text:
Gray whale
Gray whale[1] Temporal range: Upper Pleistocene – Recent |
Gray whale spy-hopping next to calf | |
Size compared to an average human | |
Conservation status | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Cetartiodactyla[a] |
(unranked): | Cetacea |
(unranked): | Mysticeti |
Family: | Eschrichtiidae |
Genus: | Eschrichtius |
Species: | E. robustus |
Binomial name | |
Eschrichtius robustus Lilljeborg, 1861 |
Gray whale range | |
Synonyms | |
The gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) is a baleen whale that migrates between feeding and breeding grounds yearly. It reaches a length of 14.9 meters (49 ft), a weight of 36 tonnes (40 short tons), and lives between 55 and 70 years.[9] The common name of the whale comes from the gray patches and white mottling on its dark skin.[10] Gray whales were once called devil fish because of their fighting behavior when hunted.[11] The gray whale is the sole living species in the genus Eschrichtius, which in turn is the sole living genus in the family Eschrichtiidae. This mammal descended from filter-feeding whales that developed at the beginning of the Oligocene, over 30 million years ago.
The gray whale is distributed in an eastern North Pacific (North American) population and a critically endangered western North Pacific (Asian) population. North Atlantic populations were extirpated (perhaps by whaling) on the European coast before 500 AD and on the American coast around the late 17th to early 18th centuries.[12] However, on May 8, 2010, a sighting of a gray whale was confirmed off the coast of Israel in the Mediterranean Sea,[13] leading some scientists to think they might be repopulating old breeding grounds that have not been used for centuries.[13] In May and June 2013 a gray whale was sighted off the coast of Namibia – the first confirmed in the Southern Hemisphere.[14]The round-trip journey of one gray whale has set a new record for the longest mammal migration, covering a distance of more than 22,000 kilometres across the Pacific Ocean. Her migration has shown new insight into how endangered species are making drastic changes in their life style. [15]
The gray whale is traditionally placed as the only living species in its genus and family.[16] Recent DNA analysis indicates certain rorquals of the family Balaenopteridae, such as the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, and fin whale, Balaenoptera physalus, are more closely related to the gray whale than they are to some other rorquals, such as the minke whales.[17][18] John Edward Gray placed it in its own genus in 1865, naming it in honour of zoologist Daniel Eschricht.[19] The common name of the whale comes from its coloration. The subfossil remains of now extinct gray whales from the Atlantic coasts of England and Sweden were used by Gray to make the first scientific description of a species then surviving only in Pacific waters.[20] The living Pacific species was described by Cope as Rhachianectes glaucus in 1869.[21] Skeletal comparisons showed the Pacific species to be identical to the Atlantic remains in the 1930s, and Gray's naming has been generally accepted since.[22][23] Although identity between the Atlantic and Pacific populations cannot be proven by anatomical data, its skeleton is distinctive and easy to distinguish from that of all other living whales.[24]
Many other names have been ascribed to the gray whale, including desert whale,[25] devil fish, gray back, mussel digger and rip sack.[26] The name Eschrichtius gibbosus is sometimes seen; this is dependent on the acceptance of a 1777 description by Erxleben.[27]
The gray whale has a dark slate-gray color and is covered by characteristic gray-white patterns, scars left by parasites which drop off in its cold feeding grounds. Individual whales are typically identified using photographs of their dorsal surface and matching the scars and patches associated with parasites that have fallen off the whale or are still attached.
Gray whales measure from 4.9 m (16 ft) in length for newborns to 13–15 m (43–49 ft) for adults (females tend to be slightly larger than adult males). Newborns are a darker gray to black in color. A mature gray whale can reach 40 t (44 short tons), with a typical range of 15–33 t (17–36 short tons).[28]
They have two blowholes on top of their head, which can create a distinctive V-shaped blow at the surface in calm wind conditions.
Notable features that distinguish the gray whale from other mysticetes include its baleen that is variously described as cream, off-white, or blond in color and is unusually short. Small depressions on the upper jaw each contain a lone stiff hair, but are only visible on close inspection. Its head's ventral surface lacks the numerous prominent furrows of the related rorquals, instead bearing two to five shallow furrows on the throat's underside. The gray whale also lacks a dorsal fin, instead bearing 6 to 12 dorsal crenulations ("knuckles"), which are raised bumps on the midline of its rear quarter, leading to the flukes. This is known as the dorsal ridge. The tail itself is 3–3.5 m (10–11 ft) across and deeply notched at the center while its edges taper to a point.
Morphologic differences between two Pacific groups[edit]
Other than DNA structures, notable differences in proportions of several body parts and body colors including skeletal features, and length ratios of flippers and baleen plates have been confirmed between Eastern and Western Populations, and some claims that the original eastern and western groups could have been much more distinct than previously thought, enough to be counted as subspecies.[29][30] Since the original Asian and Atlantic populations have become seemingly extinct, it is difficult to figure the unique features among whales in these stocks, however, there have been observations of some whales showing distinctive, blackish body colors in recent years.[31]
North Pacific[edit]
Two Pacific Ocean populations are known to exist: one of not more than 130 individuals (according to the most recent population assessment in 2008[32]) whose migratory route is presumed to be between the Sea of Okhotsk and southern Korea, and a larger one with a population between 20,000 and 22,000 individuals in the eastern Pacific traveling between the waters off Alaska and Baja California Sur. The western population is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN. No new reproductive females were recorded in 2010, resulting in a minimum of 26 reproductive females being observed since 1995.[32] Even a very small number of additional annual female deaths will cause the subpopulation to decline.[33]
North Atlantic[edit]
The gray whale became extinct in the North Atlantic in the 18th century.[34] They had been seasonal migrants to coastal waters of both sides of Atlantic, including the Baltic Sea, Wadden Sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, and Pamlico Sound.[35] Radiocarbon dating of subfossil or fossil European (Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom) coastal remains confirms this, with whaling the possible cause.[24] Remains dating from the Roman epoch were found in the Mediterranean during excavation of the antique harbor of Lattara near Montpellier in 1997, raising the question of whether Atlantic gray whales migrated up and down the coast of Europe from Wadden Sea to calve in the Mediterranean.[36] Similarly, radiocarbon dating of American east coastal subfossil remains confirm gray whales existed at least through the 17th century. This population ranged at least from Southampton, New York, to Jupiter Island, Florida, the latest from 1675.[23] In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony a whale of the kind called "scragg" entered the harbor and was pursued and killed by the settlers.[37] A. B. Van Deinse points out that the "scrag whale", described by P. Dudley in 1725 as one of the species hunted by the early New England whalers, was almost certainly the gray whale.[38][39]
Pre-whaling abundance[edit]
This section is outdated. (July 2014) |
In 2007, S. Elizabeth Alter used a genetic approach to estimate pre-whaling abundance based on samples from 42 California gray whales, and reported DNA variability at 10 genetic loci consistent with a population size of 76,000–118,000 individuals, three to five times larger than the average census size as measured through 2007.[40] NOAA conducted a new populations study in 2010–2011; those data will be available by 2012.[41] The ocean ecosystem has likely changed since the prewhaling era, making a return to prewhaling numbers infeasible; many marine ecologists argue that existing gray whale numbers in the eastern Pacific Ocean are approximately at the population's carrying capacity.[42]
Connections between populations and possible recolonization[edit]
Eastern and western populations[edit]
Several whales seen off Sakhalin and on Kamchatka Peninsula are confirmed to migrate towards eastern side of Pacific and join the larger eastern population. In January 2011, a gray whale that had been tagged in the western population was tracked as far east as the eastern population range off the coast of British Columbia.[43] Recent findings from either stranded or entangled specimens indicate that the original western population have become functionally extinct and possibly all the whales appeared on Japanese coast in modern times are vagrants or re-colonizers from the eastern population.[29]
From North Pacific Ocean to outside of the Pacific[edit]
In mid-1980, there were three gray whale sightings in the eastern Beaufort Sea, placing them 585 kilometers (364 mi) further east than their known range at the time.[44] Recent increases in sightings are confirmed in Arctic areas of the historic range for Atlantic stocks, most notably on several locations in the Laptev Sea including the New Siberian Islands in the East Siberian Sea,[45] and around the marine mammal sanctuary[46] of the Franz Josef Land,[47] indicating possible earlier pioneers of re-colonizations. These whales were darker in body color than those whales seen in Sea of Okhotsk.[31] In May 2010, a gray whale was sighted off the Mediterranean shore of Israel.[48] It has been speculated that this whale crossed from the Pacific to the Atlantic via the Northwest Passage, since an alternative route around Cape Horn would not be contiguous to the whale's established territory. There has been gradual melting and recession of Arctic sea ice with extreme loss in 2007 rendering the Northwest Passage "fully navigable".[49] The same whale was sighted again on May 30, 2010, off the coast of Barcelona, Spain.[50]
In May 2013, a gray whale was sighted off Walvis Bay, Namibia. Scientists from the Namibian Dolphin Project confirmed the whale's identity and thus provides the only sighting of this species in the Southern Hemisphere. Photographic identification suggests that this is a different individual than the one spotted in the Mediterranean in 2010. As of July 2013, the Namibian whale was still being seen regularly.[51]
Life history[edit]
Breeding behavior is complex and often involves three or more animals. Both male and female whales reach puberty at approximately eight years of age.[52] Females show highly synchronized reproduction, undergoing oestrus in late November to early December.[53] During the breeding season, it is common for females to have several mates.[54] This single ovulation event is believed to coincide with the species' annual migration patterns, when births can occur in warmer waters.[54] Most females show biennial reproduction, although annual births have been reported.[53] Males also show seasonal changes, experiencing an increase in testes mass that correlates with the time females undergo oestrus.[54] Currently there are no accounts of twin births, although an instance of twins in utero has been reported.[53]
The gestation period for gray whales is approximately 13 1⁄2 months.[52] In the latter half of the pregnancy, the fetus experiences a rapid growth in length and mass. Similar to the narrow breeding season, most calves are born within a six-week time period in mid January.[52] The calf is born tail first, and measures about 4 m (13 ft) in length. Females lactate for approximately seven months following birth, at which point calves are weaned and maternal care begins to decrease.[52] The shallow lagoon waters in which gray whales reproduce are believed to protect the newborn from sharks and orcas.[citation needed]
The whale feeds mainly on benthic crustaceans, which it eats by turning on its side (usually the right, resulting in loss of eyesight in the right eye for many older animals) and scooping up sediments from the sea floor. It is classified as a baleen whale and has baleen, or whalebone, which acts like a sieve, to capture small sea animals, including amphipods taken in along with sand, water and other material. Mostly, the animal feeds in the northern waters during the summer; and opportunistically feeds during its migration, depending primarily on its extensive fat reserves. Calf gray whales drink 190–300 US gal (720–1,140 l) of their mothers' 53% fat milk per day.[55]
The main feeding habitat of the western Pacific subpopulation is the shallow (5–15 m (16–49 ft) depth) shelf off northeastern Sakhalin Island, particularly off the southern portion of Piltun Lagoon, where the main prey species appear to be amphipods and isopods.[56] In some years, the whales have also used an offshore feeding ground in 30–35 m (98–115 ft) depth southeast of Chayvo Bay, where benthic amphipods and cumaceans are the main prey species.[57] Some gray whales have also been seen off western Kamchatka, but to date all whales photographed there are also known from the Piltun area.[33][58]
Eastern population[edit]
Each October, as the northern ice pushes southward, small groups of eastern gray whales in the eastern Pacific start a two- to three-month, 8,000–11,000 km (5,000–6,800 mi) trip south. Beginning in the Bering and Chukchi seas and ending in the warm-water lagoons of Mexico's Baja peninsula and the southern Gulf of California, they travel along the west coast of Canada, the United States and Mexico.
Traveling night and day, the gray whale averages approximately 120 km (75 mi) per day at an average speed of 8 km/h (5 mph). This round trip of 16,000–22,000 km (9,900–13,700 mi) is believed to be the longest annual migration of any mammal. By mid-December to early January, the majority are usually found between Monterey and San Diego such as at Morro bay, often visible from shore. The whale watching industry provides ecotourists and marine mammal enthusiasts the opportunity to see groups of gray whales as they migrate.
By late December to early January, eastern grays begin to arrive in the calving lagoons of Baja California. The three most popular lagoons are Laguna Ojo de Liebre (formerly known in English as Scammon's Lagoon after whaleman Charles Melville Scammon, who discovered the lagoons in the 1850s and hunted the grays),[59][60] San Ignacio, and Magdalena.
These first whales to arrive are usually pregnant mothers looking for the protection of the lagoons to bear their calves, along with single females seeking mates. By mid-February to mid-March, the bulk of the population has arrived in the lagoons, filling them with nursing, calving and mating gray whales.
Throughout February and March, the first to leave the lagoons are males and females without new calves. Pregnant females and nursing mothers with their newborns are the last to depart, leaving only when their calves are ready for the journey, which is usually from late March to mid-April. Often, a few mothers linger with their young calves well into May.
By late March or early April, the returning animals can be seen from Everett, Washington, to Puget Sound to Canada.
Resident group[edit]
A population of about 200 gray whales stay along the eastern Pacific coast from Canada to California throughout the summer, not making the farther trip to Alaskan waters. This summer resident group is known as the Pacific Coast feeding group.[61]
Any historical or current presence of similar groups of residents among the western population is currently unknown. Some observations indicate that historic presences of resident whales are possible: a group of two or three were observed feeding in Izu Ōshima in 1994 for almost a month,[62] two single individuals stayed in Ise Bay for almost two months in the 1980s and in 2012, the first confirmed living individuals in Japanese EEZ in the Sea of Japan and the first of living cow-calf pairs since the end of whaling stayed for about three weeks on the coastline of Teradomari in 2014.[63][64]
Western population[edit]
The current western gray whale population summers in the Sea of Okhotsk, mainly off Piltun Bay region at the northeastern coast of Sakhalin Island (Russian Federation). There are also occasional sightings off the eastern coast of Kamchatka (Russian Federation) and in other coastal waters of the northern Okhotsk Sea.[56][65] Its migration routes and wintering grounds are poorly known, the only recent information being from occasional records on both the eastern and western coasts of Japan[66] and along the Chinese coast.[67]
The Sea of Japan was once thought not to have been a migration route, until several entanglements were recorded. However, there were numerous records of whales along the Genkai Sea off Yamaguchi Prefecture,[68] in Ine Bay in the Gulf of Wakasa, and in Tsushima. Gray whales, along with other species such as right whales and Baird's beaked whales, were common features off the north eastern coast of Hokkaido near Teshio, Ishikari Bay near Otaru, the Shakotan Peninsula, and islands in the La Pérouse Strait such as Rebun Island and Rishiri Island. These areas may also have included feeding grounds. There are shallow, muddy areas favorable for feeding whales off Shiretoko, such as at Shibetsu, the Notsuke Peninsula, Cape Ochiishi on Nemuro Peninsula, Mutsu Bay,[69] along the Tottori Sand Dunes, in the Suou-nada Sea, and Omura Bay.
The historical calving grounds were unknown but might have been along southern Chinese coasts from Zhejiang and Fujian Province to Guangdong, especially near Hong Kong. Possibilities include Daya Bay, Wailou Harbour on Leizhou Peninsula, and possibly as far south as Hainan Province and Guangxi, particularly around Hainan Island. These areas are at the southwestern end of the known range.[33][70] It is unknown whether the whales' normal range once reached further south, to the Gulf of Tonkin. In addition, the existence of historical calving ground on Taiwan and Penghu Islands (with some fossil records[71] and captures[72]), and any presence in other areas outside of the known ranges off Babuyan Islands in Philippines and coastal Vietnamese waters in Gulf of Tonkin are unknown. Gray whales are known to occur in Taiwan Strait even in recent years.[73]
There have been unidentified sightings[clarification needed] in Tokara Islands and Ryukyu Islands in recent years.[74]
It is also unknown whether any winter breeding grounds ever existed beyond Chinese coasts. For example, it is not known if the whales visited the southern coasts of the Korean Peninsula, adjacent to the Island of Jeju), Haiyang Island, the Gulf of Shanghai, or the Zhoushan Archipelago.[75] There is no evidence of historical presence in Japan south of Ōsumi Peninsula;[76] only one skeleton has been discovered in Miyazaki Prefecture.[77] Hideo Omura once considered the Seto Inland Sea to be a historical breeding ground, but only a handful of capture records support this idea, although migrations into the sea have been confirmed.[78]
Recent migration in Asian waters[edit]
Even though South Korea put the most effort into conservation of the species among the Asian nations, there are no confirmed sightings along the Korean Peninsula or even in the Sea of Japan in recent years. The last record in Korean waters was the sighting of a pair off Bangeojin, Ulsan in 1977.[79]
A fully-grown female was killed by entanglement in Pingtan, China in November, 2007.[73]
Since the mid 1990s, almost all the confirmed records of living animals in Asian waters were from Japanese coasts.[citation needed] There have been eight to fifteen sightings and stray records including unconfirmed sightings and re-sightings of the same individual, and one later killed in net-entanglement. The most notable of these observations are listed below:
- The feeding activities of a group of two or three whales that stayed around Izu Ōshima in 1994 for almost a month were recorded underwater[62] by several researchers[80] and whale photographers.[81]
- A pair of thin juveniles were sighted off Kuroshio, Kōchi, a renowned town for whale-watching tourism of resident and sub-resident populations of Bryde's Whales, in 1997.[82] This sighting was unusual because of the location on mid-latitude in summer time.
- Another pair of sub-adults were confirmed swimming near the mouth of Otani River in Suruga Bay in May, 2003.[83]
- A sub-adult whale that stayed in the Ise and Mikawa Bay for nearly two months in 2012[84][85][86] was later confirmed to be the same individual as the small whale observed off Tahara near the Cape Irago in 2010,[87] making it the first confirmed constant migration out of Russian waters. The juvenile observed off Owase in Kumanonada Sea in 2009 might or might not be the same individual. The Ise and Mikawa Bay region is the only location along Japanese coasts that has several records since the 1980s,[78][88] and is also the location where the first commercial whaling started. Other areas with several sighting or stranding records in recent years are off Kumanonada Sea in Wakayama, off Oshika Peninsula in Tohoku, and on coastlines close to Tomakomai, Hokkaido.
- A possible sighting of a gray whale underwater off Miyako Island in November, 2009.[74] If this animal is confirmed to be a gray whale, it will make the first ever record of any gray whale migrating to the Ryukyu Islands. An unspecified sighting[clarification needed] in Tokara strait also exists.
- Possibly the first ever confirmed record of living animals in Japanese waters in the Sea of Japan since the end of whaling occurred on 3 April 2014 at Nodumi Beach, Teradomari, Niigata.[89][90] Two individuals, measuring ten and five metres respectively, stayed near the mouth of Shinano River for three weeks.[91] It is yet unknown whether these animals are a cow-calf pair, but, if so, it will be the first record of a living cow-calf pair in any Asian nation. All of the previous modern records in the Sea of Japan were of by-catches.[citation needed]
North Pacific[edit]
Eastern population[edit]
Humans and the killer whale (orca) are the adult gray whale's only predators.[citation needed] Aboriginal hunters, including those on Vancouver Island and the Makah in Washington, have hunted gray whales.
Commercial whaling by Europeans of the species in the North Pacific began in the winter of 1845–46, when two United States ships, the Hibernia and the United States, under Captains Smith and Stevens, caught 32 in Magdalena Bay. More ships followed in the two following winters, after which gray whaling in the bay was nearly abandoned because "of the inferior quality and low price of the dark-colored gray whale oil, the low quality and quantity of whalebone from the gray, and the dangers of lagoon whaling."[92]
Gray whaling in Magdalena Bay was revived in the winter of 1855–56 by several vessels, mainly from San Francisco, including the ship Leonore, under Captain Charles Melville Scammon. This was the first of 11 winters from 1855 through 1865 known as the "bonanza period", during which gray whaling along the coast of Baja California reached its peak. Not only were the whales taken in Magdalena Bay, but also by ships anchored along the coast from San Diego south to Cabo San Lucas and from whaling stations from Crescent City in northern California south to San Ignacio Lagoon. During the same period, vessels targeting right and bowhead whales in the Gulf of Alaska, Sea of Okhotsk, and the Western Arctic would take the odd gray whale if neither of the more desirable two species were in sight.[92]
In December 1857, Charles Scammon, in the brig Boston, along with his schooner-tender Marin, entered Laguna Ojo de Liebre (Jack-Rabbit Spring Lagoon) or later known as Scammon's Lagoon (by 1860) and found one of the gray's last refuges. He caught 20 whales.[92] He returned the following winter (1858–59) with the bark Ocean Bird and schooner tenders A.M. Simpson and Kate. In three months, he caught 47 cows, yielding 1,700 barrels (270 m3) of oil.[93] In the winter of 1859–60, Scammon, again in the bark Ocean Bird, along with several other vessels, performed a similar feat of daring by entering San Ignacio Lagoon to the south where he discovered the last breeding lagoon. Within only a couple of seasons, the lagoon was nearly devoid of whales.[92]
Between 1846 and 1874, an estimated 8,000 gray whales were killed by American and European whalemen, with over half having been killed in the Magdalena Bay complex (Estero Santo Domingo, Magdalena Bay itself, and Almejas Bay) and by shore whalemen in California and Baja California.[92] This, for the most part, does not take into account the large number of calves injured or left to starve after their mothers had been killed in the breeding lagoons. Since whalemen primarily targeted these new mothers, several thousand deaths should probably be added to the total.[citation needed] Shore whaling in California and Baja California continued after this period, until the early 20th century.
A second, shorter, and less intensive hunt occurred for gray whales in the eastern North Pacific. Only a few were caught from two whaling stations on the coast of California from 1919 to 1926, and a single station in Washington (1911–21) accounted for the capture of another. For the entire west coast of North America for the years 1919 to 1929, some 234 gray whales were caught. Only a dozen or so were taken by British Columbian stations, nearly all of them in 1953 at Coal Harbour.[94] A whaling station in Richmond, California, caught 311 gray whales for "scientific purposes" between 1964 and 1969. From 1961 to 1972, the Soviet Union caught 138 gray whales (they originally reported not having taken any). The only other significant catch was made in two seasons by the steam-schooner California off Malibu, California. In the winters of 1934–35 and 1935–36, the California anchored off Point Dume in Paradise Cove, processing gray whales. In 1936, gray whales became protected in the United States.[95]
Western population[edit]
The Japanese began to catch gray whales beginning in the 1570s. At Kawajiri, Nagato, 169 gray whales were caught between 1698 and 1889. At Tsuro, Shikoku, 201 were taken between 1849 and 1896.[96] Several hundred more were probably caught by American and European whalemen in the Sea of Okhotsk from the 1840s to the early 20th century.[97] Whalemen caught 44 with nets in Japan during the 1890s. The real damage was done between 1911 and 1933, when Japanese whalemen killed 1,449 after Japanese companies established several whaling stations on Korean Peninsula and on Chinese coast such as near the Daya bay and on Hainan Island. By 1934, the western gray whale was near extinction. From 1891 to 1966, an estimated 1,800–2,000 gray whales were caught, with peak catches of between 100 and 200 annually occurring in the 1910s.[97]
As of 2001, the Californian gray whale population had grown to about 26,000. As of 2011, the population of western Pacific (seas near Korea, Japan, and Kamchatka) gray whales was an estimated 130.[98]
North Atlantic[edit]
The North Atlantic population may have been hunted to extinction in the 18th century. Circumstantial evidence indicates whaling could have contributed to this population's decline, as the increase in whaling activity in the 17th and 18th centuries coincided with the population's disappearance.[23] A. B. Van Deinse points out the "scrag whale", described by P. Dudley in 1725, as one target of early New England whalers, was almost certainly the gray whale.[38][39] In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony, a whale of the kind called "scragg" entered the harbor and was pursued and killed by the settlers.[37] Gray whales (Icelandic sandlægja) were described in Iceland in the early 17th century.[99]
Gray whales have been granted protection from commercial hunting by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) since 1949, and are no longer hunted on a large scale.
Limited hunting of gray whales has continued since that time, however, primarily in the Chukotka region of northeastern Russia, where large numbers of gray whales spend the summer months. This hunt has been allowed under an "aboriginal/subsistence whaling" exception to the commercial-hunting ban. Anti-whaling groups have protested the hunt, saying the meat from the whales is not for traditional native consumption, but is used instead to feed animals in government-run fur farms; they cite annual catch numbers that rose dramatically during the 1940s, at the time when state-run fur farms were being established in the region. Although the Soviet government denied these charges as recently as 1987, in recent years the Russian government has acknowledged the practice. The Russian IWC delegation has said that the hunt is justified under the aboriginal/subsistence exemption, since the fur farms provide a necessary economic base for the region's native population.
Currently, the annual quota for the gray whale catch in the region is 140 per year. Pursuant to an agreement between the United States and Russia, the Makah tribe of Washington claimed four whales from the IWC quota established at the 1997 meeting. With the exception of a single gray whale killed in 1999, the Makah people have been prevented from hunting by a series of legal challenges, culminating in a United States federal appeals court decision in December 2002 that required the National Marine Fisheries Service to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement. On September 8, 2007, five members of the Makah tribe shot a gray whale using high powered rifles in spite of the decision. The whale died within 12 hours, sinking while heading out to sea.[100]
As of 2008, the IUCN regards the gray whale as being of "Least Concern" from a conservation perspective. However, the specific subpopulation in the northwest Pacific is regarded as being "Critically Endangered".[2] The northwest Pacific population is also listed as endangered by the U.S. government's National Marine Fisheries Service under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. The IWC Bowhead, Right and Gray Whale subcommittee in 2011 reiterated the conservation risk to western gray whales is large because of the small size of the population and the potential anthropogenic impacts.[32]
In their breeding grounds in Baja California, Mexican law protects whales in their lagoons while still permitting whale watching.[citation needed] Gray whales are protected under Canada's Species at Risk Act which obligates Canadian governments to prepare management plans for the whales and consider the interests of the whales when permitting development.[citation needed]
Gray Whale migrations off of the Pacific Coast were observed, initially, by Marineland of the Pacific in Palos Verdes, California. The Gray Whale Census, an official Gray Whale migration census that has been recording data on the migration of the Pacific Gray Whale has been keeping track of the population of the Pacific Gray Whale since 1985. This census is the longest running census of the Pacific Gray Whale. Census keepers volunteer from December 1 through May, from sun up to sun down, seven days a week, keeping track of the amount of Gray Whales migrating through the area off of Los Angeles. Information from this census is listed through the American Cetacean Society of Los Angeles (ACSLA).
In 2005 two conservation biologists proposed a plan to airlift 50 gray whales from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. They reasoned that, as Californian gray whales had replenished to a suitable population, surplus whales could be transported to repopulate the extinct British population.[101][102] As of 2013[update] this plan has not been undertaken.[103]
South Korea and China list gray whales as protected species of high concern. In South Korea, the Gray Whale Migration Site[104] was registered as the 126th national monument in 1962,[105] although there have been no recent sightings of the species in Korean waters.
According to the Government of Canada's Management Plan for gray whales, threats to the eastern North Pacific population of gray whales include:[106]
- Increased human activities in their breeding lagoons in Mexico
- Climate change
- Acute noise
- The threat of toxic spills
- Aboriginal whaling
- Entanglement with fishing gear
- Boat collisions
- Impacts from fossil fuel exploration and extraction
Western gray whales are facing, the large-scale offshore oil and gas development programs near their summer feeding ground, as well as fatal net entrapments off Japan during migration, which pose significant threats to the future survival of the population.[32]
The substantial nearshore industrialization and shipping congestion throughout the migratory corridors of the western gray whale population represent potential threats by increasing the likelihood of exposure to ship strikes, chemical pollution, and general disturbance.[33][97]
Offshore gas and oil development in the Okhotsk Sea within 20 km (12 mi) of the primary feeding ground off northeast Sakhalin Island is of particular concern. Activities related to oil and gas exploration, including geophysical seismic surveying, pipelaying and drilling operations, increased vessel traffic, and oil spills, all pose potential threats to western gray whales. Disturbance from underwater industrial noise may displace whales from critical feeding habitat. Physical habitat damage from drilling and dredging operations, combined with possible impacts of oil and chemical spills on benthic prey communities also warrants concern.[33][58]
Along Japanese coasts, four females including a cow-calf pair were trapped and killed in nets in the 2000s. There had been a record of deceased individual thought to be harpooned by dolphin-hunters found on Hokkaido in 90s.[107][108] Meats for sale were also discovered in Japanese markets as well.[109]
Because of their size and need to migrate, gray whales have rarely been held in captivity, and then only for brief periods of time.
In 1972, a three-month-old gray whale named Gigi (II) was captured for brief study by Dr. David W. Kenney, and then released near San Diego.[110]
In January 1997, the newborn baby whale J.J. was found helpless near Los Angeles, California, 4.2 m (14 ft) long and 800 kilograms (1,800 lb) in weight. Nursed back to health in SeaWorld San Diego, she was released into the Pacific Ocean on March 31, 1998, 9 m (30 ft) long and 8,500 kg (18,700 lb) in mass. She shed her radio transmitter packs three days later.[111]
See also[edit]
- ^ The use of Order Cetartiodactyla, instead of Cetacea with Suborder Mysticeti, is favored by most evolutionary mammalogists working with molecular data [3][4][5][6] and is supported the IUCN Cetacean Specialist Group[7] and by Taxonomy Committee [8] of the Society for Marine Mammalogy, the largest international association of marine mammal scientists in the world. See Cetartiodactyla and Marine mammal articles for further discussion.
- ^ Mead, J. G.; Brownell, R. L., Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723–743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ a b Reilly SB, Bannister JL, Best PB, Brown M, Brownell Jr. RL, Butterworth DS, Clapham PJ, Cooke J, Donovan GP, Urbán J & Zerbini AN (2008). "Eschrichtius robustus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2013-01-18.
- ^ Agnarsson, I.; May-Collado, LJ. (2008). "The phylogeny of Cetartiodactyla: the importance of dense taxon sampling, missing data, and the remarkable promise of cytochrome b to provide reliable species-level phylogenies". Mol Phylogenet Evol. 48 (3): 964–985. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.046. PMID 18590827.
- ^ Price, SA.; Bininda-Emonds, OR.; Gittleman, JL. (2005). "A complete phylogeny of the whales, dolphins and even-toed hoofed mammals – Cetartiodactyla". Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 80 (3): 445–473. doi:10.1017/s1464793105006743. PMID 16094808.
- ^ Montgelard, C.; Catzeflis, FM.; Douzery, E. (1997). "Phylogenetic relationships of artiodactyls and cetaceans as deduced from the comparison of cytochrome b and 12S RNA mitochondrial sequences". Molecular Biology and Evolution 14 (5): 550–559. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025792. PMID 9159933.
- ^ Spaulding, M.; O'Leary, MA.; Gatesy, J. (2009). "Relationships of Cetacea -Artiodactyla- Among Mammals: Increased Taxon Sampling Alters Interpretations of Key Fossils and Character Evolution". PLoS ONE 4 (9): e7062. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7062S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007062. PMC 2740860. PMID 19774069.
- ^ Cetacean Species and Taxonomy. iucn-csg.org
- ^ "The Society for Marine Mammalogy's Taxonomy Committee List of Species and subspecies".
- ^ Recovery Strategy for the Grey Whale (Eschrichtius robustus), Atlantic Population, in Canada. Dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca (2012-07-31). Retrieved on 2012-12-20.
- ^ Gray Whale Eschrichtius robustus. American Cetacean Society
- ^ Gray Whale. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-20.
- ^ Perrin, William F.; Würsig, Bernd G. and Thewissen, J. G. M. (2009). Encyclopedia of marine mammals. Academic Press. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-12-373553-9.
- ^ a b Thomas, Pete (2010-05-10). "Gray whale off Israel called 'most amazing sighting in history of whales'". GrindTV.com. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
- ^ Hoare, Philip (2013-05-14). "First grey whale spotted south of the Equator". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
- ^ http://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/gray-whale-travels-more-than-22000-kilometres-smashes-world-record/49481/
- ^ The Paleobiology Database Eschrichtiidae entry accessed on 26 December 2010
- ^ Arnason, U., Gullberg A. & Widegren, B. (1993). "Cetacean mitochondrial DNA control region: sequences of all extant baleen whales and two sperm whale species". Molecular Biology and Evolution 10 (5): 960–970. PMID 8412655.
- ^ Sasaki, T.; Nikaido, Masato; Hamilton, Healy; Goto, Mutsuo; Kato, Hidehiro; Kanda, Naohisa; Pastene, Luis; Cao, Ying et al. (2005). "Mitochondrial Phylogenetics and Evolution of Mysticete Whales". Systematic Biology 54 (1): 77–90. doi:10.1080/10635150590905939. PMID 15805012.
- ^ Gray (1864). "Eschrichtius". Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 3 (14): 350.
- ^ Pyenson, Nicholas D.; Lindberg, David R. (2011). Goswami, Anjali, ed. "What Happened to Gray Whales during the Pleistocene? The Ecological Impact of Sea-Level Change on Benthic Feeding Areas in the North Pacific Ocean". PLoS ONE 6 (7): e21295. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021295. PMC 3130736. PMID 21754984.
- ^ Cope (1869). "Rhachianectes". Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 21: 15.
- ^ Cederlund, BA (1938). "A subfossil gray whale discovered in Sweden in 1859". Zoologiska Bidrag Fran Uppsala 18: 269–286.
- ^ a b c Mead JG, Mitchell ED (1984). "Atlantic gray whales". In Jones ML, Swartz SL, Leatherwood S. The Gray Whale. London: Academic Press. pp. 33–53.
- ^ a b Bryant, PJ (1995). "Dating Remains of Gray Whales from the Eastern North Atlantic". Journal of Mammalogy 76 (3): 857–861. doi:10.2307/1382754. JSTOR 1382754.
- ^ Waser, Katherine (1998). "Ecotourism and the desert whale: An interview with Dr. Emily Young". Arid Lands Newsletter.
- ^ "Eschrichtius robustus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved March 18, 2006.
- ^ Erxleben (1777). "Balaena gibbosa". Systema regni animalis: 610.
- ^ Burnie D. and Wilson D.E. (eds.) (2005) Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife. DK Adult, ISBN 0789477645
- ^ a b Kato H., Kishiro T., Nishiwaki S. (different person from Masaharu Nishiwaki once belonged to the same institution), Nakamura G., Bando T., Yasunaga G., Sakamoto T. , Miyashita T. (2014). SC/65b/BRG12 "Status Report of Conservation and Researches on the Western North Pacific Gray Whales in Japan, May 2013 - April 2014". Retrieved 2014-05-14.
- ^ Nakamura G.,Kato H. (2014). "日本沿岸域に近年(1990–2005 年)出現したコククジラEschrichtius robustus の骨学的特徴,特に頭骨形状から見た北太平洋西部系群と東部系群交流の可能性" (PDF). 哺乳類科学 54(1),2014. The Mammal Society of Japan, Cetacean Research Laboratory in Marine environmental section in the Graduate School of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, J-STAGE. pp. 73–88. Retrieved 2015-01-16.
- ^ a b Shpak O., 2011. Observation of the gray whale in the Laptev Sea. Standing expedition of IEE RAS(Russian Academy of Sciences). Retrieved on 05 July 2014
- ^ a b c d "Report of the Scientific Committee, Tromsø, Norway, 30 May to 11 June 2011 Annex F: Sub-Committee on Bowhead, Right and Gray Whale" (PDF). IWC Office.
- ^ a b c d e "Eschrichtius robustus (western subpopulation)". IUCN Red List.
- ^ Rice DW (1998). Marine Mammals of the World. Systematics and Distribution. Special Publication Number 4. Lawrence, Kansas: The Society for Marine Mamalogy.
- ^ Regional Species Extinctions - Examples of regional species extinctions over the last 1000 years and more.
- ^ Macé M. (2003). "Did the Gray Whale calve in the Mediterranean?". Lattara 16: 153–164.
- ^ a b Macy O (1835). The History of Nantucket:being a compendious account of the first settlement of the island by the English:together with the rise and progress of the whale fishery, and other historical facts relative to said island and its inhabitants:in two parts. Boston: Hilliard, Gray & Co. ISBN 1-4374-0223-2.
- ^ a b Van Deinse, AB (1937). "Recent and older finds of the gray whale in the Atlantic". Temminckia 2: 161–188.
- ^ a b Dudley, P (1725). "An essay upon the natural history of whales". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 33 (381–391): 256–259. doi:10.1098/rstl.1724.0053. JSTOR 103782.
- ^ Alter, SE; Rynes, E.; Palumbi, S. R. (September 2007). "DNA evidence for historic population size and past ecosystem impacts of gray whales". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (38): 15162–15167. doi:10.1073/pnas.0706056104.
- ^ "California Group Seeks Protections For Gray Whale". Santa Cruz Sentinel. November 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ "Gray Whale Population Studies". NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Protected Resource Division. 2010. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ "Western Pacific Gray Whale, Sakhalin Island 2010". Oregon State University, Marine Mammal Institute. February 2011. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ Rugh, David J. and Fraker, Mark A. (June 1981). "Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) Sightings in Eastern Beaufort Sea" (PDF). Arctic. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
- ^ Shpak V.O., Kuznetsova M.D., & Rozhnov V.V. (2013). "Observation of the Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) in the Laptev Sea". Biology Bulletin 40 (9): 797–800. doi:10.1134/S1062359013090100.
- ^ Nefedova T., Gavrilo M., Gorshkov S., 2013. Летом в Арктике стало меньше льда. http://www.rgo.ru/ru/article/letom-v-arktike-stalo-menshe-lda. Russian Geographical Society. retrieved on 24-05-2014
- ^ Elwen H.S., Gridley T., 2013. Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) sighting in Namibia (SE Atlantic) – first record for Southern Hemisphere. [1] Mammal Research Institute, the University of Pretoria and the Namibian Dolphin Project. retrieved on 18-05-2014
- ^ צפריר רינת 08.05.2010 16:47 עודכן ב: 16:50. "לווייתן אפור נצפה בפעם הראשונה מול חופי ישראל – מדע וסביבה – הארץ". Haaretz.co.il. Retrieved 2012-06-26.
- ^ "Satellites witness lowest Arctic ice coverage in history". Retrieved 2007-09-14.
- ^ Walker, Matt (30 May 2010). "Mystery gray whale sighted again off Spain coast". BBC News. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
- ^ Namibian Dolphin Project: A rare and mysterious visitor in Walvis Bay. Namibiandolphinproject.blogspot.ch (2013-05-14). Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
- ^ a b c d Rice, D., Wolman, A. and Braham, H. (1984). "The Gray Whale, Eschrichtius robustus" (PDF). Marine Fisheries Review 46 (4): 7–14.
- ^ a b c Jones, Mary Lou. "The Reproductive Cycle in Gray Whales Based on Photographic Resightings of Females on the Breeding Grounds from 1977–82" (PDF). Rep. Int. Whal. Comm (t2): 177.
- ^ a b c Swartz, Steven L.; Taylor, Barbara L.; Rugh, David J. (2006). "Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus population and stock identity" (PDF). Mammal Review 36 (1): 66–84. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2907.2006.00082.x.
- ^ "GRAY WHALE: ZoomWhales.com". Enchantedlearning.com. Retrieved 2012-06-26.
- ^ a b Weller, D.W., Wursig, B., Bradford, A.L., Burdin, A.M., Blokhin, S.A., inakuchi, H. and Brownell, R.L., Jr. (1999). "Gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) off Sakhalin Island, Russia: seasonal and annual patterns of occurrence". Mar. Mammal Sci. 15 (4): 1208–27. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1999.tb00886.x.
- ^ Fadeev V.I. (2003). Benthos and prey studies in feeding grounds of the Okhotsk-Korean population of gray whales. Final report on materials from field studies on the research vessel Nevelskoy in 2002. Marine Biology Institute, Vladivostok.
- ^ a b Reeves, R.R., Brownell Jr., R.L., Burdin, A., Cooke, J.G., Darling, J.D., Donovan, G.P., Gulland, F.M.D., Moore, S.E., Nowacek, D.P., Ragen, T.J., Steiner, R.G., Van Blaricom, G.R., Vedenev, A. and Yablokov, A.V. (2005). Report of the Independent Scientific review Panel on the Impacts of Sakhalin II Phase 2 on Western Pacific Gray Whales and Related Biodiversity. IUCN, Gland Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.
- ^ Davis, T.N. (1979-09-06). "Recovery of the Gray Whale". Alaska Science Forum. Retrieved 2009-01-25.
- ^ Niemann, G. (2002). Baja Legends. Sunbelt Publications. pp. 171–173. ISBN 0-932653-47-2.
- ^ Lang, A. (January 19, 2011). "Demographic distinctness of the Pacific Coast Feeding Group of Gray Whales (Eschrictius robustus)". NOAA Fisheries Service, Protected Resource Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ a b Suitube7 (2012). "中村宏治 コククジラ撮影秘話!". Japan Underwater Films. p. YouTube. Retrieved 2015-01-07.
- ^ http://www.shikoku-np.co.jp/national/science_environmental/photo.aspx?id=20120417000459&no=1
- ^ http://1topi.jp/curator/Makoto_Ninomiya/1303/05/104995
- ^ Vladimirov, V.L. (1994). "Recent distribution and abundance level of whales in Russian Far-Eastern seas". Russian J. Mar. Biol. 20: l–9.
- ^ Kato, H., Ishikawa, H., Bando, T., Mogoe, T. and Moronuki, H. (2006). Status Report of Conservation and Researches on the Western Gray Whales in Japan, June 2005 – May 2006. Paper SC/58/O14 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee, June 2006
- ^ Zhu, Q. (1998). "Strandings and sightings of the western Pacific stock of the gray whale Eschrichtius robustus in Chinese coastal waters. Paper SC/50lAS5 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee, April 1998, Oman
- ^ Uni Y., 2004, 西部系群コククジラ Eschrictius robustus の記録集成と通過海峡, http://www.h6.dion.ne.jp/~unisan/data/graywhale/cetaken15.html, retrieved on 09-05-2014
- ^ http://www.geocities.jp/kayak_surfing/note/9.html
- ^ Brownell, R.L., Jr. and Chun, C. (1977). "Probable existence of the Korean stock of the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus)". J. Mammal. 58 (2): 237–9. doi:10.2307/1379584. JSTOR 1379584.
- ^ Tsai H.-C., Fordyce E.R., Chang H.-C., Lin K.-L. (2014). "Quaternary Fossil Gray Whales from Taiwan". Paleontological Research 18(2):82-93. 2014 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2517/2014PR009. Department of Geology of University of Otago, Department of Life Science of Tunghai University, Department of Geology of Taichung National Museum of Natural Science. p. The BioOne. Retrieved 2015-01-07.
- ^ Brownell, R.L., Donovan, G.P., Kato, H., Larsen, F.*, Mattila, D., Reeves, R.R., Rock, Y., Vladimirov, V., Weller, D. & Zhu, Q., Conservation Plan for Western North Pacific Gray Whales (Eschrichtius robustus), 2010 (citation limited)
- ^ a b What's on Xiamen.Tags > Pingtan gray whale. Retrieved on November 24. 2014
- ^ a b http://sea.ap.teacup.com/untamamori/1400.html
- ^ "濒危物种数据库 - 灰鲸 Eschrichtius robustus (Lilljeborg, 1861)". 中华人民共和国濒危物种科学委员会. p. the CITES. Retrieved 2014-11-24.
- ^ Uni Y., 2010, 『コククジラは大隅海峡を通るのか?』, Japan Cetology Research Group News Letter 25, retrieved on 11-05-2014
- ^ http://svrsh1.kahaku.go.jp/marmam/?p=6
- ^ a b http://www.shikoku-np.co.jp/feature/rensa/3/2/
- ^ Kim W.H., Sohn H., An Y-R., Park J.K., Kim N.D., Doo Hae An H.D. (2013). SC/65a/BRG26. "Report of Gray Whale Sighting Survey off Korean waters from 2003 to 2011". Cetacean Research Institute, National Fisheries Research & Development Institute. Retrieved 2014-05-18.
- ^ Kyouichi Mori of Ogasawara Whale Watching Association[full citation needed]
- ^ http://www.juf.co.jp/english/
- ^ http://svrsh2.kahaku.go.jp/drift/FMPro?-db=rec2000web.fp5&-lay=hp&-format=/drift/e/detail.htm&rec_id=19970722EX-032&-find
- ^ http://www.geocities.jp/kayak_surfing/note/9.html. retrieved on 14-05-2014
- ^ footage
- ^ [2]
- ^ [3]
- ^ www.beachland.jp
- ^ [4]
- ^ http://www.niigata-nippo.co.jp/news/national/20140409105475.html
- ^ http://www.47news.jp/smp/localnews/toretate/2014/04/post_20140404142744.php
- ^ Kato H., Kishiro T., Nishiwaki S.,Nakamura G., Bando T., Yasunaga G., Takaaki Sakamoto T. ,Miyashita T., 2014. Status Report of Conservation and Researches on the Western North Pacific Gray Whales in Japan, May 2013 - April 2014. https://events.iwc.int/index.php/scientific/SC65B/paper/view/821/791. SC/65b/BRG12. retrieved on 14-05-2014
- ^ a b c d e Henderson, David A. (1972). Men & Whales at Scammon's Lagoon. Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop.
- ^ Scammon, Charles Melville, and David A. Henderson (1972). Journal aboard the bark Ocean Bird on a whaling voyage to Scammon's Lagoon, winter of 1858–59. Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop.
- ^ Tønnessen, Johan; Arne Odd Johnsen (1982). The History of Modern Whaling. University of California Press, Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-03973-4.
- ^ Brownell Jr., R. L. and Swartz, S. L. 2006. The floating factory ship California operations in Californian waters, 1932–1937. International Whaling Commission, Scientific Committee.
- ^ Kasuya, T. (2002). "Japanese whaling", in Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. W. F. Perrin, B. Wursig, and J.G.M. Thewissen, eds. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 655–662, ISBN 978-0-12-373553-9.
- ^ a b c Weller, D. et al. (2002). "The western gray whale: a review of past exploitation, current status and potential threats" 4 (1). J. Cetacean Res. Manage. pp. 7–12.
- ^ [5][dead link]
- ^ Jón Guðmundsson lærði (1966). Ein stutt udirrietting um Íslands adskiljanlegu náttúrur. ed. Halldór Hermannsson, Cornell University Library, Ithaca, New York.
- ^ Mapes, Lynda V.; Ervin, Keith (2007-09-09). "Gray whale shot, killed in rogue tribal hunt". The Seattle Times.
- ^ Rowan Hooper (23 July 2005). "Moving Whales Across the World". New Scientist. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
- ^ Rowan Hooper (18 July 2005). "US whales may be brought to UK". BBC News. Retrieved 22 August 2013.
- ^ George Monbiot (2013). Feral: Searching for Enchantment on the Frontiers of Rewilding. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-846-14748-7.
- ^ http://www.cha.go.kr/korea/heritage/search/Culresult_Db_View.jsp?mc=NS_04_03_01&VdkVgwKey=16,01260000,ZZ
- ^ http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_1_1_1.jsp?cid=1751673
- ^ The Grey Whale (Eastern North Pacific Population). Species at Risk. dfo-mpo.gc.ca
- ^ "Eschrichtius robustus (western subpopulation". IUCN. Retrieved 2015-01-13.
- ^ Yamada T., Watanabe Y. "Marine Mammals Stranding DataBase - Gray Whale". The National Museum of Nature and Science. Retrieved 2015-01-13.
- ^ Baker S.C., Dalebout L.M., Lento M.G., Funahashi N. (2006). "GRAY WHALE PRODUCTS SOLD IN COMMERCIAL MARKETS ALONG THE PACIFIC COAST OF JAPAN". The Marine Mammal Science Marine Mammal Science Volume 18, Issue 1, January 2002. Wiley Online Library. pp. 295–300. Retrieved 2015-01-13.
- ^ "Captured Gray Whale to Be Freed, Tracked", The Los Angeles Times (1972-03-13), p. B2.
- ^ J.J. the Gray Whale. Seaworld.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-20.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gray whale. |
- US National Marine Fisheries Service Gray Whale web page
- IUCN Redlist listing for Gray Whale
- Arkive – images & video of gray whale
- Society for Marine Mammalogy – Gray Whale Species Account
- The short film The California Gray Whale is available for free download at the Internet Archive
- Voices in the Sea - Sounds of the Gray Whale


text:
StarChefs.com is the Internet's most comprehensive culinary site, featuring the world's premier chefs and cookbook authors, detailed articles and food industry expertise. StarChefs.com is an insider's guide to the world of culinary arts.
Unique Advertising Opportunity
StarChefs.com has appeal for anyone interested in food and is an excellent site for advertisers.
Site Statistics
Audience Profile
*Information for the Typical User Profile has been supplied by the Interliant Corporation Web server statistics reporting and host management service.
Partial List of Recent Advertisers
Nabisco, MSN (Microsoft Network), Hewlett Packard, iVillage.com, Bigtray.com, Chefs Catalog, and EthnicGrocer.com
Current Sponsorship Packages
Sponsorships are available throughout the StarChefs.com Web site.
Phone: 212-966-7575 Fax: 212-966-6644 E-mail contact: sales
About Us | Company Overview | Distance Learning | Chain Intranet Solution | JobFinder Creative Web Design Services | Advertising | Executive Officers | Newsletter | Invest | Feedback

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Arnquist, Warren Nelson (1930) The scattering of electrons in gases. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-03172009-151505
It is found
(1) That the angular distribution function of electrons scattered in mercury is not a monotonic function of the angle, but has a minimum whose angular position is an inverse cotangent function of the energy of the electrons.
(2) That the angular distribution function of electrons scattered in air is a monotonic function of the angle within the range investigated.
(3) That measurements of small angle scattering in mercury are in qualitative agreement with the work of other observers.
Item Type: | Thesis (Dissertation (Ph.D.)) |
Degree Grantor: | California Institute of Technology |
Division: | Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy |
Major Option: | Physics |
Thesis Availability: | Public (worldwide access) |
Research Advisor(s): |
Thesis Committee: |
Defense Date: | 1 January 1930 |
Record Number: | CaltechETD:etd-03172009-151505 |
Persistent URL: | http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-03172009-151505 |
Default Usage Policy: | No commercial reproduction, distribution, display or performance rights in this work are provided. |
ID Code: | 989 |
Collection: | CaltechTHESIS |
Deposited By: | Imported from ETD-db |
Deposited On: | 17 Mar 2009 |
Last Modified: | 26 Dec 2012 02:34 |
Thesis Files
PDF (Arnquist_wn_1930.pdf)
- Final Version
See Usage Policy. 16Mb |
Repository Staff Only: item control page


text:
So, TheCannon and I were having a discussion about The Avengers. We pinpointed some of the members that we hoped to see on the big screen. It's definitely too early for Spider-Man or Wolverine to join the team. But, what about some more of the originals? Ant-Man's scheduled for a movie. And, I'd rather eat my shoe than see them introduce Ant-Man without adding the Wasp. Those two should hopefully be joining Earth's Mightiest Heroes pretty soon. But, what about Ms. Marvel and She-Hulk? Those would be pretty tough to do without having a movie focused on Marvel or another Hulk movie.
Then, we got to Black Panther.
Neither one of us were sure how he originally became a member of the 616 Avengers. But, we agreed that it would be good to see him on the big screen.
How would we do this?
Here are my propositions:
Stand-alone- If they want to do a stand-alone movie for BP they would definitely have to bring in a lot of Wakanda. That's part of who he is. Marvel doesn't have the rights to Storm so she might be too hard to throw in. But, they could still do a lot of neat stuff... Especially, if they brought in the Wakandan history. They could talk about the Panthers of the past, leading the society isolated from the world. They've always been self-sufficient and more advanced than the world around them. This could add some interesting factors to their culture's past. Even better, they could do a movie highly involving the Panther god and Ra (like the most-recent BP comics).
Cameo- Before we get ahead of ourselves, it might be better to just introduce BP to the Marvel Movie-verse first. Here's my plan:
It would be cool if the Avengers either had to hide out in Wakanda (like during A V X) or they desperately needed the Wakandan technology.
Maybe Cap's shield breaks and they're the only ones who can fix it...
Or, there's some sort of robotic upgrade that Iron Man / the team needs and Wakanda's the only place that could provide it (What if he's introduced at the end of one of the Iron Man movies?!? Stark could be infected with a virus or really need better technology due to a new enemy and he doesn't find a solution [alone]. This could lead him to look for answers in Wakanda where they upgrade his antivirus/system. And, then BP follows IM back to the US to become part of the A.)
Feel free to steel these ideas and actually use them in the movies =)
Otherwise, what do you guys think? Will/should BP be introduced? How should it go? When? Why?


text:
Schedule for Tuesday, October 09 2012
1:00am - 3:00am
Hosted by: Joe Woods
Nu-Jazz; Broken-World; Down-Tempo; Pro-Peace Dance Music Party
5:30am - 7:00am
Hosted by: Diane Karl
A spicy mix of folk and acoustic music
7:00am - 8:00am
Hosted by: TBA
News magazine hosted by award-winning journalists Amy Goodman and Juan Gonzalez
8:00am - 9:00am
Hosted by: Abe, Joe Uris
Jody Wiser of Tax Fairness Oregon talks Measure 84 with Abe and Joe. And it's Fall Membership Drive!
10:15am - 11:00am
Hosted by: TBA
INVESTIGATIVE News Radio with host Dennis Bernstein
11:00am - 12:00pm
Hosted by: Dmae Roberts
Miracle Theatre, Portland Center Stage & New Asian Anthology
12:00pm - 1:30pm
Hosted by: Carmen Martin-Stiles
Hispanic public affairs and music / Temas de actualidad y música hispana
2:30pm - 4:00pm
Hosted by: Edith Molina, Ruth Parra
A Latina/o radio talk [spanish] show covering local, regional and international news.
4:00pm - 5:00pm
Hosted by: TBA
News magazine hosted by award-winning journalists Amy Goodman and Juan Gonzalez
5:00pm - 5:30pm
Hosted by: pmnews
Non-corporate, volunteer-powered, local, national, and international news
6:00pm - 7:00pm
Hosted by: Alan Silver, Carla, dfelash
The life and times of Lou Harrison
8:00pm - 10:00pm
Hosted by: Dr. J
Tune in for the THE MELTING POT Pledge Drive Special
10:00pm - 12:00am
Hosted by: DJ Anjali, The Incredible Kid
Electronic folk & urban sounds from the global diaspora; an auditory map with South Asia at center


text:
Home |
Set of 4 glazed terracotta carytid building elements browse these categories for related items... All Items: Antiques: Furnishings: Garden: Decorations: Pre 1910: item # 778465 Please refer to our stock # AR/022 when inquiring.
Summerhill Gallery By Appointment Warrenton VA 20187 703-863-1941 Guest Book |
$1,200 Formal glazed terracotta architectural elements - glazed carytid columns in brown and gold, suitable for exterior use or as part of indoor cabinetry. Existing single screw holes at top and base. Each 34.5" long, 8" wide, 4" deep. A couple of minor chips, quite repairable. |


text:
Scottsdale Leather Golf Shoes
Looking good from the streets to the links.
TRUE Linkswear, regarded as the most comfortable golf shoes in and on the field of golf footwear and worn by several of the world's best golfers to include 3-time PGA Tour winner Ryan Moore and World #1 ranked Inbee Park, is excited to kick off your new year's golf season with their fashion forward women's Scottsdale leather golf shoes loaded with comfort, performance and versatility.
With the women's Scottsdale, TRUE is giving the woman golfer everything you've grown to love about TRUE linkswear. This means a full leather upper that is sure to be weather resistant but most importantly, comfortable – in thoughtful colorways that pair well with this year's fashion trends. Sporting an athletic classic rubber outsole built with a whole new diamond etched pattern. the new Scottsdale provides TRUE comfort, with increased flexibility, and increased feel of the course.
Versatile enough to rock on and off the course, the Scottsdale golf shoes really allow you to live TRUE. Enjoy the walk and live golf ready in the new TRUE Scottsdale leather women's golf shoes sure to set your style and your play in perfect motion.
- Natural motion technology that allows natural movement and foot comfort throughout your swing and stride.
- Full leather upper that is made from TRUE's proprietary premium weather resistant leather for a sophisticated, clean look, and spectacular fit and feel for your feet.
- Flexible rubber outsole that gives supreme comfort and stability and is crafted from incredibly light yet durable material to provide the ultimate platform for walking golfers.
- ERGO traction outsole that is the thinnest in golf and provides performance-level stability, balance and leverage.
Style: SD1-0007
GolfDiscount.com is proud to use FedEx as its primary shipping provider. All packages shipped via FedEx include shipping insurance as part of the quoted price. Packages are protected 100% until the merchandise arrives and is signed for by you. We offer FedEx Ground Shipping to the Contiguous 48 states. All FedEx shipment times are quoted in business days, as neither FedEx Next-Day service nor FedEx 2-Day service ship or deliver on weekends or holidays.
Orders over $99.00 |
*Free FedEx Ground shipping! |
Orders under $99.00 | Ground shipping only $6.99 |
International Shipping
GolfDiscount.com can ship almost any item we carry in stock internationally. From Canada, to Europe, to Australia and everywhere in between, we can provide rate estimates and service to international customers. International shipping prices will be calculated during checkout, but if you would like to estimate shipping costs prior, please use our sales team at 1-800-394-4653.
Express Shipments
We are also proud to offer FedEx Next Day and 2-Day Air at the lowest possible rates attainable. Rates vary depending on the dimensional weight and destination of the shipment.
Hawaii and Alaska Shipments
FedEx Next Day and 2-Day Air are available for customers looking to have products shipped to Hawaii or Alaska.
Processing Times
Orders completed by 12PM PST (3PM EST) ship out same day! All other orders will be processed and fulfilled within one business day. Drop Ship products and orders completed on Saturdays require additional processing time.
PO Boxes and APO Shipments
GolfDiscount.com gladly ships to PO Boxes and APO addresses through USPS.
Additional Shipping Information
Canadian and International Orders


text:
Toll Free: | 877-385-2388 |
Phone: | 859-746-2228 |
Fax: | 859-746-2221 |
Address: | 3940 Olympic Boulevard Suite 340 Erlanger, Kentucky 41018 |
Contacts: | Brian P. Berning, CPA |
Map and Driving Directions » | |
Strategically situated on the border of Kentucky and Ohio, close to Indiana, Erlanger prides itself on being a "City of Friendship." Like our friends in Kentucky, southern hospitality extends from all SS&G offices, regardless of location. From our offices in the Midwest, we serve clients across the country and in other parts of the world, but always with respect, confidentiality, while creating mutually beneficial relationships with our clients, employees, and communities.


text:
Bullseye with Jesse Thorn is joining NPR! Revisit our podcast...
If you like radio -- heck, if you enjoy listening to interesting and funny shows on any sort of device -- you may already be familiar with Thorn as an accomplished host and head honcho at Maximum Fun's podcast network.
Thorn's humble hosting beginnings were way back in 2000, with a show called The Sound of Young America, created and distributed out of his house. The show was eventually picked up by Public Radio International and its moniker changed to Bullseye. This morning, Thorn announced that NPR will start distributing Bullseye in April 2013.
Jesse and Jordan Morris, his co-host on Jordan, Jesse, Go!, visited AADL in 2011 and recorded a podcast. Listen in on their chat about the evolution of production values, their self-directed efforts in the changing media landscape, Dick Cavett, Gymkata and building a community of people who you've never met.
Fair warning: foul language ahead.


text:
10 Commandments of Bikram Yoga.
Thou shalt obey all 10:
1. Thou shalt lock thy knee.
2. Thou shalt stay in the room. The class is 90 minutes. Even if thou dost sit out many postures, thou shalt not leave the torture chamber.
3. Thou shalt not sport underwear as solo yoga gear. Nobody wants to see your whatnot hangin' out. Bras and boxer briefs do not reasonable public yoga clothes make.
4. Thou shalt arrive to class hydrated. That may mean that thou dost desperately pound 64 ounces of water in under ten minutes a hour before class, but thou oughta know such behavior is better than nothing.
5. Thou shalt not be scared when thy "back hurts like hell." Thou may find this ridiculous and counterintuitive. Thou art correct. Nevertheless, faithful servant, go with it.
6. Thou shalt sweat rivers and delight in thine own perspiration.
7. Thou shalt move with the group.
8. Thou shalt keep thy mouth shut during class and breathe through thy nose or thou shalt be called out and shamed for mouth-breathing.
9. Thou shalt come back tomorrow. In Bikram yoga, consecutive classes is a thing, just so thou knowest.
10. Thou shalt lock thy knee. I, the Lord your Guru, wasn't kidding about that. Lock your effing knee already.
Like this? "Like" elephant funny on Facebook.
Editor: Kate Bartolotta.
Loved it? Leave a tip!
7 Responses to "10 Commandments of Bikram Yoga."
This is terrific! Knee locks, warlocks, all very pernicious. :o)
I would suggest that no. 5 could use some qualification but apart from that: love.
x -
[…] Throughout the standing postures, fainting and nausea are a reminder that it is really, really hot. […]
[…] been practicing Bikram off and on for several years. I have a rather love hate relationship with it and my anger has […]
[…] the doctor to come into the examining room. I studied the Bhagavad-Gita. I tried different styles (Bikram is definitely not for me). I turned my nose up at gym yoga classes (too much focus on the physical) […]
I gave up on teacher training too! I am still working on being ok with that. the 135 degree heat in the studio (no kidding), the sleep deprivation, and the egomaniacal, verbally abusive guru combined to beat me into submitting to leaving, or submitting to who-knows-what. (shock? hospital?) Maybe we should start a "Bikram Drop Out" support group page on FB!
The series is wonderful. The way it is taught is not.


text:
Welcome, Sign In
How to Watch the Super Bowl Online
Description:Even cord cutters might be able to get in on the big NFL game action via several sites and apps that stream the game and the ads. Scott Austin joins digits. (3:12)
Source: WSJLive
Tags: How to Watch the Super Bowl Online , 2013 nfl championship , 2013 super sunday , 2013 superbowl sunday


text:
Publisher's Description
+Your goal is to clear all the soap bubbles from the screen, Just aim and fire with the soap bubbles that appear at the bottom. If you make a cluster of three ore more soaps they will explode. The more soaps you will blow up in a single shot, the higher the bonus you receive.


text:
iPhone 3G Spotted in the Wild ....By a Surprising Person
An enterprising fellow has caught the iPhone 3G in the wild! Whilst at dinner in London he ran into a few Apple employees who gushed about the device, talked up the upcoming launch, and generally passed the iPhone 3G around for everybody present to ogle. Basically the Apple folks were so giddy they couldn't help themselves. See his rundown here.
That's all very nice, isn't it? Here's the best part: The fellow we're referring to is Derek Snyder, aka Master of Mobility, the Wizard of Wireless, the Warlock of Windows Mobile, aka the Senior Product Manager for Windows Mobile.
When even the folks in charge of Windows Mobile can't help but try to scoop the iPhone 3G, you know you're looking at a 'big deal.' (We kid Snyder because we love). Still, good and proper to see that Microsoft is keeping an eye on the iPhone front, it's even better that they're playing nice with Exchange on the iPhone. Hugs all around!
Have something to say about this story? Leave a comment! Need help with something else? Ask in our forums!
Reader comments
iPhone 3G Spotted in the Wild ....By a Surprising Person
Confession: it was a total set up. Katie found out the mobiletard was there and had Moishe set up the drop. WinVistaMob Se7en is making Cairo look timely and we knew Snyder was lusting after a little pocket universe denter love, so we let him get close enough to taste it, figuring he'd blab it all over the blogsphere and drive another stake into Monkey Boy's chest. (Can't wait to get THAT phone call!)


text:
Motion for Exemption from Means Test Modified 01/11/2006
A Motion for Exemption from Means Test may be filed by an individual debtor in a Chapter 7 case to determine the applicability of Section 707(b)(2)(D).
Select Bankruptcy
Select Motions/Applications
Enter case number and click Next
Verify correct case number and caption
Select Exemption from Means Test
Indicate if this is a joint filing with another attorney(s)
Select Additional attorneys if appropriate
Select Party or Add/Create Party
The Party Attorney Association screen may display. Indicate the party you represent.
Browse, verify and attach the Motion/Application (pdf file)
Attach supporting documents, if applicable.
Certificate of Service Included?
Specify and click Next
Modify docket text as appropriate
WARNING: Verify filing entry information is correct before submitting the Final Docket Text.
Save the Notice of Electronic Filing.


text:
In just a few minutes, you could be searching thousands of photos of singles who live near you!
Ready for a new relationship? Register for FREE today at BBW Personals Plus and you can create your own profile, initiate contact with other members, perform searches and more!
Sign up now!
AtlantaAugustaBufordCalhounColumbusDecaturJonesboroKathleenKennesawLawrencevilleLexingtonLithoniaLyonsMaconMariettaMcDonoughSmyrnaStatesboroStockbridgeStone Mountain
138942316 is a 21yr-old single woman in Lexington, Georgia


text:
- Hi everyone,
It's been a long time, but I finally have some good news:
Everyone, please update your link to:
my new e-mail address is:
The site is completely (and I mean completely) updated,
so pay it a visit.
http://www.xosl.org made possible by Edwin Wang.
Finally I have I uploaded a new version of XOSL.
It is still the pre-release version. It's called 1.1.0.dv1
(developer version 1). It's not a half-baked
implementation. Everything in the boot manager
is implemented. The difference with what will be
the official release is that it will have just some more
improvements, and at least one bug fix.
You will find the readme file, which is included in this
new distribution, at the end of this mail. It holds a list
of all improvements, and the one 'non-critical' bug I
have found.
In addition to this mailing list, I have created an
announcement list. It will be used to announce
new releases and bugs only. You cannot post
any messages to this list. So, if you like this
better, instead of the discussion list, and want
to subscribe, visit:
Here you will find a list of new and improved features of XOSL 1.1.0.dv1, as
will as a bug list. If you find any bugs not stated in this document, please
mail them to: geurt@...
New and improved features:
Radio Buttons.
The radio buttons now act more natural. They now behave is in most
windowing systems. Instead of a widget per radio button, now a group of
radio buttons is one widget. Up and down is used to select. Actually,
the radio buttons act exactly the same as list boxes. So also page up/
page down/home/end can be used.
Edit Box
New in edit boxes: cursor keys can be used, as well as home/end. Escape
will clear the edit box. Page Up/Ctrl Left and Page Down/Ctrl Right will
move the cursor four positions
PageUp/PageDown/Ctrl+Left/Ctrl+Right can be used to move the cursor 8
positions. Also Home and End can be used now.
Choose OS window:
Use up/down keys at any time to select a different item. Also the index of
the items can be used to select them, so 1-9,a-n (upto 24 items). When the
radio buttons group is the active control, Enter will boot the selected
About window:
Configuration window:
Unhide is now called reveal, and a reveal all button is added
Instead of just the primary partitions of the first HD, now any
partition can be activated.
Preference window:
The fade-in (the transition from splash screen to boot menu) can be
The intensity of the fade-in color can be changed. 0% is black, 100% is
New section on the preference window.
The restart key (F10) can be customized, and in addition a key for cold
reboot and a key to shutdown the computer are added.
Shutdown can soft power off your computer. This is still experimental,
and may not work on your machine, even if it has support for soft
New option: Display boot item index. When checked it will display the
index of the boot items on the boot menu. For instance:
1. Windows 98
2. Linux 2.2.7
A. Win98 Command prompt
New option: Boot on key press. When checked the boot item is booted when
1-9,a-n is pressed. So then pressing enter isn't necessary anymore.
New option: Ignore mouse click. When checked instead boot isn't aborted
when a mouse button is depressed. This is a work around for an unsolved
bug, which may appear with serial (Logitech) mice. So, if instead boot
doesn't do anything, try it with this option checked.
New option: Set item as instant boot. When checked the item you boot
will be set as instant boot item. So if you have the timeout set to
10sec, and boot Windows, the next time XOSL is started, Windows will be
booted after ten seconds.
XOSL now has full LBA support. So it can now handle HDs > 8Gb, as well
as interpret Microsoft FAT LBA and Extended LBA partitions.
The install is now menu driven. The only option implemented is Install
XOSL 1.1.0. Uninstall isn't yet implemented.
When all boot items are removed, booting will fail, as well as using
any of the Misc. Keys. XOSL itself will still work properly. After
you have rebooted your system (e.g. with Ctrl-Alt-Del), everything
will work fine again.


text:
Same-sex couples wed out of state seek recognition in Louisiana
UPDATED 6:53 PM CDT Jun 24, 2014Same-sex couple who were married in other states are seeking to have their marriages recognized in Louisiana.
Video TranscriptARE SEEKING TO HAVE THEIR MARRIAGES RECOGNIZED IN LOUISIANA. A FEDERAL JUDGE WILL TAKE UP THE ISSUE TOMORROW. WDSU REPORTER GINA SWANSON IS AT FEDERAL COURT AND TELLS US WHY THE PLAINTIFF'S SAY THE SUPREME COURT IS ON THEIR SIDE. IN MANDEVILLE, A CONTROVERSIAL PLAN IS BEING DISCUSSED THAT
The views expressed are not those of this site, this station or its affiliated companies. By posting your comments you agree to accept our terms of use.blog comments powered by Disqus


text:
Scotty Leavenworth
Scotty Leavenworth was born on May 21, 1990 in Riverside, California. At the age of four, he decided he "wanted to do what his sisters did", so he got into acting. He started out how most actors and actresses start out, doing commercials. Right away, he learned he loved it and decided to keep doing it. Before the age of 9, he was in such movies as ...
See full bio »


text:
Home | Forums | Rules | Articles | The diyAudio Store | Gallery | Blogs | Register | Donations | FAQ | Calendar | Search | Today's Posts | Mark Forums Read | Search |
Multi-Way Conventional loudspeakers with crossovers |
Please consider donating to help us continue to serve you.
Ads on/off / Custom Title / More PMs / More album space / Advanced printing & mass image saving |
Thread Tools | Search this Thread |
19th April 2013, 11:01 AM | #1 |
diyAudio Member
FR Design Goal? Which is the "best" curve?
I've been doing the modelling thing for a while now and there's alway one thing that never stops bugging me and that's the target curve of the simulations.
I'm doing a BR (2-way Bass Reflex) with a 15" mid-woofer. It's possible to get insaine LF response if you tune it for an extended bass shelf. It looks much neater with a B4 or Be4 style curve but I'm not sure what is the best compromise? The standard model is equal to an anechoic chamber, we are obviously not sitting in one of those at home. Add diffraction/baffle step and the curv looks very different, pretty awful really. Add room gain and we're back in business again. Percieved loudness isn't making things easier either, do we want equal'ish loudness (rising LF response) or flat FR? A standard 1A electric bass guitarr has it's E-string at approximately 41Hz. Some will have a B-string at 30Hz but I can't say for sure how common that is? A kickdrum is usually tuned above 40Hz so I guess I'm wondering how much emphasis you should put on the bottom octave? We have electronic/artificial instruments and there's always the pipe organ I guess? So, keeping in mind box tuning, diffraction, room gain and the low bass beeing firmly in the modal region for the room, what is a good FR curve to aim for? How low is it necessary to tune it? How will a bass shelf "sound" compared to a smooth rolloff? The devil is in the details...
Current build to be found in my blog. Not so current anymore, everything is put on hold until march. Last edited by markusA; 19th April 2013 at 01:26 PM. |
19th April 2013, 01:19 PM | #2 |
diyAudio Member
Join Date: Apr 2011
Location: Seaside
For organ dubstep you need the octave between 20 and 40, but for most other music it is really not required. Kickdrum is actually quite high, some 80 Hz from memory.
19th April 2013, 01:30 PM | #3 |
diyAudio Member
That's pretty much what I'm getting at, I'm not sure it's worth any extra hassle to extend the LF past 40Hz?
A 40Hz tune will be smaller and easier to build in every aspect.
Current build to be found in my blog. Not so current anymore, everything is put on hold until march. |
19th April 2013, 02:12 PM | #4 |
diyAudio Member
Join Date: Aug 2008
Location: Black Forest
In short:
In the bass, it all depends on your room (modes). In the mid/highs, it depends on your room (RT60) and the dispersion width of your speakers: - If they exhibit "regular but uniform beaming", then the response can be flat. - If they are wide dispersion, then they need a slightly falling response. - If they are omni they need more tuning. - And if you use a FR driver that beams quite strongly (like a 5" or bigger), you need a rising response. But in my opinion the sound of the latter really $uck$
2Pi-online.de |
19th April 2013, 02:23 PM | #5 |
diyAudio Member
1" Compression driver + SEOS-15 waveguide will handle the HF.
15" Mid-Woofer flush mounted. 900Hz'ish crossover frequency. I'll be aiming for a 45 degree toe-in (crossing in front of listener) and a 15-20 degree off axis listening position.
Current build to be found in my blog. Not so current anymore, everything is put on hold until march. |
19th April 2013, 02:32 PM | #6 |
diyAudio Member
Join Date: Apr 2011
Location: Seaside
Hi 6.283,
I just had a look at your website, which I would like to recommend to others. Your analysis of what makes speakers disappear is right on the mark and fully coincides with my own experiments. It may see a bit ot, but on the other hand, Markus is going to build, and may find some inspiration from it. The point is, it is not just about getting the FR straight; the way a loudspeaker radiates its sound, as well as the interference caused by the cabinet, are essential issues that will have to be adressed as well. Edit: just see I cross posted, and the approach you take is a valid one in this respect. Last edited by vacuphile; 19th April 2013 at 02:35 PM. |
20th April 2013, 01:57 PM | #7 |
diyAudio Member
Join Date: Aug 2008
Location: Black Forest
Thanks, Vacuphile !
Yeah, there was another thread about the disappearing act Invisible speakers: who has achieved, or experienced this? MarkusA, 40Hz and a flat FR for the mids/highs sounds like the primary way to go with this driver set. Such big horns radiate approx. +- 20° @ -3dB and sounds pressure drops fast under angle. So you have a lot direct sound and very little reflections. Thus, keep it straight.
2Pi-online.de |
20th April 2013, 03:11 PM | #8 |
diyAudio Member
Join Date: Jan 2011
Location: Lower Mainland
This also may be an "Equal Loudness" curve question? Playing loud I like FR flat. Low volume, I like an increase in bass and maybe treble.
How loud do you usually listen to your system? |
20th April 2013, 03:30 PM | #9 |
diyAudio Moderator
A solid 40Hz can be quite satisfying. As mentioned, unless you're doing dubstep, it's plenty. Get a solid 40 and you'll be surprised how deep it sounds.
For the overall curve I like the classic B-K falling response. That is, the response falls to -6dB from ~400Hz up to 20KHz. You can shift the 400Hz knee to your liking, but the -6dB point at the top is a very good target.
Take the Speaker Voltage Test! |
20th April 2013, 07:11 PM | #10 |
diyAudio Member
Join Date: Sep 2008
I shoot for the JBL target curve in room:
Official Classe SSP-800 thread. I have my low corner at 33Hz in room and it works well enough. But I would not give up the ability to feel the kick to get lower in frequency. |
Thread Tools | Search this Thread |
Similar Threads | ||||
Thread | Thread Starter | Forum | Replies | Last Post |
"Retro"-Fit: Vintage Console Meets FR | cogitech | Full Range | 29 | 2nd April 2013 09:42 PM |
Can anyone suggest a cabinet design for the Audio Nirvana 8" FR? | Toppsy | Full Range | 7 | 6th November 2009 12:25 PM |
Question on Zaph's 5.5" and 6.5" FR measurement | Jay_WJ | Multi-Way | 2 | 29th July 2007 04:33 AM |
which common large FR offer good vocal "reproduction"? | freddi | Full Range | 0 | 23rd July 2007 12:36 AM |
WTB FR drivers for "bigger is better" speakers. | Spasticteapot | Swap Meet | 2 | 28th October 2006 08:08 PM |
New To Site? | Need Help? |


text:
Nature's Secret, Ultimate Cleanse, 2 Part Program, 2 Bottles, 120 Tablets Each
By Nature's Secret
92 Reviews-
Expiration Date:?Oct 2016
Expiration Date
The length of time for the expiration date or "best used before" date depends on the type of product, as well as the brand.
Perishable items (such as flax oils or certain probiotics) generally have shorter expiration dates. Although our warehouse is fully air-conditioned, these more fragile items are put in cold storage (freezer or refrigeration unit) for maximum freshness.
Our receiving department does its best to verify and then enter the correct expiration dates for all incoming products. However, discrepancies do occur from time to time. This being said, the exceptionally high turnover at iHerb ensures that our inventory is among the freshest in the industry.
Shipping Weight:?0.89 lbs (0.4 kg)
Shipping Weight
The Shipping Weight includes the product, protective packaging material and the actual shipping box. In addition, the Shipping Weight may be adjusted for the Dimensional Weight (e.g. length, width & height) of a package. It is important to note that certain types of products (e.g. glass containers, liquids, fragile, refrigerated or ice packed) will often require protective packaging material. As such, these products will reflect a higher Shipping Weight compared to the unprotected product.
- Product Code: NTS-50082
- UPC Code: 732391500820
- Package Quantity: 2 Bottles, 120 Tablets Each
- Dimensions: 2.6 x 4.7 x 4.7 in, 0.75 lbs (0.34 kg)
- Volume Discount
Buy 2+
Save 10%
Buy 4+
Save 12%
Buy 12+
Save 15%
This product is now in your Notification List.
This product is now in your Wish List.
Product Overview
- Vity Award Winner - Leader in Cleansing Since 1995
- Less Bloating
- Free Wellness CD!
- The Original & Natural Whole Herb Total Body Cleanse
- No Synthetic Magnesium Hydroxide
- Dietary Supplement
2-Part Total-Body Program, Delicately Balanced for Cleansing, Detoxification & Elimination
- Part One: Multi-Herb Digestion & Detox Support 120 Tablets - Support Digestion and Detoxification
- Part Two: Multi-Fiber Cleanse 120 Tablets - Support Colon Health and Regularity
Take Control of Your Health
Experience the Sensation of Whole-Body Wellness...
Detoxify · Cleanse · Rebuild
Who is Nature's Secret?
At Nature's Secret we believe that total body wellness is the key to overall health.
The conventional approach to health sees the body as a set of separate parts, each needing their own separate treatments. Take a look at the way our medical system is organized - from cardiologists to dermatologists, we have a doctor for nearly every body part. But nature has a well-kept secret… there is no separation between any of our systems. They are intricately connected in a brilliant dance only nature could orchestrate. At Nature's Secret, we develop our products using this whole-body philosophy.
We understand, for example, that sluggish digestion can lead to low energy levels and shouldn't always be supported with caffeinated energy tablets. Our approach focuses on the origins of imbalance, not the signs of imbalance. This is Nature's Secret, total body wholeness and wellness.
Ultimate Cleanse
On a daily basis our digestive system is faced with the difficult task of not only breaking down and absorbing our food, but filtering harmful chemicals and toxins found in our water and food supply as well. Ultimate Cleanse offers a unique, 2-step program that gently works through the digestive tract with the body's own internal systems to cleanse and detoxify.
The two formulas in Ultimate Cleanse are Multi-Herb Digestion & Detox Support and Multi-Fiber Cleanse. Each product contains proprietary blends of nutrients, designed to be taken together for best results.
Part 1: Multi-Herb Digestion & Detox Support
This formulation contains a proprietary blend of herbs traditionally used to support digestive function. This unique combination of botanicals works together to support optimum health and a feeling of rejuvenation.
Part 2: Multi-Fiber Cleanse
Nature's Secret Multi-Fiber Cleanse includes a variety of fiber sources and complementary herbs to support colon detoxification and help promote 2-3 bowel movements per day. This proprietary blend of ingredients supports the body's own natural cleansing functions. It is designed to promote healthy digestion and elimination.
Suggested Use
Directions: (Adult) Multi-Herb Digestion & Detox Support and Multi-Fiber Cleanse are designed to be taken together in the morning and evening with a full glass of water. Start with 1 tablet of both products in the morning and 1 tablet of both products in the evening, increasing intake of both products by 1 tablet every other day until you achieve 2-3 formed bowel movements per day. Do not exceed 3 tablets of each product twice per day. Once you find the correct number of tablets, you can continue with that amount for enhanced internal cleansing for up to 30 days. Do not exceed 30 days of continual use of this product. Drink 8-10 glasses of water per day. For best results, follow the enclosed insert.
Other Ingredients
Part 1: Multi-Herb Digestion & Detox Support
Microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, stearic acid, sodium starch glycolate, soy polysaccharides, natural mint flavor, croscarmellose sodium, silicon dioxide and magnesium stearate.
Contains: Soy, crustacean shellfish (lobster, crab, shrimp)
No artificial colors or preservatives.
Part 2: Multi-Fiber Cleanse
Microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, sodium starch glycolate, soy polysaccharides, stearic acid, natural anise flavor, silicon dioxide, magnesium stearate and croscarmellose sodium.
Contains: Soy.
No artificial colors or preservatives.
Do not use if safety seal is broken. Check with your doctor before using this product if you are using any medication, including diuretics, heart medications and corticosteroids, or have any medical conditions. Do not use if you are pregnant or nursing. Do not use if you have an intestinal obstruction, hemorrhoids or other intestinal disorder. Do not exceed recommended daily intake. Not intended for use by persons under 18 years of age. Do not use if you are taking any other product concurrently that has laxative effects. Keep out of reach of children. Store in a cool, dry place. Taking this product without adequate fluid may cause choking. Note: This product is not intended to be used without breaks. Cascara Sagrada belongs to a family of plants containing compounds with laxative effects. With long-term use without breaks, these ingredients may interfere with diagnostic imaging procedures of the colon and can lead to dehydration and electrolyte loss. Taking a break of 30 or more days between cycles will help maintain natural regularity. Not intended for long-term use.
(State of California Prop 65) This product contains a chemical known to the State of California to cause birth defects or other reproductive harm.
Notice: This product contains Cascara Sagrada. Read and follow directions carefully. Do not use if you have or develop diarrhea, loose stools, or abdominal pain because Cascara Sagrada may worsen these conditions and be harmful to your health. Consult your physician if you have frequent diarrhea or if you are pregnant, nursing, taking medication, or have a medical condition.
Multi-Herb Digestion & Detox Support | ||
Supplement Facts | ||
Serving Size: 1 Tablet | ||
Servings Per Container: 120 | ||
Amount per Serving | % Daily Value | |
Calcium (as Calcium Carbonate) | 56 mg | 6% |
Iodine (as Kelp from Proprietary Blend) | 13 mcg | 9% |
Proprietary Blend Alfalfa powder (leaf), Fenugreek powder (seed), Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) powder (root), Fennel powder (seed), Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) powder (flower), Eleuthero extract (0.8% eleutherosides) (root), Green Tea extract (50% polyphenols, 6% caffeine)(leaf), Hawthorn (Crataegus laevigata) powder (fruit), Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) powder (herb), Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) powder (root, rhizome), Marshmallow powder (root), Peppermint powder (leaf), Red Clover powder (aerial), Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) powder (leaf), Safflower Oil powder (seed), Skullcap powder (herb), Burdock (Arctium lappa) powder (root), Chickweed powder (herb), Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) powder (leaf), Papaya powder (leaf), Black Cohosh powder (root), Clubmoss powder (aerial), Ginger powder (root), Ginkgo extract (4:1)(leaf), Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus) powder (whole plant), Kelp (Laminaria spp.), Plantain powder (leaf), Slippery Elm powder (bark), Yellow Dock powder (root), Milk Thistle extract (80% silymarin)(seed), Cayenne powder (fruit), Echinacea angustifolia powder (herb) |
640 mg | † |
†Daily Value not established |
Multi-Fiber Cleanse | ||
Supplement Facts | ||
Serving Size: 1 Tablet | ||
Servings Per Container: 120 | ||
Amount per Serving | % Daily Value | |
Calcium (as Calcium Carbonate) | 98 mg | 10% |
Proprietary Blend Cascara Sagrada powder (bark), Fennel powder (seed), Psyllium powder (seed husk), Ginger powder (root), Acacia Gum, Alfalfa powder (herb), Apple Pectin powder (fruit), Apple powder (fruit), Barley Grass powder (aerial), Beet powder (root), Glucomannan, Karaya Gum, Lemon Peel powder (fruit), Oat Bran powder, Peppermint powder (leaf), Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) powder (leaf), Slippery Elm powder (bark), Chlorella powder, Guar Gum, Lactobacillus acidophilus (1 million/g**) |
557 mg | † |
†Daily Value not established ** At time of manufacture. |
iHerb Customer Reviews
I have been taken this for about 4 month now and I am soooo pleased!!!!!!!!!! It makes you regular, does not upset your stomach and is gentle but yet effective. Nice product at a fantastic price. Thank you i-herb for carrying this product...............
I absolutely LOVE this product. I can definitely feel the difference already. I don't feel so bloated and uncomfortable anymore and I've actually lost a bit of weight!


text:
Search our site | Sign up for our E-Newsletter | Take our brief survey | Site Map | Contact Us
Below is a list of the top ten articles that were read by our caregivers for the month of September. If you have not yet read them, now is your opportunity to do so.
The Inconvenience of Incontinence
An Easy Change
It's In The Genes
Ovarian Cancer: Helping Caregivers Communicate and Cope
Schizophrenia: Mystery of the Mind
Caregiving In Times Of Uncertainty
RX For The Caregiver
How To Be A Parkinson's Caregiver
A Healthy Appetite at Any Age
Getting Involved: An Introduction to Rehabilitation for the Primary Caregiver
Copyright © caregiver.com, Inc. 1995 - 2013. All rights reserved Contact Us | Advertising | Copyright Statement | Privacy Statement | Subscribe to Newsletter | Site Map | Search our Site


text:
A Project of the University of Michigan Law School
Currently 1,587 Exonerations
Browse Cases
Summary View
Detailed View
Featured Exonerations
Recently Added
About Us
Advisory Board
Contact Us
Learn More
Follow Us:
Timothy Masters
Other Colorado Cases
On February 11, 1987, the body of 37-year-old Peggy Hettrick was found in a field in Fort Collins, Colorado, less than 500 yards from the Prime Minister Pub and Grill where she was last seen leaving about 1:30 a.m.
Witnesses told police she left after spotting her boyfriend with another woman. She had been stabbed in the back and sexually mutilated.
Fifteen-year-old Timothy Masters, who lived with his father in a trailer near the field, saw the body on his walk to school that morning, but did not report it. When his father mentioned that his son had seen what he thought was a mannequin in the field, they pulled Masters from school for questioning. The boy told police that his mother had died four years earlier, so he assumed someone had placed a mannequin there as a prank. The body was found about 100 feet from the trailer.
He allowed police to search his room and they found several thousand pages of violently misogynistic writings and drawings in his closet as well as a collection of knives.
As the investigation continued, police focused on Masters for several reasons. The date of the killing was close to the date of his mother's death, news clipping about Hettrick's murder was on his desk and he owned a flashlight and collection of knives.
No physical evidence could be found linking him to the crime, although police found a considerable amount of blood—a blood trail stretching more than 100 feet from the woman's body was found, caused by excessive internal bleeding. None of the victim's blood was found on any of Masters' knives.
The investigation continued for years without an arrest, but with numerous suspects, all of whom were rejected. In 1992, police learned that Masters told a friend that a nipple had been cut off of Hettrick's body—a detail that was not believed to be public.
Investigators questioned Masters in Philadelphia where he was stationed in the U.S. Navy. He said he had learned the detail from a girl in his school art class whose Girl Scout troop had been to the field shortly after the crime. The girl corroborated Masters' story.
In 1997, police enlisted the help of J. Reid Meloy, a psychologist specializing in sexual homicide. Meloy concluded that Masters' artwork implicated him in the crime. He called the crime "displaced sexual matricide," arising from Masters' feeling of abandonment by his mother's death.
Armed with Meloy's report, Masters was charged with murder on August 10, 1998.
He went on trial in Larimer County Court in February, 1999. The prosecution relied heavily on Meloy's testimony, as well as Masters' drawings and knives. On March 26, 1999, Masters was found guilty by a jury and sentenced to life in prison.
In 2007, after Masters' appeals had been denied, his lawyers petitioned for a new trial and asked for access to evidence for DNA testing. The lawyers asserted that prosecutors had failed to inform the defense of a possible suspect, local surgeon Richard Hammond, who was arrested in 1995 for voyeurism.
Hammond was arrested for surreptitiously filming the genitals of female guests and family members with video equipment positioned behind fake ventilation grates. He had an extensive pornography collection that allegedly showed an obsession with female genitalia. Hammond, whose home was 100 yards from the murder scene, had committed suicide two days after his arrest.
On January 2, 2008, prosecutors admitted that certain evidence had been withheld from Masters' defense lawyers. The evidence included reports from two experts contacted by police prior to the trial that disagreed with Meloy's opinion of Masters' guilt as well as information about the arrest of Hammond.
On January 18, 2008, prosecutors announced that DNA tests pointed to a different suspect in the Hettrick murder and said that Masters should be released from prison.
On January 22, 2008, the charges were dismissed and Masters was released.
On February 16, 2010, Larimer County agreed to pay $4.1 million to settle a wrongful conviction suit brought by Masters. On June 8, 2010, the city of Fort Collins agreed to pay $5.9 million to settle the lawsuit.
Meloy later said he was "appalled and stunned" at some of the evidence withheld from him as he developed his profile of Hettrick's killer and claimed he was intentionally manipulated into targeting Masters. He said that he knew nothing about Hammond and that, had he known, Hammond would have been the leading suspect.
After Masters' release, the two prosecutors who presented the original case against him, Terry Gilmore and Jolene Blair, were censured by the Colorado Supreme Court for failing to turn over evidence to Masters' defense. The lead detective in the case, Jim Broderick, was indicted for perjury for allegedly lying about evidence to the grand jury to obtain Masters' indictment. In December 2011, a judge dismissed three of nine counts and the case was put on hold while the prosecution appealed the judge's order.
Maurice Possley
Report an error or add more information about this case.
Posting Date: Before June 2012
Most Serious Crime:
Additional Convictions:
Reported Crime Date:
Contributing Factors:
Perjury or False Accusation, Official Misconduct
Did DNA evidence contribute to the exoneration?:
Page Content