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CARR Research
A selection of CARR research projects
RISK REGULATION 1 centre for analysis of risk and regulation CARR Research: a collection of selected projects 2 RISK REGULATION Contents Contents About the ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation (CARR) About these research projects Risk Regulation: Governing High Vulnerability of Mega-Events Science, Technology and Risk: 3 3 Assessing Critical Technologies: An Analysis of `Type-Certification' in Civil Aviation Policing Markets: Commercialization and Regulation of Forensic Science 4 Scientific Expertise and the Technical Constitution of Europe How Does Science Produce Regulatory Standards? The Case of Food Risk Analysis The Regulation of Digital Goods and Services 15 16 17 The Risks of Risk-Based Approaches to Regulation: Reforming Regulation of the Medical Profession 5 Participating in Risk Regulation: Learning from Patient Safety Incidents 6 Institutionalizing Public Participation in Risk Regulation 7 Embracing Academic Risks Internationalization and Economic Institutions: Regulatory Institutions in Network Industries Business, Regulation and Risk Management: Embedding Regulation: the Responses of Firms to the Financial Services Authority's Treating Customers Fairly Initiative 10 Toward a Sociology of Reliability: the Case of Fair Value Accounting 11 8 18 19 Publications Main publications 20 22 23 9 Subject index From Government to Governance: Influencing Business Risk Management from the Outside 12 Compliance and Non-Compliance with Incident Self-Reporting Regulations 13 Environmental Risk, Regulation and Justice 14 RISK REGULATION 3 About CARR About the ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation (CARR) The ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation (CARR) is an interdisciplinary research centre at LSE. Our core intellectual work focuses on the organizational and institutional settings for risk management and regulatory practices. Since its birth in 1999, CARR has evolved to become an international resource for research into risk regulation that has generated respected practical advice and contributed to leading academic thought. CARR's research consists of a number of discrete projects, each of which addresses one or more of three themes: � Performance, Accountability and CARR is committed to building theoretical and empirical linkages between studies of risk management and of regulatory processes. About these research projects This booklet gives a taste of a selection of CARR projects undertaken by former staff, current staff and also research associates funded by CARR over the past decade. The posters are organized around three broad areas of CARR work: � Risk Regulation from a state and governance perspective; � Business, Regulation and Risk Information. � Knowledge, Technology and Expertise. � Reputation, Security and Trust. Management which focuses on how businesses manage risks and respond to regulation; � Science, Technology and Risk which considers the role of experts and scientific knowledge and their status in national and transnational regulation, especially of technology. 4 RISK REGULATION RISK REGULATION Governing High Vulnerability of Mega-Events Martin Lodge, CARR Research Theme Director and Lecturer in Political Science and Public Policy, LSE. Will Jennings, CARR Research Associate and former British Academy Postdoctoral Research Fellow, CARR. Currently ESRC/Hallsworth Research Fellow in Politics, University of Manchester. Introduction � Mega-events, such as the 2012 London Olympics and the 2006 Football World Cup in Germany, represent a special venue for risk management. � A study of mega-events provides a research site to explore questions such as: � perceptions of vulnerability in the context of risk regulation; � distinct approaches and tools of risk regulation to mitigate particular vulnerabilities; � patterns of learning across time and countries. Findings � Both of these events display a variety of approaches towards the management of particular risks and vulnerabilities. Yet these hybrid approaches were neither intentionally designed, nor did they display patterns of mutual accommodation; rather they provided for potential tension and mutual contradiction. � There was a remarkable absence of learning across mega-events. Instead, there was some learning across time, in that World Cups learnt from previous international football tournaments which was similarly the case with the Olympics. � The most important aspect shaping the utilization of tools in risk regulation was the nature of the respective political system. Cases � This study explored two mega-events, defined by their complex, changing nature and their potential long-term consequences: the 2012 London Olympics and the 2006 Football World Cup in Germany. � The two mega-events are top sporting events, displaying similar optimism-bias in decisionmaking. But the nature of the two mega-events creates considerable differences in terms of risk profiles. � Set in the context of the `regulatory state', the ability of the state to directly manage risk is severely constrained. This research developed approaches and tools to deal with vulnerabilities and applied these to the two events. Discussion � Mega-events are said to provide for high degrees of vulnerability that have the potential to lead to considerable crises (if not `mega-crises'). To what extent are these mega-events unique and to what extent should learning across events be facilitated, and how? � The wider literature on risk regulation and management emphasizes the importance of hybridity. How can such hybridity be established so that it overcomes: � the limitations of mono-cultural approaches; � the problematic nature of potential side-effects caused by hybridity itself? Figure 1. Recipes for risk management Wisdom of crowds Reliance on decentralized and uncoordinated decisionmaking among sub-systems Czars Reliance on individual `policy entrepreneurs' Central steering Reliance on hierarchy and central oversight All-in-one-room decision-making Reliance on collective decision-making RISK REGULATION 5 The Risks of Risk-Based Approaches to Regulation: Reforming Regulation of the Medical Profession Bridget Hutter, CARR Director and Professor of Risk Regulation, LSE. Sally Lloyd-Bostock, Professorial Research Fellow, CARR. Introduction � Risk-based regulation (RBR) is best conceived of as a cluster of tools and characteristics rather than a clearly defined and coherent method. It encompasses a wide range of methodologies and approaches. � In the UK it has been given major impetus by the Hampton Report (2005), Reducing Administrative Burdens, which advocated riskbased regulation as a key recommendation. � Pressure to adopt risk-based approaches, generated by government in the context of state regulation, is felt by non-state regulators. The rhetoric of RBR is found in debate surrounding reform of the UK General Medical Council [GMC]. Findings � Risk assessment can involve a simplification of problems, often through quantification, which typically disguises the full complexity of risks. � The reliance of risk-based approaches on suitable good quality data is a significant impediment to their implementation. In the medical area, data held by a regulatory body such as the GMC might appear useful for identifying risk factors in professional performance. But its data are highly context specific, designed to fulfil particular legally defined functions and manage organization-level risks. The data's potential use for risk assessment is very limited. � The GMC context highlights the inherently moral judgements involved in RBR. RBR does not sit easily with public sector values, and a context in which public trust and confidence is central. Cases � An examination of regulatory websites and documents across different regulatory regimes and countries to determine the extent to which they display risk-based approaches to regulation. � Roundtable meetings with UK regulators about how to conceptualize and implement RBR. � Study of the GMC's electronic database to clarify its potential value for wider regulatory purposes, such as identifying groups of doctors where risks from poor professional performance are most likely to arise. Discussion � RBR can be a stimulus to new approaches, encouraging systematic analysis and highlighting the need to confront questions about priorities. But risk assessment tools can also obscure problems, giving a spurious appearance of objectivity to RBR. � The spread of risk-based approaches has transformed the regulatory environment, but it is questionable how appropriate RBR and principles of `better regulation' are to the tasks and values of a non-state professional regulator such as the GMC. � Fundamental questions need to be asked about their applicability and suitability for specific domains. The approach poses dilemmas and carries unintended consequences, and needs to be considered critically. 6 RISK REGULATION Participating in Risk Regulation: Learning from Patient Safety Incidents Carl Macrae, former ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Currently Special Advisor with the National Patient Safety Agency. Introduction � Patient safety has emerged as a key risk facing healthcare systems. Between 3-16 per cent of patients are harmed by preventable errors. � Managing these risks often involves learning from both serious and minor � or `near miss' � incidents. The UK has pioneered this approach on a national scale, collecting close to one million incident reports each year in England and Wales. � Driving local learning and change from national safety incident data is a key challenge in risk regulation, and depends on effectively engaging with local workers. This research examines the key strategies of driving local learning within the aviation industry and the healthcare sector. Findings Aviation � Successful incident reporting systems in aviation focus on encouraging and organizing widespread, local participation in risk management. � Air safety incidents are used by national regulators to initiate, shape and monitor local level and multi-disciplinary action on specific risks. Healthcare � Challenges facing healthcare involve driving local participation in the process of learning from incidents. � These challenges have arisen because of the size and complexity of healthcare services, and the limited and variable social infrastructure that currently exists for managing patient safety at a local level. Cases � Aviation safety incident reporting systems have been operating for decades, both by airlines and national regulators and safety agencies, such as the UK's Civil Aviation Authority. The practices used to drive local-level learning are well developed and are widely considered to be successful. � Incident reporting systems for patient safety in healthcare, by contrast, are a relatively new invention. The NHS National Patient Safety Agency has pioneered the National Reporting and Learning Service since 2003, and has rapidly grown to collect close to one million reports a year. Discussion � Effective learning from safety incidents requires national oversight and the integration of safety incident data, coupled with local engagement, analysis, and action in addressing risks. � National bodies can drive local learning through the creation of multi-disciplinary, cross-organizational teams to analyze specific, concrete risk events. Findings from these teams can be implemented locally and shared nationally. � The integration of national and local level learning activities depends on establishing standardized approaches to sharing and communicating information on risks at a national level, while ensuring that these complement, support and extend the understanding of risks at a local level. RISK REGULATION 7 Institutionalizing Public Participation in Risk Regulation Henry Rothstein, CARR Research Associate and former CARR Research Officer. Currently Lecturer in Risk Management, Department of Geography and King's Centre for Risk Management, King's College London. Introduction � Public participation has become a central theme of risk regulation reform with many governments in Europe and North America adopting a wide range of approaches across regulatory domains. � Participation is often argued to enhance the evidence base, improve the representation of the public interest in policy making, and build support for policy processes and outcomes. � Academic attention, however, has focused on rationales and mechanisms of widening participation, with less attention paid to the institutional factors shaping the impact of participation on regulatory outcomes. Aims: � To examine the substantive impact of participative processes on risk regulation and to explain the factors shaping those impacts. Findings � Impacts of participation on the evidence base depend on the demands, needs and expectations of regulators. Conflicts can arise between stakeholders and regulators over what counts as expertise and evidence, representativeness and procedural issues. � Impacts of participation on regulatory outcomes depend on trade-offs against other competing pressures on decision-making. Notably, in the absence of standard benchmarks for representing `consumer interests', there is considerable scope for conflicting trade-offs to be equally represented as acting in the interest of consumers. � Impacts on the legitimacy and efficiency of risk regulation depend on the degree of consensus regarding the purpose of participative processes, how they should be integrated into policy processes, and how contributions should be reflected in outcomes. Cases � Study of the UK Food Standards Agency's (FSA) attempts to widen participation in regulatory decision-making; an approach which has underpinned the FSA's commitment to its core values of `putting consumers first', `being open and accessible', and `being an independent voice'. � The case studies examined included various forms of widening participation, including: � ad hoc consultation; � formal stakeholder consultation processes; � and the creation � and later disbandment � of a dedicated Consumer Committee. Discussion � The research highlights the difficulty in judging the success and failure of participative risk regulation. � The multiple dimensions in which participation can be judged provides considerable scope for the glass of participative risk regulation to be `half-full' or `half-empty' depending on the protagonists' dispositions. � The success and failure of participative risk regulation depends on the extent to which there is agreement on the purposes of such reform among participants. � There are trade-offs between the purposes of participative regulation. For example, attempts to improve the evidence base on social attitudes through opinion polling may hinder attempts to build support for policy by co-opting opinion formers. 8 RISK REGULATION Embracing Academic Risks Michael Huber, CARR Research Associate and former AON Senior Research Fellow, CARR. Currently Professor of Higher Education Studies at the University of Bielefeld, Institute of Science and Technology Studies and Faculty of Sociology. Introduction � In 2000, the Higher Education Funding Council of England (HEFCE) introduced risk management as an obligatory tool of university governance. Risk management both reshapes a university's perspective on challenges and should increase its risk appetite. This development leads to the invention of academic risks. � Which academic risks are identified by the regulators? � How does the invention of academic risks fit into the regulatory regime of Higher Education? � How do universities identify and weight `their' risks? � Considering that risks to universities vary, what structural preconditions shape local interpretations of risk management? Findings � HEFCE's comprehensive regulations are followed up by the Quality Assessment Agency's (QAA) focus on teaching and learning related risks. QAA'S regulations are particularly influential on post-1992 universities. � Risk management at university level is loosely coupled to a university's regulatory regime. Academic risks are basically administrative risks; central administration is strengthened. � Administrative demands trigger a selection process of what are considered risks; the focus is on risks that can be managed rather than those that ought to be managed. � This diffused set of manageable environmental challenges is crucial to the `reputation' of a university. Discussion � HEFCE suggests that the risk regime should persuade universities to embrace risk rather than to avoid it. But early evidence suggests that the shift in terminology does not imply new, riskier practices in academia. � The internal diversification of the British university system leads to a diversified risk management. As risk scores are not comparable, HEFCE and QAA miss out on a way of systematically monitoring and controlling the Higher Education systems. � Academic risk is one of the many new risks that remain underdetermined, conceptually as well as in terms of accurate assessment. Cases � From a regulatory perspective, this study reconstructs the emergence of a comprehensive risk management model in Higher Education and the emergence of academic risk. Particular attention is given to how risk fits into the overall scheme of strengthening organizational governance and increased public control. � At university level, a review of risk management practices suggests that three groups can be distinguished: � Elite institutions (international reputation and strong research focus); � Post-1992 universities (teaching and learning in a regional context); � Universities with a mix of internationally renowned and less excellent departments. RISK REGULATION 9 Internationalization and Economic Institutions: Regulatory Institutions in Network Industries Mark Thatcher, CARR Research Associate and Professor of Comparative and International Politics, LSE. Introduction � Internationalization is growing. The research examines when, how and why internationalization affects domestic decisions about reform of economic institutions, and in particular regulatory institutions. � The research confronts questions at the heart of debates in political economy and comparative politics: � What does internationalization of markets mean? � Who are its carriers in domestic arenas? � Through which mechanisms does internationalization affect decisions about institutional reform? � What are the patterns of institutional outcomes in the face of internationalization? Findings � The research distinguishes technological and economic modes of internationalization from policy forms; namely regulatory change in powerful overseas nations, especially the US, and regulation by the EU. � Contrary to expectations, technological and economic modes of internationalization made little impact whereas regulatory reforms by the US and EU undermined long-standing national institutions. � The influence of the reforms was due to their impact on the policy process. They aided governments in building and leading reform coalitions through increasing fears of regulatory competition, offering occasions for reconsideration of existing institutions and providing legitimacy for new ones. � Although the impacts of policy forms of internationalization vary across nations, their combined effect was that all four countries adopted increasingly similar reforms of economic institutions. � Overall, convergence around `neo-liberal institutions' � privatization, the ending of monopolies and the establishment of independent regulatory authorities � conceals important national differences. Cases � The research looks at crucial markets - stock exchanges, telecommunications, electricity, postal services and airlines � in four major countries from the mid-1960s onwards: Britain, France, Germany and Italy. � It examines the key regulatory institutions that structure these markets, as well as: � the ownership and organization of suppliers; � the rules governing competition; � the allocation of regulatory powers between governments, independent regulatory agencies and self-regulatory bodies. Discussion � The research rejects the view that technological and economic forms of internationalization drive institutional change in and of themselves. � Instead, it shows that policy forms of internationalization are influential because they become part of domestic decision making and thereby spur reform, even of deeply-entrenched national institutions. � The research suggests that it is policy forms of internationalization that lead to the spread of `liberal' economic institutions, rather than technological or economic pressures, thanks to their influence on the political processes of decision making. 10 RISK REGULATION BUSINESS, REGULATION ANd RISK MANAGEMENT BUSINESS, REGULATION ANd RISK MANAGEMENT Embedding Regulation: The Responses of Firms to the Financial Services Authority's Treating Customers Fairly Initiative Sharon Gilad, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Introduction � State regulation in various domains has shifted from rules-based prescription towards `metaregulation' of firms' self-regulation. � This means that: � Firms are given a degree of autonomy to adapt regulation to their particular circumstances; � Firms are made accountable to regulators for the efficacy of their internal controls and for their achievement of substantive goals. � Theoretical analyses expect meta-regulation to inspire commitment from firms to regulatory objectives. Yet empirical studies show considerable variation in the impact of metaregulation on firms' commitment. � This project relies on interviews with financial firms to analyse their responses to a metaregulatory initiative. Findings � Firms were resistant and slow to respond to the Treating Customers Fairly (TCF) initiative. � Internal compliance professionals and their `allies' sought to generate momentum and commitment to TCF by: � stressing the threat of FSA enforcement; � reframing TCF as a business/non-compliance issue, and linking it with existing `CustomerExperience' discourse and programmes; � allowing sub-units substantial autonomy in designing and managing TCF. � This reframing of TCF partly diverged from the FSA's conceptualization of fairness. Also, the reframing and decentralization of TCF by firms conflicted with their need to provide an external and consistent account in FSA language. Cases � In 2004, following successive `mis-selling' scandals, the British Financial Services Authority (FSA) sought a more effective approach to consumer protection regulation. � The FSA based its innovative approach on the general principle that firms ought to `treat customers fairly'. � Rather than prescribing what firms ought to be doing, the FSA requires firms to: � identify the risks that their operations pose to the fair treatment of customers; � set out how they will mitigate these risks; � systematically assess their performance and `culture'; � provide evidence that they are treating their customers fairly, and that they have a `fair culture'. Discussion � The contribution (and limitation) of this study is its focus on the early stages of firms' internalization of meta-regulation. In contrast, previous studies have focused on more mature meta-regulatory regimes. � The findings highlight the following: � The role of framing and constitution of regulation into internal managerial discourse and methodologies as a means of neutralizing resistance. � In contrast to previous research, the findings suggest a crucial role for non-compliance professionals during the initial phases of internalization. � Previous research may have failed to take into account the tensions between internalization and external accountability for meta-regulation. BUSINESS, REGULATION ANd RISK MANAGEMENT 11 RISK REGULATION Toward a Sociology of Reliability: the Case of Fair Value Accounting Mike Power, CARR Research Theme Director and Professor of Accounting, LSE. Introduction � In recent years, `fair value' measurement (FVM) in financial reporting acquired both expanded significance in accounting policy and became highly controversial. � It was argued that FVM was deeply implicated in exacerbating the financial crisis by triggering assets sales to maintain capital ratios (`procyclicality'). � Supporters maintain that FVM is a necessary mechanism of transparency; while opponents suggest that fictional exit values are unreliable, particularly for illiquid assets. � Financial reporting became highly politicized as large banks sought relief from disadvantageous rules; the independence of the lead accounting regulators (FASB and IASB) were threatened. Findings � Proponents of FVM are able to draw on the cultural legitimacy of financial economics, a legitimacy which remains strong despite recent public criticism. � The problem of accounting for derivatives and other financial instruments in the late 1990s was a platform and catalyst for the expandability of FVM in financial reporting. � Proponents of FVM could claim to be making the `balance sheet' � a core focus in many conceptual framework projects � more realistic and useful. � FVM became important to the construction of a new identity for accounting standard setters: that of technical experts. This made the policy process less responsive to real user needs and more concerned with promoting ideals of `good accounting.' Cases � The fair value debate in accounting involves complex issues about how hedging and other risk management strategies can be represented in accounting. � This analysis addresses the institutional conditions of possibility which enabled the expanded significance of a particular view of FVM in accounting, despite considerable opposition. � The approach focuses on how different fundamental conceptions of reliability are at stake. Discussion � The four mutually reinforcing conditions identified help to explain the strength of a minority of FVM enthusiasts in key policy positions � at least until compromise became inevitable. � The FVM debate reveals: � A deep philosophical division between pragmatists, who have a pluralistic conception of valuation conventions for different purposes; and idealists, who promote FVM value as a single expandable approach. � Efforts by protagonists to shift the idea of accounting reliability (and hence auditability) from a transactions and realization based view to one grounded in modelled values based on hypothetical markets. � The project provides a case study in a broader `sociology of reliability' which is ongoing. 12 RISK REGULATION BUSINESS, REGULATION ANd RISK MANAGEMENT From Government to Governance: Influencing Business Risk Management from the Outside Bridget Hutter, CARR Director and Professor of Risk Regulation, LSE. With Clive Jones, former CARR Research Assistant. Currently Better Regulation Executive, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Introduction � Contemporary regulatory regimes aim to influence businesses to prioritize risk management practices relative to other organizational objectives. This ambition has been examined through the influence of state regulatory regimes, but the sources of regulation and risk management are diversifying. This project investigated how business risk management practices may be influenced by various sources of regulation. � These included state regulation and also influences beyond the state: such as trade associations; consultants; civil society organizations; insurance companies; the media; and consumers. � A broader objective is to throw further light onto the debate about regulation within and beyond the state. Findings � State regulation remains a key influence on business risk management practices despite some confusion about state regulatory arrangements. � Respondents readily understood that there are other non-state external influences on their risk management practices although our survey found that generally these are less influential than the state regulators. The major exception were consumers, who figure highly as an influence. � Variations were found according to the size of a business. Small businesses relied on state systems and had less contact with non-state sources which provide information and advice. The hospitality sector was identified as a `bigger challenge' for risk management than the retail food sector. Cases � The project focused on the management of food safety and food hygiene risks by businesses in south-east England and Scotland. � Data were collected in 3 phases: Source of influence � ranked by level of influence EHO Consumers FSA TSO Media Insurance Lawyers Pressure group/ NGO Least influence Influence Influence index (Mean values of questionaires) 1.35 1.36 1.74 1.90 2.46 2.85 3.19 3.23 Discussion � The move from government to governance is understood by those in business who are well aware that there is a variety of external influences on their internal risk management practices. � The state remains a key influence on business but not an exclusive influence, necessary but insufficient. The state has its limitations which may be mitigated by influences beyond the state. � This research supports policy recommendations in favour of a mix of regulation sources. It adds weight to the contention that social, economic and state influences all serve to influence the internal workings of business. � Phase 1 involved consultations with 49 experts from the food industry, central and local government departments, and consumer groups. � Phase 2 comprised a questionnaire survey which was structured according to business type; notably the food retail and catering sectors and the size of business. A total of 204 individuals across 31 businesses responded to the survey. � Phase 3 comprised 25 in-depth interviews with representatives of 5 of the businesses included in Phase 2. Most influence BUSINESS, REGULATION ANd RISK MANAGEMENT 13 RISK REGULATION Compliance and Non-Compliance with Incident Self-Reporting Regulations Julien Etienne, ESRC Postdoctoral Fellow, CARR. Introduction � The reporting of `near misses' by hazardous organizations provides important information for the management of operational risk. � Many risk regulation regimes � e.g. nuclear energy, chemical processing, financial services � require that organizations self-report incidents to public regulators. � The reasons for compliance � and noncompliance � with these rules remain unclear. � This project aims to: � Identify regulatees' motivations when selfreporting or not, and the variables affecting these decisions; � Identify patterns of self-reporting across a target population of hazardous organizations; � Contribute to compliance theories. Findings � Organizations which frequently disclose minor problems unrelated to accident scenarios can be reluctant to report more significant incidents such as near misses. � Motives for this differ: � Regulatees report minor issues to gain and sustain the confidence of the regulator. A feeling of duty to comply is another important reason. � Yet non-disclosure is motivated by the fear that the regulator will overreact to incident reports, which could be costly for the organization. � Trust within the regulator-regulatee relationship is not a sufficient condition for enhancing incident self-reporting beyond the low-level. � Credible deterrents do not seem a sufficient condition either, since incident reporting is scarce even when cover-ups are harshly penalized. Cases Research has been completed in the field of industrial hazard regulation, with a focus on high tier (Seveso 2) chemical process plants in France and involving: � Exploratory interviews with safety officers within regulated firms and members of the Inspectorate in charge of control and enforcement. � An in-depth case study of a chemical plant over a period of approximately two years, with a focus on its internal organizational life and the firm's relationship with external actors (city councils, Inspectorates, NGOs). � Survey analysis: a questionnaire was sent to all (N=240) Seveso 2 chemical processing plants in France. Discussion � Regardless of the existence of `trust' relations, regulators may fail to successfully motivate hazardous organizations to comply when it comes to reporting incidents to outsiders. � The case suggests that more complex regulatory strategies than, for instance, the much praised combination of trust and the `benign big gun', are needed. � Specifically, improving incident selfreporting requires strategies that address the unpredictability of regulators' responses to incident reports. 14 RISK REGULATION BUSINESS, REGULATION ANd RISK MANAGEMENT Environmental Risk, Regulation and Justice Andy Gouldson, CARR Research Associate and Director, Sustainability Research Institute, University of Leeds. Introduction � There are very few comparative assessments of the outcomes of environmental regulation, whether between countries, companies or locations. This is surprising given concerns about the impacts of regulation on competitiveness, the emphasis on better regulation, the interest in evidence-based policy making and concerns about whether populations in some areas secure lower levels of protection than others. � This project uses the information provided through `pollutant releases and transfer registers' (PRTRs) to compare the impacts of regulation on environmental performance in different countries and companies, and to consider whether variations in performance are related to levels of social deprivation at the local level in the US. Findings � The study finds that although there have been rapid improvements in the environmental performance of the worst performers in recent years, there are still significant variations in performance between countries and between companies. � Focusing on the local level in the US, it finds that these variations in performance do relate to different indicators of social deprivation in the communities where refineries are located. � The study therefore provides some empirical evidence of ongoing environmental injustice, despite improvements in performance over the last 15 years and the commitment of the US EPA to provide equal protection for all populations. Cases � The project uses information from PRTRs to compare the environmental performance of one case study activity � namely oil refining. � This case study enables standarized benchmarks of performance to be developed for the OECD countries, and within the US for different oil companies. It then uses information provided by the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Census to track longer term trends in the environmental performance of oil refineries, and to consider whether, across the US, performance is shaped by: a) the characteristics of the communities within which they are located; b) the ways in which they are regulated. � The project thereby contributes to the debate on environmental justice. Discussion � The project results are interesting at various levels. They highlight the value of the information provided through PRTRs. Using such information, they show that despite years of policy learning and technology transfer, major variations in performance at the country and company levels persist. � They also show that 15-20 years after the environmental justice movement emerged, poorer communities tend to be exposed to comparatively higher levels of environmental risk than richer communities. And they highlight that, at least in the US, it is legal sanctions rather than regulatory engagements that seem to alter the environmental performance of firms. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY ANd RISK 15 RISK REGULATION SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY ANd RISK Assessing Critical Technologies: An Analysis of `Type-Certification' in Civil Aviation John Downer, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Introduction Technology Regulators From power stations to pacemakers, we increasingly depend on technologies that cannot be allowed to fail. In response, governments have established regulatory agencies to assess complex, safetycritical machines on the public's behalf. These assessments provide the measurements and facts that publics and policymakers use to frame technological choices. Epistemic Dilemmas But there is a conundrum in technology regulation. Regulators must assess the reliability of technologies to a such a high level that their work is regarded as `impossible' by epistemologists. This poses the questions: � How well do we know the things we build; � And how accurate are our facts? Findings No Solution The study found that technology regulators have no simple solution to the problems highlighted by epistemologists. Their `proofs' are built on tacit assumptions and judgements, and beset by deep and unresolved controversies. These ambiguities make the assessors of complex systems highly dependent on the knowledge of the engineers who design those systems. Tacit Knowledge The study also found that assessments rest less on formal measurements of the technology itself than on informal appraisals of the people who produce them. As one regulator succinctly put it: `We can't measure how well they've done, so we look at how hard they've tried.' Discussion Certi-fiction The picture of technology regulation as judgement-laden rather than proof-driven has far-reaching consequences for our understanding of regulatory work. It implies that quantitative technology assessments are better understood as public performances than as calculations: certifiction, not certification. Regulatory surety This is not to say that aircraft are unreliable. Civil aviation's remarkable safety record is well documented. It simply means that regulatory work is not as mechanical or objective as it appears. Aircraft are safe because we have been building them for many years (and learning from mistakes), not because they have been formally evaluated. Cases Type-Certification This study looked at the practice of technology regulation by examining the `type-certification' work done by the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to certify that every safetycritical system of a new civil airliner is reliable to a level of one-failure-in-every-billion-hours of operation. Regulatory Action The research draws on the Science and Technology Studies literature about the construction of engineering knowledge. It asked how, in practice, the FAA arrived at precise, quantitive assessments of complex, `messy' technologies that operate in unpredictable environments, and why these assessments are borne out by service experience. 16 RISK REGULATION SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY ANd RISK Policing Markets: Commercialization and Regulation of Forensic Science Chris Lawless, ESRC Postdoctoral Fellow, CARR. Introduction � Forensic science is a product of, and an influence on, a wide variety of actors; encompassing police, scientific, legal, legislative, academic and civil society domains. � The UK has pioneered reforms to the provision of scientific support to law enforcement actors. This includes the introduction of a commercialized mode of provision of forensic services, whereby police have become `customers' of scientific knowledge. Aims: � The identification and characterization of risks associated with these reforms. � Investigation of issues associated with the regulation of forensic science, especially possibilities for extending the regulatory scope to address the full range of risks posed by commercialization. Findings � Commercialization and the status of police as `customers' are having a tangible effect on the way in which forensic scientific knowledge is produced, organized and delivered. � This engenders tensions between policing interests and accepted standards of scientific propriety. � Commercialization exposes FSPs to further risks: � Exposure to effects of wider economic crisis. � Demand-side effects may have a detrimental effect on the availability of specialized forms of forensic science. � Commercial interests may come into direct conflict with judicial priorities. Discussion � Commercialization represents a further influence on an already diverse landscape. � By contributing to the `co-production' of a particular technosocial domain, commercialization has consequences for: � The balance of power within the state/science relationship. � The professional autonomy/identity of scientists. � The future development of the market for forensic scientific services is highly uncertain and risk-laden; current mechanisms for regulating the market are heterogeneous and it is unclear whether they are sufficient to manage these risks. � The Forensic Regulator may have a key role to play in managing these risks, but the scope of the role may need to be widened. Cases � The activities of forensic science providers (FSPs), which includes both commercial suppliers of forensic science and `in-house' police laboratories, and those of the Forensic Regulator. � Particular focus on the `Case Assessment and Interpretation' (CAI) model of forensic investigation, which has been introduced to manage the provision of forensic scientific information in the light of commercializing reforms. � Study of controversial legal cases involving forensic evidence (Shirley McKie case, Omagh bomb trial). Such cases raise a series of issues relevant to the way in which admissibility of scientific evidence is determined. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY ANd RISK 17 RISK REGULATION Scientific Expertise and the Technical Constitution of Europe Javier Lezaun, CARR Research Associate and former CARR Research Officer. Currently James Martin Lecturer in Science and Technology Governance, Institute for Science, Innovation and Society, University of Oxford. Introduction � The project explores the relationship between scientific research and policy-making through a study of expert advisory institutions in the European Union. � Key questions addressed by the project are: � How should we understand and measure the `policy relevance' of expert knowledge? � What happens to research institutions when they are asked to accommodate the interests and needs of policy institutions? � What is the role of technical advisory bodies in the configuration of the European Union? Findings This study focuses on understanding the interface between scientific research and policy-making that the JRC provides. � Over the last decade, the JRC has tried to transform its research processes and governance mechanisms to satisfy the needs of its `customers' � mostly the European Commission, but increasingly the European Parliament and other parts of the European policy landscape as well. � A study of the JRC makes visible several `hidden' elements of European integration, particularly the relevance of systems of commensuration (standardized measurements, reference materials) as the technopolitical core of the Union. � As the JRC reformulates its mission and internal structures to emphasize its ability to offer `prospective' or `proactive' advice, it is being drawn deeper into political decisionmaking processes. Cases � The study focuses on the Joint Research Centre, the European Commission's network of scientific research groups. � Founded in 1958 under the EURATOM Treaty, the JRC has seen its remit grow with the extension of European integration, and today includes institutes dedicated to research on energy, biofuels and sustainability, food safety, reference materials, technology assessment, nanotechnology, etc. � Since its inception, the JRC has seen its mission evolve, from its initial dedication to `basic research', to its current emphasis on producing `customer-driven' expertise. � The study centers on four research institutes: Institute for Energy (Petten), Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (Ispra), Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (Geel), and the Institute for Prospective Technology Studies (Seville). Discussion � The traditional relationship between scientific research and government is being reinvented � in academia, research organizations, and corporate science alike. � Our conventional categorizations of knowledge production activities (e.g. `basic' versus `applied' research), and the vocabularies we use to describe the relationship between expertise and policy-making (`science for policy', `brokerage', `anticipatory governance') are being overhauled and require a reassessment. � The market for policy-oriented expertise has ceased to be an oligopoly, dominated by government and government-sponsored research organizations, and needs to accommodate a variety of actors � social movements, campaign and lobby groups, `citizen science' organizations, etc. 18 RISK REGULATION SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY ANd RISK How does Science Produce Regulatory Standards? The Case of Food Risk Analysis David Demortain, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Introduction Expertise gives legitimacy to rule-setting enterprises. International food standards, for instance, are better accepted if they are developed on the basis of scientific opinions. Standards affect technical operations but also influence political decisions. This is particularly the case when they concern regulatory processes, as with food risk analysis. Food safety decisions depend on a principles-based framework that stipulates that assessment, 1. Hazard identification management and communication of Risk Assessment risks are all taken into account. � Hazard identification 3. Exposure assessment 2. Hazard characterization � Exposure Assessment This poses the question of what � Risk Characterization part expertise plays in the setting of political standards? What is the political value of expertise? � Hazard Characterization Findings � Risk analysis either takes the form of a replicable scientific procedure (figure 1), or it acts as a set of generic principles for dialogue between scientists and policy-makers (figure 2). � Expertise in Codex is dual, requiring both knowledge of the procedure and knowledge of local conventions and practices. Expert discussions refer both to the ideal procedure and to concrete examples of local practice. � The final standard reflects both bodies of expertise. It Risk Management is made up of generic principles that � Risk evaluation influence the procedure so that it fits with local � Option assessment � Option implementationand practices. Expertise, in other conventions � Monitoring and review words, is shared knowledge and experience: the currency of standard-setting. 4. Risk characterization Risk Communication figure 1 5. Risk management Cases The concept of risk analysis was articulated by the US National Research Council in 1983. It became a fundamental principle of EU and international law in the 2000s. This study looked at the relation between the original framework of risk analysis and the international standard that developed from this framework. Three sets of data were used: � the origin and circulation of the risk analysis model; Discussion � The concept of `risk analysis' can be appropriated by those who seek to harmonize by setting replicable methodologies and decision-making procedures. It can also be appropriated by local governmental agents who legitimize local conventions. � Experts as democratic agents: transnational experts do not simply diffuse a set model, but work to reflect local practices in an evolving set of principles. � Standard-setting from the bottom-up: principles-based standards are legitimate not only because � its adoption in a developing country; and of the expertise 1. Hazard identification � the elaboration of the international standard in Risk Assessment Risk Management they embody, � Hazard identification � Risk evaluation the Codex Alimentarius. � Hazard Characterization � Option assessment but because they � Exposure Assessment � Option implementation 3. Exposure assessment 2. Hazard characterization � Risk Characterization � Monitoring and review integrate local A mixture of methods were used: practices and � interviews; 4. Risk characterization understandings � analysis of scientific reports and publications as of rules. Risk Communication well as of authors' biographies;5. Risk management � non-participant observation in Codex. figure 2 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY ANd RISK 19 RISK REGULATION The Regulation of digital Goods and Services Jeanette Hofmann, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Introduction � Digitization has undermined the efficacy of regulation in the field of intellectual property rights, and it has created a need for new regulation in the area of digital communication and networking. � Digital goods differ from other goods in their non-rivalrous nature and the fact that they can be infinitely modified and duplicated. � Research interests: � The analysis of the emerging cross-national policy field encompassing digital goods, resources and services; including relevant actors, regulatory concepts, instruments and practices. � The analysis of the transnational institutionbuilding process underpinning and shaping regulatory authority; such as new forms of multi-stakeholder consensus-building and accountability. Findings � Facing a crisis, the participants in Internet address management are holding a `constitutional dialogue' (Douglas) over the idea of creating an address market. This dialogue links contested regulatory options with perceived dangers to the common good of address management. � Digitization challenges the conceptual core of copyright: the right to control reproduction. New forms of commercial and private information exchange contribute to a re-writing of intellectual property rights. � Regulatory authority in the transnational sphere is subject to continuous transformation. A comparison between Internet regulation and corporate financial reporting indicates a process of hybridization between public and private sources of authority. Discussion � Risks are not simply given. In the case of Internet address management they reflect competing notions of the common good and related governance structures. Their definition is performative as they privilege specific courses of action at the expense of others. � Regulation of access to information has become the subject of a power struggle among a broadening constellation of actors. These actors grapple with the fact that digitization simultaneously enables and undermines the excludability of digital goods. � The distinction between public and private authority in transnational regulation needs to be reconsidered. While public and private actors remain distinguishable, their regulatory practices are converging. Cases � Management of Internet addresses: The current address space will be depleted by 2012. A larger address space, incompatible with the current one, is available but has not yet been adopted. Observers see the authority of Internet self-regulation as being at risk in light of this crisis. � Google books: 90 per cent of all catalogued books are commercially unavailable. Google is creating a digital library to exploit this inaccessible treasure. Access to it is being negotiated in a private settlement following a lawsuit against Google. � Management of the domain name system: In 1998 the US government partly privatized regulatory authority over critical Internet resources. As a result, the transparency, openness and accountability of self-regulation have been subject to constant reform processes. 20 PUBLICATIONS Publications Governing High Vulnerability of Mega-Events Martin Lodge, CARR Research Theme Director and Lecturer in Political Science and Public Policy, LSE. Will Jennings, CARR Research Associate and former British Academy Postdoctoral Research Fellow, CARR. Currently ESRC/ Hallsworth Research Fellow in Politics, University of Manchester. Jennings, W and Lodge, M (2009) `Tools of Security Risk Management for the London 2012 Olympic Games and FIFA 2006 World Cup in Germany', CARR Discussion Paper 55, ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation. Jennings, W and Lodge, M (2010) `Critical infrastructures, resilience and organization of mega-events', in Hutter, B M (ed) Anticipating Risks and Organizing Risk Regulation, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. The Risks of Risk-Based Approaches to Regulation: Reforming Regulation of the Medical Profession Bridget Hutter, CARR Director and Professor of Risk Regulation, LSE. Sally Lloyd-Bostock, Professorial Research Fellow. Lloyd-Bostock, S and Hutter, B M (2008) `Risk regulation and Health Care', `Reforming regulation of the medical profession: the risks of risk-based approaches' Special issue of Health, Risk and Society 10 (1). Lloyd-Bostock, S (2010) `The creation of risk-related information: The UK General Medical Council's electronic database', Journal of Health Organization and Management, Special Issue on `Critical perspectives on medical performance'. Hutter, B M (2004) `Risk Management and Governance' in Eliadis, P, Hill, M and Howlett, M (eds) Designing Government: From Instruments to Governance, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. Participating in Risk Regulation: Learning from Patient Safety Incidents Carl Macrae, former ESRC Research Officer. Currently Special Advisor with the National Patient Safety Agency. Macrae, C (2010) `Regulating Resilience? Regulatory Work in High-Risk Arenas' in Hutter, B M (ed), Anticipating Risks and Organizing Risk Regulation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Macrae, C (2009) `Making risks visible: identifying and interpreting threats to airline flight safety', Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82: 273-293. Macrae, C (2008) `Learning from patient safety incidents: creating participative risk regulation in healthcare', Health, Risk and Society, 10 (1): 53-67. Institutionalizing Public Participation in Risk Regulation Henry Rothstein, CARR Research Associate and former CARR Research Officer. Currently Lecturer in Risk Management, Department of Geography and King's Centre for Risk Management, King's College London. Rothstein, H (2007) `Talking shops or talking turkey? Institutional constraints to proceduralising consumer representation in risk regulation', Science, Technology and Human Values 32 (5): 582-607. Rothstein, H (2005) `Escaping the regulatory net: Why regulatory reform can fail consumers', Law & Policy, 27 (4): 520-548. Rothstein, H (2004) `Precautionary bans or sacrificial lambs? Participative regulation and the reform of the UK food safety regime', Public Administration, 82 (4): 857-881. Embracing Academic Risks Michael Huber, CARR Research Associate and former AON Senior Research Fellow, CARR. Currently Professor of Higher Education Studies at the University of Bielefeld, Institute of Science and Technology Studies and Faculty of Sociology. Huber, M (2010) `Colonized by Risk. The emergence of academic risks in British higher education' in Hutter, B M (ed), Anticipating Risks and Organizing Risk Regulation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Huber, M (2009) `Von loser zu engerer Kopplung. Die Entstehung risikofreudiger Universit�ten und neuer Planungshorizonte' in J. Weyer und I. Schulz-Schaeffer (eds) Management komplexer Systeme. Konzepte f�r die Bew�ltigung von Intransparenz, Unsicherheit und Chaos, M�nchen: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, pp 169-184. PUBLICATIONS 21 Internationalization and Economic Institutions: Regulatory Institutions in Network Industries Mark Thatcher, CARR Research Associate and Professor of Comparative and International Politics, LSE. Thatcher, M (2007) Internationalization and Economic Institutions: Comparing the European Experience, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Winner of the 2008 Charles Levine Prize for the best book in Comparative Policy and Administration awarded by the International Political Science Association and the international journal Governance. Embedding Regulation: The Responses of Firms to the Financial Services Authority's Treating Customers Fairly Initiative Sharon Gilad, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Gilad, S (2010) `Enlisting Commitment: Firms' Responses to the Financial Services Authority Treating Customers Fairly Initiative', CARR Discussion Paper 64, ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation. Toward a Sociology of Reliability: the Case of Fair Value Accounting Mike Power, CARR Research Theme Director. Power, M (2010) `Fair value, financial economics and the transformation of accounting reliability', Accounting and Business Research, 40 (3): 1-14. Power, M (2009) `The risk management of nothing', Accounting, Organizations and Society, 34 (6/7): 849-855. Power, M (2009) `Financial accounting without a state' in Chapman, Cooper and Miller (eds) Accounting, Organizations and Institutions: Essays in honour of Anthony Hopwood, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 324-340. From Government to Governance: Influencing Business Risk Management from the Outside Bridget Hutter, CARR Director and Professor of Risk Regulation, LSE. With Clive Jones, former CARR Research Assistant. Currently Better Regulation Executive, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. Hutter, B M and Jones, C (2007) `From government to governance: external influences on business risk management', Journal of Regulation and Governance 1 (1): 27-45. Hutter, B M (2006) `The role of non state actors in regulation' in Schuppert, F (ed) Global governance and the role of non state actors, Berlin, Nomos. pp 63-79. Hutter, B M and Amodu, T (2008) Risk Regulation and Compliance: Food Safety in the UK, Report prepared for the Pennington Inquiry into the 2005 South Wales E.coli outbreak. Compliance and Non-Compliance with Incident Self-Reporting Regulations Julien Etienne, ESRC Postdoctoral Fellow, CARR. Etienne, J (2010) `The Impact of Regulatory Policy on Individual Behaviour. A Goal Framing Theory Approach', CARR Discussion Paper 59, ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation. Dupr�, M, Etienne, J and Le Coze, J C (2009) `L'interaction r�gulateur r�gul�: consid�rations � partir du cas d'une entreprise Seveso II seuil haut', Annales des Mines: G�rer et Comprendre, 97: 16-27. Etienne, J (2007) `Reorganizing Public Oversight of High-Risk Industries in France: A Reliability Analysis of Permitting', Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 15 (3): 144-156. Environmental Risk, Regulation and Justice Andy Gouldson, CARR Research Associate, and Director, Sustainability Research Institute, University of Leeds. Gouldson, A and Sullivan, R (2007) `Corporate environmentalism: tracing the links between policies and performance using corporate reports and public registers', Business Strategy and Environment 16 (1): 1-11. Gouldson, A (2006) `Do firms adopt lower standards in poorer areas? Corporate social responsibility and environmental justice in the EU and the US', Area 38 (4): 402-412. Gouldson, A (2004) `Risk, regulation and the right to know: exploring the impacts of access to information on the governance of environmental risks in the UK', Sustainable Development 12 (3): 136-149. Assessing Critical Technologies: An Analysis of `Type-Certification' in Civil Aviation John Downer, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Downer, J (2007) `When the chick hits the fan: representativeness and reproducibility in technological testing', Social Studies of Science 37 (1): 7-26. Downer, J (2010) `Trust and technology: the social foundations of aviation regulation', British Journal of Sociology 61 (1): 87-110. Downer, J (2010) `Anatomy of a Failure: "Epistemic Accidents" and the Sociology of Disaster', CARR Discussion Paper 61, ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation. Policing Markets: Commercialization and Regulation of Forensic Science Chris Lawless, ESRC Postdoctoral Fellow, CARR. Lawless, C J (2010) `A Curious Reconstruction? The Shaping of "Marketized" Forensic Science ', CARR Discussion Paper 63, ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation. Lawless, C J and Williams, R (2010 forthcoming) `Helping with inquiries, or helping with profit? The trials and tribulations of a technology of forensic reasoning', Social Studies of Science, 40 (5) Lawless, C J (2010 forthcoming) `Managing Epistemic Risk in Forensic Science: Sociological Aspects and Issues', Sociology Compass. 22 PUBLICATIONS Scientific Expertise and the Technical Constitution of Europe Javier Lezaun, CARR Research Associate and former CARR Research Officer. Lezaun, J (2010) `The Risk Regulation of "Frontier Research": The Case of Gene Therapy', in Hutter, B M (ed), Anticipating Risks and Organizing Risk Regulation, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. How Does Science Produce Regulatory Standards? The Case of Food Risk Analysis David Demortain, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Demortain, D (2010) `The Many Meanings of "Standard": The Politics of the International Standard for Food Risk Analysis', CARR Discussion Paper 58, ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation. Demortain, D (2009) `Standards of Scientific Advice. Risk Analysis and the Formation of the European Food Safety Authority', in Lentsch, J and Weingart, P (eds), Scientific Advice to Policy Making: International Comparison, Berlin: Barbara Budrich Publishers. The Regulation of Digital Goods and Services Jeanette Hofmann, ESRC Research Officer, CARR. Botzem, S and Hofmann, J. (2010) `Transnational governance spirals: the transformation of rule-making authority in Internet regulation and corporate financial reporting', Critical Policy Studies, 4 (1): 18-37. Hofmann, J (2010 in press) `Before the Sky Falls Down: A "Constitutional Dialogue" Over the Depletion of Internet Addresses', forthcoming in Hutter, B M (ed), Anticipating Risks and Organizing Risk Regulation, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, pp 47-67. Hofmann, J (2010 forthcoming) `Et in Arcadia Ego. From Techno-Utopia to Cybercrime', in Margetts, H, Perri 6 and Hood, C (eds) Paradoxes of Modernization. Unintended Consequences of Public Policy Reform, Oxford, Oxford University Press. pp 81-100. Main publications � Organizational Encounters with Risk (Cambridge University Press, 2005), edited by Bridget Hutter and Mike Power, is a collection of original papers from a CARR workshop written by risk management experts from various disciplines who raised critical questions about how organizations understand and perceive the risks they face in today's dangerous world, and whether they can be managed in any realistic sense. � Regulatory Innovation: A Comparative Perspective (Edward Elgar, 2005), edited by Julia Black, Martin Lodge and Mark Thatcher, is a collaboration between CARR's lawyers and political scientists. The book identifies and shines a spotlight onto the different regulatory innovation worlds ranging from individuals, organizations, the state, global institutions and innovation itself. � Organized Uncertainty: Designing a World of Risk Management (Oxford University Press, 2007) by Michael Power. This book argues that risk and risk management ideas have increasingly permeated organizational and social life since the mid 1990s, and that this has been made possible by the rapid and transnational diffusion of abstract designs for the risk management process. � February 2008 saw the publication of a Special Issue of Health, Risk & Society on the subject of Risk Regulation and Health Care, edited by Bridget Hutter and including contributions by seven CARR staff. The focus was on risk regulation issues with particular reference to National Health Service infrastructure and service provision and the risk regulation of critical areas. � In December 2008 CARR published a special issue of Risk & Regulation on the financial crisis. This issue assembled some early reflections and reactions from CARR staff. The topics covered went beyond finance and the financial sector and outside traditional academic comfort zones to address new questions about risk and rewards, regulation and failure. � Anticipating Risks and Organizing Risk Regulation (Cambridge University Press, 2010), edited by Bridget Hutter and including chapters by eight current or former members of CARR staff. This book shows how we can organize our social, organizational and regulatory policy systems to cope better with the array of local and transnational risks we regularly encounter. Contributors from a range of disciplines � including finance, history, law, management, political science, social psychology, sociology and disaster studies � consider threats, vulnerabilities and insecurities alongside social and organizational sources of resilience and security. INdEX 23 Subject index accountability, 10, 19 accounting, 11 aviation, 6, 9, 15 chemical processing, 13 commercialization, 16 compliance, 10, 13 consensus, 7, 19 consultants, 12 consumers, 7, 12 civil society organizations, 12 crises, 4 decision-making, 4, 7, 9, 17, 18 enforcement, 10, 13 environment, 14 Europe, 17 evidence, 7, 10, 14 experts, expertise, 7, 11, 12, 17, 18 finance, 10, 11, 13 food, 7, 12, 18 forensic science, 16 governance, 4, 8, 12, 17, 19 government, 5, 7, 9, 12, 17, 18 healthcare, 5, 6 higher education, 8 institutional reform, 9 insurance companies, 12 intellectual property rights, 19 Internet, 19 knowledge, 15, 16, 17, 18 learning, 4, 6, 14 legitimacy, 7, 9, 18 media, 12 mega-events, 4 meta-regulation, 10 near-miss incidents, 6, 13 NGOs, 12, 13 nuclear energy, 13 participation, 6, 7 police, 16 policy, 7, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18 politics, 4, 9 privatization, 9 public attitudes, 7 regulation, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13 by the state, 5, 10, 12 by non-state actors, 5, 12 environmental regulation, 14 of forensic science, 16 of technologies, 15 principle-based regulation, 18 privatization of regulation, 19 transnational regulation, 19 unintended consequences, 5 regulators, 9, 13 reliability, 11 reputation, 8 risk-based regulation, 5 risk academic risks, 8 administrative risks, 8 and complexity, 5 assessment, 5, 8, 15, 18 identification, 8, 10, 16 management, 4, 6, 8, 11, 12, 18 of commercialization, 16 safety, 13, 15 science, 16, 17, 18 self-regulation, 9, 10, 19 sporting events, 4 standardization, 6, 18 technology transfer, 14 telecommunications, 9 trade associations, 12 transparency, 11, 19 trust, 5, 13 1 RISK REGULATION ESRC Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation The London School of Economics and Political Science Houghton Street London WC2A 2AE tel: +44 (0)20 7955 6577 fax: +44 (0)20 7955 6578 email: firstname.lastname@example.com www.lse.ac.uk/collections/carr


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Sources: Union, MLB in talks on Guillen suspension
Updated: December 6, 2007, 11:23 AM ETESPN.com news services
The Major League Baseball Players Association is negotiating with MLB officials on a possible 10- to 15-day suspension for outfielder Jose Guillen for his reported involvement in the purchase of steroids and human growth hormone, sources told ESPN The Magazine's Buster Olney on Wednesday.
The San Francisco Chronicle reported last month that Guillen bought nearly $20,000 worth of steroids and human growth hormone from 2003 through 2005.
Rob Manfred, MLB's executive ...
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This year Movember is on the
and encouraging you to pound the pavement in support of men's health. The Running of the Mo's is about bringing Mo Bros and Mo Sistas together to change the face of men's health while getting your heart pumping.
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The Mustache Dache
The Mustache Dache™ is the nation's premier mustache-themed running series! Men, women and children are all invited to embrace their inner Mario or Luigi and participate in this slightly irreverent 5k. This national series helps Movember combat prostate cancer, testicular cancer and mental health challenges. All participants receive a T-shirt and mustache finisher's medal, plus access to the post-race festivities, with photo booth, costume contest, food, and plenty more.
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The T-Shirts Explain Everything
OK, so the t-shirts don't explain everything, but sometimes knowing what's not going on can be helpful. What is going on is that Movember is upon is! Which means that men are sporting upper lip sprouts to raise money for men's health and cancer awareness… and looking like creepy 70s porn star cops in the process.
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Oral History Transcript — Dr. Tung Hon Jeong
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Interview with Dr. Tung Hon Jeong
Tung Hon Jeong; January 21, 2003
ABSTRACT: Discusses early career; growth of his interest in holography; his Lake Forest International Symposia of Display Holography; personalities in the field; ideas of education, and holography can be employed. Early career: BS at Yale, PhD U. Minnesota, in nuclear physics. Optics was lowly regarded in the 1950s — didnt even take a course in it, because it was geometric optics; about as low as you could get, not appealing to students. We completely ignored optics.
In the middle of his PhD thesis, finished in 1962, the laser was invented. He switched because he loved to teach — universities demand publication. So he took a job in a Liberal Arts college, and loved it.
To do nuclear physics, he had to travel to use the machine, so he would spend his summers and weekends flying to Oak Ridge Tennessee, on government grants. Staff there simply maintains the machines; all the researchers were university researchers. Had 3 children, wife had a hard time with him being away — would travel as family there over summer; big decision to make. Also, as a junior researcher he got the midnight shift, so still seldom saw his wife.
If he had become a group leader, he would have had a good time, but not as it was... Got to know spectroscopists — found out about lasers, and found they could turn off the equipment and go home! Being around spectroscopists got him interested in optics. Also wanted to develop a lab for teaching undergraduates. Came across Emmett Leiths work — wrote him a letter, talking about planning a lab for undergraduates. Out of the blue, he sent, gave, one of his original chessman holograms — a treasure! He is consistently like that.
Subsequently he dropped in and visited Leith. He took his time and showed him all over — even walked him to the door, but not knocked on the door of George Stroke. TJ heard about Stroke — he came to Chicago to give a talk — Stroke really advertised himself — and Leith was good enough to walk TJ to the door of Strokes office and leave him to it. After that, TJ studied how to teach holography — so visual, so tactile, and easy enough to do — he could teach anybody.
But nuclear physics was too obtuse — there was no one in the college he could talk to — he had to go to University of Chicago to talk to anyone. Here was an art medium — I could teach artists! And then I began simplifying — did a movie for Encyclopedia Britannica, and made a cylindrical hologram (mass produced) In 1970, but originally made in 1966). Why make on rectangular piece of film? Holographers emulating photographers, as photographers had emulated painters. His first publication in 1966. Gabor was in the audience, and Leith was chair of the meeting!
When you can show something, dont need to talk about it. Leith couldnt believe TJ wanted only 5 minutes — but TJ merely wanted to show the hologram itself. Showing is everything. So Gabor was looking at it, amused, peering all around. There was an article in Japan or China the same year, but he didnt know about it at the time. After that he got grants. It helped him become known. Wilhelm Gariner, of Gariner Corporation, was a technician for Albert Michelson. Subsequently, the company based on his technology still exists — owned by University of Chicago at that time.
The President, in 1968, asked him to develop a system to demonstrate and make holograms, on wheels. Leith bought one of the first ones. Was this the first such work in educational holography? TJ thinks its the first commercially produced mass produced system (on magnetic bases) made. Everything he designed he thought was original, but — nope! — someone else had invented it. He doesnt claim to be first or last- but he WAS influential. School of holography — 1971 or so.
Many rang up looking for a place to learn, but he didnt know of any. So he opened up the lab in 1971. First students Jody Burns and Rosemary Jackson. Had artists, architects, and medical people. One, a hippy, affiliated with the universe, had mystical understanding of holography.
He discovered that such people were serious (The Holographic Universe, Ken Wilbur etc.) — he wants to respect it, but he is now convinced that a hologram is an example of a 2D medium being analogous to some aspects of the universe. E.g. can unfold his cylindrical hologram and unfold it — in 2D see 3D and, in effect, time as well. All dimensions seen simultaneously. Getting the schools started: had people from 40 countries attending. His secretary kept a flag for every country of origin. Typically got 20-30 per year.
Then had more specialized courses — colour holography, interferometry, portraits, photopolymers, etc. Would get specialists, e.g. Hans Bjelkhagen to teach silver halide course, or Nils Abramson to do interferometry; and Charles Vest (chuck) (before he was president of MIT) who taught four summers in the school, teaching holographic interferometry. Each summer he got busier — flying in for the day.
Emmett Leith taught too. Didnt pay them much, but they wanted to be there. First hologram made by Larry Liebermann was made in TJs lab — then went to San Francisco to learn from Lloyd Cross. Cvetkovich taught there. Ed Wesley was a student, and worked for TJ for many years afterwards. Hes a violinist — one son is an opera singer; wife has a degree from conservatory. He was attracted to holography as an art medium. In 1976, in sabbatical year, got an adjunct lectureship in at Art Institute of Chicago — now ranked no. 1 in country, and have a dept. of holography now. Gave lectures, and subsequently a dept. grew up.
Chicago art is avant garde — a whole course on Xerox art, and weaving! Has always been interested in it as an art medium. A lot of artists came to learn it. Symposia of holography: In 1980 or 81, decided to have a symposium, in which there was an exhibition. He had had feedback and interest in such a thing. Seemed natural. TJ knew that this is the way it should be science and art should enrich each other.
Right from the beginning, he conceived a format combining culture, and business, and science. Started with reports from the nations — a representative from each country to talk about holography there. Had women scientists, from Christchurch, New Zealand — discovered she had tattooed her entire body, including tongue — but would never have known it? Then new materials Then practical holography, and theory. Art forum — freewheeling discussion. An eclectic mix
After 1997 retirement, he did one in Austria — big argument there was are laser holograms that are pornographic demeaning to women — why do only nude women? Why dont you show some dicks? Bernadette... was defending it. All of this is no quotes, freewheeling. Be angry, does whatever. And some got angry — some cant make a living. Business guys suggest to artists, why not do this? Artists say been there! Done that! You dont get than in a formal setting.
Every 3 years, hope to repeat the symposia away from Lake Forest. Last year wanted to do Quebec City — but Lessard didnt contact TJ until very late, so couldnt do it. Next time hope to go to China. Got a nice grant from McDonalds in 1985 to refurbish the art gallery in Lake Forest. McDonalds not only gave the money, but also bussed everyone down to hamburger university and gave them alcohol and frogs legs, and commissioned Steve Smith to do holograms for their lobby — the original milk shake etc. Practical Holography was started in 1986 by TJ and Jack Luckman (?) — very near Jan holidays — but then moved later, when TJ couldnt come, and Steve Benton took over.
How is it different from the Symposia? It was a compromise — what SPIE liked to support — not art so much. Al Razutis gave a paper in the 1986 one, but it didnt fit the taste of SPIE. TJ wanted to stretch them, get out on a limb? Needed SPIE to support the scale and administration. They do the electronic cross-indexing.
Symposia were taken over (for the last 4 or 5) by SPIE — let them publish, advertise, electronic database support, etc. All the Chinese delegates this time couldnt get the entry visa to USA owing to terrorist threats, presumably. SPIE invited TJ to start the Practical Holography meetings. It was taught by someone else they werent satisfied with — and TJ took it over.
A very different kind of audience at Practical Holography company supported. Got Shearwater grant to get some artists here. At Lake Forest some couldnt even afford the fee — they slept in the park, or very cheap dorms. Important names: who made a difference? Well, Gabor, Leith, Denisyuk... Optical computing — Psaltis at Caltech — the non-visual areas of holography. Hesserling is another. Met George Stroke. An entirely different personality — didnt give TJ much time. One of TJs students made a trip to see him, and Stroke didnt want to see him. Stroke went out of sight — his reputation drove him away. Lloyd Cross — hes in LA somewhere.
A different kind of person — free thinking. Heard second hand that one day he dropped his wife and family. Didnt care about publishing. Knows about him through Larry Lieberman, in Florida. Lieberman stayed with Cross for a long time. Made apparatus out of found materials — springs, cardboard, etc. Cross and Pethick started the sandbox idea — which TJ began to use a lot.
How much interaction between these schools? Completely independent. They werent about developing completely new technology. Visited them, had his childrens hologram made by them. Respects their kind of creativity. TJ had advantage that he was with an established College and could teach theory and equations Fourier transforms etc., while SF was seat of the pants.
For artists who didnt have time to learn that, he developed a model. OSA has a program ETOP — Education and Training in Optics and Photonics — TJ wrote the chapter on holography, intended for people who want to be technicians. Developed a graphic model to explain diffraction gratings, holograms, coherence length etc.
Since retirement, does lecturing on the road to schools but no more school of holography at Lake Forest. TJ argues that holography is a way into optics, to get kids interested. Has a web site: HOLOKITS.COM — his wife is dealing with it. Has a diode laser, with removable collimator below 5 mW. For $71 have all you need to make 30 holograms — laser, mirrors, chemicals that are safe.
Proudest moment: had been tutoring online a student in Texas. Converted his whole basement into a holography lab. At his last Symposium in 1997 TJ invited him — a 16 yr. old — to give a paper. Forgot about it, but then got letter from MIT admissions office. The kid had written a letter on his greatest influence — and the letter won an award. Has kids online from Singapore, Lebanon, etc. — he doesnt answer questions directly, and he answers on the web site.
In early 1970s was appointed a travelling lecturer for the OSA — proud moment. Chautauqua program — people with public knowledge give lectures. On thousands of subjects, scholars would identify the most suitable person to do the lecture series, and provide sabbatical grants. Would train other professors as missionaries. From a small liberal arts college, TJ has accomplished much to create a community of holography — he thinks because he didnt have the burden of publishing. Talks about how holography exemplifies all of mathematics.
How is a picture like a song? Temporal and spatial domains compared by information theory, in terms of Fourier transformations. For everything in a hologram, there is something equivalent in music. Optics and electronics parallels. There is beauty in technology. Spends afternoon talking about this in his courses — sometimes students get lost, but also enthusiastic. He says it induces a sense of awe, absolutely necessary. The most beautiful idea in the hologram is not what you see, but how it works. Popular understandings of holograms — bad!
Appreciates the fact that millions of holograms are now ubiquitous, but embossed holograms are the ugliest holograms. Holograms on Star Trek bastardised it. Doesnt want to re-educate peoples understanding — they have the right to that viewpoint about holograms. Hes not against it — hes just not for it. Wouldnt work for it. Nuclear physics loses a lot of people. Some grade schools teach holography in industrial arts class — shop class.
Where does the future lie? The theory of holography will never be ugly. Some years back before TJ learned this gambit, would go to schools and show best holograms. Parents were very skeptical — children open to everything. Dont want my child to become a starving artist. So he switched his language. Projected image from transmission hologram — said on this square mm Im downloading 4 mbits of information in 4 nanoseconds — then parents said wow, my son has to learn that. But the children would be interested anyway.
Most of his wifes business is to sell holokits for parent/child projects — win projects in science fairs. Children can teach teachers. Accessibility to school children — doesnt like writing papers and sitting down — likes to teach enthusiastic students. So hes doing that on the internet, running symposia, programs, etc.
Most important thing: the beauty of holography. There are fewer people who really appreciate that science is beautiful — fewer than appreciate pop music. They think its dry and boring. Slavish holographic material is good, maybe not the best, but the cheapest.


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Tag Archives: AIDS
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Katie Moore / Eyewitness News
Email: email@example.com | Twitter: @katiecmoore
NEW ORLEANS, La. -- The nation will celebrate the life and legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Monday, and while those celebrations are taking place, here in New Orleans, that celebration started a little early at Irvin Mayfield's Jazz Playhouse.
Musician and activist Irvin Mayfield trumpeted the actions of six outstanding New Orleanians Sunday night, including 11-year-old Maya Major.
On Christmas Eve, Major went around the city with her parents to give the homeless something to keep their feet warm. 'I gave out socks with little candy canes for them,' said Major of her kind act.
The Martin Luther King, Jr. Jazz Awards are a celebration of every day excellence.
'It's not really about being spectacular in an extraordinary way. It's about going about doing the work you can do on a daily basis, being extraordinary in your plain life. And I think that's what all of these folks represent,' saind Irvin Mayfield.
Other recipients include Musician James Rivers and People's Health CEO Carol Solomon, and University of New Orleans Jazz Studies Chairman Steve Masakowski received the Germaine Bazzle award.
Mayfield says the awards are a tribute to all of those who live in the spirit of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., people like Maya Major. 'It made me feel good inside to help them,' said Major.


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If you liked this, check these out!
Plenty more like this here!
Author Comments
Rated 5 / 5 stars
Thank you so much.
This is one of the best series I've seen in a long time, I love everything about it.
Rated 5 / 5 stars
this was great
i never usually become a fan of internet cartoons but this one kiks ass
"Its like looking into a mirror!"
this thing had me laughing out loud numerous times...awesome...looking forward to Clocksuckers 5
Rated 4.5 / 5 stars
GOOD: Now this was a good piece of entertainment for my step-brother and I. We were laughing quite a bit and the flash was like something you would see on television. The graphics and voice acting was television worthy and was pretty funny. This episode makes us want to see the rest of the Clock Suckers series.
BAD: None
IMPROVEMENT: None
OVERALL: This was very entertaining for the beginning of summer holidays. Excellent job on this work of art!
Rated 4.5 / 5 stars
not just funny , more than funny
not just funny , more than funny
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International Student Organizing Committee (ISOC)
Application due on by 5 pm on Friday, February 6, 2015
ISOC members help plan and carry out fall and spring pre-orientation activities for new international students. This is a wonderful opportunity for you to help welcome new students and introduce them to life at Mount Holyoke. Members must return to campus a few days before fall and spring orientation officially begin, and be able to devote most of their time to pre-orientation training and pre-orientation. This means that applicants cannot have jobs or other commitments which require special training sessions before or during Pre-Orientation.
We especially encourage first-year international students to apply! Since current ISOC members will interview all applicants, you must be on campus when you apply for membership on the committee. Also, we cannot consider any rising seniors for membership on ISOC.
After you apply to be on ISOC, you will be contacted for an interview--interviews will take place during the last week of February and the first week of March. If you are chosen to be on ISOC, you will normally continue as a member of the committee until you graduate. If you have any questions about ISOC, please contact one of the co-chairs: Kelly Lim '16 (firstname.lastname@example.com) or Fatima Ouadif '16 (email@example.com). You may also contact Donna Van Handle, Dean of International Students (firstname.lastname@example.com).


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Volcom Azzy Tribal Tech Fleece Jacket
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Stay warm inside a fleece lined body with a color blocked blue upper and a tan lower with red, blue, and tan tribal print sleeves.
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Shin Megami Tensei: Persona 3 FES
Is it worth Fusing weapons?
I'm at like 9/16 of my first playthrough and i haven't fused any weapons i was wondering if I'm missing out on anything none of them seem to be very special and are weaker then store bought or the weapons i find :\
Only the special ones, I think, unless you happen to have a persona that's not quite so good, but gives an awesome weapon ability, or something.
My MHFU Weapon Tree and Ranker --> http://www.mediafire.com/?tlkc9ymqcduas73
^^<--Sarcastrophes. They mark when I use sarcasm, which is a lot of the time
I only fused a weapon for the fight against Lovers.
That thing can charm and Yukari isn't very reliable if she's goping to use Patra to cure the effect.
(Instead, she's more worried about keeping the HP up.)
Or other unaffected party members, when it comes down to use a Patra Gem, even if you do have more than enough.
First of all, the actual stats on the weapon aren't all that important. They don't affect spells. They don't even affect physical abilities of personas. Additionally, they seem to be somewhat logarithmic (that is, 400 ATK is less than double the damage of 200 ATK).
Weapon fusions have great effects... empress, tower, sun and star all give resistance to an element. These are better than almost anything else you can put there.
All the fool personas have a special fusion (with 1 ATK power, but note above how it doesn't matter much if you're just using persona attacks)- of note, legion gives +100 HP. That's decent even late in the game, and legion is just a level 22 persona. That's huge then.
Most of the special weapon fusions are quite good as well. But again, don't overestunate the power of the super high attack power +10 to all stats weapons. Yeah, they're good. Yeah, +10 to all stats is good... but attack power and basic stats just don't help as much in this game as they do in others, so they aren't necessarily the best weapon.
Ya i didn't rlly know about the anti charm thing by the time i fought the lovers i kept gettiing it rlly low then raging when it would keep spaming charm on mitsuru and yukari and they would cast diarama :\ but i ended up killing it but it took forever. But yea i made a few element evade weapons cause i relized my lightning armlet didnt do what i thought it would for yukari
Don't make evade, make -resist- weapons.
Just throwing this out there: with the right setup, I made Junpei and the protagonist do more damage with elemental special fusions (Laevateinn, Mjolnir, etc) than with physical skills on most enemies. In particular, I had Junpei using normal attacks on "Full Assault" against the last boss because it outdamaged his best skills for no cost when he had the Agni bracers on. (He also survived attacking during Moonless Gown because of this.)
Greatsword: Laevateinn (Surt, Fire)
Hammer: Mjolnir (Thor, Electricity)
Fists: Sabazios (Cybele, Ice)
Spear: Gae Bolg (Cu Chulainn, Wind)
At any rate, between the weapon's Element Boost effect, and an accessory's element amp effect, these four weapons can REALLY wreck some mayhem if the enemy isn't immune or worse. Considering this, you can combine them with Personas that primarily have immunity skills to make one hell of a tank. For example, I used an Abaddon with all physical nulls or higher, Fire Amp and Elec Amp for awhile in the last block while alternating Laevateinn/ Mjolnir.
PSN: Ranylyn. Playing Legasista, Persona 4 Arena, Wizardry: LoLS.
P4A Main: Yukiko Amagidyne
And then at Endgame, you can fuse Personas like Michael to get +10 to all stat weapons if you like. Pretty sexy.
The Sword Master, as defined by Zaelen.
Bad alt! You're not supposed to be posting the horrible putdowns I think up. <_< - roymbrog
Mjolnir. 'Nuff said.
PSN: Mathais_5505
Lyn: "A thousand blessings upon you", Rath: "And a thousand curses upon our enemies!"


text: California Democrats Release Competing Budget ProposalsYesterday, Democrats in the California Senate and Assembly unveiled budget plans that differ on key issues, such as spending for child care. However, lawmakers say the proposals share priorities, such as restoring cuts made to the In-Home Supportive Services program. San Jose Mercury News.May 27, 2015