season last year, and the offseason arrest of fellow Alabama RB Kenyan Drake should help Henry get his foot further into the door in 2014.
June 21, 2014
Sleepers & Busts: 2014 NCAAF Fantasy Duds
Terry Baggett had a breakout season for Army in 2013, but the backfield will be too crowded for a repeat in 2014. Steer clear.
November 27, 2013
Start vs. Sit: Who to Play, Who to Bench Week 14
Tajh Boyd's had a good season, but facing South Carolina on the road is not a good way to end the regular-season schedule.
November 14, 2013
Position Units: Strong Plays for Week 12
Quarterback Rakeem Cato gets the attention, but Marshall's running game is just as potent as its passing game.
October 29, 2013
Waiver Wire Watch: Players to Pick Up Week 10
Running back Paul James is getting closer to a return from injury from Rutgers, and now's the time to scoop him up if another owner cut him.
October 28, 2013
CFB Barometer: Who's Up, Who's Down Week 10
UCLA quarterback Brett Hundley is in a rut, but the most difficult stretch of the schedule is now behind the Bruins.
October 24, 2013
Position Units: Strong Plays for Week 9
The theme for the week is Tigers, and the Clemson version catches a Maryland team that is beat up on both sides of the ball.
October 23, 2013
Start vs. Sit: Who to Play, Who to Bench Week 9
Brett Hundley the Bruins head to Oregon this week in a tough matchup with the Ducks.
October 17, 2013
Position Units: Strong Plays for Week 8
The resurgent Branden Oliver leads a Buffalo running game that won't be slowed by the likes of UMass this week.

subset: commoncrawl


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Korea begins first commercial electric bus service
By Gizmag Team
December 27, 2010
The Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) has claimed a world first by deploying electric buses on a commercial route. Previous electric bus operations have all been trials, or in the case of Expo 2010 in Shanghai, free public services. The buses went into service on December 21 after an 18 month development project with Hyundai Heavy Industries and Hankuk Fiber.
The electric coaches serving on the Mt. Namsan circular routes are 11.05 meters long and run up to 83km with a single charge. The lithium-ion battery pack can be fully charged in less than 30 minutes and the bus has a maximum speed of 100 km/h. There's also a regenerative system that reuses energy from brakes when running downhill.
The body is made of a carbon composite material, not of iron plates, which considerably reduces the vehicle's weight while reinforcing durability. The electric buses are also equipped with automatic slant boards for wheelchair users.
The bus is shaped like a peanut and decorated with designs symbolizing the Namsan Tower and landscapes of Mt. Namsan.
SMG has replaced five buses on the Namsan circular routes with electric vehicles. It plans to gradually substitute all 14 buses with electric coaches to minimize any inconvenience of citizens that may be caused by the introduction of the new buses. It also plans to build two more battery chargers on Namsan by March 2011, increasing the number from two to four.
SMG expects that the electric bus service has enabled Seoul City to move one step further toward a "Green-Car, Smart City." SMG has set a goal of putting a total of 120,000 electric vehicles in use in the city by 2020, which will account to 50 percent of all public transport vehicles, 10 percent of sedans and one percent of trucks and vans.
LOL... I am currently in Memphis, TN not far away from Chattanooga TN. Chattanooga among other things is known for its \"electric buses\". In reality 95%of the passenger miles are still on diesel buses. They have been tooting their electric bus horn for 20 years.
Electric buses window-dressing to make stupid liberals people think their leaders are hip, modern, tree hugging liberals.Michael Mantion
World first? Ridiculous. I\'ve seen some electric buses gone conventional in Paris (France) since at least 2008 and even in Vientiane (Laos) since 2009.Renaud d'Avout d'Auerstaedt
RE: Michael Mantion comment - \"Electric buses window-dressing to make stupid liberals people think their leaders are hip, modern, tree hugging liberals.\"
Therefore, South Koreans and the French (electric garbage trucks for 2011) are stupid liberals.dmia5
Kim Chee with tomatoes , mayonnaise, hamburgers and bread are my favorite sandwiches. Now we have something just as good, the electric bus. No more noise and fumes. If I ever visit Seoul, I would not miss the oppkortunity of riding one of them. Some day I hope we will have electric buses like these in all our cities.Adrian Akau
\"...the electric bus service has enabled Seoul City to move one step further toward a \"Green-Car, Smart City.\"
But that electricity has to come from somewhere, so unless these South Koreans have many more nuclear power plants than we in the West are aware, they are burning lots and lots of Chinese coal or Iranian oil to generate all that \'green\' electric power.Locomotivebreath1901
The difference between these electric buses and those the other writer mentioned are these have Lithium batteries to give them extended range.
Electric vehicles are as much as 95% efficient compared to gas or diesel. So even if they were using Chinese Coal or Iranian oil to make the electricity, the vehicles would go considerably further on the energy produced....but lets hope they are intent on developing Solar PV and other solar technologies, such as heliostat, reflector trough, wind towers, etc. instead of fossil fuel. The point is sneering at advanced projects is stupid, we need more advanced vehicle technologies, just like the computer and cell phones keep being improved. Wake up you conservative dolt. Liberal is a word derived from Liberty. Conservatives voted to remain subject to the Kind of England...liberals wrote the Constitution and Bill of Rights and those were the most Liberal documents ever conceived upon which a new government would be based. The conservatives in America are just making the gap between the super wealthy and the average Americans wider and deeper. The bankers caused the economic crash all over the world...and then they benefited from the reduced property values and what effectively has happened is the largest land swindle in history. So much for \"conservative\" ethics, values and integrity. They are just liars tweaking everybody with their unbridled greed.Donald Eyermann


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Toshiba to make flash-based notebook drives
Toshiba will begin manufacturing flash-based solid-state drives for laptops early next year, which the company said will offer faster boot times and lower power consumption than hard disk drives.
Toshiba will begin manufacturing flash-based solid-state drives for laptops early next year, which the company said will offer faster boot times and lower power consumption than hard disk drives.
Toshiba on Monday launched its first tablet PCs with LED screens, taking some thunder away from Dell, which later in the day is expected to launch Latitude XT, its convertible PC with an LED screen.
Dell's much-awaited Latitude XT tablet PC is ready to ship, according to a document posted on the company's Web site.
Dell has announced the addition of BigPond, using Telstra's Next G mobile network, as an option for integrated mobile broadband in a number of its notebooks.
Microsoft quietly introduced on Wednesday an upgrade to Office Mobile that lets mobile users work with documents created in Office 2007.
Users should not be fooled by a possible stabilizing in DRAM prices in coming weeks because it's only a speed bump on the way down, analysts say.
Unfazed by the failure of earlier subscription-based PCs from vendors like PeoplePC, Zonbu Wednesday launched an inexpensive subscription notebook that the company claims will free users from the hassle of computer maintenance.
IBM is suing Shentech for selling laptop batteries that catch fire and sport allegedly fake IBM logos.
Taiwan has developed a powerful ultramobile PC that can fit in your hand, complete with a speedy 1GHz microprocessor on board.
As commercial sales of One Laptop Per Child's XO laptop close on Monday, a user tracking the nonprofit effort said continued commercial availability of the laptop could benefit OLPC's nonprofit effort, the XO manufacturer and children using it as a l...
ASUS today announced that it has chosen Myer as the Australian retailer for its portable Eee PC.
Enterprises hoping to maintain tight control over future adoption of mobile technologies should open their minds and embrace the notion that consumer devices will continue to filter their way into the workplace, whether they like it or not, according...
Intel this weekend launched its long-awaited new line of power-efficient microprocessors, code-named Penryn, designed to deliver better graphics and application performance as well as virtualization capabilities.
Google's introduction of its Android device operating system and Open Handset Alliance on Monday could help create just the breed of mobile Linux platform that many enterprise IT managers have been waiting for, industry experts contend.
Google and several other technology companies plan to unveil a new mobile platform called Android on Monday, according to a statement from the company. The system is expected to yield an actual phone in the second half of 2008.
The latest business news, reviews, features and whitepapers
Visit our shop for the best deals on hot products
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Comprehensive buying guides, features, and step-by-step articles
First impression on unpacking the Q702 test unit was the solid feel and clean, minimalist styling.
For work use, Microsoft Word and Excel programs pre-installed on the device are adequate for preparing short documents.
The Fujitsu LifeBook UH574 allowed for great mobility without being obnoxiously heavy or clunky. Its twelve hours of battery life did not disappoint.
The screen was particularly good. It is bright and visible from most angles, however heat is an issue, particularly around the Windows button on the front, and on the back where the battery housing is located.
My first impression after unboxing the Q702 is that it is a nice looking unit. Styling is somewhat minimalist but very effective. The tablet part, once detached, has a nice weight, and no buttons or switches are located in awkward or intrusive positions.


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Cheap YTM to Treasure Cay flights
Popular Flights from Mont-Tremblant, Quebec
Top Mont-Tremblant Flights to US Destinations
Top Mont-Tremblant International Destinations
Popular Flights from Treasure Cay, Bahamas
Top Treasure Cay Flights to US Destinations
Top Treasure Cay International Destinations
YTM to TCB Route Map
Mont-Tremblant to Treasure Cay Flights, Stats and Airplanes
Route information for flights from Mont Tremblant Intl. to Treasure Cay.
1,366.09 miles
TCB - Treasure Cay Airlines
Browse the most popular airlines servicing the Treasure Cay (TCB) airport. Visit their flights pages to learn more about the most popular routes these carriers fly.


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Pronunciation: Lahud
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Are you getting into the Halloween Spirit? At the first site of Halloween costumes (um, I think it may have been in August), my older daughter was overwhelmed with excitement to pull our decorations out of storage. I made her wait until September, which also seemed ridiculously early but at least it wasn't August! We've already tackled at least five Halloween-related projects, … [Read more...]
Taped Trees from Observation
My older daughter, 3 year old N, likes to look through my library or "read" blogs with me and pick out activities for us to work on. I love it when this happens because then she's self-motivated to work on a project, it supports my philosophy of educating children through an emergent curriculum, and cuts back on those "failed" activities. I was doing some research for a project … [Read more...]
Cardboard Christmas Tree
Have you ever had a weekend that began like this? It doesn't bode well for fun and games, does it? The good news is that we're now the proud owners (and, let's not forget--makers!) of new bedroom dressers, and the bad news is that it was at the expense of being holed up in the house all day. Okay, back to the picture up there. Don't you love the repurposing of our Hello Kitty … [Read more...]


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Recent Ireland Reviews
Words simply don't do it justice
I simply don't have the words to express what a wonderful experience this was for my family. My husband and I, along with our 10 year old son and 7 year old daughter, spent a week at Williamstadt House. It was, hands down, the best family vacation we have ever had. The house itself is beautiful and the grounds were luxurious even in early spring. To a certain extent we were expecting this based on the photographs we'd seen before we arrived. The real surprise, however, were Carole and Kevin. They were far more welcoming and gracious than we ever could have imagined. They were our hosts, tour guides, historians, and, by the end of the week, our friends. Our children enjoyed their time at Williamstadt House so much that even the Cliffs of Moher couldn't compete. We had to practically drag them away from the house every morning so we could explore the area; if they had their way, they would have stayed at Williamstadt House every minute of every day. The kids loved collecting eggs from the hens and playing with Carole and Kevin's three dogs. My daughter carried poor Sally around like a purse for most of the week and even Sally was gracious about it! My ten year old son and "Mr. Clarke" were great pals by the end of the week. Carole and Kevin went out of their way to make us comfortable and to ensure we enjoyed our stay. Our week went a lot like this: The kids want to visit a local dairy farm? Sure, we'll take you! A boat to Holy Island? No trouble at all! How to find a local artist? We know just the place! Carole and Kevin recommended pubs, castles, caves, tower houses... they suggested activities for us that we hadn't even considered and every single one of them was perfect. I could go on and on and on about what a fantastic week this was for us, but instead I will say this: We have never been so sad to leave a place. There weren't many dry eyes in the car as we pulled away from Williamstadt House, and we traveled most of the way to Dublin in complete silence. There were just no words to express both how happy we were to have spent time there and how sad we were to have to leave. I'm certain we will be back.
Our Dream Vacation in Ireland
My family and I spent one dreamy week at this castle. We were a group of 8. My husband and I and our 3 children (7, 11, 15), my parents and my best friend. We stayed at the St. George and were blown away by everything. We arrived late but were met with open arms by Elizabeth Marshall (literally) who then offered to open the pool for our children even though it was 10pm. The rooms were lovely with stone castle walls and antique but lovely and comfortable furniture. The grounds were impeccable and my 7 year old loved to feed the coy in the ponds daily with Marshall. The forest trails on the property were breathtaking. Galway and the Renaissance district are only a 10 minute drive and we loved shopping and enjoying local artists there. That's where we discovered the band Keywest ...future U2. And enjoyed amazing baked potato meals at the Coach Potato. We even were invited to a tea party with Marshall and George where we got a tour of the main house...absolutely our best travel experience ever. We travel several times a year and always to different countries. But I can honestly say my family has not stopped talking about our trip to Ireland and we can't wait to go back again. We vacationed there summer of 2011. I am on the VRBO site today looking at this property again because my children keep begging to go back. Thank you Marshall and George!!! We love you both:)
Simply Enchanting
Any garden enthusiast or anyone with a poetic soul will love the Grey House. It has everything anyone could ever want to be comfortable and more. The setting is so inspirint and the location is quite central to explore southern Ireland, with its hidden architectural and botanical wonders.


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Yes. After a long time the guy who seems to get decent ratings on his blogs and do well in Wrestlingfans blog wars (And Olympic special) has returned!
He will now talk about something no-one else on EWN has ever brought up before and raise certain thoughts in your mind that may question the ground you think you walk on.
Oh! Hello. How're yo--Wait! Is that...Is that a title for my blogs?! Aww yeah! people, 11 months into EWN I finally thought of a name.
Speaking of EWN. I'd just like to point out that EWN is about to hit 500 blogs. Congrats to EWN for hitting a grand achievement, I feel this calls for a badass blog!
So what topic will we discuss today? The upcoming battle of generations
Updated 03-06-2012 at 08:12 PM by VanHooliganX
Although I can expect a lot of other people blogging about this PPV, I thought i'd try to get in early about what I feel about everything that just happened. Maybe injecting a few lulz here and there along the way too...I know I waffle on about bullshit quite a bit but it is a never boring read.
After WWE waste about $10,000 of pyro and fireworks the card begins with the World Heavyweight
Updated 01-31-2012 at 05:32 AM by VanHooliganX
Ah Money in the Bank. Last night saw a PPV that had major storyline movements and kept the wrestling community wondering what will happen on the next Raw and Smackdown. I believe now that WWE have their 5th major PPV of the year, but i'll get to that statement after a recap of probably the PPV of the year.
First off, we opened up with a great win for Daniel Bryan in the Smackdown Money
© 2011 eWrestlingNews, All Rights Reserved.


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|Property type
|Minimum Stay
|1 - 7 nights
Ask about our Military and State of SD employee discount!
Swoosh! Swoosh! A perfect little ski cabin - so cozy and so close to the slopes!! You will love this location! This prime location in the heart of the Northern Hills allows you access to year-round fun, and is a perfect 'home base' for your Black Hills adventures.
Newly remodeled interior. The formal bedroom has a queen bed and bunk bed, as well as a full private bathroom with tub/shower. The living area sleeps four more with a murphy bed (full bed pulls down from the wall), and a queen sofa sleeper. There is a second bathroom off the living room with a shower. If you bring little ones, we also have a pack-n-play available.
After a fun-filled day or skiing or hiking in the summer, you can prepare the perfect meal in the fully-furnished kitchen. Or grab a drink and grill steaks on the deck while you watch the deer wander through the yard!
Please note: Four-wheel drive vehicles are required for winter rentals. Terry Peak receives a lot of snow during the ski season!
Keywords: Black Hills, Cabin, Ski, Mountain, Spearfish Canyon, Waterfalls, ATV, Terry Peak, Deadwood, Lead, Chalet, House, snowboard, snowmobile, hike, South Dakota
We have lived in South Dakota our whole lives, and the Black Hills has always been very special to us. We have three young boys and we love to travel as a family, which is why it is important to us that our cabin is accommodating to vacationers traveling with kids.
Amber purchased this cabin in 2011
Location, location, location! This cabin is positioned on the best ski hill in the state and it is very convenient for skiing, snowmobiling, hiking, mountain biking, or anything else you want to do in the hills.
So close to Terry Peak! Aside from skiing, the cabin is within short driving distance to Deadwood/Lead, Sturgis,Spearfish Canyon, and lots of scenic adventures in the hills. You can go anywhere from here!
The cabin was wonderful! It worked very well for our family. The kitchen had everything we needed, and we cooked there quite a few times...The icemaker in the freezer was really nice for filling our water bottles before we headed out in the mornings.
The bathrooms were very functional, and there was a lot of storage. It was nice to have two bathrooms, one for the kids and one for us.
The bedroom worked well for the kids... It was really hot in the Hills the week we were there, but the cabin was comfortable with the air movement from the fans.
The Murphy bed in the living room was very comfortable. A couple of the kids slept in the hide-a-bed some nights, and it slept fine for them.
You did a great job remodeling the cabin!...The décor and colors are very nice, and there is a lot of storage. We'll definitely keep this in mind for future trips!
We really enjoyed this cabin for our family with 5 kids. It was a great location for seeing the whole area. The cabin was clean and the owner was very responsive to all our questions.
Very nice little cabin. Had everything you needed and was nice to have a dryer for use, got wet the first night on the motorcycle. Was worried of the little gravel we had ro ride on but was a well traveled road so no issues if you have a motorcycle. If you want some peace away from the madness of bike week would recommend!!!
The Cozy Cabin was a perfect vacation cabin for two couples. Very close to Terry Peak and you can't beat the value! Although it's a 1 bedroom, the fold down bed makes it great for two couples and two bathrooms are great. The appliances are great, even an electric griddle for breakfast. Definately recommend for a family with kids or vacationing couples.
We were very pleased to arrive at the cabin and find everything just as described. The interior of the cabin has been nicely renovated and included everything needed to enjoy our stay. There were only two of us on this trip but we were impressed with how well planned the extra sleeping areas were set up. Mother Nature ended up cutting out visit short with a surprise blizzard which was a Shane but it's something that happens occasionally in mountain areas. We would definitely return to this cozy cabin! :-)
We really enjoyed the cabin. The roads were good to get there and the directions were excellent. We were on a motorcycle so we had some concerns about the roads but they were good. The cabin was clean and very well stocked. We will book it again if we getr back to South Dakota.
We were very pleased with the cabin and found it to be exactly as described by the owners. While other cabins in the area had more bedrooms for larger groups, Cozy Cabin was the perfect size and price for the two of us. With good weather all week, we enjoyed sitting on the deck during the early evening and using the grill to make our dinners. Being very familiar with the Terry Peak area, we enjoyed the outdoor setting without any pesky bugs and while the nearby road construction caused a few delays as we toured the Black Hills, it was clear that the new road up to Terry Peak will be a real advantage for the coming ski season. Thank you Amber for providing a great rental property!
|Rental Period
|Minimum Price
|Additional Nights
|Weekend Night
|Event Price
Sturgis 2015
31 Jul 2015 - 9 Aug 2015
7 night minimum stay
for 7 nights
My Standard Rate
1 night minimum stay
for 1 night
|$70.00 + Tax
|Refundable Damage Deposit
|Tax Rate
Please Note: The owner of this property accepts payment in the original currency specified (USD), before use of conversion tool. The conversion tool is provided for your convenience only. The owner may accept other currencies if specifically agreed in advance.


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Cold Call: Beam up to the ship
After taking out the boss ship (barely) we talk with the ambassador on MY SHIP.
Afterwords, it says you've done everything do you want to beam back (to finish quest).
I know it's kinda pittance, but I'm already on my ship why not just end it there.
Very true I always wondered that
Perhaps there is a way they could change it to the leave interior button instead. Eitherway I like playing missions inside the interior of my ship. It reminds me of TOS episodes.
|All times are GMT -7. The time now is 04:27 AM.


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This simple artichoke appetizer calls for store-bought marinated artichokes, reducing the prep time to almost zero.
Total Time:
Level: Easy
Yield: Makes 8
Advertisement - Continue Reading Below
- 8.00 slice baguette
- 2.00 tbsp. olive oil
- Coarse salt and ground pepper
- 1.00 jar jar marinated artichoke hearts
- 0.25 c. shredded Parmesan cheese (optional)
- 1.00 tbsp. chopped fresh parsley
- Preheat oven to 350 degrees F. Make crostini: Brush baguette slices on both sides with a total of 1 tablespoon oil; season with salt and pepper. Place on a baking sheet, and bake, turning over once, until golden, 10 to 12 minutes. Cool.
- Meanwhile, make topping: Finely chop artichokes, and combine in a bowl with Parmesan, parsley, and remaining tablespoon oil.
- Dividing evenly, spoon topping onto crostini, and garnish with additional Parmesan, if desired.


text: Sergio "Bolão" Souza is a historical figure in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, famous for his formidable competition record and fierce guard game, a guard that gave him several trophies including the "Best Athlete of the Year Award" (Melhor Atleta do Ano – LINJI ) by the Media Association in 1985. Bolão held victories over legendary fighters such as Jean Jacques Machado, Fabio Gurgel, Leo Castello Branco and many others. A black belt under Master Carlson Gracie, Sergio Souza was also the co-founder of Rio Jiu Jitsu Club, a successful grappling academy that was created in the beginning of the century in partnership with Murilo Bustamante. Sergio "Bolao" Souza Jiu Jitsu Nickname: Bolão means "big ball", the name derived from his father who was already called by that name, though it remains unclear why his father was named Bolão. Lineage: Mitsuyo Maeda > Carlos Gracie > Carlson Gracie > Sergio Souza Main Achievements: Copa Armazem do Esporte Champion / Rio de Janeiro State Champion (1989 Weight and Absolute) Copa Blue Marlin Champion (1988) Copa Company Champion / Rio de Janeiro State Champion (1988) Rio State Champion (1986) Copa Lightningbolt Champion / Rio State Champion (1984) "Best Athlete of the Year" (Melhor Atleta do Ano – LINJI – Associacao de Cronistas Desportivos do Estado do Rio de Janeiro e Niterói (1985) Brazilian National Team Champion (Coach – 1997) Weight Category: Peso Médio – 82kg/181lbs Favorite Position/Technique: Guard Team/Association: Carlson Gracie and Rio Jiu Jitsu Club Sergio Bolao Souza Biography Sergio Souza was born on the 23rd of July, 1964 in Manaus – Amazon, Brazil. Bolao started training with a friend (who was a purple belt at the time) when he was around 14 years of age, his intention was to learn a few self defence moves for protection. He enjoyed the sport and decided to enlist in an academy (called Academia Rodney) where he was coached by an instructor under the name of Walter. He stayed at the Rodney Academy for a mere 7 months. He returned to the BJJ life when in Rio de Janeiro he befriended Carlson Gracie Junior (son of Master Carlson). Junior took Sergio Souza to his father's academy where he had a chance to train with the rest of the class. Carlson saw potential in the youngster and decided to make an evaluation of the kid's ability right there and then, he told Souza "Bolao, train with one of my featherweights, I want to see what you can do", and straight away Sergio was put to spar with Clovis da Silva (another famous Carlson Gracie student), Clovis Tapped Bolao 4 times in a short roll, leaving him so surprised with the superior technique of Clovis that he decided to enrol the class. Bolao climbed up the ladder of success rapidly and became on of the most feared fighters of his generation. He started coaching the junior team at the gym but soon became one of the main assistant coaches at the Carlson Gracie Academy in the 1980s. In 1990 Sergio Souza received his black belt and left the coaching of the Carlson Gracie team (with his master's consent) to start his own gym at the "Clube Israelita" in Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro. Years later Sergio Souza was also the leading force behind a new team that would create a buzz in the BJJ circuit in the late 1990's, the Rio Jiu Jitsu Club, an academy founded by Souza and Murilo Bustamante which had the intention of competing against the strongest teams in the country. They did amazingly well on their first Mundial winning 7 gold medals and placing second in the Brazilian National Team Championships (winning the brown/black belt mixed division). Though Rio Jiu Jitsu Club shinned on their first competitions, Murilo Bustamante had different views on how to coach the athletes at the time and as a result the team ended dissolving and each coach went their own way. In 2002 Bolao decided to try his luck in the United States, he jumped to the northern hemisphere with one of his students and no assurances of success. They decided to head to Philadelphia as Miami and Los Angeles was already getting too populated with BJJ at the time. With the help of Rob Turner a local gym owner, Sergio Souza managed to deliver some of his Jiu Jitsu expertise to America. He stayed in Philly at the Power House Gym until 2005 after which he returned to Brazil. When in the United States, Sergio Bolao took the time to further enhance his education. Already a licensee in Physical Education, Souza graduated in two post graduate degrees in Personal Training and Bodybuilding. He developed afterwards a conditioning system of his own authorship called Personal Fighting. Today Sergio Bolao Souza divides his life between giving private classes at Academia Corpo 4 in Avenida Francisco Sá, Copacabana – Rio de Janeiro and taking care of his baby boy, Gabriel Souza. List of Segio Bolao Souza's Black Belts Alessandro Barreto Alexandre Britto Alfredo Costa Alvaro Ramos André Mello Aron Roichman Bruno Ximenes Benjamin Caldas Carlos Barreto Cesar Barcelos Chico Salgado Daniel Blumenberg Daniel Ramos Diego Kadlec Eduardo Brandao Eduardo Carvalho Eugenio Cruz Fabio Brandao Fausto Silva Felipe Blumenberg Frederico Padilha Guilherme Brafman Gustavo Rei Gustavo Trindade Henrique Noronha Humberto Borges James Davilla Joao Bandeira Joao Pedro Santos Jose Marcelo Jose Neto Leandro Furtado Leonardo Lins Luis Paes Lemme Marcelo Cazuza Marcelo de Andrade Marcelo Hertz Marcelo Voloch Marco António "Chuck" Buzios Marco Tulio Marco Tulio Mauro Chueng Murilo Rupp Pablo Fragata Paulo "Brasilia" Bernardo Rafael Pereira Renato Ferro Ricardo Borba Ricardo Brandao Ricardo Sodré Roberto Atalla Roberto Halpern Rod Samuel Rogerio Mandelblat Rogerio Miranda Romulo Carvalho Sergio Ferrari Sergio Herdina Sergio Herdina Sergio Perroni Silvio Amaral Vinicius Araujo Vitor Dória Sergio Bolao vs Fabio Gurgel Sergio Bolao vs Castello Branco Sergio Bolao vs John Machado


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By James Slater - Last night, heavyweight contenders Tyson Fury and Martin Rogan jointly announced how they will meet in Belfast on April 14th. The match-up, previously discussed only to fall apart, will see 40-year-old Rogie attempt to ruin the much younger Furys unbeaten record.
23-year-old Fury, 17-0(12) disappointed many fans by opting to vacate both his British and Commonwealth titles rather than face mandatory challenger David Price. Fury said words to the effect that he has moved on from British and Commonwealth level and that he is aiming for a big world title fight next. Instead, however, he will meet the inactive former Prizefighter tough guy.
It could be argued that Fury Vs. Rogan here in 2012 will not be the good fight it would have been a year or so ago; before Rogan had suffered injury and inactivity. But something tells me that the Belfast warrior will whip himself into great shape and test Fury to the limit. These two do not like each other, and we could be about to see a bitterly-fought, genuine grudge-match. And Rogan, despite the fact that hell be giving away six inches in height, is a danger man, stopped only on injuries in two fights with Sam Sexton (an eye injury in fight-one, an arm and neck injury in the return).
Can Rogan get inside Furys long reach and go to work? Will Tysons fondness for getting into a rumble and dispensing with the defensive side of the game allow Rogan, 14-2(7) to test his chin? Based on the styles of the two men, I think an action fight is guaranteed for as long as the fight lasts. Dereck Chisora aside, Rogan could be argued as Furys toughest test yet - at least on paper. Sure, the former Commonwealth champ is getting on in years and he has not fought since back in November of 2010, but 16 pro fights is not that many and physically (as long as he is carrying no injuries) Rogan is pretty fresh.
And Rogan wants this fight, he really does. If Fury does see himself as a world-beater already and if he has his sights and his thoughts on a shot at a world title, he may not have sufficient motivation for this fight. If hes not 100-percent up for it and if hes not ready for a serious battle, Fury could be in trouble. My pick has to be the younger, taller, heavier man, but Rogan has upset the odds a number of times in the past.
I think this one just might go as far as the later rounds.
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noun \ˈten(t)th\
: the number 10 in a series
: one of 10 equal parts of something
plural tenths \ˈten(t)s, ˈten(t)ths\
Full Definition of TENTH
— see number table
a : a musical interval embracing an octave and a thirdb : the tone at this interval
— tenth adjective or adverb
See tenth defined for English-language learners
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- He was tenth in line.
- He traded stocks for one tenth their face value.
- I only paid a tenth of what you did for that jacket.
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Rajeev Dehejia
Associate Professor of Public Policy
Rajeev Dehejia received his Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University in 1997. He has been on the faculty of the Department of Economics and The Fletcher School at Tufts University and of the Department of Economics and the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University, and has held visiting positions at Harvard, Princeton, and the London School of Economics.
Rajeev's research spans econometrics, development economics, labor economics, and public economics, with a focus on empirical microeconomic policy research. His research interests include: econometric methods for program evaluation, financial development and growth, financial incentives and fertility decisions, moral hazard and automobile insurance, religion and consumption insurance, and the causes and consequences of child labor.
Rajeev's articles have appeared in The Journal of Law and Economics, The Journal of Human Resources, The Review of Economics and Statistics, the Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, the Journal of the American Statistical Association, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, the Journal of Econometrics, the Journal of Public Economics, the Journal of Development Economics, and Economic Development and Cultural Change. Rajeev is a Faculty Research Fellow of the National Bureau of Economic Research, a Research Fellow at the Institut zur Zukunft der Arbeit (IZA), and a Research Network Fellow at CESifo. He is a coeditor of the Journal of Human Resources, and an Associate Editor of the Journal of Business and Economic Statistics and the Journal of the American Statistical Association.
|Fall 2013
Program Analysis and Evaluation
This course serves as an introduction to those evaluation tools most commonly used to assess the performance of publicly funded programs, in both the public and private sector. Topics include developing and assessing program theory, implementation and process assessment, methods of impact evaluation, and efficiency analysis (cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis). The focus is on critical analysis and understanding of both the underlying programs and their evaluations.
Download Syllabus
|Fall 2013
Advanced Empirical Methods for Policy Analysis
The goal of this course is to provide students with an introduction to advanced empirical methods. We begin by discussing a framework for causal inference and how randomized controlled trials provide a simple and powerful template for thinking about causal questions. We then develop a sequence of advanced empirical methods as alternatives to randomized trials, in settings where experiments are infeasible or not desirable. In particular we discuss regression discontinuity, matching methods, difference-in-differences and panel data, and instrumental variables. We will discuss applications from a variety of domestic and international policy settings, and learn how to apply these methods to real-world data sets. Skills students will acquire in this course include: the capacity to reason causally and empirically, the ability critically to assess empirical work, knowledge of advanced quantitative tools, and expertise in applying these methods to policy problems.
Download Syllabus
|Fall 2013
Research Methods
Required for doctoral students.
Download Syllabus
|Fall 2013
International Economic Development: Governments, Markets, and Communities
While some countries have achieved unprecedented rates of economic growth in the past half century, other countries have experienced set-backs. For those that have seen rapid growth, economic changes have not always translated into proportional social changes – and sometimes rapid social changes have occurred in the absence of economic growth.
Download Syllabus
|Fall 2012
International Economic Development: Governments, Markets, and Communities
While some countries have achieved unprecedented rates of economic growth in the past half century, other countries have experienced set-backs. For those that have seen rapid growth, economic changes have not always translated into proportional social changes – and sometimes rapid social changes have occurred in the absence of economic growth.
Download Syllabus
|Fall 2012
Advanced Empirical Methods for Policy Analysis
The goal of this course is to provide students with an introduction to advanced empirical methods. We begin by discussing a framework for causal inference and how randomized controlled trials provide a simple and powerful template for thinking about causal questions. We then develop a sequence of advanced empirical methods as alternatives to randomized trials, in settings where experiments are infeasible or not desirable. In particular we discuss regression discontinuity, matching methods, difference-in-differences and panel data, and instrumental variables. We will discuss applications from a variety of domestic and international policy settings, and learn how to apply these methods to real-world data sets. Skills students will acquire in this course include: the capacity to reason causally and empirically, the ability critically to assess empirical work, knowledge of advanced quantitative tools, and expertise in applying these methods to policy problems.
Download Syllabus
Melody M. Chao, Rajeev Dehejia, Anirban Mukhopadhyay, Sujata Visaria 2015. Unintended Negative Consequences of Rewards for Student Attendance: Results from a Field Experiment in Indian Classrooms
Rajeev Dehejia 2015. Experimental and Non-Experimental Methods in Development Economics: The Porous Dialectic Forthcoming in the Journal of Globalization and Development
Dehejia, Rajeev and Alma Cohen. 2013. Financial Incentives and Fertility Review of Economics and Statistics, Volume 95 (Number 1), March 2013, pp. 1-20.
This paper investigates how fertility responds to financial incentives. We construct a large, individual-level panel data set of over 300,000 Israeli women during the period 1999–2005 with comprehensive information on their fertility histories, education, religious affiliation, ethnicity, and income. We exploit variation in Israel's child subsidy program to identify the impact of changes in the price of a marginal child on fertility. We find a positive, statistically significant, and economically meaningful price effect on fertility. This positive effect is strongest for households in the lower range of the income distribution, weakens with income, and is present in all religious and ethnic subgroups. There is also a significant price effect on fertility among women who are close to the end of their lifetime fertility, suggesting that at least part of the effect that we estimate is due to a reduction in total fertility. Finally, we investigate how changes in household income affect fertility choices. Consistent with Becker (1960) and Becker and Tomes (1976), we find that the income effect is small in magnitude, and is negative at low income levels and positive at high income levels.
Dehejia, Rajeev, Debra Ang, Drusilla Brown, and Raymond Robertson. 2012. Public Disclosure, Reputation Sensitivity, and Labor Law Compliance: Evidence from Better Factories Cambodia Review of Development Economics, Vol. 16, Issue 4 (2012), pp. 594-607.
Dehejia, Rajeev; Heather Montgomery and Jonathan Morduch 2012. Do interest rates matter? Credit demand in the Dhaka Slums Journal of Development Economics, 97(2): 437-449
"Best practice" in microfinance holds that interest rates should be set at profit-making levels, based on the belief that even poor customers favor access to finance over low fees. Despite this core belief, little direct evidence exists on the price elasticity of credit demand in poor communities. We examine increases in the interest rate on microfinance loans in the slums of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Using unanticipated between-branch variation in prices, we estimate interest elasticities from -0.73 to -1.04, with our preferred estimate being at the upper end of this range. Interest income earned from most borrowers fell, but interest income earned from the largest customers increased, generating overall profitability at the branch level.
Rajeev Dehejia and Arvind Panagariya 2012. Entrepreneurship in Services and Socially Disadvantaged in India Chapter 10 in Jagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya (eds.), Reforms and Economic Transformation in India, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Rajeev Dehejia and Arvind Panagariya 2012. Services Growth in India: A Look Inside the Black Box Chapter 4 in Jagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya (eds.), Reforms and Economic Transformation in India, New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Dehejia, Rajeev, Thomas DeLeire, Erzo F. P. Luttmer, and Josh Mitchell 2009. The Role of Religious and Social Organizations in the Lives of Disadvantaged Youth In The Problem of Disadvantaged Youth: An Economic Perspective (Jonathan Gruber, ed.), Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research, 2009.
Beegle, Kathleen, Rajeev Dehejia, and Roberta Gatti. 2009. Why Should We Care About Child Labor? The Education, Labor Market, and Health Consequences of Child Labor. Journal of Human Resources 44(4): 871-889.
Despite the extensive literature on the determinants of child labor, the evidence on the consequences of child labor on outcomes such as education, labor, and health is limited. We evaluate the causal effect of child labor participation among children in school on these outcomes using panel data from Vietnam and an instrumental variables strategy. Five years subsequent to the child labor experience we find significant negative impacts on education, and also find a higher probability of wage work for those young adults who worked as children while attending school. We find few significant effects on health.
Dehejia, Rajeev, Bjorn N. Jorgensen & Raphael C. Thomadsen. 2008. Optimal Minimum Wage in the Classic Labor Supply and Demand Paradigm Journal of Poverty 12(4): 481-495.
This article demonstrates that minimum wage laws need not induce unemployment even under the classic labor supply-and-demand paradigm. As a result, minimum wage laws can be welfare-enhancing under the basic labor supply and demand model, suggesting the presence of an optimal minimum wage. We discuss conditions under which the optimal minimum wage level is the subsistence wage level. As a consequence, minimum wages should vary across states or countries with the local subsistence levels.
Dehejia, Rajeev 2008. When is ATE Enough? Rules of Thumb and Decision Analysis in Evaluating Training Programs Advances in Econometrics: Modeling and Evaluating Treatment Effects in Econometrics, Volume 21, D. Millimet, J. Smith, and E. Vytlacil (eds.). New York: Elsevier-Science.
Dehejia, R.H. & Lleras-Muney, A. 2007. Financial development and pathways of growth: State branching and deposit insurance laws in the United States from 1900 to 1940 Journal of Law and Economics 50 (2007) 239-272.
This paper studies the effect of state-level banking regulation on financial development and on components of state-level growth in the United States from 1900 to 1940. We use these banking laws to assess the findings of a large recent literature that has argued that financial development contributes to economic growth. We contend that the institutional mechanism leading to financial development is important in determining its consequences and that some types of financial development can even retard economic growth.
For the United States from 1900 to 1940, we argue that the financial expansion induced by expanded bank branching accelerated the mechanization of agriculture and spurred growth in manufacturing. In contrast, financial expansions induced by state deposit insurance had negative consequences for both the agricultural and manufacturing sectors.
Dehejia, Rajeev, Thomas DeLeire, and Erzo Luttmer 2007. Insuring Consumption and Happiness Through Religious Organizations Journal of Public Economics, Volume 91 (2007), pp. 259-279.
This paper examines whether involvement with religious organizations can help insure consumption and happiness. Using data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX), we find that households who contribute to a religious organization are better able to insure their consumption against income shocks. Using the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), we find that individuals who attend religious services are better able to insure their happiness against income shocks. Overall, our results suggest that religious organizations provide insurance though the form of this insurance may differ by race.
Dehejia, R.H., Gatti, R. & Beegle, K. 2006. Child labor, crop shocks, and credit constraints Journal of Development Economics 81 (September 2006)
This paper examines the relationship between household income shocks and child labor. In particular, we investigate the extent to which transitory income shocks lead to increases in child labor and whether household access to credit mitigates the effects of these shocks.
Using panel data from a survey in Tanzania, we find that both relationships are significant. Our results suggest that credit constraints play a role in explaining child labor and consequently that child labor is inefficient, but we also discuss alternative interpretations.
Dehejia, R.H. & Gatti, R. 2005. Child labor: The role of income variablity and access to credit in a cross section of countries Economic Development and Cultural Change, Col. 53, Number 4 (July 2005), pg. 913-932.
Even though access to credit is central to child labor theoretically, little work has been done to assess its importance empirically. Dehejia and Gatti examine the link between access to credit and child labor at a cross-country level. The authors measure child labor as a country aggregate, and proxy credit constraints by the level of financial market development.
These two variables display a strong negative (unconditional) relationship. The authors show that even after they control for a wide range of variables-including GDP per capita, urbanization, initial child labor, schooling, fertility, legal institutions, inequality, and openness-this relationship remains strong and statistically significant. Moreover, they find that, in the absence of developed financial markets, households resort to child labor to cope with income variability.
This evidence suggests that policies aimed at increasing households'access to credit could be effective in reducing child labor.
Dehejia, R.H. 2005. Practical propensity score matching Journal of Econometrics 125 (2005) 355–364
This paper discusses propensity score matching in the context of Smith and Todd's (Does matching overcome Lalonde's critique of nonexperimental estimators, J. Econom., in (press) reanalysis of Dehejia and Wahba (J. Am. Statist. Assoc. 97 (1999) 1053; National Bereau of Economics Research working Paper No. 6829, Rev. Econom. Statist., 2002, forthcoming).
Propensity score methods require that a separate propensity score specification be estimated for each treatment group-comparison group combination. Furthermore, a researcher should always examine the sensitivity of the estimated treatment effect to small changes in the propensity score specification; this is a useful diagnostic on the quality of the comparison group.
When these are borne in mind, propensity score methods are useful in analyzing all of the subsamples of the NSW data considered in Smith and Todd (Does matching overcome Lalonde's critique of nonexperimental estimators, J. Econom., in press).
Dehejia, R.H. 2005. Program evaluation as a decision problem Journal of Econometrics 125 (2005) 141–173
I argue for thinking of program evaluation as a decision problem. There are two steps. First, a counselor determines which program (treatment or control) each individualjoins,based for example on maximizing the probability of employment or expected earnings.
Second, the policymaker decides whether: to assign all individuals to treatment or to control, or to allow the counselor to choose.This framework has two advantages. Individualized assignment rules (known as profiling) can raise the average impact, improving cost effectiveness by exploiting treatment-impact heterogeneity. Second, it accounts systematically for inequality and uncertainty, and the policymaker's attitude toward these, in the evaluation.
Dehejia, R.H. & Cohen, A. 2004. Uninsured motorists and unsafe drivers: The role of compulsory insurance regulations Journal of Law and Economics, Volume 47, Number 2 (October 2004), pp. 357-394.
Dehejia, R.H. & Lleras-Muney, A. 2004. Booms, busts, and babies' health Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volume 119, Number 3 (August 2004), pp. 1019-1130
In this paper we study the relationship between the unemployment rate at the time of a baby's conception and health outcomes at birth, and we explore whether this relationship is due to the effect of the unemployment rate on fertility decisions or on the health-related behavior of pregnant women. Economic models of fertility suggest that women who choose to have children in recessions may differ from women who choose to postpone fertility.
To the extent that these parental characteristics are related to children's health, differential fertility may result in differences in the health of children over the business cycle. At the same time, evidence suggests that individuals' health may improve during recessions, because the overall effect of recessions is to increase health-related activities (and to decrease risky behaviors). Therefore, changes in parental behavior over the business cycle could also affect the health of infants, even in the absence of compositional change.
Dehejia, R.H. 2003. Evaluation in multi-site programs Journal of business and economics statistics, Volume 21, Number 1 (January 2003), pp. 1-11.
This paper discusses the problem of evaluating and predicting the treatment impact of a program that is implemented at multiple sites. Two issues arise: is information from other sites relevant in estimating the impact at a given site? and how can we account for predictive uncertainty in the site effects? Using data from the Greater Avenues for Independence evaluation, I develop a hierarchical model for earnings which allows both for site effects and for smoothing the estimated impact across sites.
I show that the degree to which the estimated impact is smoothed across sites does not affect the estimate; i.e. most of the differences across sites are due to differences in the composition of participants. Second I show that predictive uncertainty regarding site effects is important; for example, when the predictive uncertainty regarding site effects is ignored, the treatment impact at the Riverside sites is significant, but when we consider predictive uncertainty, the impact for the Riverside sites is insignificant.
Third, I show that the hierarchical model is able to extrapolate site effects with reasonable accuracy when the site for which the prediction is being made does not differ substantially from the sites already observed. For example, the San Diego treatment effects could have been predicted based on observable site characteristics, but the Riverside effects are consistently underestimated.
Dehejia, R.H. & Wahba, S. 2002. Propensity score matching methods for non-experimental causal studies Review of economics and statistics, Volume 84, Number 1 (February 2002), pp. 151-161.
This paper considers causal inference and sample selection bias in nonexperimental settings in which (i) few units in the nonexperimental comparison group are comparable to the treatment units, and (ii) selecting a subset of comparison units similar to the treatment units is dif? cult because units must be compared across a high-dimensional set of pretreatment characteristics. We discuss the use of propensity score-matching methods, and implement them using data from the National Supported Work experiment.
Following LaLonde (1986), we pair the experimental treated units with nonexperimental comparison units from the CPS and PSID, and compare the estimates of the treatment effect obtained using our methods to the benchmark results from the experiment. For both comparison groups, we show that the methods succeed in focusing attention on the small subset of the comparison units comparable to the treated units and, hence, in alleviating the bias due to systematic differences between the treated and comparison units.
Dehejia, R.H. & Wahba, S. 1999. Causal effects in non-experimental studies: Re-evaluation of training programs Journal of the American Statistical Association, Volume 94, Number 448 (December 1999), pp. 1053-1062
The need to use randomized experiments in the context of manpower training programs, and in analyzing causal effects more generally, has been a subject of much debate. Lalonde (1986)considers experimental data from the National Supported Work (NSW) Demonstration and nonexperimental comparison groups drawn from the CPS and PSID, and argues that econometricmethods fail to replicate the benchmark experimental treatment effect.
This paper applies propensity score methods, which have been developed in the statistics literature, to Lalonde'sdataset. In contrast with Lalonde's findings, using propensity score methods, we are able closely to replicate the experimental training effect. The methods succeed because they are able flexibly to control for the wide range of observable differences between the (experimental) treatment group and the (non-experimental) comparison group.
Dehejia, R.H. & Dehejia, V. 1993. Religion and economic activity in India: An historical perspective American journal of economics and sociology, Volume 52, Number 2 (May 1993), pp.145-154.
It is suggested that there has been and continues to be, a deep interrelationship between religious thought and economic activity in India. this claim is evaluated, first in the context of ancient India (the Mauryan empire), where self-reliance was stressed, both economically and religiously. In the context of medieval India, the ossification of the once flexible caste system had profound economic implications. Based on this historical perspective, it is contended any attempt to understand the economic realities of contemporary India must also take account of its religious realities.
Dehejia, R.H. & Wood, B. 1992. Economic sanctions and econometric policy evaluation: A cautionary note Journal of World Trade, Volume 26, Number 1 (February 1992), pp. 73-84.
Econometric predictions of the success or failure of sanctions against a nation need to be modified with political considerations. The models proposed by Gary Hufbauer and Kimberly Ann Elliott, and by San Ling Lam, were mistakenly used by Hufbauer and Elliott in 1990 to suggest sanctions would drive Iraq out of Kuwait. These models can be made more accurate by the inclusion of factors such as the regime's internal vulnerability and whether the goals of the sanctions are of ultimate importance to the boycotted nation. A model incorporating these factors does not predict success of sanctions in the Iraqi question.
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