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Column: Vick in need of yet another comeback
Sunday - 11/4/2012, 6:20pm EST
By TIM DAHLBERG
AP Sports Columnist
(AP) - Up until this week, the hardest thing Michael Vick had to do this season was figure out how to tell people he was a dog owner once again.
He did it in a statement last month that said a lot about how far he has come since the days he and his buddies thought nothing about killing dogs that weren't good enough to make a few bucks for his Bad Newz Kennels.
"This is an opportunity to break the cycle," said Vick, who said he understood how some people might be upset he had a dog. "To that end, I will continue to honor my commitment to animal welfare and be an instrument of positive change."
That Vick has come this far in his personal rehabilitation is a testament to his perseverance. He did his time _ 18 months of it in the federal prison at Leavenworth _ then spent some of his time speaking to kids about animal cruelty and the dangers of dogfighting.
If he hasn't been completely forgiven by dog lovers, he's probably no longer No. 1 on their target list to hate. Getting a family dog was just one more step in his path toward redemption, a picture of he and the kids with it on the family Christmas card will probably be the next.
If only the football part was going as well.
Stumbling badly after three straight losses, Vick and the Eagles travel to New Orleans for a Monday night game that is about as must-win as it gets. Lose to the Saints and their pathetic defense with games against division foes Dallas and Washington up next, and a season that began with high expectations could be over before the first Thanksgiving turkey is carved.
That likely would mean the end of coach Andy Reid in Philadelphia, who is on notice to deliver more than an 8-8 record this year. And with Reid goes Vick, despite the $100 million contract he signed before the beginning of last season.
That's life in the NFL, where the only guarantee is there are no guarantees.
Before you start feeling sorry for Vick, though, consider this: Four years ago he was mopping floors at night for 12 cents an hour in a federal prison in Kansas. He had filed for bankruptcy and owed millions he didn't have despite a $130 million deal he signed in 2005 with the Atlanta Falcons.
Reviled everywhere as a dog abuser, his future was more than just uncertain. Even when he got out of prison his only real offer to play football came from the UFL, and there was no guarantee Commissioner Roger Goodell would even allow him to return to the NFL.
Getting booed by Eagles fans and worrying about your job security doesn't seem nearly as bad after that.
There's already a growing chorus in Philadelphia to turn the future of the team over to rookie third-round pick Nick Foles, who had an impressive preseason. And while Reid insists Vick is his quarterback, he also understands that unless the Eagles start finding ways to win _ and do it quickly _ his job is every bit as tenuous as the guy he's supporting under center.
This wasn't exactly what the Eagles expected when they gave Vick a contract that guaranteed him $40 million after he led them to the playoffs in his first full season since getting out of prison. Vick was the AP Comeback Player of the Year that season, posting the highest passing yards and quarterback rating of his career.
"When you give a player a contract, you're betting on the future, and you're using the evidence of what he's done to that point to evaluate your future projection," former Eagles president Joe Banner said at the time. "And if we didn't think Michael was somebody capable of leading this team to a Super Bowl, we never would have given him that contract."
Regrets? The Eagles surely have some.
In the 20 games Vick has played since signing the deal, he's a .500 quarterback who is maddeningly inconsistent and prone to turning the ball over. Critics argue he doesn't see the field well, can't adjust to defenses, and no longer has the legs at the age of 32 to consistently run his way out of trouble.
Vick himself said this week he needed to get his "swag" back and start playing more aggressively.
"Back to playing the way I love to play it and not worry about what's going to happen, because that's out of my control," he said.


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Fuel cell electric vehicles and hydrogen
infrastructure: status 2012
Ulrich Eberle,*Bernd M€ uller and Rittmar von Helmolt
DOI: 10.1039/c2ee22596d
1 Introduction
Today, on a global scale, approximately
one billion vehicles are on the roads.
There are recent forecasts that this
number could rise by the year 2020 to
about 1.5 billion vehicles. That signifi-
cant growth is mainly caused by the
ongoing impressive economic expansion
and industrial development of China and
India. Although in these two countries
the car ownership ratio is still quite low,
bothmarkets became
important for the global automotive
industry. For many car manufacturers,
China is already today their single
biggest market.
More than 95% of the fuel used for
propulsion purposes is produced from
fossil sources of energy. Even the im-
plementationof the
conventional powertrain options hence
cannot prevent that this will inevitably
lead to a higher total crude oil demand by
the transportation sector and conse-
quently to higher global CO2emissions.
demand for oil and CO2 production
would be completely unacceptable for
financial, ecological and energy security
reasons, every automotive technology
strategy needs to include a replacement of
fossil fuels as energy carriers.1,2
Atmany car
development of battery electric and fuel
cell electric vehicles, respectively, pow-
ertrain concepts has a very long tradi-
tion. The modern history dates back to
the 1960s and 1970s,3,4e.g., on the
most advanced
manufacturers, the
hydrogen side, the world's first fuel cell
electric vehicle, the GM Electrovan of
1966, was developed by General Motors
based on alkaline fuel cells and fuel
hydrogen and oxygen.1,4a,5
these technology paths were not mature
enough for a commercial application at
that time, they fell into oblivion.
During the 1990s, both the battery
electric and the fuel cell electric vehicle
programs were revived and led among
other things to the development of the
GM EV1,3the world's first modern-era
mass-produced EV, and to Daimler's
NECAR1 fuel cell vehicle. Today, many
automotive companies, such as GM,
Honda, Hyundai and Toyota, pursue
large-scale hydrogen programs. Over the
last decade, BMW, Nissan, Volkswagen
as well as several small and medium-sized
companiesalso presented
concept cars to the public.
A brief well-to-wheels comparison of
different powertrain options is given in
Fig. 1a. Electrification pathways provide
the possibility to drive the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions of the automotive
passenger transportation sector toward
zero. The reductions in GHG emissions
shown here for the pure battery-electric
vehicle (BEV) may be exaggerated since
its limited driving range prevents it from
being used for all trips. Trips longer than
the EV driving range (Fig. 1a assumes 100
miles or 160 km) would have to be taken
with another car or even transport mode,
and would likely increase the overall
limitation. Here a variant with a 40 mile
of cryogenic
But since
for an E-REV definition). The same lack
ofrangerestriction isvalid for thefuel cell
electric vehicle technology (FCEV). Of
course it has to be stated that this only
holds true as long as hydrogen refueling is
widelyavailable. Hydrogeninfrastructure
aspects will be discussed in detail in
Section 3 of this publication. The symbols
in Fig. 1a also explain the respective
energymix fortheEuropeanUnion(EU),
the United States of America (US) and
China. For the assessment, the EU
numbers were chosen as standard values.
With the gasoline and diesel options,
transportation is tied exclusively to oil
andsubject tooilprice volatility.With the
additionof compressed
(CNG) or biofuel vehicles, transportation
oil. The various electrification options, E-
REV, BEV, and FCEV, provide an
opportunity for an even further increased
diversification from oil.
This paper will focus merely on fuel cell
electric vehicles and the required tech-
nologies as well as infrastructure efforts.
Ref. 2 is thus recommended to those
readers who are interested in a brief
summary on sustainable transportation
Details of the extended-range EV power-
train and strategic aspects of vehicle
electrification in general are explained in
ref. 3 and 4. In particular, ref. 4c provides
a comprehensive summary and compar-
ison of studies relating to the various
types of alternative propulsion. Ref. 4d
describes aninteresting
of catalytic converters and emissions
control where energy storage or pro-
pulsion is not directly concerned.
electric vehicles.
GM Alternative Propulsion Center Europe, IPC
MK-01, Adam Opel AG, 65423 R€ usselsheim,
Germany. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
8780 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Dynamic Article LinksC
Energy &
Environmental Science
Cite this: Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780
Page 3
hydrogen technologies
Fuel cell electric vehicles and
and electric powertrain concepts
Hydrogen as an energy carrier
The evaluation and down-selection of the
right alternative propulsion technologies
to replace fossil-fuel based powertrains is
a matter of high societal and technolog-
ical importance. Some voices state that
battery electric vehicles could be a
bridging strategy towards the final im-
plementation of automotive hydrogen
technology. By contrast, often within the
alternative propulsion community, the
impression is raised that an exclusive
decision between either the case of
hydrogen fuel cell technology (FCEV) or
that of pure battery electric vehicles
(BEV) has to be made.
From the authors' point of view, due to
the extremely different energy densities of
the utilized energy carriers, the need for
an exclusive decision is definitely a
application for each technology (e.g., see
Fig. 2 of ref. 2). A typical vehicle range of
500 km can be realized by using current
gasoline or diesel engine technology
without any problems. Today, modern
diesel vehicles often even exceed the
1000 km range mark. Considering the
diesel case, the tank system installed for
an operating range of 500 km would only
weigh circa 43 kg and a storage volume of
less than 50 l would be needed. If a similar
vehicle rangeis targetedfor a purebattery
electric vehicle, even if utilizing advanced
Li-ion technology, the weight of the
complete energy storage system would be
close to 850 kg. Depending on the driving
cycle, that battery mass would contribute
to a very significant part of the total
vehicle weight (see Fig. 1 and ref. 4a). The
shown LA92 (total distance: 15.8 km,
average speed: 39.6 km h?1) and the
FTP72 (urban route of 12 km with
frequent stops; average speed: 31.5 km
h?1) cycles are typical test procedures
used to evaluate the fuel economy of
passenger vehicles in the USA. The
Manhattan city cycle (maximum speed
40 km h?1, average speed: 11 km h?1) is
usually applied to assess the efficiency of
buses and is just provided for comparison
to illustrate the effect of low average
vehicle speeds. In contrast to any diesel or
gasoline vehicle, which can be re-fueled
within minutes, the re-charging of such a
100 kW h battery takes hours (even when
applying a 50 kW DC fast charger / 2
hours), not to mention the required time
when using conventional electrical outlets
at home.
On the other hand, for a zero-emission
vehicle powered by hydrogen, one has to
(based on 70 MPa compressed gaseous
hydrogen technology).Sucha tank
Fig. 1
the battery-electric vehicle driving range depending on various driving cycles, considering a compact car (C segment vehicle).4a
(a) Well-to-wheels greenhouse gas emissions for various propulsion types and fuel sources; sources: well-to-tank path – JRC/EUCAR/CON-
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012 Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 | 8781
Page 4
system would contain 5 kg of hydrogen
(or 200 kW h of stored chemical energy)
and could be re-fueled within 3 to 5
minutes using existing technology. This
important feature has been proven in
programs by several car manufacturers,
for example within the framework of the
German ''Clean Energy Partnership'' (see
also Section 3). Industry estimates show
thatthe70 MPa
For comparison: a 100 kW h Li-ion
batterysystemprovidingthe same500km
zero-emission range
production cost of US$ 30 000 to 50 000
(ref. 2) and would impact, as mentioned
before, the total vehicle weight dramati-
cally (see Fig. 1b and ref. 4a).
Due to this framework dictated by the
energy density, the pure battery electric
vehicle is most appropriate and could
become commercially viable for urban
mobility applications, using dedicated
sub-compact car architectures (e.g. even
unconventional two-seaters like the Re-
nault Twizy), targeting reliable real-world
ranges of up to 150 km. Many car manu-
facturers, mainly the Renault–Nissan alli-
ance, Mitsubishi, Smart, Chevrolet and
working on the market introduction of
advanced technology activities such as the
GM EN-V two-wheeler concept for
advanced urban mobility, as well as the
MeRegioMobil BEV, establishing a bi-
vehicle and the grid, are ongoing.3,4,6E-
REV vehicles (extended-range EV3), such
asthe ChevroletVolt, the OpelAmpera or
the Fisker Karma, are on the other hand
appropriate vehicles for drivers who
sometimes—but not as standard driving
pattern—need longer ranges. In addition
these customers have to be willing to
accept a small internal combustion engine
in order to ensure the range beyond the
initial range of pure EV operation. Also
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (like the
Toyota Prius, Ford C-Max Energi or the
Volvo V60 PHEVs) address a similar
segment of the car market.
By contrast, fuel cell electric vehicles
(FCEVs) always operate as zero-emission
vehicles and can be re-fueled quickly. In
addition to vehicle ranges of 500 to
tank technology,
600 km at full performance, they offer
also the possibility to realize family-sized
cars, either as popular van-like vehicles in
Europe (HydroGen3 / Opel Zafira) or
as SUVs (HydroGen4 / Chevrolet
Technology status of the
The current generation of automotive fuel
cell technology has been tested and
the world since about 2005. Over recent
years, it could prove its viability and
demonstrated very high average efficien-
cies and vehicle ranges. Details on effi-
ciencies and vehicle usage are discussed in
particular in Sections 2.4 and 3.2.1.
Opel's current 4thgeneration FCEVs are
given in Table 1 and the main system
components are shown in Fig. 2a. This
cross-over vehicle is based on a standard
Chevrolet Equinox and the structural
modifications required to install and
house the fuel cell powertrain, as well as
the hydrogen fuel storage, are shown in
Fig. 2b. Most of the modifications relate
to the integration of the compressed gas
vessels since, as shown in Fig. 2b, signifi-
comparable range of an equivalent gaso-
line or diesel vehicle.
2.3 Hydrogen storage
hydrogen storage shall be discussed now.
But since this topic is evaluated by the
authorsextensively elsewhere(interaliain
the first paper of this series1), the fuel
storage part is kept deliberately brief.
After extensive testing and in-house
developments of the potential, finally a
decision was made
compressed hydrogen gas (CGH2) as
being the right solution for the market
introduction of hydrogen technology.
This fact is also representative of a wider
automotive industry consensus.For those
readers who are interested in further
the firstmajorsub-technology,
for 70MPa
Table 1 Technical specifications of the GM HydroGen4 (ref. 2)
GM HydroGen4
5-Door, crossover vehicle, front-wheel
drive, based on the Chevrolet Equinox
Trunk space
Hydrogen storage system
Operating pressure
Fuel cell system
Battery system
Energy content
Electric propulsion system
Continuous power
Maximal power
Maximal torque
Top speed
Acceleration (0–100 km h?1)
4796 mm
1814 mm
1760 mm
2858 mm
906 Liter
2010 kg
340 kg
3 type IV CGH2 vessels
70 MPa
4.2 kg
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
93 kW
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
35 kW
1.8 kW h
3-Phase, synchronous motor
73 kW
94 kW
320 Nm
160 km h?1
<12 s
320 km (standard fleet); 400 km
(enhanced technology)
?25?C to +45?C, vehicle can be
parked at ambient temperature <0?C
(without external heating)
Operating temperature
8782 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Page 5
details (also including the technology
status of solid state hydrogen absorbers),
ref. 1 and 7 are highly recommended.
Currently, two types of CGH2 vessels
are under discussion. They are the so-
called type III and type IV tanks. A type
liner prevents hydrogen permeation and
mechanical strength and stability. In the
replaced by a plastic one, typically high-
density poly-ethylene (HD-PET). GM
they provide major advantages:
- 20% lower weight with identical
volumetric storage density
- higher potential regarding long-term
fatigue and durability (virtually no liner
- lower-cost carbon fibers with a lower
modulus of elasticity can be used.
As depicted in Fig. 3, material cost
dominates, and even at a production level
of only 10 000 tank systems per year, type
cost efficient, compared to type III tech-
maintained when future developments
and increasing production volumes are
considered. Industry estimates show that
using type IV tank technology and
considering high-volume production, a 5
kg automotive H2 system could be
produced for US$ 3000.2
A good review on carbon-composite
storage vessel technology, as well as on
the production and validation processes,
is to be found in ref. 8.
Asshown in Table
1, the GM
the overall range of a vehicle is not only
dependent on the tank size but also on the
fuel consumption and hence efficiency of
the powertrain system, these numbers will
now be assessed in the following part.
2.4 Automotive fuel cell system
2.4.1 Fuel cell stack fundamentals.
The fuel cell stack represents the core
component of the fuel cell power system.
Today, membrane electrode assemblies
(MEAs) consisting of a proton-conduct-
ing polymer membrane (proton exchange
membrane, PEM) based on poly-per-
fluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) and carbon-
catalysts (Pt/C) are state-of-the-art for
automotive applications. The relatively
high proton conductivity
of PFSA
Fig. 2 (a) X-Ray drawing of the GM HydroGen4 and (b) structural modifications compared to a standard Chevrolet Equinox.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012 Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 | 8783
Page 6
membranes under automotive operating
between 60 and 80?C) in combination
with the high activity of the Pt-catalyst
performance targets. A schematic illus-
the MEA, diffusion media and bipolar
plates, is shown in Fig. 8 of ref. 2.
The fuel cell is a direct converter of
to a battery, the fuel is not contained at
the electrode, but supplied to the elec-
trode from a separate storage sub-system.
As long as fuel and oxidant are supplied
to the fuel cell at sufficient quantities, the
generation of electrical energy is ensured.
Thechallengeconsistsin evenlysupplying
all single cells of the stack with fuel and
removing the reaction products (i.e. the
product water) properly.
A major advantage of the fuel cell is its
inherent high conversion efficiency, as
that value is obviously independent of a
combustion process and therefore also of
the Carnot cycle limitation. However, a
popular misconception
among the educated public) that culmi-
nates in claiming that fuel cell efficiencies
could reach maximum efficiency values of
up to 100%, since there is no combustion
process taking place.
The Carnot cycle efficiency represents
the theoreticalupper
exists (even
between a high temperature, typically
chamber, and a low temperature which is
somewhere between exhaust gas and feed
gas temperature. In practice, the higher
temperature is limited by material proper-
ties and heat losses. The lower process
temperature usually cannot be decreased
below the ambient temperature values
(assuming air or water cooling). Conse-
quently, efficiencies greater than about
55% are not possible, even in an almost
perfect-world scenario (e.g., the operating
power station). For internal combustion
engines,the maximum
chamber temperatures are in the order of
2900?C and the exhaust gases are shoved
out at about 1100
applications, the theoretical efficiency is
further reduced by additional technical
losses to values below 40%. These extra
losses are attributed to the system's
inherent properties (such as heat losses,
to losses caused by auxiliary drives or
gases – hydrogen and oxygen – are con-
chemical potentials is transformed into
electrical work. Since a fuel cell does not a
priori represent a thermal engine, no
machine operating
?C. For real-world
temperature difference between two reser-
voirs is needed for energy generation.
Relevant are the internal energies of the
chemical compounds involved and only the
work. However, thermodynamic losses are
always present due to the entropy release.
fuel cell, the reaction enthalpy and the
Gibbs free energy show the following
- Reaction enthalpy (''max. heat''):
DH ¼ ?286 kJ mol?1H2;
DH/2F ¼ ?1.48 V ¼ ?Uth
- Gibbs free energy (''max. work''):
DG ¼ ?237 kJ mol?1H2;
DG/2F ¼ ?1.23 V ¼ ?Urev
In the case of hydrogen as fuel, a certain
heat during the formation of water mole-
of higher order, and its entropy is reduced
by heat emission. Theoretically, a fuel cell
operating under standard conditions (T ¼
25?C) achieves an ideal efficiency of DG/
DH ¼ Urev/Uth which equates to 83%
(considering liquid water to be the waste
product of the H2/O2reaction). In a real-
world electrochemical cell the maximum
usable cell voltage Urevis equivalent to the
difference of the two standard potentials.
2.4.2Real-world fuel cell system
technology. A real-world fuel cell system
(FCS) (see Fig. 4) consists – beside the
electrochemical cells – of components
which pre-condition and deliver the
hydrogen and the ambient air to the fuel
cell, e.g. the air compressor. The FCS, the
power electronics and the electric traction
system together constitute the fuel cell
power cube which generates mechanical
series of vehicles by GM and Opel, the
combined fuel cell and electric traction
systems were packaged in a way so that
combustion engine (ICE) module. Such a
highly integrated power cube allows a
simple and cost-efficient vehicle assembly
in existingmanufacturing
a likely is
green: other.
8784 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Page 7
technology scenario for the introduction
of FCEV volume production on the basis
of existing vehicles' platforms. There is,
that would rule out a different configura-
tion of the fuel cell powertrain compo-
nents on board of the vehicle (e.g. see
technology also enables the adaptation to
different vehicle sizes. For example, the
propulsion system that was originally
developed for the GM HydroGen3 van
eventually was adapted to a small vehicle,
the Suzuki MR Wagon FCEV, using a
shorter fuel cell stack with a reduced cell
count (e.g. see Fig. 10 of ref. 1).
Worldwide, already more than 10 000
customers drove the 119 HydroGen4
vehicles used in four countries (30 of these
are operated within the ''Clean Energy
Partnership'' in Germany). The vehicles
went through a total road performance of
over 4 million km (status as of mid-2012).
For detailed numbers see Section 3.2.1.
Within the framework of ''Project
Driveway'', the fuel cell powertrain of the
HydroGen4 fleet has been very successful
in demonstrating performance, customer
usage and satisfaction. Nevertheless, the
product intent fuel cell system (2015–2020
timeframe) has even higher requirements
(see Fig. 4 and 5) in terms of efficiency,
durability and cost. High powertrain effi-
ciency is needed to enable an acceptable
vehicle range with a modestly sized
hydrogen tank system and low well-to-
wheels CO2emissions. The durability and
cost targets are driven by the end
customers'expectations of whatis
acceptable for a passenger car. These
expectations are related to what the driver
is familiar with from the conventional
gasoline or diesel technology.
In particular, the cost needs to decrease
considerably until commercial introduction
by the 2015–2020 timeframe. The target
value, considering large-scale production, is
as low as about one quarter of the cost (see
Fig. 5a) for the HydroGen4 design of 2007.
Besides economies of scale (manufacturing,
parts sourcing, etc.), the amount of expen-
sive materials used in the stack is of great
importance: the platinum content of 80
grams per hydrogen fuel cell system, for
example, is expected to decline by 2015 to
about 30 grams. Moreover, in laboratory
experiments, it could be proven that in the
longrun(i.e.,the 2020–2025timeframe)itis
possible to reduce the platinum content to
less than 10 grams. This figure corresponds
to the amount of Pt used in current auto-
motive three-way catalytic converters. A
roadmap to achieve such low values is
shown in Fig. 5b: the application of various
nano-particles plays an important role here.
Other key factors are an improved
system integration, the introduction of
methods adopted from conventional large
volume production processes, a tech-
nology transfer from conventional pow-
ertrain development programs, as well as
synergies with other GM hybrid and elec-
is possible to realize a system (see Fig. 4)
that is only half the weight and requires
system while using just 50% of the current
number of level-1 components.
Themajor change
HydroGen4 fuel cell stack of the 2007
vehicle generation and the product intent
system for the 2015–2020 timeframe is the
highly integrated stack design and the
application of dedicated and specifically
developed automotive components from
established suppliers. Typical automotive
design cycles take 4 to 5 years. Id est, the
powertrain technology selected for a mass
production vehicle needs to be stable,
mature and reliable five years before the
Therefore, the above-mentioned product
intent system is already today well-defined
and only existing, as well as proven, tech-
nology is used. System testing on power-
train level is ongoing.
The cell count will be reduced from 440
cells down to 320 cells with an active area
of 360 cm2resulting in a higher required
maximum current density of 1.5 A cm?2
and excursion temperature of up to 95?C.
willbe changed from carboncomposite to
stamped stainless steel. The thermal mass
of the stack will be decreased and the
repeat distance between individual cells
reduced, facilitating an improved freeze
Enabling operation down to ?40?C is
required to be competitive to internal
combustion engines.
In order to demonstrate the maturity
and viability of the required technology,
GM initiated the ''Technology-Demon-
stration-Fleet'' (or briefly ''TechDemo'')
and packaging.
2015–2020 timeframe.
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Page 8
project. This engineering fleet based on
the HydroGen4 vehicles focuses on two
main initiatives:(1)
increase the overall efficiency in the drive
cycles as defined by the US Environ-
mental Protection Agency EPA and (2) to
demonstrate 3500 h stack life in the
vehicle to close the gap towards auto
competitiveness which requires 5500 h of
operation during a vehicle lifetime.
In addition, this development step is
and optimize the performance of the fuel
cell system (FCS) itself. The relative
humidity (RH) sensor that is used in the
cathode subsystem of the conventional
humidity control is now implemented as a
model-based approach that allows the
elimination of the fault-prone, physical
FCS start-up sequence is extended in such
a way that the current ambient tempera-
ture (as well as the length of system off-
is removed. The
time) is considered for starts below
freezing level. As a result, if the system is
not completely frozen, the start-up time of
the FCS could be reduced from a
maximum of 30 s down to 7 s. Also, the
occurrence of so called "fail-safe starts" is
reduced. In contrast to the standard
HydroGen4-vehicles where a component
failure leads to a shut-down of the whole
additional information. If the hydrogen
Fig. 5
until 2025.
(a) Fuel cell system cost, fuel cell stack (dark blue) and balance-of-plant components (light blue) and (b) long-term platinum reduction roadmap
8786 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Page 9
system is in a well-defined condition, and
the subsequent start-up can be performed
according to the standard procedure. By
contrast, if the gas concentration is
unknown, the system conducts a reliable
''fail-safe start'' which takes more time.
initiative is to increase overall efficiency.
advantages of fuel cells originating from
basic thermodynamic considerations, the
high efficiency of a fuel cell powertrain is
in particular caused by the fact that a fuel
cell reaches its highest efficiency at part
load where most driving takes place. On
the other hand, under full load conditions
and at high speeds, fuel cells are just as
efficient as internal combustion engines.
system efficiency decreases sharply since
many balance-of-plant components have
to be running even at idle power. All these
effects can clearly be seen in the tank-to-
wheels efficiency of the GM HydroGen4
standard fleet version2given in Fig. 6.
The standard fleet vehicles proved to be
more efficientthan
conventional Chevrolet Equinox vehicle
using a gasoline engine by a factor of
about 2 (EPA composite cycle 4.6 L per
100 kmof gasoline
comparison with 9.6 L per 100 km of
gasoline). As mentioned before, the
advantage compared to the internal
combustion engine (ICE) is maximal
between 20 and 70 km h?1.
A detailed analysis of the different
energy flows was executed (see Fig. 7) for
the FCS in the HydroGen4 vehicles. The
the comparable
sequences or components were identified,
analyzed and systematically improved.
The thermal energy for heating the
coolantis significantly
decreasing the minimum coolant inlet
temperature while ensuring that the inte-
rior comfort is not affected. End-cell
heaters, located between the endplate and
the first active cell of the stack, which
secure a stable operation of these cells
during warm-up, are completely shut off
after the system reaches its operating
In the cathode
minimum compressor speed is reduced
and the air volume procedure during the
shut-down sequence is now implemented
as a function of the ambient temperature.
As a result, all product water is removed
for temperatures below the freezing level.
At higher ambient temperatures, some
product water remains in the system and
is blown out during the subsequent start-
up event. All these measures result in a
totalfuel efficiencygainof20% quantified
via city and highway drive cycles defined
by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency EPA compared to the
standard HydroGen4
improvement corresponds to a range
combined EPA cycle on 4.2 kg hydrogen.
Fig. 8 shows the efficiency gain as a
function of the FCS net power. Whereas
the ''TechDemo'' stack with its modified
membrane shows a virtually identical
polarization curve, the FCS efficiency is
improved substantially. Especially in the
net power range between 5 and 15 kW,
which is dominant in typical driving
patterns, the efficiency is significantly
enhanced to values up to 60%.
The second major goal of the ''Tech-
Demo'' initiative is to increase the fuel cell
stack lifetime in a vehicle. Fig. 9 shows the
mileages and operating lifetimes of the
HydroGen3 propulsion system showed a
B50 value of only 250 hours (i.e., 50% of
Fig. 6
(blue curve) tank-to-wheels efficiency over vehicle velocity.
GM HydroGen4 standard fleet version (green curve) and Chevrolet Equinox gasoline ICE
Fig. 7Energy flow analysis of a HydroGen4 fuel cell system.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 | 8787
Page 10
the sample reached a lifetime greater than
250 hours) while the B10 value was 150
hours (10% of the sample was broken in
less than 150 hours). The mean lifetimes
the current standard fleet HydroGen4
(1450hours). Another
improvement is projected for the 2015–
2020 timeframe powertrain design. This
system will show a mean lifetime of 7500
hours and a total mileage of 200 000 km.
Already 10 years ago, stack operating
hours of several thousand hours were
demonstrated in a lab environment where
steady-state, well-humidified and contin-
uous operating conditions are dominant.
However, operating modes in a vehicle on
the road are completely different, for
sequencesarein factprevalent. Inthecase
(see ref. 1) of 2002, processes that impact
understood and therefore the fuel cell
system control strategy did not consider
these damaging events or conditions.
The ''TechDemo'' initiative takes a
close look at the main stack failure modes
inmobile applicationsnamely mechanical
and chemical membrane degradation,
voltage loss during operation, as well as
Furthermore, the fundamental mecha-
nisms for all failure modes are investi-
gated based on system data analysis and
tests on a material level. Based on the
identified root cause, applicable counter
measures were developed on a FCS level,
implemented in the system control soft-
ware, and validated on a vehicle level.
(a) Membrane degradation. The FCS
in a vehicle on the road is operated
dynamically which leads to variable
humidification levels of the polymer
electrolyte membrane in the fuel cell
stack. Field data analysis revealed occa-
sional RH-transients as low as 10% RH
and up to >100% RH (i.e., liquid water).
Fig. 10 shows for the example of Nafion-
112 the volume expansion in % as a
function of the relative humidity level.
A change in humidity from dry to 60%
leads to a membrane volume expansion
caused by swelling of about 15%. If liquid
water is produced, the expansion is even
greater than two thirds of the original
thickness. Since the membrane is at least
partially constrained in the fuel cell by the
electrode, the gas diffusion layer and the
contraction creates substantial mechan-
ical stress. These processes can initiate
and propagate microscopic cracks that
result in the crossover of the reactant gas
leading to individual cells dropping out,
causing a complete shut-down of the fuel
cell system.
Start-up, idle operation, but also tech-
nical issues concerning the sensor, can
create system conditions in which the
membrane can dry out or is exposed to
high voltages. These conditions promote
the chemical degradation in which radical
species as byproducts or side reactions of
the electrochemical reactions are formed
and directlyattack
membrane causing polymer decomposi-
tion. This continuous thinning of the
membrane increases again the gas cross-
over and can cause a complete shut-down
as described above. Ref. 9 gives an in-
depth look at this issue. The product
intent FCS will use a newly developed
composite membrane in combination
with a more humid stack operating
strategyin order
mechanical and chemical degradation of
the polymer membrane.
(b) Voltage degradation. Over time,
stack voltage loss rises continuously due
to increasingohmic
or increasing contact resistance values
between individual components. In addi-
tion, mechanisms at the catalyst level
contribute to irreversible voltage losses.
particle growth reduces the electrochemi-
cally active catalyst area and hence
increases the cell overpotential leading to
a lower stack voltage at a given current
temperatures relevant to PEFCs(80?C) is
to overcomethe
driven platinum
Fig. 8
power; HydroGen4 standard fleet version: blue curves; ''TechDemo'' system: green curves.
Fuel cell stack efficiency (dotted lines) and fuel cell system efficiency (straight line) over net
Fig. 9Stack-in-vehicle durability of various generations of GM fuel cell systems.
8788 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Page 11
accelerated at high steady-state potential
(0.9 to 1.1 V vs. RHE) or fuel cell idle
occurs if the platinum catalyst is cycled
between its metal- and oxide-phase or the
cell potential in a real-world fuel cell
changes from more than 900 mV to less
than 800 mV or vice versa. These voltage
transients enable the accelerated forma-
coarsening of Pt particles occurs via two
different processes (see Fig. 11): a nano-
meter scale Ostwald-ripening process
where smaller Pt particles dissolve in the
ionomer phase and redeposit on larger Pt
particles and a micrometer-scale diffusion
process, where dissolved Pt species diffuse
in the ionomer phase and subsequently
precipitate in the ionomer phase of the
electrode or the membrane via reduction
of Pt ions with cross-over hydrogen from
the anode (see ref. 10 for details).
Obviously, neither dynamic nor idle
operation can be avoided in a vehicle on
the road. In fact, these operating condi-
tions are dominant in mobile applica-
tions. Therefore, the FCS stand-by mode
and the so-called voltage-suppression-
functionality are implemented on the
system level to mitigate dwell times at
high cell voltages and excessive voltage
cycling between 800 mV and 900 mV. The
FCS transitions into a stand-by mode (id
est, the system is turned off) if certain
conditions are given: e.g. when the vehicle
speed or acceleration request is below a
specific threshold. In these cases the elec-
trical energy is provided by the high
voltage battery. The voltage-suppression
mode is active when the FCS is operated
in idle- or low-load-operation. Thereby,
electrical components like endcell- or
coolant-heater are engaged in order to
pull the cell voltage below the critical
value of 875 mV. Both functions reduce
the number of harmful voltage cycles and
the time periods at high potential, which
minimizes the loss of the electrochemical
active platinum area and hence signifi-
cantly reduces the voltage loss of the fuel
cell stack.
Carbon corrosion
support material is another mechanism
the fuel cell. Hydrogen/air-fronts in the
anode-compartment during startup/shut-
down cycles especially after long off-times
of the cathode electrode to 1.2–1.5 V.11At
these high potentials, corrosion rates of
standard carbon-supports are very high.
coalesce to larger particles, consequently
reducingthe electrochemically
platinum surface and leading to an addi-
tional voltage loss. Mobile applications
require an estimated 35 000 startup/shut-
down cycles over the life of a vehicle
including extended parking time without
havingany significant
Therefore, the objective must be to elimi-
nate the root cause; in this case the high,
of the catalyst
corrosive potential or the hydrogen/air-
fronts in the anode-compartment. The
''TechDemo'' fuel cell system accom-
plishes this by introducing two functions:
the so-called oxygen-depletion-function is
in operation during the shut-down. It
actively reduces oxygen in the cathode
path by turning on electrical consumers
like the coolant-heater and operates the
stack at an oxygen stoichiometry of one.
This minimizes the amount of oxygen
diffusing from the cathode to the anode
of oxygen in the anode-compartment.
The so-called ''hydrogen-in-park''-
function is engaged during long vehicle
off-times. Small amounts of hydrogen are
with potentially diffused oxygen in order
to prevent the build-up of a hydrogen/air
Fig. 12 shows the effect of an oxygen-
concentration after a shutdown event.
As long as hydrogen is present at the
anode, the oxygen concentration equals
zero.Only when
completely consumed, oxygen diffuses
from the cathode and slowly accumulates
at the anode. Now, the oxygen cannot
react chemically any more with the
formerly present hydrogen. Comparing
postpones the point in time when oxygen
can start to accumulate. The anode
hydrogen blanket persists for four addi-
tional hours (9 h vs. 5 h after shut-down).
That point in time, when the blanket has
completely disappeared, is ideal for the
first hydrogen injection.
Oxygen-depletion and hydrogen-injec-
tion as part of the FCS control strategy
ensure that no hydrogen/air-fronts are
built and the subsequent startup of the
vehicle does not damage the catalyst
support material.
Catalyst contamination is another root
cause for voltage losses for fuel cells in
mobile applications. Before the hydrogen
and oxygen gases reach the location
where the actual fuel cell reaction takes
place, they come into contact with several
materials used in components of the
anode- and cathode-subsystem. Even
though all materials are well-chosen,
sometimes there is a trade-off between
cost efficiency and functionality. For
example, in order to achieve cost targets,
and the anode
Fig. 10 Volume expansion of Nafion-112 at 80?C as a function of relative humidity (RH).
Fig. 11Coarsening of Pt particles via two different processes due to voltage cycling.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 | 8789
Page 12
materials were chosen which enable
contaminants to arrive at the catalyst
layer, to adsorb on the surface, to
decreasethe electrochemical
surface and hence to reduce the overall
electrode performance. Fig. 13 shows the
impact of contaminants on the fuel cell
polarization curve using the example of
ethyleneglycol (an automotive coolant).12
For the first test, 50 ppm glycol are in-
jected on the anode and for a consecutive
test on the cathode of a 50 cm2lab cell.
The contamination leads in both cases to
a significantlylower
curve (red curves). At the cathode, the
even collapses
completely, id est, no current can be
drawn beyond 0.4 A cm?2. However,
well as the cathode, can be completely
recovered from ethylene glycol poisoning
by cyclic voltammetry (CV). After the
second sweep the performance is fully
recovered (light blue curves).
In order to remove contaminants from
the electrodes in a vehicle environment
the standard shutdown procedure is
modified. The calibration is set in a way
that the anode, as well as the cathode
catalyst, is exposed to high and low
potentials. All relevant contaminants are
either oxidized or reduced and eventually
flushed out. Fig. 14 shows the effect of the
implemented automated stack recovery
Voltage loss (solid orange line) is
observed over time in a durability test for
in a lab-environment. However, the stack
voltage recovery procedure (blue arrows)
yields a steep increase of the cell voltage.
After each recovery step the stack was
stand and underwent a polarization curve
Now, one can clearly observe two rates of
voltage run degradation. The irreversible
portion is mainly caused by unavoidable
large voltage cycles (e.g. harsh accelera-
tion), whereas the reversible part of the
total voltage loss can be recovered by the
implemented procedure.
GM's ''TechDemo'' initiative is an
important engineering step towards the
volume production of fuel cell vehicles in
the 2015-2020 timeframe which demon-
strates a B50 stack lifetime in a vehicle of
to get an understanding of the interaction
between vehicle operation and stack oper-
ating conditions. To do so, the dynamic
operation, start- and shutdown-events, as
investigated. Hurtful events wereidentified
Eventually, appropriate countermeasures,
initially developed in a lab environment,
were implemented successfully in the
vehicle operating strategy. In particular,
the above-described standby-mode, the
voltage-suppression- and oxygen-deple-
during long off-times and the automated
stack recovery procedure
plemented to significantly improve the
stack durability in vehicle operation.
commercialization efforts
Infrastructure build-up and
renewable energy
Hydrogen and fluctuating
3.1.1 Automotive boundary condi-
tions. For battery technology and espe-
ciallyelectric grid
charging times of at least one to several
hours or even longer periods and the
utilization ofa sophisticated
charging communication protocol are
required to avoid extremely high power
Fig. 12
function turned on.
Anode concentration (N2, H2) after shutdown, (a) without and (b) with O2-depletion
8790 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Page 13
loads. Such technologies and protocols
are tested with the Opel Meriva BEV in
the MeRegioMobil
projects.3,4,6In cooperation with two
utilities and a major software company,
MeRegioMobil and
iZEUS project have set up a complete
and iZEUS
the succeeding
smart home infrastructure at the Karls-
ruhe Institute of Technology and operate
smart-grid-capable EVs from Daimler
and Opel. Within the project framework,
cars are capable of establishing a bi-
directional power flow6between the grid
and the vehicle for the first time in the
world. This technology enables smart-
charging and even the usage of the vehicle
battery as a buffer for electric energy
controlled by the grid operator or the
Uncoordinated charging of one million
EVs (from a total German car parc of 40
million vehicles) at a single point in time
in the early morning or the evening would
create a power demand of 3.5 GW when
using standard German home sockets (at
maximum 3.5 kW) and infrastructure
installations. Obviously, even this modest
fleet would cause a very substantial chal-
lenge when the charging takes place
without coordination by the grid oper-
ator, e.g. as mentioned above through
sophisticated smart-grid technology.6To
put this into perspective, one single large-
scale base load power station generates
typically only about 1 GW of electric
power. In the year 2010, all German
nuclearpower stations
provided circa 20 GW to the grid,
producing about 23% of the German
electricity demand. Another challenge
emerges also for the public infrastructure:
a standard public charging point becomes
blocked for hours by just one customer.
Thus, for EVs, there exists a strong inter-
dependency between two for conven-
tional ICE vehicles distinct activities,
namely ''parking'' and ''re-fueling''. A
typical EV for urban applications should
have a range of at least 100 km and
consumes about 20 kW h per 100 km
under real-world conditions including
charging losses. An average daily driving
profile could require a vehicle range of 40
km, i.e., 8 kW h of electric energy need to
be re-charged per day. Considering a
standard German outlet with a power
level of about 3.5 kW, that procedure
would take 2 to 3 hours. The mentioned
inter-dependency is not the case for fuel
cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) where a
typical re-fueling process takes only three
to five minutes. Therefore it is essential to
consider not only pure battery electric
vehicles but also FCEVs for a future
sustainable transportation system,2de-
pending on driving profile and applica-
tion. Additionally, hydrogen offers a
different and very important advantage.
A typical 70 MPa compressed gaseous
hydrogen vessel has a system energy
tovalues ofsignificantly lessthan200Wh
Fig. 13
voltage and membrane resistance (HFR: High Frequency Resistance).
Impact of 50 ppm ethylene glycol on (a) anode and (b) cathode of a 50 cm2lab cell on
Fig. 14Effect of the automated stack recovery procedure on the cell potential over time.
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 | 8791
Page 14
kg?1of usable energy for even the most
advanced automotive battery packs (see
Table 1 of ref. 1 and ref. 7 on hydrogen
storage densities).
comparatively high energy density due to
its nature of being a chemical energy
carrier (such as gasoline and diesel),
hydrogen, methane or other ''designer
energy carriers'' could serve as the ideal
partner for the intermediate storage of
fluctuating, renewable energies. In doing
so, excess amounts of sustainable energy
sources such as solar and wind power can
be made available not only for stationary
but also for automotive applications if
fuel cell technology and infrastructure
would be available at reasonable cost in
the 2015–2020 timeframe.
Because of this
3.1.2 Available options. As a case
study, the largest Germanelectric grid, the
so-called "TenneT control area" (formerly
known as "E.ON control area") is exam-
ined. Thisgrid reaches from the North Sea
through central parts of Germany to the
Alps. In October 2008, the power fed into
the grid by wind turbines fluctuated
zero. Unfortunately, such weather condi-
tions occur on a regular basis.
By contrast, an excess amount of
available wind power caused at several
points since 2009 extreme effects on the
energy markets, such as significantly
negative prices of down to minus 25 ct
kW?1h?1for electric energy at the
European Energy Exchange (EEX).
In the future, thiskind of challenges will
gain in importance since the share of fluc-
substantially. According to the German
wind energy industry association, the
nationwide total installed wind power
capacityhasrisenin2010to27 215MW,a
5.6% increase over the respective 2009
power contributed already on average
the German gross electricity production.14
But not only these short-term fluctua-
tions need to be covered. Wind power
shows also significant seasonal depen-
dencies regarding the electric energy
generation. During the winter half-year in
Germany, typically 3.5 TW h of wind
energy were generated per month (based
on 2003-2009 statistical data), while
during summer this number drops on
average to values below 2 TW h.4,14Even
more dramatic seasonal dependencies are
observed for solar energy (May 2011: 2.5
TW h, January 2011: 0.3 TW h).14
Furthermore, the amount of solar power
fed into the German grid increased
significantly in the first half of 2012. As
peak value, more than 20 000 MW were
produced around noon on sunny days in
May 2012.
Solving these issues will become even
more important and urgent when the
planned off-shore wind farms (e.g., in the
North Sea) will gradually come online
later this decade. And these develop-
ments are of particular importance after
the Fukushima accident in 2011. As a
reaction, theGerman
decided to phase out the nuclear power
stations providing a major share of the
nation's baseload. For compensation, the
government intends to increase the share
of fluctuating renewable energy under the
''Energiekonzept'' plan to 35% in 2020
and 80% in 2050.14Unfortunately, those
technologies feature low annual utiliza-
tion numbers (see Fig. 15). An additional
challenge for the grid stability emerges
from the fact that, typically, wind power
installations are located in the sparsely
populated coastal areas close to the
North and Baltic Seas. By contrast, solar
power is mainly fed into the grid in Ger-
many's south and also the population
and industry centers are to be found
mainly in the western state of North
states of Hesse, Baden-W€ urttemberg and
Bavaria. Both facts are leading to a very
significant energy transport challenge.
During the 2011/2012 winter, the current
German grid infrastructure was already
operated extremely close to its limits. The
andthe southern
Fig. 15
fluctuating wind energy in October 2008 in the grid operated by TenneT compared to biggest
German pumped storage hydro power station Goldisthal (a Vattenfall installation in the state of
(a) Typical annual utilization of power station capacity in Germany, 2007;14and (b)
8792 | Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012
Page 15
stability could only be maintained by
using an ''emergency back-up'' concept.
Temporarily, old (i.e., low-efficiency)
conventional power stations had to be re-
started, significant additional energy
imports at very short notice, and further
extraordinary measures and interven-
tions by the grid operators, as well as the
government regulatory authority, were
A ''buffer'' to handle these issues and
energy producers and grid operators.
Such technologies would also enable an
option to provide energy back to the grid
during high market demand phases. The
only commercially viable option for this
kind of intermediate storage facilities is
currently realized as pumped storage
hydro power stations. Goldisthal,15the
largest facility in Germany, offers a
Another proposed technology for this
application is compressed air reservoirs.
Salt caverns in the Northern German
plains could be utilized. These caverns are
typically used to store natural gas.
Considering a cavern with an operating
volume of two million m3, about 4000
MW h of electric energy could be stored.
At the moment, there are only experi-
mental – and no commercial – facilities in
operation since this storage dimension is
even lower than what is achievable with
the current standard technology, namely
pumped storage hydro power stations.
Incase hydrogen
compressed air as a storage medium2,16up
to600 000MWhofenergy,corresponding
to about 3.6 million FCEV tankfuls, could
conventional pumped storage hydro tech-
nology, hydrogen is able to offer far more
installation.16Eventually, there are two
paths available for the usage of the stored
gas. It could be either converted back into
electrical energy or could serve as a renew-
able fuel for fuel cell electric vehicles.
Also often proposed is the concept of
battery electric vehicles that could be used
as energy store or controllable load while
energy density of automotive Li-ion
batteries, even large fleets of smart-grid
capable EVs are not able to provide a
would replace
viable order of magnitude of energy
storage capacity. For durability and
customer ease-of-use considerations, 10%
not be exceeded. If 8000 MW h of electric
energy needs to be stored and 5 kW h of
could be externally controlled by the
utility, already 1.6 million EVs would be
needed. Considering a smaller battery
pack typical for urban vehicle applica-
tions, the required fleet size even needs to
be significantly larger. If only a value of 2
kW h could be used, that number would
1.6 and 4 million EVs, respectively, would
just replace one established pumped
storage hydro power station like Gold-
isthal. Also, other large-scale stationary
batteries – Na–Sulfur chemistries are
commercially most widespread – cannot
comparable to a hydrogen-based sys-
tem2,4a,16since the H2 system energy
density is still far superior as explained in
Section 3.1.1., see also ref. 1 and 7.
Since the set-up of a viable and suffi-
ciently dense hydrogen infrastructure in
the short term is considered a significant
challenge by virtually all major stake-
holders, concepts have been presented
over the recent years to utilize synthetic
natural gas (SNG) as chemical energy
carrier (in particular by Specht and Ster-
ner17a). Also under this concept, as a first
step, fluctuating renewable energy is used
hydrogen and CO2(taken from a CO2
producing industrial or biogas facility)
react via the well-known Sabatier process
to form methane (in this case also known
as synthetic natural gas):
4H2+ CO2/ CH4+ 2H2O(g)
Typically, Ni-based catalysts are used
and according to Specht, Sterner et al.,
the reaction takes place in a fixed bed
reactor at temperatures in between 250
and 500?C at a pressure of circa 0.8 MPa.
The produced process gas is not pure
methane: it consists roughly of 87% CH4,
6% CO2and 7% H2. This SNG product
could be fed in the existing natural gas
pipeline and storage network in many
industrialized countries. Doing so, addi-
tionalenergystoragecapacities oftheTW
h dimensions could be reached.
It is also interesting to note, when dis-
cussing the Specht/Sterner proposal, that
the current standard and most cost-
effective hydrogen production process is
based on natural gas steam reforming.7
Also automotive fuel processors are
producing hydrogen-rich reformate from
hydrocarbons, either for propulsion or
exhaust-gas after-treatment purposes.7,17b
3.1.3Efficiency evaluation. Unfortu-
nately, although the Sabatier reaction is
hydrogen to methane is not for free. The
states – based on mass flows – that 8 kg of
of 800 km) would be needed to produce 16
kg of methane (equivalent to an ICE range
of 350 km). Furthermore, also the energy
usage has to be assessed, see Table 2 for
The basic idea behind the SNG concept
of the existing natural gas infrastructure
the energy system of an industrialized
thegas storage shouldbecarriedoutatthe
process step in the process chain which
conversion efficiency: the SNG process
builds on top of the hydrogen production
step and leads to a considerably higher
technology complexity and higher invest-
ment cost. Energy-wise, 100 GW h of
electrical energy translates on average via
the Sabatier process to 58 GW h of chem-
storage and direct use of renewable
energetic point of view,4aespecially since it
is also possible to feed hydrogen directly
into the existing natural gas grid up to a
concentration of 5%.
Unfortunately, the SNG picture gets
even less attractive when vehicle applica-
tions are considered. Due to the compar-
atively low efficiency of the internal
combustion engine (also valid for CNG
engines) and the occurring well-to-wheels
losses, only about 10% of the primary
wind energy would be available at the
wheels of a natural gas vehicle.4a,4bIf the
process would be stopped at the hydrogen
This journal is ª The Royal Society of Chemistry 2012Energy Environ. Sci., 2012, 5, 8780–8798 | 8793

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Bush Lists Accomplishments
The war on terror, Patriot Act, tort reform, Supreme Court justices, slight cuts in discretionary spending, and the energy bill.
The war on terror, Patriot Act, tort reform, Supreme Court justices, slight cuts in discretionary spending, and the energy bill.
Would Bush benefit from staff changes? "I'm satisfied with the people I've surrounded myself with. We're a remarkably stable administration."
This is an ingenious strategy: let the kooks spout.
Well said, Jed. Counteracting op-eds like these is starting to feel like a chore. But it does bear mention that the fashionable characterization of the "feminine" attitude in politics deploys a stereotype that used to be its own worst nightmare. Those female talents of compromise, caring, and nurturing sound terribly like the inscriptions we once etched at a woman's feet, back when we put her on a pedestal.
The fatal irony is that the female sexual ethos pushed by the anti-partriarchy is as uncompromising and unmotherly as you can get. Those hip values of feminine politics turn out to be garbage where social justice is concerned. Suddenly, femininity is defined by a radical independence and radical sexuality that destroys the ability of any girl to become the sort of nurturer Ruth Marcus desires. Instead, she gets woman-children with broken sex and broken families -- for whom restraint and introspection become incomprehensible, and only self-doubt remains.
We'll have it for you here at 10 a.m. EST this morning.
E.J.'s tears are useless. He spends the bulk of today's column weeping for retiring Rep. Sherwood Boehlert, that elusive liberal Republican, and pining for the Rockefeller, middle of the party. How bland: yearning for something neither here nor there, the vague middle. The good Catholic boy from Gonzaga should know milquetoast has few takers.
As TAS readers know, when a liberal columnist lauds a Republican, it's because he's done something liberal, is a liberal, or can be used for liberalism. Boehlert's long been a favorite of Dionne's, first appearing in his column in 1998:
WaPo's Ruth Marcus – the poor woman's Maureen Dowd – takes a shot at Prof. Harvey Mansfield's book, "Manliness," this morning and like MoDo assumes the posture of the hilarious by working so hard to prove men unnecessary by condemning the White House. Her point, natch, is that manliness is ok so long as it's under the firm control of what Marcus says this country could use: "a little less manliness -- and a little more of what you would describe as womanly qualities: restraint, introspection, a desire for consensus, maybe even a touch of self-doubt."
Here's the cri de coer – er, money quote:
For those who missed it, here's the transcript of the part of today's Rush Limbaugh show in which Rush talked about the argument I'm having with Rich Lowry of NR about the "endgame conservatives" vs. "to hell with them hawks" issue. As always, Rush hits it hard and right out of the park. I don't think this one is over, not by a long shot.
On Iraq, I really do think the good guys (note to hopeless liberals: that means us, the United States) are winning, despite many errors along the way. My old paper, the Mobile Register, laid out the case on Saturday.


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Medical device sales representatives are responsible for selling medical devices to both companies and private practice clinics. The representative is tasked with locating potential customers and giving a persuasive demonstration of the devices to those which show interest. As with other sales jobs, an effective medical device sales representative possesses strong communications skills and a friendly personality, so as to effectively address the questions and concerns of potential customers.Read More...
Medical device sales representatives often have a background in the health care industry, and a background in sales is also desirable. Successful applicants undergo extensive training; this training usually begins with an experienced sales representative offering mentoring, which may include learning both successful sales techniques, the function and operation of the medical equipment being sold, and the knowledge of medical insurance practices. It is usually desired that the applicant already possesses a developed set of sales skills through previous experience. A medical device sales representative must maintain an up-to-date knowledge of medical technology.
As with all sales representative jobs, selling medical devices involves significant interaction with potential and current clients on their timetables, meaning that working hours are highly variable. In most cases, the representative is designated a territory, and it is the representative's responsibility to attend as many meetings and presentations as possible in the assigned area. As such, the position involves significant amounts of travel.
Leading companies who hire large numbers of Medical Device Sales Representatives include Stryker Corp., Medtronic, Inc., Biomet Inc., Johnson & Johnson, and Depuy Orthopaedics, Inc. Employees of Medtronic, Inc. can expect to make the most, with the company offering a median salary of $130K; however, pay is widely dispersed from bottom to top, ranging from $54K to $290K.
Survey results imply that Medical Device Sales Representatives put a diverse skill set to use. Most notably, facility with Clinical Education, Technical Sales, and Account Sales are correlated to pay that is significantly above average, leading to increases of 36 percent, 35 percent, and 26 percent, respectively. For most people, competency in Customer Relationship Management indicates knowledge of Clinical Education.
Median of all compensation (including tips, bonus, and overtime) by years of experience.
Salaries of relatively inexperienced workers fall in the neighborhood of $60K, but folks who have racked up five to 10 years see a notably higher median of $87K. Experienced professionals — those with 10 to 20 years in the field — see salaries in the six-figure territory, securing around $105K on average. Medical Device Sales Representatives who claim more than two decades of experience actually make somewhat smaller average paychecks of $100K.
|Extremely satisfied
Rated 5 out of 5
based on 157 votes.
38 %
62 %
|Medical: 82%
|Dental: 72%
|Vision: 58%
|None: 16%


text:
Dell Server Cluster Ranks Fourth Among the World's Fastest Supercomputers; Dell Increases Cluster Presence on Latest Top 500 List of Supercomputers.
PHOENIX--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Nov. 17, 2003
A Dell (Nasdaq:DELL) supercomputing cluster at The University of Illinois' National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) was recognized today as the world's fourth fastest supercomputer, according to the bi-annual Top 500 list (www.top500.org).
The Top 500 List has emerged as the defacto source to determine the fastest supercomputers based on a benchmark that measures a system's sustained performance.
The total number of Dell entries on the list has increased to 18, reflecting the growing trend toward standards-based systems configured in high-performance computing clusters (HPCC) to address sophisticated computing needs in academia, laboratories and commercial organizations.
"NCSA's achievement marks an important milestone for Dell and the industry -- proving again that practically every area of computing can benefit from the performance and price of standards-based computing," said Jeff Clarke, senior vice president and general manager of Dell's Product Group. "We'll continue to simplify and standardize technologies associated with HPCC to help make it more affordable and accessible to customers."
The 2,500 processor cluster at NCSA is being used to study the evolution, size and structure of the universe, investigating theories on the lifecycle of stars like the Sun, modeling severe storms, studying the human genome and biological processes, advancing the drug design process and more.
Redefining the Computing Elite
Dell's ongoing innovation and standardization efforts for HPCC have been key drivers in expanding the company's presence on the Top 500 List (www.top500.org) of the world's fastest supercomputers. Dell is the leading provider of Intel-based Linux technical clusters with 36.3 percent share worldwide, according to second quarter 2003 data from IDC.(a)
Clustered Intel-based systems now account for 37.8 percent of the list, up 14 percent in the six months since the list was last published. Dell's 18 entries have a cumulative performance of 27.2 trillion floating-point operations per second (TFLOPS), more than double the 10.677 TFLOPS in the previous list. Eight Dell entries achieved performance of greater then a TFLOP.
The cluster at the University of Illinois is the highest-ranking Dell and the highest-ranking Intel-based system at No. 4 with 9.819 TFLOPS performance. Other ranked Dell clusters include: Texas Advanced Computing Center/University of Texas (25), University at Buffalo, State University of New York (37), Sandia National Labs (67), Cornell Theory Center (68), University of Liverpool (86), Australian Centre for Advanced Computing and Communications (108), Compagnie Generale de Geophysique (112), Penn State University (142), Sandia National Labs (143), Penn State University (154), Dell (176), Boeing (225), University of Utah (248), University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (260), Center for Theoretical Biological Physics, University of California, San Diego (408), Gessellschaft fuer wissenschaftliche Datenverarbeitung (490) and MTU Aero Engine (500).
For more information on the Dell HPCC program, please visit: www.dell.com/hpcc.
About Dell
Dell Inc. (Nasdaq:DELL) is a premier provider of products and services required for customers worldwide to build their information-technology and Internet infrastructures. Company revenue for the past four quarters totaled $39.7 billion. Dell, through its direct business model, designs, manufactures and customizes products and services to customer requirements, and offers an extensive selection of software and peripherals. Information on Dell and its products can be obtained at www.dell.com.
(a) IDC HPCC Tracker, Q2 2003
Dell is a trademark of Dell Computer Corporation.
Dell disclaims any proprietary interest in the marks and names of others.
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text:
K.S. Sudhi
Approval for seven rice, two cowpea varieties
Ginger, chilli, cashew variants too get nod
KOCHI: Seven rice varieties capable of surmounting agro climatic stress factors have been cleared for farming. A meeting of the State Seed Sub Committee on Crop Standards, Notification and Release of Varieties held last week cleared two cowpea and ginger varieties and one each of chilli, cashew, drumstick and cardamom varieties.
The new rice varieties are tailor-made for farming in seven agro climatic and geographical locations across the State. The two salinity-resistant varieties, 'Ezhome 1 and 2,' were developed for Kaippad area of Kannur. 'Samyuktha' will be used for farming as first crop variety in Koottumundakan cultivation in Palakkad, Malappuram and Alappuzha districts. In this farming method, a mixture of two varieties is sown. The system is practised in areas where sowing or planting of 'mundakan' crop (winter crop) is not possible due to excess water in the field.
The upland rice farmers will try 'Vaishak' in their fields where the crop is raised exclusively with rainwater. It took 12 years for the researchers of the Rice Research Station of the Kerala Agricultural University, Vyttila, to develop 'Vyttila 8,' a saline-resistant variety. This could yield about 4,000 kg grain per hectare in Pokkali fields without the use of fertilizers and pesticides. It is also tolerant to acidity and submergence and suitable for the coastal areas of Kerala, said K.S. Shylaraj, Professor and Principal Investigator of the research team.
'Pratheeksha,' a short duration (105-110 days) variety, is expected to benefit farmers of Kuttanad. The cultivators of the Cherady tract in Kollam and Pathanamthitta will try the new variety 'Thulam,' a season-bound variety, next season.
Cowpea varieties, Hridya and Sreya, the Kanthari chilli, Vellayani Samridhi, the drumstick variety Anupama, Cashew S9 and Ginger varieties Athira and Karthika, will be available for farming. The cardamom variety was developed by the Indian Cardamom Research Institute of the Spices Board, Myladumpara, Idukki. All other varieties were developed by the Kerala Agricultural University.


text:
Press Release Distribution
August 27, 2012 News
2 years ago, 16703 views, By Information Security Forum
Big Data is a challenge that stretches the limits of the enterprise and as it continues to become a game-changer for businesses, the security risks have become even greater.
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Over 45 Million people have bad credit. Many people need a loan but they are automatically denied by most banks. United Lending Services Co. will help get you a loan, even with bad credit.
United Lending Services Co. now has over 9,800 lenders in their database for people with bad credit.
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United Lending Services Co. announced today that they officially have over 9,800 lenders in their database. It's now easier then ever to get a loan when bad credit is a problem.
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First Affordable 9.7 Inch Tablet with IPS screen, launched today. This tablets suits the needs of Indian market in terms of quality, features and price.
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Designed to stimulate T cell and B cell immune responses, GEN-003 is an investigational vaccine that works to potentially reduce the frequency and severity of Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection.
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When the 2013 Honda Civic hits stores, it will feature a number of updates to the popular compact car. Visit Metro Honda in Jersey City, New Jersey to test drive the current Civic and learn more about the new 2013 Honda Civic today!
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EGAN Medical Supply will be temporarily suspending the company's daily shipping operations until after Hurricane Isaac has passed over the Gulf South and the company's employees return to work from their evacuation on short notice.
Bank Client That Had Items Stolen From TD Bank Safe Deposit Box Hires Law Firm of Imbesi Christensen
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Contents located within safe deposit boxes maintained at a TD Bank were stolen. The bank is located at 1602 Avenue U in Brooklyn, New York. Several of the victims have retained attorneys to assist in recovering the value of the items stolen.
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Legends Environmental Insurance Services provides comprehensive coverage for asbestos abatement contractors.
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New Alliance Positions UAA and MAG as a Bi-Coastal, Full Service Team in the Entertainment Industry
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Con X KC's hosting parties, concerts and raffels to benefit veterans.
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ThingsArty is a new Global and Vibrant Arts and Crafts online community where you can buy unique handmade crafts directly from the artist.
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Synergy Corporate Interiors Pvt. Ltd. Launches New Turnkey Interior Design Services in India
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UKBA has introduced new rules for people applying for Spouse visas. Everyone must pass English Language test at the minimum level of A1 under CEFR.
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Leading Staten Island Childcare Provider in North Shore creates a successful summer event for Parents and their Children. This Event was held in August for children ages 2-5 for a 2 hour Free Stay & Play Class Monday-Thursday.
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I Want That Flight, and Australian travel company, explains how to completely avoid Credit Card Fees when booking flights.
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In the center of White Plains there are a selection of restaurants, none finer than Gaucho Grill Argentinean Steakhouse. The former "Anti Pasti" and "Papa Razzi", Gaucho Grill opens their doors to please the White Plains and beyond crowd.
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Featuring the signature Lexus spindle grille, a progressive new design and enhanced handling, the ES brings new levels of refinement and quality to the entry luxury segment in Central Florida.
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CTK Designs launches The Stylish Stylus™ a new digital accessory for women that saves manicures & touch screens at same time. Bejeweled with Swarovski crystal elements, in metallic colors, capped w/silver or 14K gold-plated rhinestone-studded clasp


text:
Dual-Channel LDO Regulator Suits Battery-Powered Applications
Suited for today's power-hungry, battery-powered electronics including mobile phones, PDAs, MP3 players, digital cameras and handheld instruments, Micrel's MIC5331/32/33 dual channel micro-power LDO regulator consumes a maximum of 40µA with both outputs enabled. The 2 mm2 MLF packaged device integrates two low-quiescent-current 300mA LDOs and up to two power-on reset circuits with very small ceramic output capacitors to reduce required board space. Exhibiting an operating junction temperature range from -40°C to 125°C, the LDO regulator is available with fixed output voltages and full protection circuitry, including current limit and thermal shutdown protection. Pricing starts at $0.66 for 1K quantities.
Micrel Inc.
408-944-0800, www.micrel.com


text:
In This Section
AES News
- First Book in "AES Presents" Series from Focal Press
- New edition of Handbook for Sound Engineers, edited by Glen Ballou
- 137th Audio Engineering Society Convention Breaks Records and Draws Acclaim from Attendees, Exhibitors and Presenters Alike
- Convention reminds West-Coast audio community, "If It's About Audio, It's At AES!"
- AES 2014 Election Results
- The results are in!
- Time to Vote: 2014 AES Elections
- Deadline was Friday, July 11th
Noise Dosimetry Made Simple
Patty Niquette
Awareness of the dangers of overexposure to loud sound is increasing, but most people don't know how long they can listen to loud sound without risking hearing damage. Assessment of risk from noise exposure is complicated by the fact that many people are exposed to sound levels that vary considerably over time. Sound level meters are useful, but have limited predictive value because they measure sound only at one particular point in time. Noise dosimeters measure and integrate sound over many hours, and provide a more accurate measure of the noise dose experienced by the listener. Traditional noise dosimeters are costly and complicated. The ER-200 Personal Noise Dosimeter is inexpensive and easy-to-use: LEDs on the device display noise dose to alert users to the risk of over-exposure and the need for hearing protection. The ER-200D version includes PC-Interface software so data can be downloaded, saved and printed. This session will cover the basic concepts of noise dose, operation of the ER-200 consumer device and the ER-200D (data logging) device.


text:
Available in different designs and sizes, game tables are a fun, dynamic way to entertain your friends and guests. Game tables and tabletop games are great for a high stake competitions or just to relax, made for easy storage and simple set up. You'll find a full range of air hockey tables, foosball tables, pool tables, and more all in one convenient location. Add a dimension of fun and excitement to your home or gameroom with GameRoomWorld's diverse selection of game tables.
Feature Products
These Prince all weather tables feature our proprietary Compreg material.
The Bandit Plus takes dartboards to a new level!
Now you can enjoy the game of pool and table tennis with the Carmelli 7' Pool Table with Table Tennis.
The green and blue theme of the Carmelli 38" Kickoff Tabletop Soccer Foosball Tableis only part of the fun.


text:
Hi again guys!
A little while back I posted some screenshots of a Wordpress theme I was working on. I've been coding it for the last couple of days and this is what I've come up with so far:
Tell me what you think of it. My plan is to use this blog as a base and eventually publish it as a portfolio theme. Got any suggestions or comments?
Needs seperation in the sidebar, and maybe implement a drop-down feature for the nav?
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Most of all, enjoy your time here. Thank you for being a valued Envato community member.


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Castaic woman loses $2,500 to scammers in Fillmore
A Castaic woman visiting relatives in Fillmore fell victim to a lottery ticket scam, authorities said.
The incident began about 8:30 a.m. Thursday, the Ventura County Sheriff's Office reported. A man approached her and began talking to her, and they were joined by a woman pretending to have no connection to the man, authorities said. The man sought the victim's help redeeming a lottery ticket he said was worth several hundred thousand dollars. He told them he could not cash the ticket because he was in the country without legal permission, authorities said.
He requested several thousand dollars from the victim as good-faith money for trusting her with the winning ticket, promising to double her money for her help, authorities said.
The victim was encouraged by the female and agreed to help the male. The pair drove the victim to a bank, where she withdrew $2,500 and gave the money to the man. The pair then drove the victim to a residence and convinced her to get out and meet with the resident, authorities said. Once the victim walked to the front door, the pair drove away with the money, authorities said.
The residents of the home were not involved in the scam, authorities said.
Detectives offered this information to help prevent people from becoming victims:
-- U.S. citizenship is not a requirement for winning a lottery prize.
-- The California lottery does not require money from the winner to redeem a winning ticket.
-- Never get in a car with or follow a stranger.
-- Never hand over money to a stranger you meet in public.
-- Trust your first instinct; if a deal looks too good to be true, it's probably a scam.
-- If a person with such an offer approaches you, call police.
Subscribe to the Ventura County Star
Need Help? Call us at 1-877-710-6182.
Monday-Friday: 6am-3pm / Saturday: 6:30am-10:30am / Sunday: 7am-11am


text:
Interest Level
Grades 1 - 3
Reading Level
Grade level Equivalent: 2
Lexile® Measure: 510L
Guided Reading: L
Reading Quiz Programs
About This Book'Twas the night before first grade. I kissed my dog Clover. School's starting tomorrow because summer is over. It's the night before the Big Day – first grade. And for two friends, the new school year starts off with a big surprise!
Items Added to Cart:
1 Paperback
2 Hardcover
1 Teacher's Edition
$48.99 Subtotal


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Male , 51-55
Feeling depressed
A live and let life person. Who like for every one to have their dreams come true. I believe in ethics, freedom. love, and I hate bullies. Respect privacy and give people their space. Thes 11:4.
Last Seen Jun 9, 2014
Member Since Dec 08, 2011
Favorite Quote
Special day
Local Time May 22nd, 6:20 PM
Profile Whiteboard Recent Activity 12 Stories 99 Experiences 7 Friends 23 Confessions 6 Questions Trophies
Unemployed And Hating It All. Wow where can I begin. In 2006 I experienced my first lay off. Every since then it been all down hill. I was on that job only 6 years. It took me 4 months to find my next job. I suffered a... [more]
freelsjr has shared 3 Mature Experiences
I Need A Job. Anyway I need a job. Am 51 years of age. Am tired of being broke, busted and disgusted. Its time for a change of life. One of a better future not of dispair and hardships. I need victory and not defea… [more]
Broke All The Time Am broke all the time and it not a joke. It not funny being wiithout no money. People look at you on the unemployment line and the food stamps line. He's a man so he can work. Why he don't have a job… [more]
I Love My Father I think it something special to know your father. A father is a wonderful guy when the chips are down. To know your family is wonderful. A father love is wonderful to have. It the foundation of societ… [more]
Guns Aren't Good Guns are crazy. They say people kill guns don't. We all know this to be a fact. I just dislike guns. I always wasn't like this about guns. Years ago my parents experience one of the horrific moments i… [more]
College at 54In college at 54 years of age is something I did not expect yet am there. Unemployed and discourage because who is going to hire me after. The feeling of the past many rejection still comes to my mind as quickly as the reaction of the doctor striking my knee. What is a college education for a man of my years in my opinion. It is just a avenue to achieve management. It is the difference of being in the mailroom and management. It is the difference of being a officer and a enlisted man. Ii is the step of desiring leadership in society. … [more]
All this crap and not in the worldWith all the problems and concerns I have it is very surprising that am a person not considered to be in the world.All the unemployment, joblessness, pain, manipulation, framing, hanging and humiliation I've experienced over the manyyears. Am not a person considered in the world.… [more]
Freedom and Fighting for AmericaRecently saw and answered on whether I would fight for this country. Stated That I am a believer in the constitution and the law of the land. The American land, and it people are beautiful. Despite all the heck I experienced as an American. The unemployment, gangs, criminality and the racism still believe this nation is worth defending. I have seen the Klan and been ask by a drug dealer to take this free trip. The free trip so happen to be of heroin. All this before the age of twelve. So what is America for me that it is still a great nation but it is not perfect. Like so many evils in other countries America have it own yet as the old saying goes. Evil can only have victory is good people d… [more]
God Made Man In His ImageFor those who are deitist and theist. The world tell of a supreme being making man in his image and likeness. Giving him power over the animal kingdom. Well we know that is correct he is given power over all creature. Yet there is no instruction or idea of man shoould posssess power over man. He made man not the doctor, lawyer, politician, police officer, dentist or any person of any occupation. Man made those professions. In instruction all profession are just that occupations.Whether you believe in a heaven or heck after death. Your occupation and profession is not what is being judged. Every man has a arm, leg, leg, arm and a head. No one is truly superior. Superiority is not of the crea… [more]