text:
Dyke plans £300m bid for Richard and Judy production firm
Former BBC director general Greg Dyke is weighing up a bid for All3Media, the TV production company whose programmes include Shameless and Richard and Judy. By James Robinson.
Airbus boss faces axe over share deal
Embattled Airbus chief Noel Forgeard is unlikely to last the year as head of the European aerospace giant, according to company insiders.
Rebel investors gear up to sink Russian takeover of Arcelor
Steel group could fall to Lakshmi Mittal if it loses crucial vote this week.
'Fixer' files £5.2m suit against Brunei royals
The troubled Sultan of Brunei is facing fresh allegations of sexual and financial misconduct against his family, in a multimillion-dollar lawsuit to be filed in New York today.
Front page
GMB union to 'electronically picket' Asda
Asda is facing what has been described as the first-ever 'electronic picket' as fresh accusations emerge that the firm is hiring extra staff to counter what could be a damaging strike.
Shock as rail link terminal runs to time
As work begins on the final stages of the 67-mile high-speed Channel Tunnel rail link, the biggest station building project in Europe is coming to fruition.
Bidders circle troubled NHS software firm
Leading private equity firms are considering a bid for iSoft, the troubled healthcare software company.
'Quiet Assassin' is going global
Fidelity's star fund manager Anthony Bolton stays true to his contrarian nature with international move.
Letter from... Paris
Ross Tieman: The defeat of buccaneering French businessman Vincent Bolloré by UK institutional investors last week provoked a curious glow of satisfaction here.
Channel 4 secures itself a Day at the Races
Channel 4 has agreed a three-year deal to show live terrestrial racing with Racing UK, which is owned by 30 top UK tracks including Aintree, Cheltenham and Epsom. By Nick Mathiason.
Business news & features p2
The economy is in fine shape, so why all the angst?
Richard Wachman: Why are markets around the world tanking, with prices down by about 10 per cent since the start of the year?
High stakes scramble for Britain's ports
Oliver Morgan on why the biggest names in global finance are engaged in a multi-billion pound bidding war for such unglamorous assets as docks.
Business news & features p3
Now there's a PC on every desk, is it the right time for Bill to quit?
He dreamt of dominating the PC industry, and his dream came true. But news of Bill Gates's retirement from Microsoft is not the shock it might once have been, says John Naughton - his firm has bigger problems than that.
Business news & features p4
Coming to terms with the forces of anti-globalisation
Multinationals know they must adapt to survive. Being seen to behave ethically is as important as making profits, reports Nick Mathiason.
Business news & features p5
Steely ambition of worker who bought the company
Russian oligarch Alexei Mordashov is playing a pivotal role in the battle between Arcelor and Lakshmi Mittal, writes Conal Walsh.
Business news & features p7
Of bankers and Goldman Sachs
William Keegan: Brown's efforts have been a case of helping the poor while the rich become filthy rich.
Handy guide to life, the universe and good sense
Simon Caulkin: It's sobbering to reflect that in 1960 there were no business books, at least not for general consumption, and the longest formal management education programme in the UK lasted one day.
Business news & features p9
Murdoch: an emperor leading a revolution
As Rupert Murdoch's News Corp dynasty looks to a future no one can predict, his top lieutenants will gather next month for a council of war. James Robinson and Paul Harris report.
Digger delves deep in his quest to find eternal youth in cyberspace
But cashing in on the elusive kids' market may not be as easy as he thinks, writes John Naughton.
Business news & features p10
A lite diet may cure the Telegraph's ills
Peter Preston: The question is not so much whether the Daily Telegraph should go tabloid - but where on earth it should go next.
Pun-filled tabloids fail to lift Cup sales
Peter Preston: Plucked almost at random from the great Red-Top Pun Tree, here are a few typical fruits.
Pod forbid this can be sorted
Peter Preston: How can the BBC just sit there as the pods of perplexity begin to nibble at core purposes?
Business news & features p12
Sorry, I don't love you any more - but how can we afford a divorce?
For many unhappy couples, what was the tender trap can end up becoming a financial one, write Liz Barker and Jon Robins,
Needing income protection? Don't be sold a PPI pup
Jill Insley: It's great that the Post Office has started selling payment protection insurance, which pays out if you are unable to work because of accident, sickness or unemployment.
Cash p13
News in brief
Enjoy the best of both retirement worlds? | Is your home as good as your fridge? | Women missing out on split pensions
Cash p14
Families still in dark over trust rules
Many people will still need to consult experts on their wills, despite a government climbdown on taxing assets, says Lisa Bachelor.
Cash p15
Ten things that you need to know about the Standard Life share offer
...The Standard Life share offer
Five on test: tents
If you are planning to join the thousands of muddy campers at a summer festival, you'd better ensure your canvas stands out in a crowd. Emily Eavis, co-organiser of the Glastonbury Festival, peers inside some prime contenders
Cash p16
Funds: where above-average is exceptional
Heather Connon: How many investment funds managed to do better than average in each of the last three years? The answer might surprise you.
No TV box? Get with the programme
You don't have to pay the earth to record the World Cup, says Guy Clapperton.
Cash p17
World Cup pays off in the pub
Just in case you are in need of an excuse, utilities switching company energyhelpline.com has calculated that everyone would be better off going down the pub to watch the World Cup.
Cash p18
Your problems
Equity release: a valuation past redemption?
Lenders try to lower the ladder
Lisa Bachelor: For those rare individuals who are not busy watching the World Cup every night, now is the traditional house-buying season.
Cash p19
Hide away with the seriously rich
Among the hills where Umbria meets Tuscany, Jill Insley samples the delights of a private estate for publicity-shy millionaires.


text:
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I hope these letters will be an inspiration and help you to realize that you are not alone. I hope you enjoy these letters and I hope they will help you as much as they have helped me.
Dear Stacey,
Hello. How�s things going? I am doing fine here in Grove City. Thank you for your uplifting letter and your article. You seem like a kind, loving person yourself. I come from a family of loving people, we learned young in life to take care of ourselves and help each other. My parents not only taught, but showed the way.
I am in the middle of eight brothers and sisters (five brothers and three sisters). I was born in 1953. I am right in the middle. My oldest sister died in 1963, she had a rare disorder that caused her major organs to age rapidly. My brother and I had neumatic fever. I was five at the time. I learned how precious life is and how easily it can be taken away.
We were poor. Although my father had a good job, there were eight kids. We learned to depend on each other and to trust each other. Oh, we had our misunderstandings with each other. My oldest brother is one of my best friends in the world.
I arrived at my trailer, and I took my glove off my left hand. The next thing I know a cop (a good friend) was calling out to me, he was aware of my seizures. My hands were so cold, even the one with the glove on it. I was shivering.
Suddenly a squad came into the lot and over to me. I have never been that cold before. I had fallen from my seizures (That is usual; I fall backwards and to the left a little when I have a seizure). Before I regained my awareness I got up and started walking, unaware of what was happening (also, usual). I walked into the trailer hit my head and passed out. I was lying in the snow and as I said, it was 30 degrees for a half hour or forty-five minutes.
They got me on the stretcher and started putting hot water bottles around me. They took my temperature. I heard one person say �Going into hyperthermia. His is below critical. The next day I woke up in a hospital. The knuckle in my left hand (the one unclosed) was aching badly. Soon after the doctor came into the room with bad news and good news to tell me. Oh no! I thought. He said, �First the bad news: you have first degree frost bite.� I braced myself for the next sentence. �The good news: you get to keep your fingers.� I was so happy and relieved that tears were running down my face. First degree frost bite is the mildest form of a frost bite.
Keep up the faith and live the good life.
P.S. My dad had a saying about life; nobody gets out of this alive. He is right, we live life as full as we can. One Day at A Time!
I learned from this letter that support from others can be very crucial in overcoming any obstacle from epilepsy that comes our way . Inner strength is something we need to overcome epilepsy. And you can develop inner strength through support and love from the people who mean the most to us in life and that can understand what we�re going through. You need to take in consideration that inner strength does not happen overnight, so be patient and live life �One Day at A Time!�
Hi, I am forty-nine years old. When I first started having seizures, I had no aura, so I did not know when these seizures were about to happen. People were horrified when I had a seizure. They scattered as if they thought it was contagious. They never realized how much hurt and fear inside me was beyond their knowledge! When one of these seizures hit me there was nothing I could do, but go through it. Not many people understand that even today! Sometimes when I am having a seizure I can feel the blood because my head would hit the ground so hard like a 10-pound sledge hammer in full swing!
Stacey, the only way to get better is by God and your medicine in that order. You need to put your faith first. I believe if it were not for God that I would not be writing this letter today. I would be dead! I also believe that you need to think positively in this life. You should always look forward and never look backwards, tomorrow is another day.
I am fine for right now. I had two seizures in the chiropractor�s office and four coming home, which knocked me down each time. Nevertheless, being �mule-headed� I got right back up! Until the last one knocked a hole in my elbow and I had to get a couple of stitches. I had to take a ride in the ambulance, which I really did not want to do.
I have had seizures for twenty-nine years. The medicine that I take is Depakene (Valporic Acid), Neurontin and Dilantin. Neurontin has been the best medicine that I ever took.
I believe this epileptic did not let epilepsy control his life. He used God to help him develop his inner strength and to look at his life in a positive way. In order to develop inner strength. You
need to have a clear mind so you can make productive goals for your life. You need to reach out for help. You cannot win this fight with epilepsy by yourself.
Hi! I am twenty-five years old. I am married and have two children. I have a six-year-old named David Cody and a one and a half-year-old girl named Morgan Elizabeth.
David had been sick for a couple of days with a cold. I remember we had a couple of feet of snow that night in January. Two of my girlfriends were visiting and we were all sitting around talking. My husband was holding David over his shoulder. I just happened to glance over at David and his eyes were rolled up in his head. I screamed to my husband, "there is something wrong with David!" At that point his whole body limbed like a rag doll. I lay him down on the floor to see if he were breathing. I could not see his chest moving, so I started to give him CPR. I knew nothing about the seizures at the time. I remember then picking David up in my arms and his little body just laying there limp. I thought he was dead!
The ambulance got there finally and rushed him to Union Hospital, in Maryland. A little while after we got to the hospital; we found out that he had a Febrile seizure. These are quite common for children his age I was glad to hear that! During the next two years he had three more Febrile seizures, which was not too bad.
A couple months after he turned three years old, he started having seizures for no reason. The first time it happened, we rushed him to at Dupont Children's Hospital in Delaware. David had already had two at home then while the doctor was checking him out, he had another one so the doctor gave him Tegretol Rectally. They kept David in the hospital for about four days to make sure his seizures were under control. It was a very scary time for us. For the next year he did well and his neurologist saw him every three months. After about a year, he started having them again, so they increased his dosage again to four tsp. a day. This went on until he was on six tsp. a day and he started to get into the toxic range to the point where he was totally zoned out, tired. He lost interest in almost everything and could not function.
Preschool was horrible. Even after being on six tsp. a day he was still having seizures, so his doctor put him on Depakote. The doctor weaned him off the Tegretol. At this point we were very frustrated. We felt like all we could do, was sit back and watch him suffer from the side effects of the medications he was taking. At five years old, my son�s mentality was delayed. At birth they found that David's corpus callosum was thinner then a normal child's.
The corpus callosum is one of the most striking features of the brain. Its bilateralism, or organization into the largely symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere is independently capable of processing and storing information. In humans and other mammals the corpus callosum is the main pathway of interhemispheric communication. The callosum is the largest fiber tract in the human brain, containing more than 200 million nerve fibers (axons).
It�s critical role was demonstrated by Ronald Myers and Roger Sperry in the 1950s, when they showed (in cats) that information reaching one half of the brain was unavailable to the other half when the callosum was absent.
In the 1960s in Sperry's laboratory, Joseph Bogen and Peter Vogel cut the callosum in a group of epileptic human patients in an effort to control their otherwise unmanageable seizures. The psychological follow‑up of the patients by Michael Gazzaniga, Sperry, and Bogen confirmed the earlier animal studies. Studies of the left and right hemispheres in human beings have revealed the psychological uniqueness of the separate hemispheres.
The left hemisphere is normally dominant for language functions. The right one seems to be better equipped for handling spatial and other nonverbal relations. Such observations have led to theories suggesting hemispheric specialization through evolution. For example, investigators such as Gazzaniga and Joseph LeDoux suggest that human hemispheric differences can be accounted for in terms of the evolutionary acquisition of language by one hemisphere. The other hemisphere continues to process information essentially as it did in prehumans. The superior performance of the right hemisphere on certain nonverbal tests would then be attributable to the sacrifice of nonverbal processing efficiency by the left hemisphere because of having acquired language.
Research shows that double consciousness exists in split‑brain patients. Perhaps a fully integrated consciousness does not develop until a child is several years old. Research shows that the fibers of the corpus callosum do not begin to mature until one year after birth, and that the process continues until the age of ten or older. The corpus callosum has also been found to be about 11% larger in left‑handed and ambidextrous than in right‑handed people.
David also had other problems with his reflex, he had six toes on each foot. Three toes on each foot are webbed together and his two middle fingers on his left hand were also webbed together. He had surgery on his fingers in January, to separate them. It was very successful. David's been going to a school that specializes in kids with special needs. He has been going there since he was ten months old. David's fine and gross motor skills are at a four-year old level. His speech is at a three-year-old level.
At that point in my son's life, between the seizures and the medications, I started to look for alternatives to David's problem. I was not quite satisfied with what the doctors had to offer my son. It seemed like it all revolved around drugs and that was the extent of it. So, I went to one of my friend�s nutritionist, who firmly believes in the benefit of the Shaklee supplements.
These supplements are diet containing generous amounts of fresh vegetables, fruits, dairy products, and meat which assures an adequate intake of vitamins and minerals, which my son had been lacking all along. So I sat and talked with her about all my concerns for David. She got very excited. She said, "Marybeth, if you really get serious about rebuilding your son's state of health, this means making sure he gets his food supplements every day and change some of the things he eats in his diet.�
Naturally I went home very excited. I started him on supplements right away and got rid of all my household cleaners and replaced them with Shaklee Cleaners, which are all biodegradable and nonchemical. For the first thirty days, my sons� body went through a cleansing, because when you introduce organic foods and all those nutrients and minerals; the body will automatically eliminate toxins and start to heal. After about thirty to thirty-five days, boy, did I start to see drastic changes with David. On of the most vivid things was he had lots of energy, and he was not pale and washed out anymore. His cheeks became rosy, and started to talk more and he was showing interest again in doing everyday things like going to the playground, swimming, and socializing with other kids. There was a major improvement in his health. He was always sick with something from the time he was one to five years old and taking antibiotics at least once a month. They hospitalized him at least twice a year with pneumonia or bronchitis. He was then of course having seizures. He was a very sick child
It has been nine months since he has been on the Shaklee diet and has only been to the doctor for an ear infection once. At David's school his teachers were saying what an improvement David is making. They said that he stopped taking naps in class and his attention span was better. His concentration and balance showed major improvement! In as little as two months, my child went from being a very sickly, unhappy, tired and zoned out kid to being a child with energy. He is very healthy, he is alert and he has not had a seizure in over a year. He is on Depakote and we are still weaning him off the Tegretol. It is a very slow process. Let me tell you what we are currently giving David to supplement his diet:
Two tsp. a day of liquid tea (Panathonic Acid Biotin Riboxlauch Niacin vitamins A, D, B, B's, Iron)
two glasses of Soy protein (very important in brain function and energy)
Six EPA capsules (fish oil)
6 Lecithin Capsules (helps nervous system and brain function)
2 Formula I capsule (mixture of antioxidenenls and B's that help boost the Zinc selenium immune system vitamin C)
4 GLA (essential fatty acid)
Six chewable C
2 Bett Tacarotene (builds immune system and fights against cancer)
Fiber Waters chewable‑vitamin E 200 IU (The body's natural broom. it
keeps the toxin out of the body.)
This is what I give him every day. I just poke a hole in the capsules and squeeze them into the liquid tea and he drinks it down. The reason that I chose to give the Shaklee supplements to my son is because I know that they are safe. Shaklee is the only company that does clinical studies and scientific research on their product before they market them. So when I give Shaklee to David I know that he is getting the best out there!
I truly believe that they introduced me to Shaklee for a reason. It was definitely a work of God! I would really hate to think of the shape my son would be in now without the Shaklee products.
I feel like I have a mission here. Think about all the people out there stricken with epilepsy that not only have to deal with the seizures, but have to deal with the side effects of the drugs!
This was a challenge, but I believe that God is in control of everything that happens in peoples lives. In know that my David is in Gods hands and God will take care of him better than anyone else!
God does everything for a reason, we just have to have faith. We just have to have faith that there is a reason behind everything God does. When were going through bad times with David. I could have blamed God, and said, "Why does this have to happen to our child?" Yet through it all I have learned how to be thankful for the little things. It has made me a stronger person and has made my husband and I a lot closer and stronger together. Greatest of all, I feel that now I can be of great benefit to other parents who have children suffering from epilepsy.
I really believe that diet supplements and getting rid of chemicals in the home is vital to people suffering from epilepsy. David has shown amazing results!
I think everything happens for a reason. David�s parents can use this experience to help others. David�s parents used their faith in God to help them through this tough period in their lives. They didn�t give up hope and they used their inner strength to search a for solution to help their son�s seizure disorder. Diet supplements may not help everyone, but in this case it was very helpful in David�s situation.
I am forty-four years old, and my first known seizure was at the age of twenty. At age five years, I had a high fever that caused convulsions. My older brother told me when he saw me have my first seizure that looked like when I was five years old and had convulsions. He was nine years old at the time.
I work at a grocery store. I do not drive and live alone. So I walk about 95% of the time I do not want to drive. I worry about hurting or even killing somebody else.
On February 3, 1994, I went to my neurologist. I was using a new anti - convulsion medicine called Felbatol. I got a bad side effect from the medication so the doctor put me back on Tegretol. Later he added Neurontin to try to help control the seizures better.
During the change over I had a seizure while walking to work. It was cold and snowing (I fall to the left slightly, then backwards with my seizures) I fell and landed in the snow and slid into the street under a car.
When I have seizures, I do not become mentally aware until five to ten minutes afterwards. I never remember any of my seizures. I pulled myself from under the car and kept going to work I heard people yelling for me to stay, they were asking � Is your head all right? � I did not understand because I was still dazed from the seizure. About two or three minutes later a policeman pulls over to the curb and walks over to me. He said, "Are you OK?" I said, �yes�. He said, "Don�t you know where you were, being dragged down the street by a car? I said, "A car?" "He said, �You did not know it, did you?" I said, "No sir." I did know my hip area was starting to hurt and I felt I was walking funny. The police officer said, "Well an ambulance is on the way." I said, �I don�t have time, I have to get to work before 9:00 p.m.. I also have to pick up my medicine before the pharmacy closes.�
By the time we were through the squad car arrived. They said, �lie on this, so we can take you to the hospital.� I said, �No thanks,� and went on to work. I lasted about a half hour. Sitting, standing, and laying down; nothing would ease my pain.
While I was trying to work, the gentleman who was driving the car noticed me. He was going to the store. He said, "Excuse me, sir.� I said, "Yes sir.� He said, he was driving the car that took me down the street. My heart ached for him, I was stunned!
I said, "Please forgive me, but I just had one of my seizures. Don�t worry, I think we both should feel lucky that it is just my hip and you did not run me over. �I feel bad when others are involved this way. It does not seem fair. This person was not doing anything wrong. We need to consider others who, by being in the wrong place at the wrong time are feeling, caring people and need help too.
My neurologist told me that I 'm not a candidate for surgery. It was not worth the risk because my seizures are under good control with medicine. I dropped from hundreds of seizures a year to two or three dozen. So I am close to seizure‑free. I also have auras�. My auras are really scary, the taste in my mouth is terrible and my tummy feels like I have gas in it. I get goose bumps from head to my toes with the exemption of the very top of my head.
I think epilepsy has put quite a few obstacles in this gentleman�s life, but as you can see he has not let having epilepsy get him down. He has focused on the positive aspects of his life and this has given him the strength that he needs to go on with his life. He has accepted that he has epilepsy and he knows epilepsy is a part of his life. This is why he is able to cope with his epilepsy.
The weather has been perfect for me to get out and get busy. The only downside is that I overdo the work or play and finds me with a head that feels like a sparkler on the fourth of July. I noticed three things you said in your last letter that I can relate to:
1. Those without seizures do not understand completely. I use to tell my doctors, "I wish you could live one month with my symptoms Maybe then you be more sympathetic." You�re right! Family and friends listen, but they do not really understand! Only another person with the problem can fully understand what we go through. That is my big problem. People think I should be the "superman� I used to be. I cannot. They do not understand why. I try to keep going, but I am destroying my body. I have fallen so often during the last few years, it is a wonder I can still walk. I used to like to stay on the road, and do weekend trips. I know now, a 50-mile trip will put me in bed for a day or two. I do not like my brain feeling like oatmeal, sparking, or feeling like it�s spinning in six different directions, in addition to all the other symptoms. I do not like feeling bad, so I am avoiding things that hurt me. People do not understand.
2. You mention about what is �Normal." I have had doctors ask me if I feel normal after taking a different medication. I replied, " What is normal?� �What is normal for you surely is not normal for me." Stacey, I thought I was normal for twenty-eight years. You know why you have seizures, and I don�t. I guess the only difference is that you are not in the dark and you knew you had a problem since youth.
3. Mind over matter ...when I was much younger and into the martial arts, I learned a great deal about mind over matter. I could direct pain out of my body by focusing on something else. I used to be able to obtain an 8-hour sleep in five minutes. (Sounds goofy, but it works.) I know all about mind over matter, but when the mind does not function right, you cannot control anything. When my brain shorts out, I am done. No control, I am at the mercy of what happens next. I have tried to control the seizures. I have not been able to, so far, any more than the medication controls it. I will not give up. I still do more than I should, but that is me. I never give up. I do not like having no control of my thoughts. Sometimes I have no thoughts at all. I also experience temporarily and short term memory loss. This started five to seven years ago. This is not good either.
I feel like you have a good handle on life. You make the most out of life that you can. I wasted too many years, trying to deny my problem, then being depressed. I�m now trying to figure what the future holds for me.
I am stubborn, I will not give up and I keep Jesus in my heart. It did not matter how tough it was; when my life did a one hundred and eighty degree turn, he was the only one who understood. He was the only one that was there when I needed someone the most.
I believe this epileptic is still struggling with epilepsy, but with the help of religion and by reaching out to other epileptics she has begun to see the brighter side of life. She has opened her heart and her mind and has begun to listen to what other epileptics have to say. She realizes that she is not the only one who feels the way she does. copyright 2001
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Author(s): Bowles, Samuel
ISBN 10: 0691091633. See all ISBN's
Publisher: Princeton University Press
This is an eTextbook Learn More
In this novel introduction to modern microeconomic theory, Samuel Bowles returns to the classical economists' interest in the wealth and poverty of nations and people, the workings of the institutions of capitalist economies, and the coevolution of individual preferences and the structures of markets, firms, and other institutions. Using recent advances in evolutionary game theory, contract theory, behavioral experiments, and the modeling of dynamic processes, he develops a theory of how economic institutions shape individual behavior, and how institutions evolve due to individual actions, technological change, and chance events. Topics addressed include institutional innovation, social preferences, nonmarket social interactions, social capital, equilibrium unemployment, credit constraints, economic power, generalized increasing returns, disequilibrium outcomes, and path dependency.
Each chapter is introduced by empirical puzzles or historical episodes illuminated by the modeling that follows, and the book closes with sets of problems to be solved by readers seeking to improve their mathematical modeling skills. Complementing standard mathematical analysis are agent-based computer simulations of complex evolving systems that are available online so that readers can experiment with the models. Bowles concludes with the time-honored challenge of "getting the rules right," providing an evaluation of markets, states, and communities as contrasting and yet sometimes synergistic structures of governance. Must reading for students and scholars not only in economics but across the behavioral sciences, this engagingly written and compelling exposition of the new microeconomics moves the field beyond the conventional models of prices and markets toward a more accurate and policy-relevant portrayal of human social behavior.
All ISBN's for this title:
ISBN 10: 0691091633, ISBN 13: 9780691091631, eISBN 10: 1400829313, eISBN 13: 9781400829316
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A semiconductor structure is provided having an improved oxide with minimal irregularities and charge trap densities. The oxide is formed by an oxidation process which controls temperature and ambient conditions during oxidation as well as prior to and after oxidation. The ambient conditions are chosen such that the silicon surface is more receptive to growing a high quality, relatively thin oxide. A post-oxidation anneal helps ensure any irregularities, dislocations, contaminants involved in trap formation are minimized after the oxide is grown. A post-oxidation anneal involving oxygen incorporated into the oxide is presumed to help minimize any defects which might result from the pre-existing oxidation cycle. A slow ramping of temperature and close control of that temperature helps minimize trap locations at or near the silicon surface on which oxide will be grown. The combination of pre- and post-oxidation anneal, the ambient chosen, and various cleaning(g steps prior to oxidation helps ensure a high quality gate or tunnel oxide of relatively thin dimension.
1. A method for forming an oxide, comprising:
heating a silicon-based surface at a first temperature in the presence of an oxidizing atmosphere to form an oxidized, silicon-based surface;
heating the oxidized, silicon-based surface at a second temperature in an inert atmosphere anid at a temperature sufficient to anneal the oxidized, silicon-based surface, wherein the second temperature is greater than the first temperature;
introducing an oxidizing agent into said inert atmosphere while maintaining said second temperature; and
cooling the oxidized, silicon-based surface in the presence of both said inert atmosphere and said oxidizing agent.
2. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said oxidizing agent comprises hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
3. The method as recited in claim 2, wherein said oxidizing agent further comprises chlorine gas.
4. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said oxidized, silicon-based surface comprises a plurality of trap sites substantially occupied by oxygen atoms derived from the flowing oxygen gas.
5. The method as recited in claim 4, wherein said trap sites occur primarily at an interface between the silicon-based surface and the oxidized, silicon-based surface.
6. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said cooling comprises reducing the second temperature to a third temperature less than the first or second temperatures.
7. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said introducing comprises flowing oxygen gas at a first flow rate.
8. The method as recited in claim 7, wherein said cooling further comprises flowing oxygen gas at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate.
9. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said annealing comprises interrupting the nitrogen with the flowing oxygen gas.
10. The method as recited in claim 9, wherein said interrupting comprises substituting the flowing oxygen gas for substantially all of the nitrogen gas.
11. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said oxidized, silicon-based surface comprises a gate oxide of an MOS transistor.
12. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said oxidized, silicon-based surface comprises an electron tunneling oxide of a non-volatile MOS transistor.
13. An oxide formed by the method recited in claim 1.
14. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein each of the heating steps is conducted in a furnace.
15. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein each of the heating steps is conducted in a rapid thermal anneal (RTA) chamber.
16. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said introducing is conductor for a length of time sufficient to further oxidize the oxidized, silicon-based surface.
17. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said introducing is conducted for a duration of time less than approximately 30 seconds.
18. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said oxide comprises a gate oxide of an MOS transistor or tunnel oxide of a non-volatile MOS transistor.
19. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said first temperature is from 400� C. to 800� C.
20. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said second temperature is greater than 800� C.
21. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein the second temperature is less than the melting temperature of either the silicon-based surface or the oxidized, silicon-based surface.
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to integrated circuit fabrication and more particularly to an oxide formed with reduced irregularities and/or trap sites within the oxide and at the oxide-substrate interface, the result of which is a more stable threshold voltage with enhanced oxide breakdown voltage.
2. Description of the Related Art
The formation of stoichiometric and non-stoichiometric silicon dioxide ("oxide") on a silicon surface is generally well known. Oxide is formed either through deposition or by thermal oxidation. In areas where electrical performance is critical, oxide is generally grown using thermal oxidation.
A thermally grown oxide not provides relatively good adherence, or intermingling, between the oxide and the silicon (i.e., passivates the silicon surface), but also presents a superior mask against ion implantation and diffusion therethrough. Thermally grown oxides are therefore a mainstay in the production of MOS transistor gate and/or tunnel oxides. Gate oxides exist between channel areas and corresponding polysilicon gate conductors of a metal oxide semiconductor ("MOS") transistor. The gate oxide can be made relatively thin either entirely across the channel or in a localized region of the channel to encompass a window through which programmed electrons can tunnel. The tunneling window embodies the so-called "tunnel oxide" used in non-volatile and/or electrically programmable memory devices. In order to readily achieve programmability, the tunneling oxide is made generally thinner than gate oxides.
A thermal oxide results from exposing a silicon-based surface to an oxygen-containing ("dry") or steam-containing ("wet") atmosphere or ambient. The oxygen and/or steam react with silicon at elevated temperatures to form the oxide which partially consumes the exposed silicon surface as it grows. The rate at which oxide grows depends upon numerous factors which include, for example, the orientation of the silicon crystal at the growth surface, the concentration of dopants within or at the silicon surface, and whether pressure or plasma is applied to the oxidizing ambient. Regardless of the factors used, irregularities in the thermal oxide naturally occurs. The amount of irregularity has a direct impact on the quality of oxide being produced and, more specifically, the operation of a subsequently formed transistor.
Irregularities in the thermal oxide may arise from irregularities on the silicon surface being oxidized or in the thermal oxidation process itself. For example, the irregularities can be classified as precipitates, dislocations, faults, defects, contaminants, improper bonds, etc., which cause irregular growth in regions proximate to the irregularity, relative to regions distal from the irregularity. An uneven growth pattern may be compounded by additional irregularities formed in the oxide itself. Those irregularities may occur as the oxide accumulates or is derived from the irregularities existing in the consumed, underlying silicon. The former irregularities therefore reside in the silicon lattice, and the latter irregularities exist in the oxide--both of which bring about a disjointed oxide pattern which can lead to "trap sites". The trap sites may bind charged ions (e.g., from contamination) or minority carriers (e.g., from circuit operation). Since the trap sites can occupy or "trap" a charge, the trap sites are sometimes termed "charge trap sites".
Attraction of minority carriers (holes or electrons) which migrate within the oxide or across the silicon-oxide interface is a detrimental result of trap sites. In general, long minority carrier lifetimes are beneficial to transistor operation. For example, long lifetimes in MOS transistors used in DRAMs permit longer retention of charge. The trap sites within the oxide or at the silicon-oxide interface, in combination with localized oxide thinning, cause improper shifts in turn-on voltage threshold (Vt) of the ensuing transistor, diode, etc. Trap sites and localized oxide thinning may also reduce the oxide breakdown voltage. Charge accumulates in the localized trap areas when the transistor is biased. Sufficient biasing may cause a breakdown the oxide in or around the trap site.
Attempts have been made to produce a transistor with a more controlled threshold, or one with sufficiently high breakdown voltage. Conventional techniques generally employ an anneal step prior to oxidation and another anneal step after oxidation. The first anneal is used primarily to present a silicon surface which is more conducive to growing a higher quality oxide. This may involve a reduction in irregularities within the silicon surface or the oxide grown adjacent that surface. The second anneal is often used to remove irregularities or trap sites from the grown oxide. The anneal is employed mostly due to the belief that, at sufficiently high temperatures, irregularities will be re-arranged to their proper position and that charge trap sites will be somewhat neutralized with ionic bonds. Accordingly, most conventional oxidation sequences involve a pre-oxidation anneal and a post-oxidation anneal, both of which are carried out at carefully controlled temperatures relative to the interim oxidation step. Prior to and during oxidation, oxygen can flow into the chamber containing the semiconductor topography. After oxidation, however, an ambient is needed which does not promote further oxidation. Nitrogen is a popular inert ambient used during post-oxidation anneal.
Turning to the drawings, FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a conventional sequence used in forming a thermal oxide. As shown, a pre-oxidation anneal occurs at a first temperature during a time indicated by reference numeral 10. Thereafter, the temperature is increased to a higher temperature, wherein oxidation occurs during a time period 12. After oxidation, temperature is further increased to perform post-oxidation anneal during time period 14. Anneal 10 preferably occurs in an inert atmosphere, while anneal 14 occurs exclusively in an inert environment, preferably nitrogen. It is only during oxidation 12 that the inert ambient is interrupted with a flow of oxygen, possibly including hydrogen. Substitution of oxygen requires evacuation of nitrogen from the anneal/oxidation chamber before introducing oxygen. Re-introduction of nitrogen during anneal 14 entails evacuation of oxygen as a pre-cursor to nitrogen flow.
Post-oxidation anneals conducted only in an inert (e.g., nitrogen) atmosphere or ambient cannot in most instances minimize the irregularities and charge)e trap sites arising from the previous oxidation step. Therefore, an improvement is desired to conventional oxide formation sequences. Improvements resulting from modifying the post-oxidation sequence as well as, for example, the pre-oxidation temperature cycle and the cleaning procedures used prior to oxidation would appear beneficial. Such modification is desired to achieve a more stable threshold voltage and/or a maximum breakdown voltage for subsequently formed transistors. As gate and tunnel oxides decrease in thickness to meet, for example, speed and density requirements, it becomes more critical that the pre- and post-oxidation sequences be carried out with an emphasis on irregularity and/or charge trap density reduction. If reduction in irregularity and charge trap density is not achieved, then small geometry transistors may fail in their intended operation.
The problems outlined above are in large part solved by an improved sequence of forming thermal oxide. The improved sequence involves pre- and post-oxidation anneals occurring under prescribed ambient conditions. Post-oxidation anneal may take place at a higher temperature than the pre-oxidation anneal or the oxidation temperature occurring in the interim. More specifically, the post-oxidation anneal occurs first in an inert atmosphere (or ambient), preferably containing nitrogen, and then in an oxidizing atmosphere (or ambient), preferably containing oxygen. The oxidizing atmosphere may be used during a portion of the post oxidation anneal for a time sufficient to introduce oxygen atoms into the oxide as well as at the oxide-silicon interface. It is postulated that atomic oxygen readily migrates from the oxygen atmosphere to trap sites located within the oxide as well as at the oxide-silicon interface. The oxidizing atmosphere used during post oxidation is therefore any atmosphere which produces trap occupying atoms and, therefore, may be referred to as a "trap neutralizing atmosphere". It is believed the oxygen may migrate to and occupy ("neutralize") the ionic charge at those trap site, thus negating many of the harmful effects on the ensuing transistor performance. It is further believed the oxygen migrates primarily into the oxide and not sufficiently below the oxide which would cause a substantially harmful number of intrinsic gettering sites in the silicon near the channel and/or junction areas. Thus, the amount of thermal energy and oxygen flow rate in the post-oxidation anneal is carefully selected to produce charge neutralization without adding gettering sites to the circuit active areas.
In addition to incorporating an oxidizing agent during post-oxidation anneal, it is further contemplated that the same or dissimilar oxidizing atmosphere be used during a cool down cycle subsequent to post-oxidation anneal. Oxygen, in combination with an inert gas, is used during cooling within the chamber from a relatively high temperature to, e.g., 600� C. The cooling rate may be relatively slow an is performed in the same chamber as that used to effectuate oxidation as well as pre- and post-oxidation anneals. A further cooling is achieved outside the chamber to room temperature. The flow rate of the oxidizing agent during cool down within the chamber preferably occurs throughout the cooling period but is of a lesser flow rate than the oxygen used during a short interim of the post-oxidation anneal. Oxygen applied during post-oxidation anneal and cool down beneficially serves to minimize charge trap sites thereby presenting a higher quality gate or tunnel oxide.
Prior to pre-oxidation anneal, many contaminants and precipitates on the silicon surface are removed by a two-step cleaning procedure possibly in addition to growing a sacrificial oxide. The cleaning procedure preferably involves removing residual organic contaminants, followed by stripping low quality oxide films formed during the removal step. In addition to stripping the low quality oxide, the second cleaning step also removes ionic metals on the silicon surface which could compromise oxide growth in or around those ionic metals. Preferably, the cleaned topography is loaded into a chamber with minimal delay prior to loading. The chamber into which the wafers are loaded may be either a furnace or a rapid thermal anneal ("RTA") chamber. In either instance, pre-oxidation annealing, oxidizing, post-oxidation annealing and cool down are preferably performed without opening the chamber during or between those procedures.
Broadly speaking, the present invention concerns a method for forming an oxide. The method includes oxidizing a silicon-based surface in an oxidizing atmosphere to a first temperature to form an oxidized silicon-based surface. The oxidized, silicon based surface is then heated in an inert atmosphere to a second temperature greater than the first temperature to anneal the oxidized silicon-based surface. An inert atmosphere is any atmosphere which grows minimal oxide on or within a silicon-based surface. While maintaining the second temperature, the inert atmosphere receives or is substituted with an oxygen gas to form an oxidizing atmosphere. Thereafter, the oxidized, silicon-based surface is cooled in the presence of both oxygen and inert gas. The oxidizing atmosphere comprises not only oxygen, but ozone, hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, silicon dioxide, or possibly hydrogen and chlorine.
The oxide can be formed according to an alternative method beginning with loading a silicon substrate into a chamber containing a flow of nitrogen. The temperature within the chamber is increased from 400� C. to 800� C., preferably 500� C. to 700� C. or more preferably approximately 600� C. Thereafter, the temperature is further increased to approximately 700� C. to 1000� C., preferably above 800� C., and possibly 850� C. at a rate of between 5� C. to 15� C. per minute, preferably at a rate of approximately 7� C. per minute. While maintaining the temperature, the flow of nitrogen is at least partially replaced if not entirely replaced with a first flow of oxygen to convert at least a portion of the silicon substrate to an oxide. The flow of oxygen is then terminated and the inert gas is reestablished while thereafter increasing the temperature within the chamber to approximately 900� C. to 1100� C., and preferably approximately 1000� C. While maintaining the temperature, the inert gas is at least partially terminated and replaced with a flow of oxygen to conclude annealing of the oxide. The temperature within the chamber is then decreased while re-establishing the flow of nitrogen in addition to a third flow of oxygen. Preferably, the first flow of oxygen further comprises a flow of hydrogen or a flow of hydrogen and chlorine. The first flow rate of oxygen is preferably greater than the second flow rate of oxygen, and the second flow rate of oxygen is preferably greater than the third flow rate of oxygen. Prior to loading the silicon substrate into the chamber, the substrate can be cleaned using a two step process. Two step cleaning involves submerging the silicon surface in a solution including H2 O--NH4 OH--H2 O2. Thereafter, the silicon surface is submerged in a solution including HF--H2 O.
Regardless of the methodology used, the present invention also concerns an oxide formed as a result of the present processing sequence. The oxide is embodied as either a gate oxide or a tunnel oxide interposed between respective gate conductors and channel regions, which may be used to form an integrated circuit. The integrated circuit can be partitioned into logic blocks and/or storage media (e.g., memory). The logic blocks may comprise at least one transistor having a gate oxide and the storage media may comprise an electrically programmable transistor having, for example, a tunnel oxide layer.
Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description and upon reference to the accompanying drawings in which:
FIG. 1 is a graph of a conventional pre-oxidation, oxidation, and post-oxidation cycles used in forming(g an oxide;
FIG. 2 is a graph of pre-oxidation, oxidation, and post-oxidation cycles used in forming an oxide in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 3 is flow diagram of an exemplary processing sequence and various parameters used in preparing, annealing, oxidizing and cooling a silicon-based substrate surface;
FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view of the silicon-based substrate undergoing a pre-oxidation anneal to nucleate trap sites in regions within the substrate bulk below active areas;
FIG. 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of the silicon-based substrate undergoing a post-oxidation anneal in the presence of oxygen to occupy and neutralize trap sites formed within the grown oxide and at the oxide-substrate interface;
FIG. 6 is a detailed view of oxygen segregation and migration toward the trap sites within the grown oxide and at the oxide-substrate interface; and
FIG. 7 is a graph of current verses voltage, indicative of breakdown voltage plotted as a function of current applied to an oxide prepared by a preferred embodiment of the present process.
While the invention may be modified and have alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.
Turning now to the drawings, FIG. 2 depicts pre-oxidation, oxidation and post-oxidation cycles used in forming an oxide hereof. FIG. 2 additionally discloses procedures advantageously used before pre-oxidation anneal and after post-oxidation anneal. To initialize the formation sequence, one or more wafers are loaded into a chamber at time 16. The chamber can either be an RTA chamber or a furnace, and the wafers may have a selectively exposed single crystalline, epitaxial silicon or polysilicon surface. Upon loading the wafers, the chamber is closed and remains closed for the duration shown in FIG. 2. The closed chamber may then be heated from, for example, 10� C. to 100� C. per second, depending upon the type of chamber used, the chamber volume, and the wafer diameter, from a first temperature to a second temperature.
According to the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, the first temperature may be approximately 80� C. and the second temperature may be approximately 600� C. Ramp duration 18 indicates a rate of increase which is relatively rapid, and for example, can exceed 20� C. per minute. In some instances, ramp 18 can exceed 40� C. per minute. Ramp 18 can extend further into a pre-oxidation ramp cycle 20 which occurs at a relatively slow rate of increase. Preferably, ramp 20 occurs at less than 10� C., and preferably occurs at approximately 7� C. per minute. Of course, the rate can vary depending upon the amount of stress differential which can be tolerated at the silicon-oxide interface, and/or the chamber volume or wafer surface area being heated. Ramp 20, according to an alternative embodiment, can occur separate and distinct from ramp 18 via an intermediate, stabilizing step 19. Stabilizing step 19 can be relatively short or long depending upon the quantity of disruption or irregularity within the silicon-based lattice. For example, if disruptions are extensive, then it may desirable to lengthen the duration of stabilizing step 19 and lessen the rate of increase of pre-oxidation ramp 20. This will allow time for nucleation to occur within the bulk of the silicon substrate. As nucleation occurs, oxygen atoms existing within the silicon substrate nucleate or grow at precipitation sites deep within the substrate bulk and away from a denuded zone near the upper surface active areas. The enhanced temperature of pre-oxidation anneal 22 may be partially used for that reason. Anneal 22 helps gather clusters of oxygen atoms by diffusing interstitial oxygen in the substrate bulk toward the nucleated SiOx clusters. The large volume change associated with precipitation builds a strained field which to some extent "punches out" prismatic dislocation loops. This may form gettering sites which may trap fast diffusing impurities and ionic charges deep within the substrate bulk and away from the pre-existing, denuded silicon substrate surface.
According to a preferred embodiment, pre-oxidation anneal occurs in an inert ambient, a suitable ambient being, e.g., N2, Ar, He, Ne, Kr, Xe, H2 or mixtures thereof. Since oxygen atoms may be present in silicon obtained from the crystalline supplier, the oxygen within the bulk need not be added to the pre-oxidation anneal step. Instead, oxygen is evacuated prior to oxidation 24 since, in fact, oxygen gas is not needed and generally detrimental to performing pre-oxidation anneal or ramp cycles. Therefore, the present method may further comprise one or more cycles of evacuating one or more gas species from the chamber and refilling with an inert gas prior and/or during pre-oxidation annealing.
Oxidation 24 is carried out with nitrogen substantially removed from the chamber and an oxidizing gas introduced, a suitable oxidizing gas being, e.g., O2, O3, H2 O2, SO2, SO3, H2 O, HCl, N2 O, NO, or mixtures thereof. The oxygen- and hydrogen-bearing gas arises from either a dry oxidizing ambient comprising O2, a dry oxidizing ambient comprising O2 and HCl, or a wet oxidation ambient comprising steam (and possibly HCl). Chlorine has a positive effect on dry oxidation, the improvements being, for example, a reduction of ionic charge movement in the oxide, increase in minority carrier lifetime, and a reduction in oxide irregularities and charge trap sites in the oxide. Chlorine alone, however, cannot pose a significant enough reduction in irregularities and charge trap sites without further enhancements to the steps occurring after oxidation.
Subsequent to oxidation 24, is a post-oxidation ramp cycle 26. Ramp 26 involves an increase in temperature from the oxidation temperature to a post oxidation anneal temperature. According to a preferred embodiment, the oxidation temperature may be approximately 850� C. and post-oxidation anneal may occurs at approximately 1000� C.
Ramp 26 further involves evacuating oxygen, hydrogen and/or chlorine gas from the chamber and re-introducing an inert gas, such as nitrogen. The rate of increase of ramp 26 may be significantly greater than the rate involved in ramp 20. Preferably, the rate of increase of ramp 26 is greater than 5� C. per minute but less than, for example, 20� C. per minute. Subsequent to ramp 26, a post-oxidation anneal 28 occurs. Anneal 28 is carried forth in two stages denoted as reference numerals 28a and 28b, both encompassing the same anneal temperature. First stage 28a utilizes only an inert ambient, whereas the second stage 28b utilizes either exclusively oxygen or both oxygen and nitrogen in the ambient. Regardless of whether nitrogen is present, the oxygen flow rate involved in stage 28b is relatively large, and in some instances, can exceed 2000 sccm, or 20 liters of oxygen within the chamber. The flow rate can vary depending on the chamber volume and wafer surface area provided, however, the flow rate does not cause uneven oxide growth across the previously formed oxide. Second stage 28b occurs for a relatively short period of time, for example, less than 30 seconds to effectuate incorporation of oxygen atoms into the oxide grown during oxidation 24.
The flow rate and volume of oxygen used during post-oxidation anneal 28b can be varied depending upon the quantity or density of oxygen atoms needed within the thermal oxide. The density needed varies depending on the numbers of irregularities or trap sites formed within the oxide during oxidation 24. Thus, the flow rates and quantities described are presented as an example around which oxygenation can vary depending upon a desired performance outcome.
Subsequent to post-oxidation anneal 28b, a cool down cycle 30 occurs. Cool down 30 serves to decrease the temperature within the chamber, and uses a combination of nitrogen and oxygen gas within the chamber. The volume and flow rate of oxygen during cool down 30 is significantly lower than that during post-oxidation anneal 28b. According to one embodiment, the volume of oxygen during cool down 30 is less than 0.1 of the oxygen used during post-oxidation anneal 28b. The addition of oxygen during anneal 28b and cool down 30 will add to the thickness of oxide growing during oxidation 24. The added amount is believed to be less than approximately 20 angstroms. The present sequence compensates for the added back-end oxidation by possibly lowering the duration of oxidation cycle 24. The additional oxide thickness is, however, a necessary byproduct of incorporating oxygen into the oxide bulk for the benefit of improving electrical performance.
FIG. 3 depicts in further detail several of the processing steps shown in FIG. 2. Like reference numerals will be provided to steps which are consistent with those shown in FIG. 2 for sake of consistency and clarity. Additional processing steps, however, are shown in FIG. 3 and will be accorded additional reference numerals. FIG. 3 illustrates a fabrication sequence, and parameters involved in that sequence, above and beyond those shown in FIG. 2. For example, it is necessary that the silicon surface be prepared prior to loading it into the anneal/oxidizing chamber. Preparation steps involve growing a sacrificial oxide and then removing that sacrificial oxide in step 32. Sacrificial oxidation serves to remove impurities formed on the silicon surface by consuming, that surface with the grown oxide.
In addition to, or in lieu of sacrificial oxidation 32, a pre-clean sequence 34 may take place. Sequence 34 is preferably a two-step sequence involving an alkaline cleaning solution, SC1, followed by a HF cleaning solution. The SC1 solution comprises, for example, H2 O--NH4 OH--H2 O2 at a ratio of 7:0.15:3. The solution may be heated to approximately 80� C., and the silicon surface may be submerged in the solution for approximately 10-15 minutes. The wafers are rinsed in deionized water after exposure to the SC1 solution. Then, the wafers may be submerged for approximately 15 seconds in a mixture of HF--H2 O. The ratio HF:H2 O may be chosen at approximately 1:10 to approximately 1:100. The SC1 solution serves to remove residual organic contaminants and alkaline materials formed on the silicon surface. Unfortunately, the SC1 solution may produce ionic contaminants (e.g., iron and aluminum) from within the solution as well as chemical oxide, possibly in the form of a hydrous oxide byproduct. The HF solution removes hydrous oxide and the ionic contaminants associated with hydrous oxide so that the silicon surface has a controlled amount of contaminants or is relatively neutral prior to oxidation. This is necessary to ensure a controlled amount of charge at or near the silicon surface. In this fashion, whatever charge density occurs at the surface post clean can be moved deeper within the substrate during pre-oxidation anneal.
After cleaning the silicon surface, the wafer embodying the silicon surface is loaded into the anneal/oxidation chamber at step 16. Preferably, loading occurs within 30 minutes of the SC1 and HF dip steps 34. After the temperature within the chamber is increased dramatically, it must again be increased to a pre-oxidation anneal temperature. The latter temperature increase is known as the pre-oxidation ramp cycle 20, which occurs at a relatively slow rate of less than, e.g., 10� C. per minute, and preferably approximately 7� C. per minute. Once pre-oxidation anneal temperatures are achieved, anneal is carried forth immediately preceding oxidation. Anneal cycle 22 occurs in an inert ambient and at oxidation temperature. Oxidation 24 occurs in a H2 /O2 ratio which may be approximately 0.5 to 1.25. Subsequent to oxidation, temperature within the chamber is again increased to a post-oxidation anneal temperature, as shown by reference numerals 28a and 28b. According to one embodiment, nitrogen gas is purged and an oxygen gas is substituted for a duration less than or equal to 30 seconds. Alternatively, nitrogen may be maintained but at a lesser flow rate while oxygen is applied. After post-oxidation anneal 28, temperature is decreased during a cool down cycle 30. Cool down extends to a temperature at or near room temperature so that the wafers can then be removed from the chamber and placed in an atmospheric environment.
Referring to FIG. 4, a partial cross-sectional view of a semiconductor topography 40 is shown. Topography 40 includes field regions which surrounds an active region. The field regions are occupied by a field dielectric 42, and the active region comprise a silicon surface 44. Existing within silicon substrates 46 are gettering sites 48. Gettering sites 48 are often termed intrinsic gettering sites which, according to one popular design, are irregularities derived from migratory oxygen atoms pre-existing within the bulk of substrate 46 prior to any processing thereof. Gettering sites 48 occur within bulk regions 50 of substrate 46. This is due to surface regions 52 being denuded of sites 48. Nucleation, precipitation and denudation generally occur as a three-step sequence needed to place gettering sites 48 deep within bulk areas 50 and away from active regions near surface 44.
Exposing substrate 46 to a pre-oxidation anneal, such as that shown as reference numeral 22 in FIGS. 2 and 3, reduces thermal energy 54 applied to substrate 46. Thermal energy 54 is chosen at a magnitude sufficient to move metallic contaminants 56 arising from pre-process oxidation steps. Thermal energy drives contaminants 56 deep within the bulk to the gettering sites 48 where they combine and maintain their positions at those sites. Importantly, pre-oxidation anneal proves beneficial in removing silicon-based charges from surface 44, and placing those charges in regions where they will not harm relatively shallow junctions, channels, and especially the oxide residing upon the channels.
FIG. 5 depicts topography 40 subsequent to the step of FIG. 4. Specifically, topography 40 in FIG. 5 includes an oxide 60 formed during oxidation step 24 (shown in FIGS. 2 and 3). Thermal oxide 60 grows only on the exposed silicon surface 44, between field oxide regions 42. It is noted that field oxide 24 comprises a dielectric, preferably soxide formed either by a shallow trench isolation ("STI") process or the well-known LOCOS process. FIG. 5 specifically shows post-oxidation anneal in the presence of an oxygen gas. As such, thermal energy 62 is applied concurrent with oxygen atoms 64. The combination of thermal energy 62 and oxygen 64 causes a slight increase in the thickness of oxide 60 but, more importantly, incorporates oxygen atoms into oxide 60 and at the interface between oxide 60 and silicon substrate 46.
FIG. 6 is a detailed view of oxide 60 and the oxide-silicon interface at a localized region shown in FIG. 5. Specifically, FIG. 6 illustrates a mechanism by which oxygen atoms incorporated during post-oxidation anneal 28b move to and occupy irregularities and charge traps within oxide 60 and at the oxide-silicon interface 66. Illustrated are various charge trap sites, the nomenclature thereof being directed to the position of those sites within regions 60 and 66. As henceforth noted, the trap sites can include irregularities which may or not be charged. At region 66 are trap sites referred to as interface trap sites Qit. Sites Qit occur at the oxide-silicon interface. Qit occurs primarily as a result of dangling bonds, often referred to as interfacial trap locations at the oxide-silicon interface. Dangling bonds result primarily from sporadic silicon-to-oxide atomic bonds which readily accept mobile carriers (electrons or holes) at the interface. Qit oftentimes changes with gate bias if the interface trap is moved past the Fermi level, causing its occupancy to change. The density of Qit is directly proportional to the propensity of dangling bonds or trap sites located at the silicon-oxide interface. In addition to interfacial trap sites Qit fixed trap sites Qft also occur during oxide formation. Qft occur generally between 30 to 35 angstroms into the oxide from the silicon-oxide interface. Qft remains as predominantly positive fixed charge centered primarily in the so-called interface region of SiOx. In addition to Qit and Qft, oxide trap sites Qot occur within the silicon dioxide SiO2 material. Qot are associated with irregularities in oxide 60, classified as, e.g., impurities, contaminants, point defects, area defects, and broken bonds. Trap sites Qot become charged if avalanche injection of highly energetic ("hot carriers") are forwarded into oxide 60. Another way traps Qot can become charged is through tunneling associated with non-volatile memory program and erase techniques. Regardless of how the various trap sites can be charged, it is necessary to minimize their propensity for being charged.
Without being bound to theory, it is believed that introduction of oxygen during post-oxidation anneal serves to migrate, occupy and substantially neutralize many of the charge sites Qot, Qft and Qit. FIG. 6 depicts migration of oxygen atoms 70 to the various trap sites to reduce the overall trap density and, accordingly, the charge density within the oxide stoichiometric and non-stochiometric regions, as well as at the oxide-silicon interface.
The desire to minimize trap sites and therefore minimize charge density is evident partly in the need to reduce flat band voltage skews and, more importantly, changes in threshold voltage from the ideal, specified threshold amount. Generally speaking, circuit design assumes a uniform and controlled threshold voltage across all devices involved in an integrated circuit. If the threshold voltage skews, then deleterious changes in operating speed, propagation delay, and subthreshold currents may exist. Yet further, presence of substantial trap sites and charge density within the oxide or oxide interface will increase the source/drain leakage current and, more importantly, will decrease the breakdown voltage of the oxide.
FIG. 7 depicts I-V characteristics of an oxide derived from the present process sequence. Voltage is applied across a gate dielectric of approximately 100 angstroms, and the voltage is increased at approximately 0.5 volts per second. Illustrated in FIG. 7 is a relatively small current up to a voltage of approximately 8 volts. The small current is characterized as leakage current of approximately 1�10-13 amperes through the oxide. A sudden increase in current does not occur until after approximately 10 volts, and preferably between 11 volts and 15 volts, indicative of a rather large breakdown voltage.
Thus, the I-V graph indicates a relatively small leakage current and substantially large breakdown voltage when oxides are prepared having oxygen flow incorporated into the post-oxidation anneal cycle. Breakdown voltage may appear to also be increased due to a cool down cycle involving oxygen as well as a slow temperature increase during pre-oxidation ramp cycle. Still further, enhanced breakdown voltage may be due to a more thorough pre-oxidation clean sequence involving the present two steps. The latter cleaning step of the two being that used to remove ionic contaminants formed as a result of the preceding cleaning step. Thus, the combination of various factors serve to minimize charge density, trap sites and irregularities prior to, during and after thermal oxidation to achieve the electrical performance enhancements described herein and set forth in FIG. 7.
It will be appreciated to those skilled in the art having the benefit of this disclosure that this invention is believed applicable to any MOS-processed circuit having a thermally grown oxide. Furthermore, it is also to be understood that the form of the invention shown and described is to be taken as exemplary, presently preferred embodiments. In many instances, the present process is most suited for growth of critical oxides, such as gate oxides or tunnel oxides which are quite thin. It is important to utilize the present process to substantially eliminate any and all irregularities, disparities, dislocations, disruptions, etc., not only within the silicon lattice near the silicon surface, but also within the oxide thermally grown thereon. Reduction in such sites appears to provide beneficial electrical results. The specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.
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Nintendo 3DS
If there was a 3DS Golden Sun installment...
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I'd like more characterization in the playable characters. DD was especially awful with this.
I'd also like a non-silent protag. Just a personal preference.
The battle system should be majorly tweaked. You can just cast spells till the cows come home and you won't die. Spells should cost more and should be more character specific, not class specific. The enemy AI also needs an upgrade.
The Djinn system also needs to be re-tweaked, but not as much as the battle system. Djinn are too easy to abuse.
My sig will never happen, but it would be awesome if it did.
Inb4 GoldenSun3DS
After I finish life the first time, I'm doing a challenge run.
LttP>everything else.
Most bosses should be equal or greater in difficulty to DD's Final Boss.
I'd like to see it not happen. It's a very average series at best, IMO.
Awesome graphics by taking 3d to a whole new level
Awesome music
I'd rather have them not add any more to the 8 characters from DD, if they must add, keep only 8 characters playable. GS just isn't the type of a game to carry a cast of tons of playable characters (Chrono Cross)
Balanced EXP rates...it was just outrageous by the end of DD.
Make psynergy more useful and nerf regular attacks/unleash
Make classes more effective. IMO, there doesn't seem to be any difference if Isaac is to be a ninja, slayer, or chaos lord...
More character and class exclusive psynergy
More cameo/participation from the previous characters.
Difficult bosses + challenging puzzles
Return perfect level ups + RNG drops lol
Longer game (longer compared to the other 3) that will end the series
"Oh to dream, we leap from dream to dream. And yet everyday, we seem to dream anew" - The old people from Love Hina
wellll.. more rpgs on the system is a good thing. I really liked the 2 gba games... less so the ds game. But id possibly get a new one.
frozen_time posted...
Awesome graphics by taking 3d to a whole new level
Pretty much all of that. Plus Isaac's beard.
I'd like to see Camelot not make it. Anyone else, please.
http://i34.tinypic.com/adnlsk.jpg http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_mcjibxsGMv1renuivo1_400.gif
frozen_time posted...
Awesome graphics by taking 3d to a whole new level
Basically this.
Stop reading my sig, you are wasting time doing so.
I'd get it I loved the first two and I'm working on the 3rd. Last I heard they're asking for fans to acknowledge support for a sequel and they'll make it.
GT: J03HIG45HI PS3/Vita: JoeHigashi2000 3DS: 0817-3804-7210


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text: http://www.mobileread.com – Bad luck! I cracked my nexus 7 screen just after I got it one month. The screen is unresponsive. I found this Nexus 7 LCD Screen and Digitizer Assembly. And also the Nexus 7 Digitizer Touch Screen. The LCD assembly is really too expensive. Hope I don't have to replace it. Which part do I have to replace? Anyone who know please help. (HowTos)


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Refrigeration Engineers: Job Description & Career Info
Refrigerators may seem like a mundane fixture of everyday life, but refrigeration engineering requires a well-rounded skill set and solid grasp of thermodynamics. With a four-year bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering, potential refrigeration engineers can enter the job market to design, create, and refine refrigeration systems for a wide variety of uses.
Career Definition
Refrigeration engineering involves planning, designing, and project management of refrigeration systems for commercial manufacturers. Refrigeration engineers are expected to develop designs for, oversee fabrication of, and troubleshoot problems with complex refrigeration systems for residential and industrial use, including restaurant units, refrigerated healthcare equipment, and insulated trucks and trailers. For those with knowledge of thermodynamics (the use and transfer of energy), an interest in hands-on engineering work and a respect for safety procedures, a career in refrigeration engineering may be the perfect fit.
How to Become a Refrigeration Engineer
Required Education
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), most engineering jobs require a bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, which for refrigeration engineers is the field of mechanical engineering. The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) accredits thousands of programs throughout the United States. With a degree from an accredited program, engineers qualify for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, the first of two exams administered by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES), www.ncees.org, to certify them as Professional Engineers. The second exam, Principles and Practice of Engineering, may be taken after passing the FE exam and gaining the amount of work experience required by the state in which they work (www.abet.org). To bolster their career growth, some refrigeration engineers pursue a master's degree in mechanical engineering with a focus in thermodynamics or thermo-science.
Skills Required
The BLS describes engineers as creative, methodical workers who enjoy a challenge, love to problem-solve, and collaborate well with a team. Refrigeration engineers should have particular knowledge of thermodynamics, computer-aided design (CAD) systems, and appropriate handling procedures for potentially hazardous materials like Freon. A thorough understanding of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) codes and regulations for refrigeration systems is also essential.
Career Outlook
The mechanical engineering field, including refrigeration engineering, is estimated by the BLS to increase employment by 5% from 2012-2022, which is slower than the average. Salaries range from $52,000 or lower to $121,000 or higher, depending on experience and employer size; the BLS reported the median to be $80,580 as of May 2012. Mechanical engineers interested in management and looking to offset slowed career growth might consider earning an Engineering Management Certification International designation from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Alternate Career Options
Sales Engineer
Normally needing a bachelor's degree in a field related to engineering, sales engineers sell technological and scientific services and products to business.The BLS predicts average employment growth of 9% for this career during the 2012-2022 decade and reports an annual median wage of $91,830 in 2012.
Petroleum Engineer
With a bachelor's degree in a relevant area of engineering, petroleum engineers then seek employment developing ways to extract gas and oil from underneath the surface of the earth. Earning a median annual salary of $130,280 in 2012, according to the BLS, these engineers could look forward to much faster than average job growth of 26% from 2012-2022.
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WALK TO DOWNTOWN SAN JOSE FROM HERECosta Rica, San Jose, San Jose
About This Listing
Nice and quiet room in large and sunny 3 bedroom apartment. Very quiet area but within easy walking distance to downtown (4 short bus stops or approx. 10-15 min walk).
Medical Stay - Students - 1 month plus welcome
We speak English - Spanish -German
Space where guests can cook their own meals
In the building, free or for a fee
Continuous access in the listing
Space where guests can cook their own meals
Towels, bed sheets, soap, and toilet paper
Central heating or a heater in the listing
In the building, free or for a fee
In the building, free or for a fee
Continuous access in the listing
Breakfast is provided.
The listing can accommodate a gathering of 25 or more attendees
Easy access to the building and listing for guests in wheelchairs
Private or Shared
Free, in the building or nearby
Posted emergency information and resources
Included in the nightly price.
The Space
The room faces the backyard and if you are lucky and wake up at the right moment, you'll see a hummingbird fly by. Instead of traffic noise you will wake up hearing the birds chirping.
Start the day with a leisurely breakfast, that comes with fresh fruit, a good cup of coffee or tea, real bread and marmalade or cereal. We also have a Magic Bullet if you'd rather mix up a smoothie.
We have a large colorful living room with large windows letting in a lot of sunlight, which really is the place to sit and relax, read a book and check the e-mails and plan out your trip.
If you don't speak any Spanish or little, no problem. We also speak English and German. French is rusty, but I have a neighbor that can help if needed.
I have tons of books around, bring one and leave another one.
In case of any questions, just ask and I'll be happy to answer them.
Guest Access
You get use of the kitchen and washing machine and if needed you can surf on one of our computers. The bathroom is shared, but if you prefer a private bathroom, I could offer you the smaller blue room instead since that has a private bathroom adjacent to the room (see listing room/532613).
Interaction with Guests
That is up to you: entirely.
We love to share and enjoy common meals. We can toss a coin who cooks. We have been on trips, walked downtown and hung out in the local bars, but we respect the space and silence just the same.
Not sure about traveling by yourself? I do a little bit of freelancing as a tour guide and have accompanied guests on their trips.
The Neighborhood
We have some great restaurants and bars only a few blocks to the north in up-coming Barrio Escalante or head on over to San Pedro with it's night time hustle and bustle from the university crowd.
In case you are staying with us on the weekend, join us for a trip to the farmers market, where we stock up on fruits and veggies. In case you'd like your adrenaline going, join me for a bike ride.
We are 1 block from Avenida Central in Barrio Francisco Peralta / east of Los Yoses / south of Escalente (East of downtown and before San Pedro).
Close to the UCR, Veritas, U Latina and some other universities.
Getting Around
During the day catch the inexpensive buses that pass by every other minute to move around, once it gets dark you are better off catching a cab.
Bus stop is one block away. Any bus saying: San Pedro works
For your trip from the airport we can recommend a great shuttle service for $ 30 flat rate or if you arrive during the day you can catch the public bus from the airport to downtown and then a cab which all together will cost around $ 5-7, which is what I usually do too.
Other Things to Note
For years we have tried to help the animals that cross our path and we do have a couple of friendly dogs and cats, which we have rescued off the streets and which we haven't been able to place into permanent homes yet. While 2 of the cats mostly keep to themselves and will hide from you, KitKat might sneak in for a nap on the bed. The dogs might be persuaded to go for a walk with you to show you around the neighborhood.
We always enjoy meeting nice people and are pretty easygoing.
Our dogs are used to visitors and love treats just not during dinner. They can have all the leftovers after and will wag their tails just as much. They also love going for walks, for those that like the company.
Please, no smoking in the house and no drugs whatsoever.
67 Reviews
Alexandra was an excellent host providing many tips and great local advice. Her breakfast was incredible and a perfect start to our Costa Rican adventure.
very friendly and helpful host, delicious breakfast, and excellent location
This was a great place for the night, before returning to the airport. Alexandra was helpful in giving directions to find dinner and to get to the airport. Breakfast was wonderful and included freshly baked bread and donuts, with a variety of tropical fruit and freshly brewed coffee.
Great experience at this cozy, very welcoming apartment near downtown San Jose. Had a great time with Alexandra - lovely breakfast and fun time through the market. Love her animals, supersweet. Easy to walk places, Alexandra knows the area very well and hosts a lot making it ideal to stay.
This place is worth staying at for the Breakfast alone. Home made bread, donuts, jams, exotic fruits and freshly pressed coffee, not to mention the great company.
Aexandra is such a great person to stay with, she is very friendly, welcoming and helpful with any questions, always getting out the map and showing us where we should go.
It was our first AirBnB visit and we were thrilled with the experience. The room is very neat and very roomy. The location of the house is great. About 5 mintue walk to the nearest super market and about 15minute walk into the heart of San Jose.
We had a wonderful time in San Jose, and staying with Alexandra made it that much better.
5 Stars *****
Vielen Dank für die herzliche Aufnahme und ein sehr leckeres Frühstück!
We only stayed at Alexandra's place for one night (most of it sleeping exhausted from our flight to San Jose), but managed to chat with Alexandra and hang out a bit with the two dogs and three cats (this number varies) living in the house. We're huge animal lovers, and for us this was a plus, but it would definitely only work for someone comfortable with all sorts of street animals.
The room itself was comfortable, clean and colourfully decorated - setting your mood just right for the beginning of your stay in CR. Breakfast was tasty, with plenty of fresh fruit, coffee and delicious berliner pastries (whether you get bread or pastries varies depending on the day of the week you stay) made by Alexandra.
Though the place is showing signs of aging, its decoration and setup are really special and original - from mural paintings, hanging bikes and a hammock in the living room, to colored light strings in the bathroom. The bathroom itself could use a bit more cleaning (we're rather OCD with that aspect, so it may be totally fine for other people), but understandably that's harder to do in a house with so many pets roaming around.
We didn't get to explore the surrounding area much, but it feels rather empty commerce-wise in the immediate vicinity. If you bring your own car you have to pay a guard to watch it a couple of blocks down the street overnight since it's not safe to leave it in front of the house - though that may be true of a lot of San Jose, which is noticeably less safe than most of the rural areas in CR.
Alexandra was a friendly and helpful host and the place is great value for CR.
This host has 168 reviews for other properties.View Other Reviews
About the Host, Alexandra
Love to read, enjoy the days as they come. Every now and then a stray comes along - some have stayed, while other cats and dogs have found new homes, so there is always some assortment of 4 legged friends around.
I have started to add a couple of additional listings from very good friends and I do vouch for each of the listings added. I hope that these listings can round out a trip to Costa Rica!
ATM at Instituto Mixto de Ayuda Social
ATM, also inexpensive Soda for a quick lunch
I used to go there all the time: good coffee, bagels, food a little bit pricey for this being Bagels, free Wifi
If you ever get lost, just ask for KFC en La California.
Casa Italia
2 Italian Restaurants. Nice little park next to them.
Yukawal Organic+Vegetarian+Gluten Free Restaurant
Small Restaurant featuring Organic+Vegetarian+Gluten Free food with a caribbean flair. Super nice owner. Lunch Special 3.300 col
Sofia Mediterraneo
Great Restaurant - Mediterranean food - Lunch Special 3.500 col., Dinner options arou(phone number hidden)000 col
El Buen Comer
Local cuisine, lunch menu 2.500 col
Grab something to eat, I think they have Tapas and Sangria too.
Supermarket Auto Mercado
Very good quality supermarket, fresh stuff, lots of gluten free products, great variety.
Costa Rica Beer Factory
Some nightlife, good to watch sports too
La Musa Confusa
For Coffee and Lunch, has vegetarian options. Nice funky style, popular with the Veritas university crowd.
Fresh Market
Open until 10:30 PM
Quiznos Fast Food
for those that like Sandwiches, Subway is right next door too.
Mantras Veggie Cafe and Tea House
Great and tasty vegetarian food, good size portion - you won't stay hungry!
Mall San Pedro
good for people watching, food court, movies. ATM


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Best Bites Blog > Food Trucks
Truck Stops: Where to Find Lunch on Wheels
Every morning, we'll let you know where the area's food trucks are rolling.
Big Cheese Truck: UDC (Van Ness St. and Connecticut Ave., NW).
Cap Mac: Union Station (N. Capitol St. and Massachusetts Ave., NW).
Carnivore Barbecue: Franklin Square (13th and K sts., NW) with barbecue pork and brisket.
Curbside Cupcakes: Pinky One: First stop: Van Ness/UDC Metro (Van Ness St. and Connecticut Ave., NW); Second stop: 20th and E streets, Northwest; Third stop: 24th and M streets, Northwest; Fourth stop: 20th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, Northwest. Pinky Two: First stop: Chinatown/Gallery Place (roughly Seventh and G sts., NW); Second stop: 12th Street and New York Avenue, Northwest; Third stop: 17th and L streets, Northwest; Fourth stop: 13th and L streets, Northwest.
DC Empanadas: Union Station (N. Capitol St. and Massachusetts Ave., NW) with beef, buffalo chicken, roast pork, and veggie empanadas, cookie sandwiches, and more.
DC Pie Truck: 21st Street and Virginia Avenue, Northwest.
Doug the Food Dude: Lynn Street (at Wilson Blvd., Rosslyn).
Eat Wonky: George Washington University (roughly 22nd and H sts., NW).
Fojol Bros.: Metro Center (12th and G sts., NW).
Goode's Mobile Kitchen: Van Ness/UDC Metro (roughly Van Ness St. and Connecticut Ave., NW).
Pedro and Vinny's: 15th and K streets, Northwest.
Pi Truck DC: Chinatown/Gallery Place (Eighth and F sts., NW) with whole, deep-dish pizza.
Pleasant Pops: L'Enfant (Seventh and D sts., SW) with pineapple-basil, strawberries-and-cream popsicles, and more.
Porc Mobile: Chinatown/Gallery Place (roughly Seventh and G sts., NW) with pulled pork, smokey joes, lamb sausage, and barbecue beans.
Red Hook Lobster Truck: L'Enfant (Seventh and D sts., SW).
Sabor'a Street: Farragut Square (17th and K sts., NW).
Sang on Wheels: Franklin Square (13th and K sts., NW) with barbecue lamb, egg rolls, drunken noodles, and more.
Sâuçá: Marco Polo: L'Enfant (Seventh and D sts., SW); Pangea: West End (24th and M sts., NW); Saucalito: Metro Center (12th and G sts., NW).
Sol Mexican Grill: Franklin Square (13th and K sts., NW).
Sweet Bites Truck: Rosslyn and Crystal City locations TBA throughout the day.
Tasty Kabob: George Washington University (22nd and H sts., NW).
Top Dog Truck: Solutions and Greensboro drives, Tysons Corner.
Yellow Vendor: 22nd and H streets, Northwest.
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