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Dr. Paul Mason (August 1998)
Two dilemmas exist concerning prison movies: first, hardly any research has been undertaken in the area and secondly, there has been little attempt to define the prison movie. Paradoxically, whilst the genre may not be instantly recognisable, there are many prison movies that stick in the memory. I Am A Fugitive from A Chain Gang (1932), based on the real life events of Robert Burns from his book I Was A Fugitive from A South Georgia Chain Gang !, was an extraordinary film depicting the harrowing experience of James Allen (Paul Muni) who escapes the chain gang only to live in constant fear of being caught. In a powerful final scene, Allen says a last goodbye to the woman he loves - Helen (Helen Vinson):
Allen: But I havent escaped, theyre still after me, theyll always be after me. Ive had jobs but I cant keep them - something happens, someone turns up. I hide in the rooms all day and travel by night: no friends, no rest, no peace...keep moving thats all thats left for me. Forgive me Helen, I had to take a chance to see you tonight, just to say goodbye. Helen: Oh Jim, it was all gonna be so different Allen: It is different, theyve made me different. (hears a noise and, startled, whispers) Ive gotta go Helen: I cant let you go like this, cant you tell me where youre going (shakes his head) Will you write ? (shakes head again) Did you need any money ? (shakes head, backing away from her and staring wildly) But Jim, how do you live ? Allen: I steal
Allen: But I havent escaped, theyre still after me, theyll always be after me. Ive had jobs but I cant keep them - something happens, someone turns up. I hide in the rooms all day and travel by night: no friends, no rest, no peace...keep moving thats all thats left for me. Forgive me Helen, I had to take a chance to see you tonight, just to say goodbye.
Helen: Oh Jim, it was all gonna be so different
Allen: It is different, theyve made me different. (hears a noise and, startled, whispers) Ive gotta go
Helen: I cant let you go like this, cant you tell me where youre going (shakes his head) Will you write ? (shakes head again) Did you need any money ? (shakes head, backing away from her and staring wildly) But Jim, how do you live ?
Allen: I steal
Fifteen years later Jules Dassins Brute Force (1947) offered a bleak representation of prison life. Of the many brutal scenes in the film, the most graphic is undoubtedly the death of a prison informer. He is forced into the pit of a drop hammer, surrounded by other inmates carrying blow torches. Naturally the hammer falls, and the prison guards need to find a new grass. Along with the tense protracted negotiations between warden and inmate in Riot In Cell Block Eleven (1954) and Burt Lancaster tending to his canaries in Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), the prison movie is best remembered for inmates battling with the prison authorities. Paul Newman as Luke Jackson is determined to do his two years as hard time in Cool Hand Luke (1962). Jackson refuses to submit to authority, facing unmerciful beatings from the guards and inmates alike, and memorably wins a bet to eat fifty hard boiled eggs. For his non-conformity, Steve McQueen in the title role of Papillon (1973) does two lengthy spells in solitary confinement, forced to consume insects to survive the second spell; while Paul Crew (Burt Reynolds) refuses to throw the cons versus guards football game in The Mean Machine (1974) realising his sentence will be increased and his life made a misery by the Warden.
Prison movies veer wildly from the ridiculous: Lock Up (1989) (Stallone does Rambo in a prison yard) and Chained Heat (1992) (Bridget Nielsen prances about as a leather clad lesbian prison warden) to the sublime: Daniel Day-Lewis as Gerry Conlon fighting for his freedom in In The Name Of The Father (1994) and Kevin Bacon and Christian Slater fighting against Alcatraz and the authorities in Murder In The First (1994). What follows here is a look behind the bars at the significance of the prison movie. First, we must return to the issue of defining the genre.
The Prison Movie As Genre
The term 'prison movie' is both a nebulous and problematic one. It is not a term used in everyday discourse like 'gangster film', 'musical' or 'western' is used and yet most of us would describe Midnight Express, Birdman of Alcatraz and Papillon as 'prison movies'. Only Querry (1973), Nellis & Hale (1981) and Crowther (1989) have written about the prison movie and none of them attempts to define the genre. It is perhaps the difficulty in definition which explains why so little has been written about the prison film despite over three hundred having been made since 1910. The biggest problem with prison films is deciding how much of a film has to be set in prison to be classed as a prison film. As Nellis & Hale (1981) point out:
scenes of imprisonment occur in all different types of...film...like A Man For All Seasons, swashbuckling melodramas like The Count Of Monte Cristo and even in westerns, There Was A Crooked Man for example. (Nellis & Hale 1981, p.6)
Conversely, a film about prison does not necessarily have to be set in one. David Hayman's film Silent Scream (1990) concerns the suffering and mental anguish brought on by incarceration, yet this is not predominantly set in prison. We're No Angels (1955), Breakout (1975), In The Name Of The Father (1995) and Sleepers (1996) could all be seen as concerned with prison, yet in all of them a significant part of the film takes place outside the prison walls. Further more, Laurel & Hardy in The Hoose Gow (1929), Elvis Presley's Jailhouse Rock (1957) and Porridge (1978) whilst all mainly set within the walls of a prison are merely star vehicles with prison as a backdrop. Having considered these problems, I settled on the following definition of a prison movie - 'a film which concerns civil imprisonment and which is mainly set within the walls of a prison or uses prison as a central theme'. Whilst not without its flaws, not least of which being the well documented problem of delineating genre , I think it is a working definition allowing a discussion of prison movies. Before looking at two specific issues in prison movies, I will deal briefly with broader thematic patterns .
Escape, Battle and Riot
Along with the prison as machine and inmates first experience of prison (discussed below), there are of course other themes prevalent in the prison film - not least of which is the prison escape documented in numerous films such as Prison Break (1938), Crashout (1955), Breakout (1975) and, perhaps most memorably Midnight Express (1978). The constant battle with authority too punctuates most prison films. Often depicted as a battle to survive, inmate defiance has been central to the prison movie. Robert Stroud's refusal to be institutionalised in Birdman Of Alcatraz (1962) is a prime example of such a battle. There is a constant struggle throughout the film between the Governor and Stroud culminating in Stroud's tirade against the prison system:
you want your prisoners to dance out the gates like puppets on a string with rubber stamp values impressed by you with your sense of conformity, your sense of behaviour even your sense of morality...When they're outside they're lost - automatons just going through the motions of living but underneath there's a deep deep hatred for what you did to them...The result? More than half come back to prison.
The battle is sometimes physical with brutal exchanges between officers and inmates (McVicar (1980), Scum (1983) Lock Up (1989) for example). While at other times it is expressed in mental victories over the system - broadcasting music over the exercise yard tannoy from the Governor's office in The Shawshank Redemption (1995); deliberately losing the big race in The Loneliness Of The Long Distance Runner (1962) and getting Alcatraz closed down in Murder In The First (1995). The target for inmate battles is often represented as a huge faceless system of which the guards and the Warden are only part: inmates must fight the machinery of punishment.
House Of The Dead: the prison machine
Central to the prison movie is the concept of the prison as a machine: the 'system' with its impenetrable sets of rules and regulations which grind on relentlessly. The effect of such a mechanistic depiction of punishment is to highlight both the individual fight for survival and the inherent process of dehumanisation which comes with incarceration in the system. The monotony and regulation of prison life is most often depicted by the highly structured movement of prisoners. From prison films of the 1930s and 40s like Numbered Men (1930), The Criminal Code (1931), San Quentin (1937), Men Without Souls (1940) and Brute Force (1947) through to recent movies like Dead Man Walking (1995) and The Shawshank Redemption (1995) shots of inmates trudging along the huge steel landings, up and down stairwells to and from their cells has been used to convey the system within prison:
Rows of cell doors open simultaneously and hundreds of prisoners tramp in unison to the yard. In the cavernous mess hall, they sit down to eat the mass-produced fodder their keepers call food. The camera tracks along a row of prisoners to reveal faces mainly individuated by the manner in which they express their revulsion at the meal. (Roffman & Purdy 1981, p.26 on a scene from The Big House)
One of the most memorable examples of this depiction of routine came in the Mervyn LeRoy directed I Am A Fugitive From a Chain Gang (1932). After his first night's sleep in the camp, James Allen (played by Paul Muni) awakes to the sound of the chains which bind the inmates together being pulled along the bunks and out of the dormitory. With heads bowed the inmates sit with their legs over the bunks waiting for the chains to disappear out of sight after which they stand up and march out of the dorm and onto trucks where they are transported to the mines to hammer rocks. All of this is accompanied by the deafening sound of rattling chains and guards shouting abuse at the men.
Many prison films continually repeat shots of inmates doing the same tasks which acts both as a link between scenes and as a reminder to the audience of the mundane regime of prison. In San Quentin (1937) for example we are regularly shown the massive exercise yard filled with inmates; in The Pot Carriers (1961) inmates are frequently seen lining up to collect food; and in McVicar (1981) many of the conversations take place as prisoners walk either up or down stairwells or from their cells. This uniformity in movement not only underlines the highly structured routine of the prison but extends the machinery image further. The motion of inmates, in contrast to the solid silence of the walls which contains it, mirrors the workings of a machine - prisoners are the cogs that whir around, driving the huge mechanism of punishment unswervingly onward.
Indeed, in some films the camera pans round the prison interior, dwelling on landings, stairwells, bars and cell doors, stressing the quasi-industrial nature of the prison. In Wedlock (1990) the audience follow new inmate Magenta (Rutger Hauer) around the high-tech maximum security prison to which he has been sent. The camera sweeps around the dripping silver pipes, huge fans and metal columns accompanied by an insistent humming noise. Two Way Stretch (1960), Midnight Express (1978) and Silent Scream (1990) also feature lengthy internal shots of the prison while prison movies featuring Alcatraz (Alcatraz Island (1937), Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), Escape From Alcatraz (1979) and two TV movies Alcatraz: the Whole Shocking Story (1980) and Six Against The Rock (1987)) all dwell on their grim surroundings.
As well as its physical presence, the prison film shows the inflexible rules of the machine:
'I know 'em. There the same in all Pens. They tell you when to eat, when to sleep, when to go to the privy'. (From Birdman of Alcatraz (1962))
Although used primarily to illustrate injustice, the hard and fast prison rules serve to emphasise the unyielding processing of inmates through the penal system. This is expressed through seemingly trivial regulations such as no inmate may touch the prison radio in The Ladies They Talk About (1933); no talking during hard labour in (amongst many others) Road Gang (1936), Papillon (1973) and Scum (1983); inmates to refer to each other only by their prison name in Wedlock (1990) and so on. Breach of such regulations is often punished by long periods of solitary confinement, a penalty often represented as harsh given the original offence (Papillon (1973) and Murder In The First (1995) for example).
The injustice suffered by inmates at the hands of the prison machine is used by some films to make political points. This was particularly true of films made in the 1930s with prison represented as a symbol of 'the system': the cause of the despair and recession in 1930's America. Films such as Hell's Highway (1932) and Blackwell's Island (1939) show prison as 'the ultimate metaphor of social entrapment' (Roffman & Purdy 1981, p.26) with the emphasis on the brutality of prisons and chain gangs robbing men of their individuality and freedom:
the evil in the men's prisons appears to have been transformed into some larger entity. More often than not, that larger entity takes the form of a political or big city "machine". The effect of this was to encourage the audience to ... vent whatever animosity they might be able to muster on ... the "system" that seemed, to the thirties audience, to control the very life of every honest, hard working (or unemployed) man in America. (Querry 1976, p.159)
The representation of the prison as a machine in cinema is fundamental to the prison movie. For it is from this idea that the other themes flow: escape from the machine, riot against the machine, the role of the machine in processing and rehabilitating inmates and, entering the machine from the free world as a new inmate.
On Entering Prison
One method frequently employed by prison films to stress the systematic nature of the prison experience is the emphasis on its effect on inmates. In particular the dehumanising process which turns men into prisoners, numbers and statistics. This process begins with the routine new inmates first go through when they enter the prison. When Gerry Conlon is first taken to prison in In The Name Of The Father (1995) he hands over his clothes which are placed in a box by a stern looking prison officer. Stripped naked, he is then hosed down in cold water and, covered with delousing powder. His clothes are replaced by prison issue uniform and he is pushed into his cell. The dehumanising process begins. A similar process occurs in both Numbered Men (1940) and The Shawshank Redemption (1996) but versions of this routine are present in nearly all prison films. Their significance centres on the prison's control of the body. Inmates stripped, examined and washed accentuate the transformation from outsider to insider.
There are also parallels here with public executions. Executions at the gallows and guillotine were visible displays of the sovereigns ultimate control over his subjects. This mastering of the body of the condemned, while not ending in the taking of it, is present in the routine on entry to prison. Perhaps most symbolic is the cutting of the hair seen in The Loneliness Of The Long Distance Runner (1962), Papillon (1973) and Midnight Express (1978), historically an attack on liberty and personal autonomy and, of course, visually the most noticeable difference between inmate and free man. The speed and mechanical implementation of these rules regarding the entry of a new inmate is the first, and perhaps therefore the most striking, example of the regulated institutional nature of prison the viewer sees. The machine begins to roll.
This new-inmate procedure has another function other than highlighting the process of turning men into prisoners. As viewers, we have limited knowledge of prison and hence when a character enters prison, we too share their ignorance and fear. As an audience we are subjected to the harsh regime of prison life, stern officers and claustrophobic cells. Cinema is aware of our ignorance and often uses it to elicit sympathy for the new inmate: the naively of "Red" Kennedy (Humphrey Bogart) in falling for an inmate prank in San Quentin (1937) and freshly convicted James Rainbow trusting a well-known tobacco baron in The Pot Carriers (1962) for example. As part of the new arrival, inmates often meet with a violent introduction from guards. Chain gang films like Road Gang (1936) and I Was A Fugitive From A Chain Gang (1932) depict guards whipping inmates new to the regime of hard labour. While in The Mean Machine (1974) Paul Crew (Burt Reynolds) is beaten by Head Guard Captain Kennauer and in Murder In The First (1996) Henry Young (Kevin Bacon) had his foot sliced with a razor by Chief Warden Glenn (Gary Oldman).
The Appeal Of The Prison Film
If one could total up all the hours of screen time that have been devoted to imprisonment, all the years of effort that have been put into making prison films, and if one could count all the people that had seen them, one might be tempted to wonder if it had all been worth it. Nellis & Hale (1981,p.44):
One could argue that it was worth it, if only because particular prison experiences have come to light because of a film. However the question remains whether the prison film ever created 'an atmosphere more conducive to prison reform' (Nellis & Hale (1981, p.44). There are perhaps two reasons for this failure. The first concerns some of the films that comprise the genre. Those prison movies which used the horrors of imprisonment for titillation and shock value, indifferent to any wider reformist stance. Most at fault were the exploitative films about women in prison made in the 1970s including the Women's Penitentiary trilogy: The Big Doll's House (1971), The Big Bird Cage (1972) and Women In Cages (1972). Consequently those prison films with a genuine reformist stance are viewed as simply more refined versions of their crass counterparts. The second reason for the prison film's failure to encourage reform is more political - that the only reason any prison film contributes to the penal debate is because passages already exist for it to happen. In the case of I Am A Fugitive From A Chain Gang (1932), Nellis & Hale (1981) point out the publicity at the time concentrated on how un-American chain gangs were and how they resembled the barbarous acts of nations given a bad press at the time, such as the French on Devil's Island. Hence the billboard poster advertising the film:
Watch the crowds as they come out ! Women...with tears in their eyes ! Men...ready to fight ! (Quoted in Querry 1975, p.28)
Despite the apparent failure of the prison film to change the penal system, its popularity is unquestionable. Root (1982) argues that the attraction of the prison film lies in something intangible:
It isn't immediately obvious why prison films should occupy such a prominent place with the film going public. Most prison films...don't have glamorous locations, rarely involve international stars and usually have very little sex in them. (Root 1982, p.14)
The appeal of films concerning prison lies in a combination of factors. These include the 'deterrent factor' - making the audience think twice before committing a crime; the 'graphic and extreme sadism' (Root 1982, p.14) particularly prevalent in films like Scum (1982) and Midnight Express (1978); and the identification with revolt against authority as we are encouraged to revolt with the hero against his inhumane treatment: to stop the prison machine.
Perhaps most appealing to the audience is the prison film opens up the world of the prison. The audience have the opportunity to share in the criminal world, to move in circles of illegality from the safety of their cinema seats. This viewer-experience is positively encouraged by the film: the audience is locked up with the inmates, hears of the escape plan, talks to the officers and exercises in the yard. It is perhaps in this that the real appeal of prison film lies.
B. Crowther, Captured On Film - The Prison Movie (BT Batsford Ltd. London, 1989)
M. Nellis & C. Hayle, The Prison Film, Radical Alternatives To Prison (London 1982).
R. Querry, Prison Movies: An Annotated Filmography 1921 - Present in Journal Of Popular Film, vol 2, Spring 1973, pp.181-97.
P. Roffman & J. Purdy, The Hollywood Social Problem Film, (Indiana University Press 1981)
J. Root, 'Inside' The Abolitionist No.10 , Radical Alternatives To Prison (London 1982).
For an interesting summary of the arguments surrounding genre criticism see: Film Genre Reader II (B. Grant ed., Austin University of Texas Press 1995).
I have chosen not to focus on narrative structure and character development here. For an extensive, although superficial overview of prison movie plots and characters see: Crowther (1989).
The Internet Movie Database
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COLUMBIA — On Saturday afternoon, Hearnes Center was home to the shuffleboard and washers competitions of the 2014 Missouri State Senior Games.
Shuffleboard can have singles or doubles matches, while a game of washers is played between just two competitors.
Competitor Kenneth Eckert, of Bridgeton, said shuffleboard is an "equalizing sport." Scoring for the game depends on where on the board players' discs land. The smaller the triangle portion of the court, the more points earned. Players can alter the score by sliding others' discs around the court with their own.
Mike Foreman, of Colorado, began playing washers after seeing his mother play. A washers game is won by the first player to reach 21 points, or the highest score in 12 innings of play.
The electronic darts competition was also held at Hearnes Center on Saturday.

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The Alabama football players have been waiting all season to turn their attention to the Iron Bowl.
And now it's finally game week, and it happens to be a matchup of top-four teams.
The top-ranked Crimson Tide mostly talked about No. 4-ranked Auburn during the postgame interviews after Saturday's win over Chattanooga. ...


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FEELS LIKE THE FIRST TIME TAWNY WEBER ISBN: 978-0-373-79496-6 September 2009 Harlequin Blaze www.eharlequin.com Paperback $4.99 224 pages Contemporary Series Romance Rating: 4 Cups
Zoe Gaston has been emotionally blackmailed by her sister-in-law to attend a high school reunion with the aim of finding the mysterious and very talented games programmer, Gandalf. The only up-side that she can see is the chance meet up with her once best friend, Dex, and prove to everyone she is not the failure or perpetual virgin they predicted her to be.
Dexter Drake has agreed to look after his parent's hotel for the week of the reunion in the hope of acting on his long time crush. Zoe never knew how he felt and now she seems only interested in finding Gandalf until she meets him masked at the fancy dress party. Should he tell her he is Gandalf? Or even that he is the masked man? Or maybe just keep playing along until she loves him enough to forgive his games.
Zoe soon realizes that the reunion is not as bad as she expected. Some of the people are even nice. In her efforts to find the programming guru, she discovers her friendship with Dex is still just as strong, and oh boy is he hot. She just does not know if she should risk taking it further, especially when the masked mystery man has her dreaming of steamy encounters you just don't share with your best buddy.
Both Zoe and Dexter have problems with trusting people. While Zoe is learning to allow people to see the real Zoe, Dexter is looking for the motive behind everything she does. He risks everything playing games when honesty would have worked just as well. Ms Weber has again given us an action packed emotional rollercoaster of a ride to finding true love.
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This report offers a broad review and vision of integrated observing for the hydrologic and related sciences. As was articulated in Chapter 1 and the case studies in Chapter 4, population growth and global climate change will increasingly strain the use of fresh water for human activities and require greater efficiencies in our utilization of this essential resource. The difficulties in quantifying many of the stores and pathways of water, and the related energy and biogeochemical fluxes through the environment add layers of uncertainty to the problem. Since these fluxes vary over time and space scales, the integration of observations, data management, and process-based predictive models is essential to provide the information needed to expand our understanding of the linkages among the water, energy and biogeochemical cycles in both pristine and highly modified areas, and to provide useful information for water and environmental managers.
The vision is of the future where on-site ("in-situ") sensors that measure properties such as temperature, soil moisture, and water quality at high spatial and temporal resolution are integrated to form an embedded network that is in turn connected to other networks of observations. These other networks may consist of traditional observation platforms such as ground-based precipitation gages, river discharge gages, or "grab samples" for water quality, or remotely sensed measurements from airborne or spaceborne sensors at larger spatial scales. The vision includes the ability to integrate these measurements across all relevant scales and with models to offer wide-ranging predictive capabilities, and to make both data and predictions widely available through "web portals"—that is, through Internet-based access where users of the predictions and meas-
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OCR for page 143
Synthesis, Challenges, and
This report offers a broad review and vision of integrated observing for the
hydrologic and related sciences. As was articulated in Chapter 1 and the case
studies in Chapter 4, population growth and global climate change will increas-
ingly strain the use of fresh water for human activities and require greater effi-
ciencies in our utilization of this essential resource. The difficulties in quantify-
ing many of the stores and pathways of water, and the related energy and bio-
geochemical fluxes through the environment add layers of uncertainty to the
problem. Since these fluxes vary over time and space scales, the integration of
observations, data management, and process-based predictive models is essential
to provide the information needed to expand our understanding of the linkages
among the water, energy and biogeochemical cycles in both pristine and highly
modified areas, and to provide useful information for water and environmental
The vision is of the future where on-site ("in-situ") sensors that measure
properties such as temperature, soil moisture, and water quality at high spatial
and temporal resolution are integrated to form an embedded network that is in
turn connected to other networks of observations. These other networks may
consist of traditional observation platforms such as ground-based precipitation
gages, river discharge gages, or "grab samples" for water quality, or remotely
sensed measurements from airborne or spaceborne sensors at larger spatial
scales. The vision includes the ability to integrate these measurements across all
relevant scales and with models to offer wide-ranging predictive capabilities,
and to make both data and predictions widely available through "web portals"—
that is, through Internet-based access where users of the predictions and meas-
OCR for page 143
144 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
urements such as water managers and educators could easily access the informa-
Measuring physical, chemical, and biological properties at multiple scales
will increase our process-based and predictive understanding and improve man-
agement. An excellent example of this is provided in Chapter 4 by the Neuse
River Basin Study, because nitrogen cycling in that basin is controlled to a large
extent by microscale processes in regions such as the hyporheic zone, yet under-
standing actual ecosystem dynamics and effects on estuarine systems requires
the broad view provided by spaceborne remote sensing.
While this vision appears futuristic, the study found—and the report docu-
ments—that many elements of this vision currently exist. For example
• Sensors: Chapter 2 presented a comprehensive discussion of sensors at
a wide variety of scales that are currently under development and being tested in
experimental observatories or in research projects that focus on particular envi-
ronmental variables. This chapter also identified approaches that are emerging
in other disciplines that may lead to additional new environmental sensor devel-
opment, and that will need to be modified for actual field deployment to address
issues in water and environment. These advances in measurement technologies
range in scale from nanosensors focusing on biological variables to airborne
sensors that offer spatial context for point measurements to satellite sensors that
offer regional-to-continental scale perspectives.
• Embedded sensor networks: Embedded sensor networks, consisting of
spatially distributed sensor-containing platforms connected to and often con-
trolled by computers, and with the sensors themselves often containing micro-
processors, are also being demonstrated. For example, as presented in Chapter
2, wireless but interconnected instrument buoys at remote lakes in Wisconsin
have provided frequent measurements of lake quality. Dense measurements of
hydrologic and meteorological sensors at the Santa Margarita Ecological Re-
serve are providing real-time data to drive watershed models. And sensors em-
bedded in sewer systems are helping to combat combined sewage overflow.
• Other communications and cyberinfrastructure: In Chapter 3, the
NSF-supported CUAHSI project development of "web portal" applications was
presented along with one current example using this technology, the Central
America Flash Flood Guidance (CAFFG) System. The importance of cyberin-
frastructure was highlighted in several of the case studies presented in Chapter
• Modeling and data assimilation: Chapter 3 also reviewed the consid-
erable advances in data assimilation, that is, the merging of data across scales
from in-situ point measurements to coarser scale airborne or satellite observa-
OCR for page 143
Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 145
tions for use in models. Data assimilation has long been used in applications
such as operational weather prediction and in ocean modeling, and its applica-
tion in land hydrology and environmental science is being demonstrated in re-
search applications.
• Existing experimental watersheds, planned observatories, and interna-
tional initiatives: The USDA and others have many monitored catchments that
have been and can continue to be used for basic science related to watershed
processes. While these are generally at a scale too small to integrate satellite
observations, they can be incorporated into the environmental observatories
planned by the National Science Foundation. At the international level, the in-
tergovernmental Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) has
been conceived and has strong international support.
Despite the great promise of integrated hydrologic measurement, many
challenges stand in the way of its full development and application. Many of
these challenges are illustrated by the case studies offered in Chapter 4. These
studies cover a diverse range of current hydrologic research and management
efforts, encompass a variety of related sciences, and provide detailed discussion
on the need for integrating a wide variety of measurements with models for im-
proved process understanding and management. While these case studies are
not meant to be exhaustive in discussing integrated observations, they are repre-
sentative of the breadth of opportunities facing the community. The most strik-
ing theme from the case studies is that the gaps between the vision of what the
researchers or managers want to achieve and their ability to realize that vision
are real, but in many cases extremely narrow. However, there are major chal-
lenges, which are listed below, followed by recommendations for overcoming
these and other challenges.
Despite the promising advances enumerated above, there are at least nine
major challenges that need to be overcome before the vision for integrated ob-
servations described in this report can be brought closer to reality. These relate
• Developing appropriately scaled sites for water science;
• Developing and field deploying land-based chemical and biological
• Inspiring a greater agency commitment to developing airborne sensors;
• Developing both new spaceborne sensors and a "research-to-
operations" strategy for existing ones;
• Bridging the gap between sensor demonstration and integrated field
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146 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
• Integrating data and models for operational use;
• Adopting new integrated hydrologic measurement and modeling sys-
tems for water resources applications;
• Funding interdisciplinary science; and
• Addressing the fractured federal responsibility for hydrologic meas-
urement, monitoring and modeling.
These challenges are described in more detail in the following paragraphs.
Developing Appropriately Scaled Sites for Water Science
Most existing field-based watershed research programs focus on small
catchments—from <1 to (rarely) several hundred square kilometers—and most
of the larger ones are not extensively monitored. They are managed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Service and Forest
Service, the U.S. Geological Survey (Water, Energy, and Biogeochemical Budg-
ets, or WEBB, program), the Environmental Protection Agency (such as the
Chesapeake Bay Program), and the National Science Foundation (Long-Term
Ecological Research, or LTER, program). A large quantity of historical data
exists from these sites, but much of it is difficult to access; even within the
USDA these data are not in a single database.
Critically, few of these field observatories envisioned a major role for re-
mote sensing when they were conceived, in some cases because of their small
footprint, in others because they were designed before modern remote sensing
methods were developed, and in still others perhaps simply because of institu-
tional barriers. They generally succeed well in supporting the small-scale catch-
ment science that they are designed for, but need to be about two orders of mag-
nitude larger to approach scales that are appropriate for land-atmosphere cou-
The proposed hydrologic, ecological, and water-quality "observatories"
such as those of the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) and the
WATer and Environmental Research Systems Network (WATERS) are designed
to be much larger—on the scale of 104 to 105 km. Direct estimates of varying
quality are now available for variables such as snow extent, snow water equiva-
lent, surface-water height, soil moisture, total water storage, and precipitation;
indirect estimates for groundwater, evapotranspiration, and streamflow can also
be made in some cases (see Chapter 2, Spaceborne Sensors section). Not all of
these estimates (e.g., groundwater) can be made at the scale of the proposed ob-
servatories, but improved sensors are proposed for many of these variables for
the future (NRC, 2007), and data assimilation and modeling techniques are ad-
vancing as well.
There are, therefore, both unprecedented opportunities and unprecedented
challenges for incorporation of space-based and airborne observations in obser-
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Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 147
vatories—and not as an afterthought, but as an essential part of the experimental
Development and Field Deployment of Land-Based
Chemical and Biological Sensors
As discussed in Chapter 2, physical sensors, such as those that measure air
and water temperature and pressure, radiation, and wind speed and direction, have
evolved over decades and are now mass produced and routinely packaged together
in small instruments along with power and communication devices. However,
sensor development for many important chemical and biological measurements is
relatively immature. Chemical sensors are needed to measure a wide range of
elements and inorganic and organic molecules, in all environmental media. Bio-
logical sensors can provide key information on the function and structure of bio-
logically influenced ecosystems in real time (NSF, 2005). For widespread use in
the field, chemical and biological sensors would need to be inexpensive; robust
against environmental stresses, such as temperature extremes and biofouling; have
stable calibrations or be capable of remote calibration; and have low energy re-
quirements. Development of a wide range of field-robust chemical and biological
sensors is one of the greatest challenges facing widespread deployment of sensor
networks in the hydrologic sciences.
Airborne Sensors
As discussed in Chapter 2, airborne and spaceborne sensors are needed in in-
tegrated observing systems to extend observations beyond the point measurement
scale, with airborne measurements at a spatial scale that fills the gap between the
in-situ plot-scale observations and the larger satellite-scale observations. As dis-
cussed in Chapter 2 and in National Research Council (2007), airborne remote
sensing at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) historically
has been viewed as an intermediate step between initial sensor development and
space deployment. Measurements from such airborne systems were collected
during limited-duration field campaigns to help develop retrieval algorithms. Air-
borne sensors are also used to under-fly new satellite sensors for their initial vali-
dation. In these ways, NASA views its airborne science program as supporting its
satellite sensor development program and not as a sensor program in its own right.
This approach has unfortunately impeded the development of operational airborne
observing platforms that could play a very important role in hydrologic observa-
From the above discussion, as illustrated by the case studies in Chapter 4, the
critical challenge to address is the limited commitment of NASA and other federal
agencies to airborne platforms as effective operational measurement systems, lead-
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148 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
ing to a paucity of programs to develop smaller, less-expensive sensors that could
be used on these platforms.
Spaceborne Sensors
In the area of satellite-based remote sensing, NASA has made good pro-
gress in developing and deploying a wide range of sensors for hydrologic sci-
ence that are used primarily for research. Most of these are described in Chapter
3. Addressing the future needs in this area was the charge of another NRC
committee (the "decadal survey"; NRC, 2007), whose relevant results are sum-
marized in Appendix C. The missions that study recommended—including mis-
sions to measure diurnal precipitation, soil moisture, water storage in lakes and
wetlands, and snowpack water storage, especially in mountainous regions—are
consistent with the vision, findings, and recommendations of this study.
Nonetheless, two related challenges are relevant to this report: (1) for
NASA, how to transition research sensors (and their costs) to operational agen-
cies, and (2) for other (non-research) users, determining how to utilize these
observations for operational uses. In the case of weather-related sensing, Con-
gress has provided guidance. For other agencies and users, this remains a chal-
lenge. As an example, the loss of high-resolution (<100m) thermal imaging on
the Landsat TM satellite and the decision by NASA not to have such a capability
on the replacement satellite has affected agencies such as the USDA and state
agencies concerned with irrigation water management that use this information
Thus, the critical challenges to address here are (1) a resolution of the "re-
search-to-operations" transition from NASA-developed "experimental" satellite
observations to the broad variety of operational agencies and users that need
routine (i.e., operational) observations, and (2) the lack of a corresponding
monitoring strategy by federal and state agencies (for example, the Environ-
mental Protection Agency [EPA], USDA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration [NOAA], and state water and natural resources agencies) that
would incorporate airborne and/or satellite remote sensing measurements, where
appropriate (various case studies in Chapter 4 offer examples). These apply to
existing but underutilized data sets as well as to future data sets.
Bridging the Gap between Sensor Demonstration and
Integrated Field Demonstration
The last section of Chapter 2 (see Figure 2-10) presented the steps needed to
advance sensors from experimental development through operational deploy-
ment. Also shown in the figure are various agencies that are currently involved
in the different steps of the process or in complementary activities. While Fig-
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Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 149
ure 2-10 shows an idealized summary with overlapping agency activities, in
reality there are significant interagency gaps between the steps of sensor devel-
opment, sensor demonstration, integrated field demonstrations, and operational
deployment of sensors. The greatest gap is between sensor demonstration and
integrated field demonstration. Closing this gap would involve integrating the
sensor networks and webs within hydrologic observatories and experimental
demonstration sites, and interfacing the sensor networks with the broader devel-
opment of cyberinfrastructure.
Integrating Data and Models for Operational Use
The importance of data-model integration is apparent in a number of the
case studies. For the Mountain Hydrology study in Chapter 4, predictions of
water availability are made from point measurements and model forecasts, lead-
ing to management decisions. In the Neuse River Basin Study, the management
decisions are based on sparse water-quality measurements, largely limited to the
main stem and high order tributaries. In these two case studies, both models and
observations are used to guide management decisions; in each case a data as-
similation system that merges models and observations would offer improved
predictions for decisions. However, the systems required would likely be very
different, as they would be for many other critical water resources problems.
The challenge is to develop data-model integration methods that will be useful
for broad families of applications, rather than just a few of the many possible
The Next Step: Water Resources Applications
In the United States, large water resources problems involve multiple stake-
holders, including government agencies, business interests, and the public.
Management is typically diffuse, although the benefits of coordinated manage-
ment are well recognized. Standard measurement and modeling techniques and
rules for water management are entrenched and often legally mandated. For
example, as mentioned in the case study on Mountain Hydrology in the western
United States, the principal methods for monitoring snow pack and predicting
snowmelt volumes have changed little over the past 100 years. This has the
benefits of producing a consistent data set to show trends over time, and of sim-
plifying training and daily tasks of staff. However, it also leads to missed oppor-
tunities to improve the accuracy and precision of the data and resulting model
predictions. Changing modes of measurement and management will be ex-
tremely difficult, even as the nation's water resources challenges increase over
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150 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
Funding Highly Interdisciplinary Science
Interdisciplinary science is much more common than it was 20 years ago,
and it is no longer uncommon to see scientists and engineers from a variety of
fields working on related problems in experimental watersheds. However, the
design and use of integrated hydrologic measurement systems in specific re-
search applications adds an extra layer of complexity to the challenge. Thus,
these new kinds of projects will require unprecedented interdisciplinary coop-
eration, including interactions among scientists, engineers, field researchers,
modelers, and theorists. Each application will be somewhat unique, requiring
the participation of the technology developers (electrical engineers, computer
scientists, and modelers) and the physical, chemical, and biological scientists
who apply the technology to hydrologic research. While many universities and
research laboratories have the required diversity of expertise, marshalling this
expertise on specific projects will likely require new programs or sources of
Addressing the Fractured Federal Responsibility
for Hydrologic Measurement, Monitoring, and Modeling
The overarching barrier to the development and implementation of inte-
grated hydrologic measurement systems is the lack of a single federal agency
with primary responsibility for measuring, monitoring, and modeling the envi-
ronmental factors and processes that control the hydrologic cycle. USGS is the
agency with a mandate that comes closest to meeting this responsibility. It con-
tinuously monitors streamflows at over 7300 sites, as well as lake and ground-
water levels at a smaller number of sites. It also collects data on stream water
quality at about 2800 sites. Through its National Water-Quality Assessment
(NAWQA) Program, USGS performs integrated assessments of a small number
of watersheds. NOAA has the responsibility for monitoring precipitation and
other meteorological variables and for monitoring and managing coastal waters.
EPA has regularity authority for water quality and oversees the setting of water-
quality standards on impaired stream reaches through the Total Maximum Daily
Load (TMDL) Program. EPA also manages the Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program (EMAP), which assesses national ecosystem health. Hy-
drologic modeling has been advanced by EPA, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
the USGS, and NOAA—agencies with a wide variety of missions. Finally,
NASA develops, deploys, and maintains satellite sensors that are used by others
to assess the environmental factors, although its primary mission is space explo-
Thus, it is easy to understand why the responsibility for measuring and
monitoring the environmental factors and processes that control the hydrologic
cycle is so fractured, given the evolution in our management of water resources
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Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 151
and of our understanding of the hydrologic cycle. But the dual threats of global
climate change and population growth demand a focused strategy for providing
information on the nation's water resources and the environment.
Interagency Sensor Development
As shown in this study, there is significant development in new innovative
sensors, especially in the area of chemical and biological sensors. Sensor devel-
opment is taking place for a number of hydrologic processes and these new sen-
sors are being tested within embedded networks. But these developments are
not well coordinated, especially in their testing through field deployment. Link-
ing sensor development to integrated field demonstration and operational de-
ployment by state and federal water agencies needs to be fostered. Involvement
of the private sector can help to ensure that sensor innovations are carried
through the development phase and become incorporated in products that are
widely distributed and economically viable.
There is an important opportunity for partnerships between the National
Science Foundation (NSF), NASA, other agencies, universities, and the private
sector in the development of new sensor systems. Such partnerships would en-
able the development of sensors and sensor systems that address multidiscipli-
nary observational needs, including the needs of operational agencies. Inter-
agency laboratories have been created in the past and have achieved some suc-
cess, as in the case of the national sedimentation laboratory in Vicksburg, Mis-
Recommendation 1-1: NSF, in partnership with NASA, NOAA, EPA, USGS, and
possibly national health and security agencies, and with collaboration from the
private sector, should develop one or more programs that address the need for
multidisciplinary sensor development. An interagency sensor laboratory should
be considered.
Concepts such as the Consortium of Universities for Advancement of Hy-
drologic Science's proposed "Hydrologic Measurement Facility" (HMF) Center,
which would house community instruments based on mature technologies, and
HMF "nodes," which would be university-based, have a 3-6 year life cycle, and
support a specific emerging technology, would complement but not replace such
programs. In particular, universities are the ideal environment for training future
users of environmental sensor networks and the data that will stem from them.
As described above for sensor development, and earlier in the challenges
facing the development and deployment of integrated hydrologic measurement
systems, the pace of advancement is constrained by the fractured federal respon-
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152 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
sibility for the development and deployment of integrated measuring, monitor-
ing, and modeling systems, which seems to impede their utilization.
Recommendation 1-2: Serious consideration should be given to empowering an
existing federal agency with the responsibility for integrated measurement,
monitoring, and modeling of the hydrological, biogeochemical, and other eco-
system-related conditions and processes affecting our Nation's water resources.
This agency would manage the design, development, and deployment of inte-
grated hydrologic measurement systems. Candidate agencies may include NASA,
NOAA, and USGS because they all have extensive sensor and observations sys-
tems and modeling, and have the potential to take such a leadership role. It is rec-
ognized that taking on such a leadership activity would require new responsibili-
ties, probably new organizations within the responsible agency, and new funding
to carry out the mandate. There are some areas, such as cyberinfrastructure and
the development of web-portal user interfaces, where expertise needs to be devel-
oped as suggested in other recommendations. There are many forms that such a
lead agency activity could take, ranging from interagency oversight that utilized
the services of existing agencies and private entities, to taking on operational re-
sponsibility for monitoring. The committee did not explore these details in any
Observatories, Demonstration Projects, Test Beds, and Field Campaigns
Well-designed observatories, demonstration projects, test beds, and field
campaigns have been and can continue to be effective for testing integrated ob-
servational-modeling systems to address research questions and operational
needs. Many of the case studies presented in Chapter 4 clearly articulated the
need for hydrologic observatories to demonstrate how the advances in embedded
sensors can be integrated with traditional sensors, models, and remote sensing to
provide new hydrologic process understanding. In fact, the successes achieved
by the current experimental watersheds argue for more such projects.
Recommendation 2-1: Coordinated and jointly funded opportunities for obser-
vatories, demonstration projects, test beds, and field campaigns should be sig-
nificantly increased.
The observatories provide mechanisms to improve knowledge of complex
environmental systems and processes through improved sensor information and
modeling. It is hoped that the observatories would have academic and govern-
ment research scientists working together on problems that lead to enhanced
management approaches by the agencies.
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Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 153
Generally, the funding of observatories, test beds, and field campaigns at the
"integrated field demonstration" scale is challenging, because of the relative
lack of funding at a scale greater than the individual research project and smaller
than programs like NSF's Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construc-
tion (MREFC) projects. This is true even considering that costs can often be
kept reasonable by encompassing projects within existing networks when ap-
propriate to the research question. Likewise, most grant horizons and federal
funding cycles (1-5 years) are inappropriately short for interdisciplinary, integra-
tive projects.
Recommendation 2-2: Agencies should consider offering new funding streams
for projects at the scale of several million dollars per year for approximately 5-
10 years to help close the gap between sensor demonstration and integrated
field demonstration.
These projects could be "problem-centric" with a significant research ques-
tion or management goal. An integrated hydrologic observations network, as en-
visioned in this report, would be designed and deployed as an integral part of the
project, and used to address the project goals and objectives. This class of project
would help fill the gap between sensor development and operational use of estab-
lished sensors. It could also be a critical demonstration mechanism to provide
feedback to the more fundamental sensor development activities and offer results
to guide operational applications of integrated sensors and cyberinfrastructure.
The problem posed in the Chapter 4 case study on water and malaria in sub-
Saharan Africa illustrates this class of project. Its research question requires
integration of data from a variety of sensor systems measuring quite different
types of variables (hydrologic, biologic, social, etc.) at differing scales and in-
terpreted by several disciplines due to the interdisciplinary nature of the prob-
lem. The research team achieves this integration through the use of a "collabo-
ratory," that is, a web-based system where different researchers and users can
come together to build a system of data, predictive models, and management
projects. A collaboratory develops and evolves over time, adapting to new data
and modeling systems and the needs of the users of the systems projects, such as
seasonal forecasts of malaria intensity in the case study.
Another possible model would mix support for observatories and test beds
with programs with shorter timescales and Integrative Graduate Education and
Research Traineeships (IGERTs); a third would be an analogy to the NSF Engi-
neering Research Centers, which have a 10-year time horizon. All of these
funding models would have as a goal the field demonstration of integrated sen-
sors (across variables and platforms) further integrated with cyberinfrastructure
development bridging the critical gap of single sensor demonstration to inte-
grated field demonstration.
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154 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
NASA Airborne and Spaceborne Sensor Technology Research
and Development
As noted earlier, a review of, and recommendations concerning, the devel-
opment of new airborne and spaceborne sensors by NASA, known as the "de-
cadal survey" (NRC, 2007) has recently been completed. The recommendations
of the survey for specific water-related missions are summarized in Appendix C.
However, another important recommendation of the decadal survey was that
"NASA should support Earth science research via suborbital platforms: airborne
programs, which have suffered substantial diminution, should be restored. . ."
As shown in the Arctic case study in Chapter 4, certain remotely sensed
measurements are more useful from airborne platforms than from spaceborne
platforms, and the capability of low-cost airborne remote sensing needs to be
further developed and integrated with other measurement systems.
In recommendation 2-1, the report discusses the interagency gaps from sen-
sor development to operational deployment. This recommendation is analogous
but focused on NASA. NASA is unique in that it has research and development
programs that span from sensor development to operational space deployment,
often with other agencies like NOAA or the Department of Defense. Histori-
cally NASA demonstrated sensors through a strong airborne program, carried
out "integrated field demonstrations" through validation campaigns related to
Earth Observing System (EOS) missions and Earth System Science Pathfinder
(ESSP) exploratory missions that often included in-situ and airborne measure-
ments, and supported research and application in the use of space observations.
Unfortunately, the airborne remote sensing component within NASA has
been weakened for both piloted and unpiloted systems, causing a gap in the sen-
sor development-to-operational deployment road. This weakness is being felt in
the sensor development activities because there is no obvious mechanism for
easily and inexpensively testing new sensor concepts. This weakness may also
extend to operational deployments because the possibility that new sensors, or
the operational products from new sensor measurements, may be best delivered
through airborne systems rather than through spaceborne systems that cannot be
evaluated effectively.
Recommendation 3-1: NASA should strengthen its program in sensor technol-
ogy research and development, including piloted and unpiloted airborne sensor
deployment for testing new sensors and as a platform for collecting and trans-
mitting data useful for applications.
In the current federal budget environment NASA has constrained resources.
The space agencies in other countries have similar pressures. Historically there
have been joint programs between NASA and international space agencies in
developing and launching specific sensors. Two examples are the Tropical
Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) with the Japanese Aerospace Explora-
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Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 155
tion Agency (JAXA) and the Calipso satellite with the French space agency,
Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES).
Regardless of the above collaborations, NASA can do more, particularly in
the areas of hydrologic and environmental sciences, to foster both U.S. inter-
agency and international partnerships.
Recommendation 3-2: In addition to partnerships with other federal agencies
for the development and testing of experimental sensors that are of a particular
interest to agencies, the Nation, and especially NASA, should explore additional
strategic partnerships with space agencies in other countries and regions, such
as the European Space Agency (ESA), JAXA, CNES, and the Canadian Space
Agency (CSA).
Early Integration of Satellite and Airborne Sensing into
Observatory Design
Assuming a strengthening of NASA's sensor development programs as rec-
ommended above, there is an opportunity for NASA to take a leadership role in
developing integrated ground-to-space sensor networks as envisioned in Chap-
ters 2 and 3 of this report. Some of the necessary coordination could be done
through the Office of Science and Technology Policy's Subcommittee on Water
Availability and Quality (SWAQ), as proposed by the NRC (2006c), but this
should be only one of many points of contact. This is an area in which an in-
crease in support by NASA could be highly leveraged by other agencies. The de-
cadal survey (NRC, 2007) recommended that NASA increase support of its Re-
search and Analysis (R&A) program, noting that among other purposes the R&A
program is "necessary for improving calibrations and evaluating the limits of both
remote and in situ data." Engagement in observatory design would also be consis-
tent with NASA's Earth Science Implementation Plan for Energy and Water Cycle
Research (NASA, 2007), which notes that "[i]n some cases, NASA investments
may be required to supplement [planned] activities to ensure that they meet spe-
cific needs, for example, in situ measurements of parameters that are essential to
validating space based remote sensing, as well as quantities needed but not other-
wise measured or derived."
Recommendation 4-1: NASA and NOAA should work with NSF and other agen-
cies to assure that plans for incorporation of space-based and airborne observa-
tions (from both existing and, preferably, planned or proposed missions) are part
and parcel of the experimental design of these proposed observatories.
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Advanced Cyberinfrastructure
Cyberinfrastructure is a key linkage between observatories, and a way to
achieve economies of scale within and between multidisciplinary initiatives. Yet
there is insufficient work in exploiting current advances in cyberinfrastructure.
The underfunding of cyberinfrastructure has been shown to compromise results
and data interpretation at all scales. Advances in computational, communica-
tion, and Internet technologies will help develop and deliver "services" to the
broad community of users.
The observatories and other national initiatives offer settings and mecha-
nisms for the development and testing of the "next generation" service delivery
system. For example, current NOAA plans for the newly funded National Inte-
grated Drought Information System (NIDIS) include the development of a
"drought portal" for the delivery of drought information.
The guiding principles important to a next generation system were set forth
in Chapter 3. These included employing open architecture solutions to enable
the rapid adoption of new hardware and software technologies and nonpropri-
etary and, ideally, open-source software solutions (e.g., middleware, metadata
management protocols) and promote the modularity, extensibility, scalability,
and security that are needed for observation and forecasting. They also included
using community standards (e.g., data transport, quality assurance/quality con-
trol, metadata specifications, interface operations) to ensure system interopera-
bility, and providing open access to data and information through customizable
portals to ensure timely access to data, information, and forecasts.
Recommendation 5-1: Advanced cyberinfrastructure should not only be incor-
porated as part of planned observatories and related initiatives to help manage,
understand, and use diverse data sets, but should be a central component in
their planning and design.
Recommendation 5-2: Utilization of web-based services, such as collaborato-
ries, for the distribution of observations, model predictions, and related products
to potential users, should be encouraged.
To achieve efficiencies and economy of scale, it may be useful to create an
interobservatory council among at least the NEON and WATERS communities
to address interoperability issues and agree on a uniform cyberinfrastructure. An
important step forward has been taken by WATERS, in the form of a recently
funded "Test-bed Digital Observatory" for the Susquehanna River Basin and
Chesapeake Bay, which will attempt to demonstrate the applicability and utility
of many aspects of the Hydrologic Information System (HIS) from CUAHSI
and the "CyberCollaboratory" from Collaborative Large-Scale Engineering
Analysis Network for Environmental Research (CLEANER) for use by both the
hydrologic and water-quality communities.
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Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 157
The NRC (2006c) went one step beyond an interobservatory council and
recommended that "[s]erious consideration should be given to placing the vari-
ous NSF environmental observatory programs under a parent organization that
could be termed something like the 'Environmental Observatory Networks' or
EON.' Such a parent entity would be responsible for cyberinfrastructure devel-
opment, among other shared activities." This approach also seems reasonable.
Water and environmental data products from the observatories can be ex-
tremely useful for the classrooms of the nation. An exploratory effort to do
this—the Student Analysis of Data Driving Learning about the Earth (SADDLE)
project—is creating student-friendly interfaces to allow students to interact with
real-time and archived databases such as would be associated with a large-scale
scientific observatory. There is a need for various studies of this kind to under-
stand how observatory-derived data can be delivered and used in classrooms at
various educational levels. It should be noted that the parent organization EON,
proposed by the NRC (2006c), would also have a role in coordinating educa-
tional outreach by the various proposed NSF environmental observatories.
Data Assimilation and Demonstration Projects
As discussed in a number of case studies, there is an unmet need to have
sensor systems that link plot-scale, in-situ measurements to measurements at
satellite scales, and the related data-assimilation systems that merge these data
with appropriate predictive models. It is recognized that both NASA and NSF
have research programs that support data assimilation. However, these ongoing
programs are not sufficient.
Recommendation 6-1: NASA and NSF should develop and strengthen program
elements focused on demonstration projects and application of data assimilation
in operational settings where researchers work collaboratively with operational
This recommendation is consistent with the decadal survey (NRC, 2007)
recommendation that "NASA, NOAA, and USGS should increase their support
for Earth system modeling, including provision of high-performance computing
facilities and support for scientists working in the areas of modeling and data
assimilation." It is also consistent with NASA's implementation plan for water
and energy cycle research (NASA, 2007), which includes "Creating a global
land and atmosphere data assimilation system for energy and water variables"
among its major elements. Existing data sets should be fully exploited in these
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158 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
Remote Sensing: Operational Systems and Data Products
Many of the above recommendations have been especially applicable to ob-
servatories, experimental watersheds, and other kinds of fairly focused work.
But it is important to look beyond observatories to other, broader, downstream
applications of observations.
Chapter 2 makes clear that the Nation has invested significantly in remote
sensing, especially in space observations. However, agencies such as NASA and
NOAA need to foster activities that will help state agencies and other federal
agencies utilize and merge remote sensing measurements with process-based
hydrological models for improved management decisions. The availability
through the NASA Distributed Active Archive Centers (DAACs) of data from
the recent suite of Earth Observations System satellite sensors is significant, and
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) and Landsat Thematic
Mapper (TM) data are widely used. Yet the case studies in Chapter 4, and in
other reports, indicate that remote sensing data and data products are often un-
derutilized in operational and application uses. NASA and NOAA have often
encountered difficulties in "Crossing the Valley of Death" (NRC, 2000b) from
research to operations. This has often resulted in underutilization of data and
data products, resulting in long delays in users and agencies realizing the value
of such measurements to society.
Also, the process for identifying the remotely sensed measurement needs of
the community and federal agencies, and for the subsequent technological de-
velopment of such sensors, is often unclear. One example of need is water-
quality measurements from space, where only the most basic water-quality vari-
ables, turbidity and chlorophyll, have been measured and only as an experimen-
tal variable. The scientific basis for water-quality measurements from space
needs considerable development, and it does not appear that any NASA program
is addressing this problem.
Integrated data products that merge satellite, airborne, and ground observa-
tions with model and decision-support products at regional to continental scales,
would be of particular value. Demonstration projects at observatories, including
remote sensing validation observatories, may be an effective mechanism to
demonstrate to users of water cycle and environmental data products how they
may better exploit the current investment in space observations in their predic-
tion and management activities.
Recommendation 7-1: NASA should take the lead by expanding support for the
application of integrated satellite remote sensing data products. NSF, NOAA,
and other federal and state agencies engaged in environmental sensing should
likewise expand support for the creation of the integrated digital products that
meet educational, modeling, and decision-support needs.
OCR for page 143
Synthesis, Challenges, and Recommendations 159
Utilization of remote sensing data in applications and operational settings
also depends on assurance by the government to users that these measurements
will be maintained into the future so their investment in developing procedures
that use the data will be realized. Except for atmospheric remote sensing, which
NASA develops for NOAA and Department of Defense to use operationally, and
visible wavelength surface imagers (AVHRR and TM), all other NASA-
developed sensors are viewed as limited-duration experimental sensors. Transi-
tioning sensors from a research to an operational monitoring mode is critical if
users and agencies are to utilize their products as part of their management re-
However, as yet there is no government strategy for such a transition be-
yond those sensors used for weather. Current concerns about the elimination on
the new NASA Landsat satellite of the infrared (IR) channels, which are used by
USDA and state agencies (among others) to monitor irrigation water usage, is a
case in point. The elimination is due to budgetary issues and lack of consensus
over who will pay for the sensor. Similar issues are occurring on the planned
National Polar Orbiter Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS). This is one
important impediment for wider usage of remote sensing measurements in ap-
plications and by operational agencies.
Recommendation 7-2: Congress, through the budgetary process, should develop
a strategy for transitioning NASA experimental satellite sensors to operational
systems with assured data continuity so that the Nation's investment in remote
sensing can be utilized over the long term by other federal agencies and users.
Water Agencies
A wide variety of water agencies have a need for accurate and timely infor-
mation from in-situ, airborne, and spaceborne sensors. These agencies may be
involved in anything from water supply forecasting to flood forecasting to trans-
portation and recreation. They are often underfunded, with a very modest num-
ber of trained scientists and engineers. Because of this, once they develop a
system—even an imperfect one—that provides reasonably good information on
which to make their decisions, there is strong aversion to new kinds of data,
models, and tools that have less of a track record.
Adopting new systems involves start-up costs in the way of model design
and calibration, and staff training. Users who are adapted to a given product
will likely need to be educated in interpretation and use of the new product in
order to assist them through the transitional period. Further, until a new remote
sensing system is fully operational with a firm commitment of continued service
from the federal agency responsible for it, a local or state water agency may be
very conservative about adopting the new technology.
OCR for page 143
160 Integrating Multiscale Observations of U.S. Waters
Nonetheless, there are numerous opportunities for both existing and new
sensor data and information to be incorporated into planning and forecasting,
and such opportunities will only increase in the future.
Recommendation 8-1: Water agencies should be alert for opportunities to in-
corporate new sensor and modeling technologies that will allow them to better
deliver their mission.


text:
ValuePattern Class
.NET Framework 3.5
Represents a control that has an intrinsic value that does not span a range and can be represented as a string. This string may or may not be editable depending on the control and its settings.
Assembly: UIAutomationClient (in UIAutomationClient.dll)
Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP SP2, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2003
The .NET Framework and .NET Compact Framework do not support all versions of every platform. For a list of the supported versions, see .NET Framework System Requirements.
Community Additions


text:
The agent of Udinese midfielder Gokhan Inler says Arsenal face competition for the Switzerland international.
"In the case we received an official offer we would carefully study it with Udinese's permission," Dino Lamberti told setantasports.com.
"The Premier League is interesting for him, and they are one of the best leagues in the world with the Spanish and the Italian ones.
"We didn't speak with Arsene Wenger, but yes, some English clubs asked for information about the player."


text:
Yesterday the Obama administration's top anti-terrorism officials–Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, chief counterterrorism adviser John Brennan, and Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano–gave an interview to ABC's Diane Sawyer on the current state of the terrorist threat. The interview has aired, or will air, today; you can watch it here.
The questions and answers are unremarkable, except that there is a surreal moment near the end of the interview, when it becomes apparent that DNI Clapper was unaware that twelve would-be terrorists were arrested in Great Britain yesterday. Brennan jumped in to help him out, but Sawyer came back to the question later, and Clapper admitted that he hadn't heard about the arrests.
This was one of those outer space moments that are hard to fathom. The arrests were widely reported. I knew about them; Diane Sawyer knew about them; you likely did, too. Is it conceivable that the Director of National Intelligence doesn't get a daily briefing? Or that he is not briefed on likely questions before giving a network television interview? Apparently so.
It's a trite observation, but God only knows what would have happened if something like this had taken place during the Bush administration.
Via Drudge.
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HELLO WEEKEND WARRIORS!My name is Leif and I run an exciting, intense and dynamic group cardio session at Kangaroo Point called Team Kaos! I am a qualified Personal Trainer with over 7 years experience in Boxing and Mixed Martial Arts. Team Kaos has been up and running for over 5 years and is still going strong with heaps of exciting and challenging boxing workouts to stimulate that fighter we all have within ourselves! TUESDAY & SATURDAY MORNING CLASSES...Meet at Kangaroo Point Park on River Tce next to the Venus monument- 530am for a 545am start on Tuesday! 630am for a 645am start on Saturday! IF WET WEATHERCoorparoo Boxing Gym, (94 Holdsworth Street, Coorparoo) at 645am for a 7am start. Weather permitting we also invade the beach at South Bank during Summer! The hour session includes boxing, kick boxing, circuit training, core strength, fitness games and of course those notorious stairs! 'TK 6 WEEK IVT CHALLENGE'Join the Team Kaos Facebook page to get involved. Xmas is almost here, so stay motivated and moving troops! Hollar at me if you need some pre xmas harden up! |
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Stans end of season stock take - Checkout functionality is currently disabled
Stans end of season stock take - Checkout functionality is currently disabled
The Outwell Montana 6 Front Extension is repeated in 2014 in the new vibrant Foliage Green/Granite Green colourway of the tent. The Montana 6 Front Extension is an easy to pitch extension to your tent that provides an essential protective area around your front tent entrance way. The extra space it creates can be used in a multitude of ways - al fresco dining, bike storage, kitchen area, etc.
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text:
Load calculation requirements are in Article 220 of the National Electrical Code (NEC). READ MORE
February 2010: Energy
Featured Articles
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February 2010
While worldwide reactions were tepid at best to the December 2009 United Nations Climate Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark, and specifically about to the inability of politica READ MORE
February 2010
Technology, like an athlete, is only as strong and as effective as its most glaring weakness. Or so the saying might go for the Obama administration. READ MORE
February 2010
Deteriorating demand for construction services continued to drag on the economy as new federal figures show another 53,000 construction workers lost their jobs in December 200 READ MORE
February 2010


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Approved by Angeling
This thread is for all small questions about Ruby, Sapphire, and Emerald Versions. Before you ask a question, be sure to check every single one of these:
3rd Generation Pokedex
Ruby and Sapphire's Page
Emerald's Page
3rd Generation Attackdex
3rd Gen Berrydex
Game Mechanics
Contest Help
E-Reader/Eon Ticket/Mystery Gift Help
Battle Frontier Help
Battle Frontier Tips and Tricks
Battle Frontier Max Stats
Tips for finding the Latis
Help with Latios, Latias, and Feebas
Official Bad Egg/Missingno. Discussion
General Ruby/Sapphire FAQ
General Emerald FAQ
Cloning in Emerald
Ruby/Sapphire/Emerald Glitch Discussion
Breeding Help/Egg Chain Discussion
EV's/IV's Help
Pokerus FAQ
Shiny FAQ
Plus some other websites that would be useful:
Smogon's List of 3rd Generation Tiers
Smogon's Competitive Pokemon Movesets
Gamefaqs's Ruby Version Walkthroughs/FAQs
Gamefaqs's Sapphire Version Walkthroughs/FAQs
Gamefaqs's Emerald Version Walkthroughs/FAQs
Psypoke's Psydex (has all the XD tutor moves)
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: I tried to release my Pokemon, but it said it was worried about me. What does that mean and how do I make it stop?
A: It means the Pokemon is the last one you have that has that HM move. Just teach a different one that HM move.
Q: Where is the move deleter?
A: In Lilycove City in one of the houses near the Dept. Store.
Q: Can I trade with Fr/Lg/Colo/XD?
A: Ruby and Sapphire can trade with these games as soon as trading is possible, as long as you have completed the requirements in the other game. Emerald must get the national dex by beating the Elite 4 in order to trade with these games, and the requirements of the other game must be met. You can't get any Eggs or non-Hoenn Pokemon in Emerald before beating the Elite 4.
Q: How do I clone in the 3rd generation?
A: Check the Cloning in Emerald thread.
Q: When are Latias/Latios's attributes (nature, IV's, shininess, etc) set?
A: In Emerald, they're set as soon as you tell your mom that it's red or blue from the TV. In Ruby and Sapphire, it's set when you watch the news broadcast after the E4 (thanks to Nidogod for that piece). But be warned, due to a glitch in the programming, any "running" Pokemon in the 3rd generation will likely have 4-5 IV's as 0 or 1.
Note: Not all versions of Emerald are affected by this glitch. Some are and some aren't; you'll probably just have to test it on your particular one to see.
Do you have a good website to help or think that a particular question belongs in the FAQ? Send me a PM or profile message and I'll take a look.
If your question's not here (and belongs in this thread), ask away!
(The following has been added in by the edit-ninja bobandbill)
Thought it might be an idea to take every question asked so far not covered above in the FAQ/links, list it here, and provide the answer as well, OR a link to the post that answers it (so this remains under the character limit easily). So now you can look in the first post here to see every question asked so far - chances are one you want to ask has already been asked and answered.
Also, for an easy-to-find way for a certain question, use the Ctrl+F function.
Spoiler:- Questions asked in the Help Thread thus far:


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Post by hoyarooter on Apr 4, 2008 18:25:50 GMT -5
You'd have loved it, RDF -- the Padres/Astros game on ESPN2 was graced by the worst announcing team in the history of time: Sean McDonough, Orestes Destrade and Candy Maldonaldo. Aside from the fact that Maldonaldo can barely speak English, the two color guys were so trite I felt bad for the Syracuse guy. At one point Candy simply said, out of the blue, "Fundamentals."
The gem you'd have loved: "Joe Torre, he's going to take the Dodgers to another level."
Last night, I was disappointed that ESPN blacked out this game in my local market, despite the fact that no local channel was showing the game. Today, I am relieved.
Re: kc's Dotel comment above, Kenny Williams has been consistently putting together questionable bullpens for years. The other old Royals closer in the pen for the South Siders is Mike MacDougal, who posted a 6.80 ERA last season. (For the record, though, I do like the addition of Scott Linebrink.)
Speaking of the pale hose, is Nick Swisher really the best option as a leadoff man while Jerry Owens is on the DL? Also, how the hell is Josh Fields starting this season in the minors?
I would like to address some of this:
1. Re Kenny Williams acquiring Royal cast-offs: don't forget that he traded for Andrew Sisco (think I got his first name right), based, no doubt on his stellar ERA from 2006, which I believe was around 7. That bum was so good that he lasted with the Sox for about a month, and hasn't surfaced in the bigs since. And for that complete piece of garbage he traded Russ Gload, a solid utilityman who can swing it and play a number of positions. Well done, Kenny! I actually thought the acquisition of MacDougal was a decent gamble. It's looking like I was mistaken.
2. Re Swisher leading off: He probably is the best option, and will remain the best option unless the Sox make a deal, because Owens probably won't be cracking the starting lineup any time soon. Cabrera is the only other alternative, and I guess they want him to hit second.
3. Re Josh Fields: Beats the bejezus out of me. I called my dad when I saw that, and we had a mutual what the hell is that about? moment. I'm totally mystified. Unfortunately, I guess Fields was really bad in left last year, so if Crede is going to start, there is no place for Fields to play. In the long term, I guess I agree that I'd rather have Fields playing every day this year and starting next year than just sitting around this year. I guess.
I would also like to address RDF's mention of Saito's pitching on opening night with a 5-0 lead. You may prove to be right, RDF (although I certainly hope not, because it's beyond ridiculous to use your closer in those types of situations on a regular basis), but in this case, I really think Saito pitched because he needed the work in a "safe" as opposed to "save" situation. He had only pitched, I believe, six innings in the spring due to a variety of infirmities, so my view was that he pitched that night solely because he needed the work.


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Three finalists announced for Bainbridge public works director position
Bainbridge Island City Manager Doug Schulze announced the finalists Thursday for the city's vacant public works director position.
The three finalists were chosen from a field of 30 applicants. All hail from Washington state.
The finalists are James Bridges, the public works director and county engineer in Asotin County; Ted Jones, the facilities management and sustainment product line coordinator at Naval Base Kitsap-Bangor in Silverdale; and Barry Loveless, the public works director for the city of Poulsbo.
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Race shoes that just work and disappear
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text:
Kubota, A. and Done, C. (2004) 'The very high state accretion disc structure from the Galactic black hole transient XTE J1550 - 564.', Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society., 353 (3). pp. 980-990.
The 1998 outburst of the bright Galactic black hole binary system XTE J1550 - 564 was used to constrain the accretion disc structure in the strongly Comptonized very high state spectra. These data show that the disc emission is not easily compatible with the constant area L~T4 behaviour seen during the thermal-dominated high/soft state and weakly Comptonized very high state. Even after correcting for the effects of the scattering geometry, the disc temperature is always much lower than expected for its derived luminosity in the very high state. The simplest interpretation is that this indicates that the optically thick disc is truncated in the strongly Comptonized very high state, so trivially giving the observed continuity of properties between the low/hard and very high states of Galactic black holes.
Item Type: | Article |
Keywords: | Accretion, Accretion discs, Black hole physics, X-rays. |
Full text: | PDF - Other (593Kb) |
Status: | Peer-reviewed |
Publisher Web site: | http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08134.x |
Publisher statement: | The definitive version is available at www.blackwell-synergy.com |
Record Created: | 29 Apr 2008 |
Last Modified: | 01 Aug 2014 12:15 |
Social bookmarking: | Export: EndNote, Zotero | BibTex |
Usage statistics | Look up in GoogleScholar | Find in a UK Library |


text:
Learn more about CM Storm Recon - Ambidextrous 4000 DPI Gaming Mouse with Multicolor LEDs for Left and Right Handed Users (Black) - Ambidextrous (for left/right handed users), Avago 3090 optical sensor, 800-4000 DPI, customizable LED lighting, adjustable USB polling speed:
The Recon Gaming Mouse is designed specifically for gamers that demand the utmost in durability, functionality, and accuracy. The ambidextrous form factor and rubberized coating provides delivers versatility for any grip type. Recon is equipped with a pair of Omron micro switches and Avago 3090 high-precision LED sensor, allowing users to switch between 800, 1600, 3200, and 4000 DPI on-the-fly. The built-in 32KB memory integrates up to 5 profiles and 36 macros to personalize the mouse for your gaming style. PRECISION TRACKING ADAPTIVE CONTROL AMBIDEXTROUS DESIGN OMRON MICRO SWITCHES RATED AT 5 MILLION CLICKS MAXIMUM CUSTOMIZATION RUBBERIZED ANTI-SLIP DESIGN |


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Test ID: FCGHP
Array Comparative Genomic Hybridization (aCGH) Parental Testing, FISH
Secondary ID A test code used for billing and in test definitions created prior to November 2011
NY State Approved Indicates the status of NY State approval and if the test is orderable for NY State clients.
Useful For Suggests clinical disorders or settings where the test may be helpful
Determining the inheritance pattern of copy number changes previously identified by aCGH analysis in a patient and aiding in the clinical interpretation of the pathogenicity of the copy number change.
Reflex Tests Lists test(s) that may or may not be performed, at an additional charge, depending on the result and interpretation of the initial test(s)
Test ID | Reporting Name | Available Separately | Always Performed |
ADD1F | One Additional FISH Probe | No | No |
ADD2F | Two Additional FISH Probes | No | No |
ADD4F | Four Additional FISH Probes | No | No |
ADD3F | Three Additional FISH Probes | No | No |
Testing Algorithm Delineates situation(s) when tests are added to the initial order. This includes reflex and additional tests.
When this test is ordered, 1 to 4 FISH probes will be added at an additional charge.
Method Name A short description of the method used to perform the test
Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
Reporting Name A shorter/abbreviated version of the Published Name for a test; an abbreviated test name
aCGH Parental Testing, FISH
Aliases Lists additional common names for a test, as an aid in searching
CGH follow up
Parental CGH follow up
Parental CGH follow up