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In the absence of effective and efficient means to measure air emissions from each animal feeding operation (AFO) directly, regulatory or management agencies seeking to mitigate emissions need reasonably accurate means to estimate them and attribute them to particular operations or activities. The committee has considered three possible approaches: (1) emission factors from representative AFOs; (2) regression analysis equations that relate air emissions to specific aspects of individual AFOs; and (3) process-based models that estimate the flows of emission-generating substances through the sequential processes of the farm enterprise. The committee favors the third approach which is discussed in greater detail in this chapter.
The "emission factors" approach is based on measurement of air emissions from a defined set of "average" AFOs that presumably represent a substantial proportion of the national population. Emission factors, expressed as the mass of each substance emitted per animal or other base unit per unit of time, are then used to estimate air emissions from other AFOs, which are assumed to fall into one of the categories in the defined set of average AFOs used to estimate the emission factors. Weaknesses in this approach noted in the committee's interim report (NRC, 2002a) include the difficulty of defining a small set of average AFOs that can represent the broad range of AFOs for varied livestock industries in various geographic regions. As with the other approaches, obtaining the data upon which to base useful estimates of air emissions requires many direct measurements, which do not exist today in sufficient numbers to provide reasonable confidence in the results.
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Approaches for Estimating Emissions
In the absence of effective and efficient means to measure air emissions from each animal feeding operation (AFO) directly, regulatory or management agencies seeking to mitigate emissions need reasonably accurate means to estimate them and attribute them to particular operations or activities. The committee has considered three possible approaches: (1) emission factors from representative AFOs; (2) regression analysis equations that relate air emissions to specific aspects of individual AFOs; and (3) process-based models that estimate the flows of emission-generating substances through the sequential processes of the farm enterprise. The committee favors the third approach which is discussed in greater detail in this chapter.
The "emission factors" approach is based on measurement of air emissions from a defined set of "average" AFOs that presumably represent a substantial proportion of the national population. Emission factors, expressed as the mass of each substance emitted per animal or other base unit per unit of time, are then used to estimate air emissions from other AFOs, which are assumed to fall into one of the categories in the defined set of average AFOs used to estimate the emission factors. Weaknesses in this approach noted in the committee's interim report (NRC, 2002a) include the difficulty of defining a small set of average AFOs that can represent the broad range of AFOs for varied livestock industries in various geographic regions. As with the other approaches, obtaining the data upon which to base useful estimates of air emissions requires many direct measurements, which do not exist today in sufficient numbers to provide reasonable confidence in the results.
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The "regression analysis" approach uses standard least-squares multivariate regression equations to relate measures of air emissions to various factors that are hypothesized to affect them (e.g., number of animals, animal type and production system, productivity, housing, manure management, weather, climate). Once the equations are verified, they are used to gauge the importance of various factors that determine emissions and to estimate air emissions from other AFOs based on their individual characteristics. The weakness of this approach is the assumption that the within-factor variation of emissions is small relative to the among-factors variation for any category of operation. In addition, the current database for estimating regression equations is very limited and a major effort would be required to obtain them.
The "process-based" approach follows the fate of relevant elements (e.g., nitrogen, carbon and sulfur) step by step through the animal feeding process and identifies the chemical transformations that take place. It provides estimates of the characteristics and amount of air emissions that occur at each step as controlled by a mass balance approach (i.e., the emission of an element from the system, or from a part of the system, is equal to the input of that substance minus any accumulation that might occur). The advantages and limitations of this approach are described in some detail later in this chapter.
The goal of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2001a) is "to develop a method for estimating [air] emissions at the individual farm level that reflects the different animal production methods that are commonly used at commercial scale operations." The approach was intended to provide estimates of total annual air emissions from AFOs for defined geographic areas by kind of animal and manure handling practices for each of eight kinds of emissions. It did this with a model farm construct that provides estimates of average annual emissions per EPA animal unit (AU) for twenty-three model farms (two for beef, eight for dairy, two for poultry-broilers, two for poultry-layers, two for poultry-turkeys, five for swine, and two for veal; EPA, 2001a). Each model is defined by three variable elements that describe manure management practices for typical large AFOs: (1) confinement and manure collection system, (2) manure management system, and (3) land application. The manure management system is further subdivided into solids separation and manure storage activities. Insofar as combinations of these elements are regionally distinctive, the model farms also reflect regional variations in air emissions.
Model farms, as described by EPA (2001a), are useful for aggregating emission rates across diverse sets of AFOs. A model farm can be used to represent the average emissions across some geographic area over some period of time per unit capacity of a class of farms (e.g., all pig farms in the United States that use an
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enclosed house with pit recharge and irrigation of supernatant onto forage land; model farm S2).
The utility of this kind of model farm construct depends on the following:
defining models in which the dependent variable—the amount of each air emission per unit of time—is closely related to independent variables that accurately depict real feeding operations and that explain a substantial share of the variation in the dependent variable;
providing accurate estimates of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables; and
having estimates of the relationships between dependent and independent variables that clearly distinguish among the kinds of AFOs being modeled.
A critical requirement for estimating the appropriate emission factors is a statistically representative survey of emissions from a class of AFOs over several iterations of the time period to be represented. The size of the sample required to estimate the mean emission rate with a given degree of accuracy increases with the variability in the dependent variable to be measured (e.g., the average emission rate) across the set of independent variables that affect it. Independent variables that have been discussed include animal type and age, diet, local climate, building type, land application method, and management practices. To the extent that some of these variables change over time (e.g., trends in farm organization, location, practices, and technology), updating of estimates and estimates of trends may be required.
The model farm construct is represented by Equation 5-1:
E = Σi (wi • ei)
(Eq. 5-1)
in which the total emission (E) of a particular pollutant from an AFO during a period of time is the product of the emission (ei) from each unit (i) on the model farm and the number of units (wi) of that type, summed over the farm.
One use of model farms might be to predict emission rates and local effects of a single AFO or a cluster of AFOs in a small area. This use differs from that described by EPA (2001a), and it would require a detailed model or models describing the effects of selected variables on the rates of emissions and their downwind concentrations. An example is an odor dispersion model that predicts odor intensity as a function of time at various locations, given information on odor sources and local meteorological conditions. More data (perhaps hourly) and statistical analyses of the relationships between various explanatory variables and pollutant concentrations or impacts are required.
The committee believes that EPA's proposal (2001a) is inadequate to meet these standards. It does not provide a method to adequately determine air emis-
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sions from individual AFOs because both the model farm construct and the data are inadequate. The model farm construct used by EPA (2001a) cannot be supported for estimating air emissions from an individual AFO because it cannot account for a great deal of variability among AFOs. In particular, important factors not included in the EPA model include animal feeding and management practices; animal productivity; housing, including ventilation rate and confinement area; use of abatement strategies such as sprinklers to decrease dust; and physical characteristics of the site such as soil type and whether the facility is roofed. In addition, emissions are likely to differ for different climatic (long-term) and weather (short-term) conditions including temperature, wind, and humidity. Accurately predicting emissions on individual AFOs would require determination of emission factors that reflect these characteristics.
More specifically, improvements in the model farm construct would be needed for both discrete variables (e.g., management, confinement conditions, location) and continuous variables (e.g., nutrient input, productivity, meteorology). Concerns about the quality of data (much of it not reviewed), great gaps in the data, inappropriate use of data, and representativeness of the data were discussed in the committee's interim report (NRC, 2002a; see Appendix L).
FINDING 8. Estimating air emissions from AFOs by multiplying the number of animal units by existing emission factors is not appropriate for most substances.
RECOMMENDATION: The science for estimating air emissions from individual AFOs should be strengthened to provide a broadly recognized and acceptable basis for regulations and management programs aimed at mitigating the effects of air emissions.
While the committee favors a process-based modeling approach, there are some substances, such as particulate matter (PM) and odor for which an emission factor approach may still be the best approach. An example of an emission factor approach utilizing mass balance constraints for the emission of PM from a feed mill is given in Appendix I. A critical need exists to determine emission factors or fluxes for AFO emissions of PM and odor-causing constituents emanating from either area or point sources. Specific short-term research needs include the following:
development of protocols to determine emission fluxes from downwind concentration measurements,
evaluation of dispersion models to determine the best method to calculate fluxes,
determination of the best method to establish volumetric flow rates for mechanically and naturally ventilated AFOs,
comparison of emission factors for naturally ventilated and mechanically ventilated AFOs, and
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determination of the applicability of utilizing PM samplers designed and calibrated for the urban environment in a rural setting.
Given the inadequacy of the model farm construct described above, the committee discussed developing a different construct by systematically identifying factors that contribute to changes in emission rates. The approach would still be empirically based on measured total emissions from individual representative farms. A comprehensive and representative data set would be developed largely from new investigations. The various emission measurements (e.g., for ammonia [NH3] and methane [CH4]) would be regressed against several independent variables hypothesized to affect emission rates (e.g., animal type, management system, abatement strategy). Significant terms could be included in an empirical model to predict emissions from farms. Principal component analysis might be used to determine which factors contribute the most to emission rates and to evaluate whether certain practices give significantly different results than others. Compared to the existing emission factor approach, this alternative would result in more accurate estimates of emissions from individual farms and the identification of strategies to decrease emissions.
A comprehensive data set would have to be developed from existing literature and new investigations. Given the paucity of research in which total emissions from individual farms have been measured accurately, most of these data would have to come from new studies. The measurements would have to be accurate and representative of the emissions that occur for the time period of interest (e.g., an hour, or a full year). The data set would also have to include farms representing all factors that are hypothesized to affect emissions. In particular, it should include enough distinctive measurements to differentiate the types of classifications made in the EPA model farm construct (e.g., animal type and manure management systems), as well as additional factors not included in the EPA model that are likely to affect emissions. For example, farms would have to be included that represent different types of animal management; levels of animal productivity; housing including ventilation and confinement area; use of abatement strategies such as sprinklers to decrease dust; and physical characteristics of the site, such as soil type and whether the facility is roofed. The data set would also have to be replicated under different climatic and weather conditions and would require adequate replication on farms of similar type so that the variance not accounted for in measurements could be determined. Developing a robust set of equations would require sampling hundreds of AFOs representing different management and meteorological conditions. The cost of accurately measuring emissions on the number of AFOs (i.e., thousands) that would be needed to replicate
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all common situations would be very high, and the time required would probably be too long in the face of the demands for regulation.
The committee recommends using a process-based modeling approach to predict emissions from both individual AFOs and regions. A process-based approach would involve analysis of the farm system through study of its component parts. It would integrate mathematical modeling and experimental data to simulate conversion and transfer of reactants and products through the farm enterprise (Denmead, 1997; Jarvis, 1997). In many cases, this approach makes use of mass balance equations to represent mass flows and emissions of major elements (e.g., nitrogen, carbon, sulfur) through the system. In other cases (e.g., particulate matter and odors), alternative approaches such as emission factors may be the best way to predict emissions. In either case, models are needed to estimate emissions from individual AFOs to identify farms that should be targeted for control strategies and to predict the impact of management techniques to decrease emissions. Models are also needed to estimate emissions across specific regions and globally. Currently, emission factors are multiplied by the animal inventories to make these estimates. Process-based models may be used with data on animal and crop inventories and specific information on management strategies. Additional data may have to be collected by the agricultural census to use new process-based models.
FINDING 9. Use of process-based modeling will help provide scientifically sound estimates of air emissions from AFOs for use in regulatory and management programs.
EPA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) should use process-based mathematical models with mass balance constraints for nitrogen-containing compounds, methane, and hydrogen sulfide to identify, estimate, and guide management changes that decrease emissions for regulatory and management programs.
EPA and USDA should investigate the potential use of a process-based model to estimate mass emissions of odorous compounds and potential management strategies to decrease their impacts.
EPA and USDA should commit resources and adapt current or adopt new programs to fill identified gaps in research to improve mathematical process-based models to increase the accuracy and simplicity of measuring and predicting emissions from AFOs (see Chapter 7).
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Components of the AFO system
The system for animal production includes several components shown in Figure 5-1. Of course, all AFOs by definition contain animals on a lot or in housing. Emissions can occur directly from living animals or from animal mortality that is discarded. The animals also produce manure that is either handled on the farm or exported to other farms. In either case, manure is applied to soil on which crops are grown. Crops that produce feed for animals may or may not have been fertilized with manure, but invariably they will have been fertilized in some way. Emissions can occur from many components of the AFO. For example, ammonia may be volatilized from the animal housing, manure storage, or field. The amount lost from one component of the farm affects the amount that can be emitted from subsequent components. For example, if nitrogen is volatilized from an animal house, it is not available to be volatilized again from manure storage or field.
FIGURE 5-1 A schematic representation of a process-based model of emissions from an animal production system. Emissions can be to air or water.
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Moreover, transformations that occur in one of the farm components might affect emissions and further transformations in other components. The committee recommends modeling the major farm processes in such a way as to include the effects of transformations in each farm component on the others.
An animal feeding operation may not include all of the components shown in Figure 5-1 on one farm. However, a complete system for animal production must include crop production and manure utilization or disposal even if these activities are carried out on separate farms. When emissions from AFOs are considered, the environmental impact depends on management of the complete production system. For example, an AFO may decrease emissions from its property by importing feeds or exporting manure to a separate farm. Unless the handling of crops or manure is superior on the other farms, the overall emissions to the environment would not be decreased; they would simply be moved off farm and possibly increased. This raises an important issue related to regulation of emissions from individual farms. If crop production and manure handling are not regulated in a similar way on AFO and non-AFO farms, there will be an incentive to outsource crop production and manure use to decrease AFO emissions, but with no benefit to the environment. Emissions from the operations that produce feeds for animals, including crop farms and feed processors, must be considered as part of the animal production system. In addition, the way in which different foods are processed and used once they leave the farm affects total air and water emissions.
Comparison of the Committee's Approach to the EPA Model Farm Approach
The EPA model farm approach (EPA, 2001a) uses emissions from housing, manure storage, and field application and adds them together. Using this approach, one would predict that a technology to decrease emissions from manure storage (e.g., covering manure lagoons) would decrease total farm ammonia emissions by the amount that was prevented from leaving the lagoons. In reality, this ammonia would be concentrated in the lagoon liquid—increasing the emissions in the barn when flushing with lagoon liquid and in the field during land application. In a process-based approach, rather than simply adding the emissions from each farm element, a mathematical model is used to represent the interactions between the system components. This alternative to EPA's model farm approach would resolve many problems such as the one cited above and prevent predicting more manure nitrogen volatilized than excreted. Manure nitrogen production is used to predict the nitrogen available for conversion to ammonia for possible subsequent volatilization.
Development of a process-based model does not obviate the need for data collection, but it enables the use of data representing only part of the farm system, and will help identify gaps in the existing literature. In fact, data will be needed to represent transformations that occur on farms other than air emissions (e.g., or-
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ganic N degradation in lagoons). Some of the necessary data may be available in the existing literature; however, additional studies will be necessary as outlined for specific emissions in the sections that follow. The accuracy of process-based models will still need to be determined with collected research data. The accuracy to which model inputs can be determined and their impacts on the model estimates will also have to be determined using sensitivity analysis.
Predicting Differences Among Farms
The process-based model has to account for differences among farms that may affect substances emitted, emission rates, pollutant concentrations, or flow of mass between farm components. These differences among farms include animal type and species; farm size (animal number and area) and density; animal or crop production system and productivity; housing type; manure collection, storage, and application; soil type and capacity; cropping systems (including tillage method, crop rotation, and irrigation practices); and weather (short term) and climate (long term). The way in which each of these differences among farms should be represented in the model is discussed in a general way below, and more specifically for individual emissions in the sections that follow.
The size of a farm, as represented by the number of animals or area of cropland, is likely to affect the amount of emissions from it. For any animal type (e.g., swine, dairy cattle, chickens), the rate of animal production (e.g., growth, production of milk or eggs) will also affect intake of feed nutrients and subsequent excretion of elements found in manure (e.g., N, C, S, P). In general, higher rates of production result in greater rates of nutrient excretion per animal and lower rates of excretion per unit of animal product. How animals are managed may also affect rates of nutrient excretion. In particular, improved feeding practices increase the efficiency of nutrient utilization and decrease excretion rates. Some feeds are more digestible or metabolizable than others. The proper combination of certain feeds to provide the optimal balance of energy and protein, or complementation of different amino acids, results in more efficient metabolism and lower feeding requirements. Some feed additives improve digestion or metabolism or decrease protein requirements, and thereby decrease emissions of ammonia and methane. Other management factors that affect productivity include the use of hormones to change partitioning of nutrients within the animal, or grouping animals to decrease feed variations among individuals getting the same diet. The efficiency of animal production has increased continuously and is improving still, resulting in lower methane emissions from the animals and lower nutrient transfers to manure (Havenstein et al., 1994).
Unless a process-based modeling approach is used, it is unlikely that any group will be able to develop a model to represent all of the techniques used to improve the efficiency of nutrient use by animals and to incorporate all of the possible current technologies, or to keep up with the development of new tech-
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nologies. Animal management has a profound impact on the total nutrients transferred to manure and then lost from the farm to pollute air and water. Thus, it is essential that a means be developed to predict these flows to manure. Using the mass balance approach, the quantity of each element (e.g., N, S, C) excreted in manure or volatilized must equal the amount consumed by animals minus the amount transferred productively to meat, milk, or eggs (minus any carbon volatilized directly to the air from the animals) if there is no net accumulation. Since little nitrogen or sulfur is volatilized directly from animals to the air, that which is fed and not accounted for in animal products must leave the animal in manure.
The approaches to models for each pollutant depend on whether the pollutant is important because of long-term global consequences (e.g., methane), short-term local consequences (e.g., hydrogen sulfide), or both (e.g., ammonia), as described previously. In the case of long-term and global predictions, the annual rates of emissions are likely to be adequate, but for local consequences, concentrations (for short-term or chronic exposures) at the farm boundary or nearby homes may be of greater importance.
Predicting Emissions Important on a Global Scale
A system-level approach is recommended for predicting emissions that are important on a global scale (i.e., ammonia, methane, nitrous oxide, nitric oxide). In this case, system level refers to the overall animal production system, which may be contained on several farms (i.e., crops may be produced on a farm different from the one where the animals are housed). The goal is to decrease emissions from the system per kilogram of food (or other product) produced. Individual AFOs may still be regulated in terms of their contribution to system-level emissions, but it would not help to decrease emissions from an AFO only to have them transferred to a different farm, or many smaller farms.
The process-based, mass balance approach begins by predicting nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur in manure by subtracting the quantities of these elements in animal products from the quantities consumed. For every major type of farm animal and every production group within these types, such predictions of intake are already available. Current publications from the National Research Council (NRC, 1994, 1998a, 2000, 2001a) detail nutrient requirements for various animal types and production systems and with varying amounts of production. Moreover, these publications have been updated periodically. Tables D-1 to D−3 in Appendix D are based on the assumption that animals are fed to meet National Research Council recommendations. These tables show that different types of animals convert feed nutrients to human-consumable products at differing efficiencies. The whole-system analysis also requires understanding that cattle, which appear to use feed nutrients least efficiently, in fact consume whole plant feeds (forages) that can be produced with lower environmental impact or by-products that might otherwise be wasted.
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To illustrate, nitrogen composition can be determined from the protein content of feed consumed. Thus, for any given AFO, manure nutrient output can be estimated from the number of animals of each type and their average feed consumption and production. Since some farms feed more or less of certain nutrients than the National Research Council recommends, a more accurate estimate of manure output can be made by quantifying the actual feed inputs and the export of animal farm products. Farm feed and export receipts can be used to document this balance, or diets formulated and feed composition can be used. Many producers already maintain good records of the quantities of animal products purchased.
Once the quantity and characteristics of excreted manure have been defined for an AFO, the fate of the elements in that manure has to be predicted. Animal housing, manure collection system, and manure storage facilities affect the transformation of components to volatile forms and the volatilization of manure components. Thus, distribution factors (fractions of manure elements converted to volatile forms) must be determined for different systems, with different types of manure and different climates. Factors would also be needed to predict the fraction of potentially volatile elements of manure that are actually volatilized in different housing or manure systems. These factors might be expressed as functions of exposed surface area in housing and manure storage.
Once the flows of elements to manure storage and the transformations and emissions there have been predicted, the remaining opportunities for emissions from the AFO occur during the removal of manure from storage and its application on crops. These estimates are expressed as a fraction of precursors available for emission from the farm and may be affected by animal type, soil type, cropping system, cropping area, weather and climatic conditions, and concentrations and amounts of the elements in manure.
The committee recommends making estimates and directing control strategies toward decreasing total reactive nitrogen emissions to the environment rather than specifically toward decreasing ammonia volatilization (see section "Reactive Nitrogen Emissions"). However, the prediction of ammonia emissions is necessary for other planning and research purposes. Ammonia emissions on a global scale and extended time frame (e.g., one year) can be predicted from a process-based model that uses mass balances. These long-term emission estimates are adequate for addressing global concerns with ammonia emissions such as nitrogen loading to the environment. However, daily ammonia emissions are also needed to address regional air quality issues such as particle and smog formation and ammonia deposition. Therefore, the committee addresses models for predictions at both annual and daily time frames. Three major steps are needed for a mass balance approach: (1) excretion of manure nitrogen, (2) conversion of ma-
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the majority of methane emissions from agriculture. In the United States, enteric emissions account for 19 percent and anaerobic manure lagoons account for 13 percent of all anthropogenic methane emissions (EPA, 2000a). Globally, about six times more methane is estimated to come from enteric emissions than from decomposition of animal manure, but if anaerobic manure storage became more common, the latter source would increase (Johnson and Ward, 1996).
Methane emissions from ruminant livestock in the United States currently are estimated by EPA by (1) dividing animals into homogeneous groups; (2) developing emission factors for each group; (3) collecting population data; (4) multiplying the population of each group by its emission factor; and (5) summing emissions across animal groups and geographic regions (EPA, 1993a). Among livestock, cattle are examined more closely than other animals because they are responsible for the majority of U.S. livestock emissions.
Johnson and Johnson (1995) used a more accurate and robust approach based on energy consumption by cattle. Methane production was estimated to be 6.0 percent of dietary gross energy consumption for cow-calf, stocker, or dairy systems and 3.5 percent for feedlots. This approach was based on research demonstrating the similarity for different breeds and stages of cattle production but accounts for methane inhibition with the high-concentrate diets fed to feedlot cattle.
Other approaches considering feed characteristics may improve the accuracy of these estimates but also increase the complexity. Blaxter and Clapperton (1965) developed an equation based on a series of methane production measurements from sheep fed different diets. Methane was predicted from the digestible energy (rather than the gross energy) and the energy intake relative to maintenance requirements. Moe and Tyrrell (1979) derived an equation that predicted enteric methane from diet composition, based on measurements made on cattle fed high-quality dairy diets:
Methane (megajoules per day) = 3.406 + 0.510 (cell solubles) + 1.736 (hemicellulose) + 2.648 (cellulose).
(Eq. 5-4)
The number of megajoules refers to the amount of heat that could be released if all of the enteric methane produced were burned to carbon dioxide and water. Wilkerson et al. (1994) concluded that this methane prediction equation resulted in the lowest prediction error of six equations that were compared.
Methane Emissions from Manure Storage
Methane is produced from microbial decomposition of animal manure under anaerobic conditions. The major factors that determine methane production are
types and populations of microorganisms present;
storage or retention time;
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environmental conditions such as temperature; and
characteristics of the wastes such as biodegradability, nutrient availability, moisture content, oxygen content, and pH.
Many microorganisms are involved in the decomposition of animal manure, including fungi, bacteria, and protozoa. Anaerobic decomposition that leads to methane production involves hydrolytic, acid-forming, and methanogenic organisms. The presence and population of methanogenic bacteria are important for methane production. Manure from ruminants contains more methanogenic bacteria than manure from nonruminant animals. Temperature affects the rate of biochemical reactions, the types of functioning microorganisms, and therefore, the rate of methane production. Methanogenesis in animal manure has been observed in a large temperature range of 4-75°C. Methane production generally increases with increasing temperature. The characteristics of animal manure are governed by animal diet and by manure handling, collection, and storage methods. The greater the energy content and biodegradability of the feed, the greater is the methane production potential of the manure. For example, manure from animals fed with grain-based, high-energy diets is more degradable and has higher methane production potential than manure from animals fed with a roughage diet. All manure has a maximum (or ultimate) methane production potential, which is determined by its chemical composition. The maximum methane production potential is defined as the quantity of methane that can be produced per unit mass of volatile solids (VS) in the manure and is commonly expressed as B0 with a units of cubic meters of CH4 per kilogram of VS. Volatile solids, also called organic matter, are approximately 55 percent carbon on a mass basis for manure.
In theory, the maximum (ultimate) methane production capacity of a quantity of manure can be predicted from the gross elemental composition. In practice, however, insufficient information exists to implement this approach, and direct laboratory measurement is recommended for determining methane production capacity (EPA, 1992). The effects of animal diet on the maximum methane production potential are illustrated in Table 5-1.
Microbial growth requires nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Animal manure typically contains sufficient nutrients to support microbial growth so that nutrient availability is not a limiting factor in methane production under most circumstances. Moisture content relates to the availability of water to the microorganisms and the ability to maintain an oxygen-free environment in the manure. More than 80 percent moisture content is conducive to methane production. Animal manure as excreted contains 70-91 percent moisture or 9-30 percent total solids (MWPS, 1985). Its moisture content may change to higher or lower amounts depending on the methods of manure collection, handling, and storage in the animal waste management systems. Based on the total solids (TS) content of manure and the requirements for different handling methods, animal waste management systems can be classified into three types: (1) solid system (TS > 20
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TABLE 5-1 Maximum Methane Production Potential of Animal Manure as Affected by Different Diets
Animal Type
Methane Yield B0 (m3/kg VS)a
Corn-based, high-energy diet
Barley-based diet
Dairy cattle
58-68% silage
72% roughage
Beef cattle
Corn-based, high-energy diet, manure collected from concrete
7% corn silage, 87% corn, manure collected from dirt lot
91.5% corn silage, 0% corn, manure collected from dirt lot
Poultry, caged layer
Grain-based diet
aVolume of methane under standard conditions of 1 atmosphere of pressure and 25° C.
SOURCE: Safley and Westerman (1990).
percent); (2) slurry system (TS = 10-20 percent); and (3) liquid system (TS < 10 percent) (MWPS, 1985). Examples of different systems are solid manure storage, dry lot, deep-pit stacking, and litter for solid manure management; under-floor deep-pit storage and slurry storage for slurry systems; and anaerobic lagoons for liquid systems. Methane production potential increases in sequence from solid manure to slurry manure to liquid manure systems. Methanogenic bacteria are obligate anaerobes (i.e., they require an absolutely oxygen-free environment to survive). They are also sensitive to low pH of the manure. The optimum pH is near 7.0, but methane can be produced in a pH range from 6.2 to 8.5, and a pH outside the range 6.8-7.6 will decrease methane production. The retention time of manure in waste storage systems is also an important factor. If all the other conditions are the same, longer times will lead to more methane production.
The maximum methane production potential (B0) can be determined in the laboratory using anaerobic digestion assay. For the purposes of municipal wastewater treatment, an assay called Biochemical Methane Potential is commonly used by researchers and wastewater plant operators (Speece, 1996). The assay uses 100-mL serum bottles, which are incubated at 35°C, as the testing reactors. Because of the presence of relatively large particles and the nonhomogeneous nature of animal manure, larger reactors are recommended to ensure the accuracy of measurements. A standard anaerobic digestion assay for determining B0 for animal manure still has to be developed. Laboratory protocols used by animal manure researchers typically use batch digestion of 5 to 15 g VS of manure in an
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anaerobic reactor of 1- to 3-L volume at 35°C and the measurement of hourly or daily methane production. When the manure stops producing methane, which means that it has been exhausted of biodegradable organic matter, the total volume in liters of methane produced during the whole testing period is divided by the initial VS in grams in the manure to give the maximum methane production potential (B0, liters of CH4 per gram of VS or cubic meters of CH4 per kilogram of VS). The anaerobic reactor must contain sufficient bacterial culture that has been well adapted to the manure to be tested. The actual methane production in manure storage is lower than the maximum methane production potential.
Actual methane production from manure may be estimated from the maximum methane production potential with considerations of animal waste characteristics, manure storage type and time, and climatic conditions. The following methane emission estimation procedures are adapted from EPA (1992), which is used to estimate emissions from livestock and poultry manure. A similar approach has also been adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for estimating methane emissions from animal manure (IPCC, 2000). The methane emission production on a livestock farm may be calculated using the following equation:
TMCH4 = ΣVSi • B0i • MCFj • WSij • CAF,
(Eq. 5-5)
total annual methane emission from manure storage on the farm in cubic meters of CH4 per year;
VSi =
volatile solids produced annually by animal i in kilograms;
B0i =
maximum methane production potential of the manure from animal i in cubic meters of CH4 per kilogram of VS;
MCFj =
methane conversion factor for manure storage j, which represents the extent to which B0 is realized (note: 0 ≤ MCF ≤ 1);
WSij =
fraction of animal i's waste handled in the manure storage j; and
climate adjustment factor for the farm, which represents the extent to which B0 is realized under climatic conditions (e.g., temperature, rainfall) on the farm (note: 0 ≤ CAF ≤ 1).
The MCF varies for different types of manure storage and may assume a value from 0.1 for solid manure storage to 0.9 for anaerobic lagoons (Chen et al., 1988; EPA, 1992). The moisture content and retention time of manure in storage affect the MCF. A relationship between the MCF and manure storage conditions, such as moisture content or total solids concentration and retention time may be developed. Research is needed to determine MCF for different types of manure management systems. The CAF mainly varies with ambient temperature. The effect of temperature on methane production from animal manure has been exten-
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sively studied (Hobson, 1990), and mathematical relationships have been developed for predicting the effect of temperature on methane production in certain types of anaerobic processes, including anaerobic lagoons. Most research has focused on mesophilic (25-40°C) and thermophilic (40-65°C) temperature ranges (Hobson, 1990) for the purpose of producing methane from animal manure. The temperature of manure storage systems is mostly in the psychrophilic temperature range (less than 25°C). Safley and Westerman (1988) and Safely (1992) published the relationships between the temperature and methane yield of dairy and swine manure using laboratory digesters operated at different degrees ranging from 10 to 23°C. The information was used to predict methane production from anaerobic lagoons. More research is needed to correlate the CAF to the ambient temperatures for different types of manure management systems.
Predicting Emissions Important on a Local Scale
The odor of animal manure is complex both because of the large number of compounds that contribute to it and because it involves a subjective human response. Much research has been conducted to identify odorous compounds in animal manure. More than 75 compounds were initially identified (Miner, 1975; Barth et al., 1984). Recently, Schiffman et al. (2001) identified 331 odor-causing compounds in swine manure. Odorous compounds include ammonia, amines, sulfides, mercaptans, organic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and carbonyls. The volatile fatty acids (VFAs), phenols (phenol and p-cresol), and indoles have been considered to be the major odorous compounds (Schaefer, 1977; Spoelstra, 1980; Williams, 1984).
The odor intensity and characteristics of animal manure change over time and are affected by manure handling and storage conditions. For example, in fully aerated manure, biochemical oxidation of various organic compounds occurs. Chen et al. (1994) reported that aeration of swine manure degrades VFAs, phenol, p-cresol, and skatol within 24 hours. Aerobic treatment is known for its effectiveness in decreasing manure odors. In partially aerated manure where low dissolved oxygen limits aerobic organisms, the production of odorous compounds is highly related to redox potential (ORP) in the manure. Beard and Guenzi (1983) studied the evolution of sulfur gases, including hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl sulfide (DMS), methanethiol (MeSH), carbonyl sulfide (COS), and carbon disulfide (CS2), in cattle manure at different ORP levels ranging from −200 to +300 mV (millivolts) and found that the gases produced varied with the ORP. For example, DMS and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) were highest at the ORP of 0 mV, while hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and MeSH were greatest at an ORP of −100 mV or less. Under anaerobic conditions, if the environment is conducive to acetogens and methanogens, the degradation of manure is more complete, and gases such as
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methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide are the main gaseous products. However, if the environment is not suitable for bacteria to carry out complete degradation, other bacterial metabolic processes can produce many odorous compounds. Generally speaking, more completely degraded manure, (e.g., in anaerobic digesters or lagoons), will give off fewer odors than less completely degraded manure (e.g., in manure storage pits or tanks) (Pain et al., 1990). The major factors that can affect the anaerobic degradation process include pH, temperature, solids content, and presence of inhibitory substances such as high concentrations of ammonia and VFAs. Odor-causing compounds must be water soluble to reach the olfactory nerve; so using impermeable covers on manure storage will retard the release of these compounds and aid in controlling odors.
Understanding the production rates of odorous gases in manure with different characteristics and storage conditions is critical for predicting odor emission rates. More research is needed in this area. Correlating types and concentrations of odorous gases and their mixtures to the odor strength measured by human olfactory responses (e.g., using the olfactometry method) is another critical step. Some effort has been made to correlate individual gases to odor concentration. Schaefer (1977) correlated 13 compounds with odor intensity measured by a mobile olfactometer and found that odor intensity had the highest correlation with p-cresol. Spoelstra (1980) and Williams (1984) reported that VFAs could be used as a significant indicator of manure odor. More recently, Hobbs et al. (2001) developed a correlation between human olfactory response and an odor mixture of four gases, including hydrogen sulfide, 4-methylphenol, ammonia, and acetic acid, and indicated that determining the odor intensity of pig manure using these main odorants would be a suitable approach.
Until a better understanding of odor generation related to the manure characteristics and environmental conditions in various types of manure storage is achieved and quantitative relationships between various odorous gases as well as their mixtures, and odor intensity have been established, prediction of odor emission rates from manure storage is not possible. At present, conducting on-site measurement of odors is the only available approach for quantifying odor emission rate from a particular farm or manure facility.
Particulate Matter
As discussed in Chapter 3, primary particulate matter emissions in animal feeding operations result from mechanical generation and entrainment. In cattle feedlots, the activity level of the cattle, along with the moisture content of the ground, affect the amount of particulate emissions. Particulate emissions from enclosed animal houses also depend on building ventilation rates and whether the ventilation is natural or mechanical. On-farm sources of particulate emissions may also include unpaved roads, grain mills or storage facilities, crop production equipment, and feeding equipment.
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Unlike nitrogen emissions, particulate emissions do not lend themselves to a process modeling approach based on conservation principles. Moreover, there is little information published on particulate emission rates from various components of AFOs. For example, particulate emissions from cattle feed yards are affected by the animals' level of activity, which varies during the day, and may be a function of other parameters such as ambient temperature or density of animals per paddock. For other farm components, models are already available for predicting particulate emissions. For example, models to predict emissions given the silt content of the road surface, mean vehicle speed, mean vehicle weight, mean number of wheels per vehicle, and precipitation are available for particulate emissions from unpaved roads (e.g., Fitzpatrick, 1987). Regression analysis might be used to develop models to similarly calculate emission factors from various AFO components once the key variables have been identified. Given the paucity of research on particulate emissions from AFOs, this effort will require new data on emission rates from AFO components.
Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by sulfur-reducing bacteria during anaerobic decomposition of animal manure. The major factors that influence its production rate are
population of sulfur reducing bacteria;
amount of sulfur in the manure;
characteristics of the manure such as moisture content, oxygen content, and pH;
environmental conditions such as temperature; and
manure storage time.
The sulfur content of animal manure is directly related to the animals' diet. The major sources of sulfur in animal diets include sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine, cystine, and cysteine) and water-soluble vitamins (biotin and thiamine), as well as some inorganic sulfate. Sulfur is excreted as sulfate, sulfide, and organic compounds in both feces and urine. Reduction of inorganic sulfate to sulfide occurs to a limited extent in nonruminants (Kline et al., 1971) but is prevalent in the anaerobic conditions of the rumen and hind gut of other herbivores. Therefore, for swine and poultry it appears that most of the production of hydrogen sulfide and other volatile sulfur-containing gases occurs as a result of manure decomposition during storage. Emissions may directly occur from a ruminant, but no data are available to date. The characteristics of and environmental conditions in the manure affect the production rate of H2S. Beard and Guenzi (1983) found that in cattle manure slurry, the level of redox potential affects the production of hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur gases. Their experimental results indi-
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cated that production of H2S was high at the ORP level below −100 mV. Production of hydrogen sulfide at other ORP levels has also been also reported (Farwell et al., 1979).
Hydrogen sulfide likely originates mainly from microbial reduction of sulfate, although it can also be produced by microbial degradation of cysteine and cystine (Freney, 1967; Riviere et al., 1974). Sulfate-reducing bacteria are present in animal manure, but their populations in different manures are not well understood. Riviere et al. (1974) found that the sulfate-reducing bacteria were present in swine manure in amounts up to 104/mL.
Sulfate in the water supply is another source of sulfur in manure. It is reported that the sulfate concentration in the U.S. water supply varies greatly from 0 to 770 mg/L (AWWA, 1990). The relationship between high sulfate concentration in manure and the production of hydrogen sulfide is well demonstrated by Arogo et al. (2000), who studied initial sulfate concentrations (5.89-275 mg/L) in swine manure during a 30-day storage period. Based on biochemistry, sulfide production from sulfate is faster than from organic sulfur. In waste management systems where a large quantity of water is added to animal manure, sulfate in the water supply can be an important source of sulfur.
In aqueous solution such as liquid manure, hydrogen sulfide maintains equilibrium with bisulfide (HS−) and sulfide (S2−) ions. The presence of hydrogen sulfide as a fraction of total sulfide is affected mainly by pH and temperature. Studies have found that ionization in animal manure differs from ionization in water. Solids content of animal wastewater may also be a factor. The pH of animal waste has a large influence on the hydrogen sulfide fraction. Below pH 5, the H2S fraction in total sulfide is 100 percent; at pH 7, the fraction is about 50 percent; and above pH 10, the fraction is 0.1 percent.
Emissions of hydrogen sulfide rise with the concentration. For a given amount of total sulfide, lower pH will result in a higher emission rate. Any effort to lower the pH of animal manure that contains hydrogen sulfide and/or has conditions conducive to its production will raise emissions of H2S. Emission of hydrogen sulfide, like other soluble gases such as ammonia, involves diffusion in wastewater to the water surface and release into the atmosphere. The major factors controlling the emission rate of hydrogen sulfide include air temperature, wind speed, water temperature, and surface area of wastewater. For the same volume of wastewater, a larger surface area will result in higher emissions. Therefore, a waste storage structure with a larger depth and smaller surface area will have a lower emission rate than a structure with a smaller depth and larger surface area. This also explains why agitation of manure in storage tends to increase emissions of hydrogen sulfide. Avery et al. (1975) studied H2S production in swine confinement finishing buildings and found that it was highly correlated with air temperature, ratio of pit surface area to pit volume, air exchange rate of the building, and daily dietary sulfur intake. Banwart and Bremner (1975) studied the production of H2S and other sulfur gases from swine manure and found that
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the volatile sulfur gases produced were predominantly hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan (80 percent) under simulated anaerobic storage conditions. However, during a one-month incubator period, only 0.03 percent of the total sulfur present in swine manure was volatilized. Beard and Guenzi (1983) studied the production of hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur gases in cattle manure slurry and found that sulfur gases volatilized during a three-week period removed 1.7 percent of the total sulfur in the manure. This points out the difficulties in using mass balance approaches for predicting emission of hydrogen sulfide.
Production and emission of gases, including hydrogen sulfide, from manure storage are dynamic processes. Prediction of the emission rate of hydrogen sulfide involves prediction of the production rate of H2S in the manure and of mass transfer of H2S from the manure into the atmosphere. Based on the aqueous chemistry of hydrogen sulfide, the mass-transfer processes and governing parameters for H2S are the same as for ammonia. However, Ni et al. (2000, s2000d) observed that H2S could be released from manure in bursts, which were characterized by a sudden increases of hydrogen sulfide concentrations in the swine building monitored. It appears that hydrogen sulfide emission shares the characteristics of both ammonia (continuous) and methane (bubbles or bursts) emission. The emission of H2S from manure storage is a complicated and poorly understood phenomenon.
Production of Hydrogen Sulfide in Animal Manure
Because of the potential health effects of hydrogen sulfide, prediction models for H2S should have a time scale of hours or days. An approach similar to that for methane production can be used to predict hydrogen sulfide production, except that total sulfur content is used as the manure characteristic instead of volatile solids, a time factor is added to account for the effect of storage time, and the time scale should be on daily basis. The production rate of hydrogen sulfide may be predicted using the following equation:
TMS−,k = ΣSi • S0i • SCFj • WSij • CAF,
(Eq. 5-6)
total sulfide production from manure storage on the farm in grams of sulfide, for day k;
Si =
sulfur excreted by animal i, plus sulfur per animal added from the water supply, in grams per day;
S0i =
maximum sulfide production potential of the manure from animal i in grams of sulfide per gram of sulfur;
SCFj =
sulfur conversion factor for manure storage j, which represents the extent to which S0 is realized (note: 0 ≤ SCF ≤ 1);
WSij =
fraction of animal i's waste handled in the manure storage j;
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climate adjustment factor for the farm, which represents the extent to which B0 is realized under climatic conditions (e.g., temperature, rainfall) on the farm (note: 0 ≤ CAF ≤ 1); and
Quantitative information in the literature on production of hydrogen sulfide in animal manures is limited. Arogo et al. (2000) developed equations for predicting the production rate of hydrogen sulfide in swine manure storage as a function of time and depth in the manure. However, their study did not account for the influence of different temperatures, manure solid content, and oxygen content. More research is needed to develop accurate prediction models for quantifying the production rate of hydrogen sulfide from different types of manure management systems.
Emission of Hydrogen Sulfide from Animal Manure
Continuous emission of hydrogen sulfide from manure to the atmosphere is controlled by the aqueous chemistry of hydrogen sulfide in the manure and convective mass-transfer mechanisms at the manure surface. The pH, manure temperature, air temperature, wind velocity, and relative humidity are major factors that affect the emission process. The pH controls the partitioning of sulfide among three species, H2S, HS−, and S2−. The emission rate of hydrogen sulfide from manure on the kth day can be calculated using the following mass-transfer equation:
(Eq. 5-7)
where KLS is the convective mass transfer coefficient and [S−]total is the total sulfide concentration at the manure surface. If the stratification of total sulfide is negligible, [S−]total can be assumed to be the total sulfide concentration in the bulk liquid. On any given day, the [S−]total,k can be calculated by the concentration at the end of the previous day [S−]total,k−1, and the new concentration generated, which can be calculated from generation rate divided by the volume of the liquid in storage (V), as shown below,
(Eq. 5-8)
In Equation 5-7, α is a fraction and can be calculated from the pH and ionization constants Ks,1 and Ks,2 (Arogo et al., 1999):
α = (10−pH)2/[(10−pH)2 + Ks,1 (10−pH) + Ks,1Ks,2],
(Eq. 5-9)
where Ks,1 is the ionization constant for the equilibrium reaction H2S = H+ + HS−, and Ks,2 is the constant for HS− = H+ + S2−. Their relationships to the temperature in aqueous solutions are well defined. However, the influence of manure charac-
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teristics, such as solids content and the presence of metals, is not well understood. In contrast to ammonia, little research has been conducted to quantify the differences between the ionization constants of sulfide in animal manure versus water. The mass-transfer coefficient KLS is a function of manure temperature, air temperature, wind velocity, and relative humidity. Arogo et al. (1999) developed a correlation for KLS for under-floor pit manure storage. More research is needed to define KLS for outside manure storage.
Whereas it is difficult and expensive to measure most emissions from AFOs directly, and the measurements may be of questionable accuracy, regulatory and management agencies seeking to mitigate emissions need reasonably accurate methods to estimate and attribute them to particular enterprises or activities. One approach is to develop emission factors for different animal production sectors, and estimate emissions as the product of the specific factor for that sector and the number of animals associated with the enterprise or geographic region. The committee found and reported in its Interim Report (NRC, 2002a) that existing data were not adequate at this time to determine accurate emission factors, and that a greater number of emission factors than originally proposed would be needed to explain the variation in emissions from different enterprises. The committee debated the cost and time requirements to conduct necessary studies and develop appropriate emission factors. The approach would require a considerable number of new measurements to represent all conditions (e.g., farm sectors, animal productivity levels, management choices, climates) that could affect emissions. Regression analysis would be used to determine empirically which factors were of greatest importance. After having considered the emission factor approach, the committee recommended an alternative: to estimate emissions using process-based models rather than strictly empirical models.
Process-based models would involve analysis of the farm enterprise through study of its component parts. The analysis would use mathematical modeling and experimental data to simulate conversion and transfer of reactants and products through the farm enterprise. In many cases, this approach would make use of mass balance equations to represent mass flows and losses of major elements through the system. Development of process-based models would still require research studies to obtain measurements of transformations (changes in form of relevant compounds) and transfers (changes in location of compounds), as well as emissions in animal enterprises. Nonetheless, the estimates would be based on the understanding of processes inherent to animal production. System-level models would be needed to predict the effect of management changes simultaneously on different compounds emitted and to estimate the effects of management changes on multiple farms associated with animal production either directly or indirectly (e.g., crop production).


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Standing in Our Own Sunshine: Reconsidering Standing, Transparency, and Accuracy in ForeclosuresDustin A. ZacksKing, Nieves & Zacks PLLC September 5, 2011 Quinnipiac Law Review, Vol. 29, No. 3, p. 551, 2011 Abstract: This Article provides a critical analysis of the involvement of Mortgage Electronic Registration Systems, Inc. ("MERS") in the mortgage foreclosure process. As an ambiguous pseudo-agent of lenders, MERS currently appears in thousands of foreclosures and bankruptcies, either as the foreclosing entity or as a party seeking to lift an automatic bankruptcy stay. MERS also participates in such actions through assignments of mortgage that purport to assign MERS's rights to the foreclosing or moving party. Judicial treatment of MERS, however, has not been uniform across jurisdictions. The widespread use of MERS mortgages and the resulting inconsistent judicial treatment has had significant implications for mortgagors and the foreclosure process. In particular, MERS implicates substantial transparency, accuracy, and anti-democratic concerns. This has led some to call for a legislative ban of MERS. However, this path fails to recognize the benefits currently provided by MERS, such as its publicly available, easy to access, online database that reveals what company is servicing a debtor's loan. This Article argues that strengthening MERS, such as allowing it to electronically store and index actual documents, combined with providing for efficient regulatory oversight of the records' accuracy, could actually provide a foundation for a more convenient, cost-effective, and accurate alternative national public recording system that addresses current systematic weaknesses. Number of Pages in PDF File: 60 Keywords: Mortgage Electronic Registration Systems, MERS, Foreclosure, Bankruptcy, Real estate, Housing, Mortgage, Uniform Commercial Code, UCC Date posted: November 13, 2011Suggested CitationContact Information
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Please confirm that the link referenced below is the one that is broken or needs to be updated. If confirmed, please complete the remaining boxes in the form below, then click on the button to send the update to us.
Title of the LinkOnline Resources
URL (address) for the Linkhttp://www.harrow.gov.uk/ccm/content/leisure-and-culture/libraries/library-catalogues/online-resources.en


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Winning artwork will be featured on the contest Web site and either in 2009 calendars or coffee table books available in local Epilepsy Foundation offices and select physician offices nationwide. Also, a few winning pieces may be chosen by curators from the Society for the Arts in Healthcare for display in a traveling art exhibition comprised of nearly 30 winning entries from the past five contests. The exhibition aims to enhance public awareness of epilepsy by traveling to medical centers across the nation. The artwork is accompanied by the artists' stories of how epilepsy has impacted their lives in various ways. Visit the contest Web site to learn more about the exhibition and find an exhibition location near you.
"The people who participate in the Expressions of Courage contest are advocates for increasing awareness about epilepsy, in that they creatively use their talents and selflessly share their personal feelings for the benefit of educating others," said Eric R. Hargis, president and CEO of the Epilepsy Foundation. "We recognize their bravery, appreciate their unique and beautiful artwork, and hope that other people are inspired to speak out about their own experiences of living with epilepsy."
Epilepsy is one of the most common disorders of the nervous system,
affecting approximately 50 million people worldwide with as many as 200,000
Americans diagnosed for the first time each year. Epilepsy produces
seizures, which happen when a brief, strong surge of e
SOURCE ORTHO-McNEIL NEUROLOGICS; Epilepsy Foundation Copyright©2008 PR Newswire. All rights reserved |


text:
LONDON - The recession that's gripped the eurozone since late 2011 is likely over.
On Wednesday official figures are expected to show that economic growth among the 17 countries that use the euro inched up 0.2 percent in the April-June quarter compared with the previous quarter.
The increase is slight. But it would end six straight quarters of a debilitating recession - the longest to afflict the single-currency bloc since its creation in 1999.
Article Photos
An elderly man carries shopping bags at Athens' central fruit and vegetable market, on Tuesday. Greece is beating its budget targets by a wide margin so far this year, a sign the country's painful cost cuts and tax increases, combined with international bailout funds, are paying off.
And it would represent an encouraging sign for other economies, including the United States, the world's largest, because the eurozone is the world's biggest trading bloc. The eurozone's recession held back growth in the United States, Japan and elsewhere as European consumers and businesses spent less on goods from those nations.
"Concerns about the eurozone were causing a lot of companies to put investment on hold," said David Owen, chief European economist at Jefferies International.
The eurozone's recession was a byproduct of the debt crisis that engulfed the currency union in 2010. The crisis forced debt-laden governments to impose painful cuts, spooked investors and raised doubts about the viability of the eurozone. Shrunken government spending and higher taxes devastated living standards in much of the eurozone, slowed economies and drove the bloc's unemployment rate to a record 12.1 percent.
The austerity programs embraced by the most troubled eurozone countries contrast with more expansionary efforts in the United States. The Federal Reserve has also been more active than the European Central Bank in helping the economy. It drove borrowing rates to record lows once the financial crisis erupted in 2008. Ultra-low U.S. rates helped boost stock prices and home sales. U.S. unemployment has dropped to 7.4 percent from 10 percent in late 2009 despite a subpar economic recovery.
In recent months, the picture has brightened in Europe as well as governments have shifted their focus away from debt reduction. Industrial production is rising. Consumer spending has stabilized. Exports have increased as key trade partners, including the United States and Japan, strengthen.
Confidence has also recovered as stock and bond markets have rallied. That's partly due to the European Central Bank's pledge a year ago to do "whatever it takes" to save the currency union and its decision to cut its main interest rate to a record low of 0.5 percent.
In Spain and Italy, for example, government borrowing rates have sunk in the past year, a sign of investor confidence. Analysts expect Wednesday's figures to show improvement in both countries, though both are likely to have remained in recession.
Investors have bid up stock prices in key eurozone countries this year. Stock indexes in two major economies - France and Spain - have reached 52-week highs. France's CAC 40 stock index has jumped 12 percent this year and Spain's IBEX 7 percent. Germany's DAX index is up nearly 10 percent this year and Italy's FTSE MIB nearly 7 percent.


text:
Share your thoughts
What do you think of the
Mammut Superflash Single Rope - 10.5m
? Share a...
Here's what others have to say...
Rita Palmer
Wasn't paying attention
So this is an awesome rope except it is to thick, something that I failed to notice when buying it. It really is a five star rope, I gave it four more out of frustration cause I didn't realize it till climbing on it for the first time. Probably will end up cutting it and turining into a gym rope. It is really nice when talking a whipper on it.
Nathan B Henson
Works as Design
So we took this bad boy out today and gave it a good what for. This rope handled very well in germany. Went up against some sharp rocks and the rope held its own. Will continue to update if anything happens but as of now I will recommend this rope to all my friends.
Bomb Proof
Great rope and durable. Ive had it for 2 seasons and still going strong.
john higgins
super rope!
Great rope. Handling is the best, super durable. Mammut ropes are just the best. Can't go wrong here


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PlotMartin Riggs (played by Mel Gibson) and Sergeant Roger Murtaugh (played by Danny Glover) are on their action-packed crime fighting crusade in this sequel. This time they are appointed to track down an African diplomat who has a stack of gold in his vehicle's trunk the movie Lethal Weapon 2. CastMartin Riggs - Mel Gibson TriviaThe role of Martin Riggs was supposed to be written off in Lethal Weapon 2, but the producer changed his mind.The film Lethal Weapon 2 was nominated for an Oscar Award. |
Academy Awards:80's Film Facts:The Movie Lethal Weapon 2 was released to theatres on 07/07/1989 by Warner Bros., and grossed $147,253,986 at the box office in the US. More 80's Cinema: |
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Pesticide Use Enforcement | Pest Prevention | Pest Management | Product Quality | Agricultural Resources | Weights and Measures |
Economic Contributions of San Luis Obispo County |
Programs | |
Pesticide Use Enforcement: Enforcement of mandated pesticide requirements to protect workers, public health and safety, the environment, and to ensure safe food. | |
Pest Prevention: Conduct state-mandated programs preventing the introduction and establishment of pests (injurious insect and animal pests, plant diseases, and noxious weeds) in agriculture, urban, and wildlife habitats in the county. Programs include Pest Exclusion, Pest Detection, Pest Eradication, Glassy-winged Sharpshooter (GWSS) and Apiary. | |
Pest Management: Promote and implement Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to control or eradicate detrimental agricultural pests within San Luis Obispo County. | |
Product Quality: Perform inspections at Farmers' Markets, nurseries, organic production, and seed distributors to ensure quality products and compliance with state-mandated requirements. | |
Agricultural Resources: Provide information and make recommendations to protect the future of agriculture. | |
Weights and Measures: Protect consumers and businesses by inspecting, weighing, and measuring devices and verifying business practices to ensure accuracy in the marketplace |


text:
Big Bear Lake, CA Toy Store
Toy Galley
Toy Galley of Big Bear Lake, CA offers a wide range of magnificent toys and gifts for all ages. We carry everything you would ever need to delight the child in your life!
Call Toy Galley today at 909-866-0084 or 909-866-7764 for more details.
Toy Galley
PO Box 4244 40804 Village Dr.
Big Bear Lake, CA 92315
Methods of Payment:


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05 February 2006
Transfiguration Joys
O wondrous Type! O vision fair
of glory that the Church may share!
which Christ upon the mountain shows
where brighter than the sun He glows!
With Moses and Elijah nigh
the incarnate Lord holds converse high;
and from the cloud the Holy One
bears record to His only Son.
With shining face and bright array
Christ deigns to manifest today
What joy shall be their's above
Who joy in God with perfect love.
And faithful hearts are raised on high
By this great vision's mystery,
For which in joyful strains we raise
The voice of prayer, the hymn of praise.
O Father, with th'eternal Son
And Holy Spirit ever one,
We pray you, bring us by Your grace
To see Your glory face to face.
7 comments:
- Mimi said...
The Joy of the Feast to you. May I ask why it is in February in your Lecitonary and not in August?
- William Weedon said...
It's a Lutheran peculiarity, dating to the mid 16th century. The Feast was tranferred from a fixed day in August to the end of the Epiphany season, as the crowning epiphany of the Lord aside from the Crucfixion and Pascha. We like to say that we come down from the Mount of Transfiguration and begin the journey to the Mount of Gologotha with Pre-Lent (which starts next Sunday).
Lutherans have a pre-Lenten period? I never knew.
Waving excitedly at Mimi!! - 3:28 PM
- William Weedon said...
The historic lectionary (abandoned by 90%+ of Lutherans) provided three Sundays of prelent:
Septuagesima - the Gospel is the workers in the vineyard, and the message is that the work does not "merit" a thing - but is a gift of God to all. It also contains a powerful warning against the sin of grumbling!
Sexagesima - the Gospel is the parable of the sower, and the theme is that God works through the Word that is heard, believed and acted upon. It challenges us with how we are doing listening to the Word.
Quinquagesima - the Gospel is the healing of the blind man at Jericho, who after having his eyes opened, follows Jesus up the road to Jerusalem. Message is: with eyes wide open to the mercies of God in Christ, let us go with Him on His journey to Jerusalem (Lent to Holy Week to Pascha, from suffering and death to eternal life). - 3:37 PM
- fr john w fenton said...
In case you're interested, if you go here (http://www.cyberhymnal.org/htm/o/w/owondrus.htm) you get the original translation by John Mason Neale. No doubt, the alterations have been good improvements; however, the second and third stanzas are conflated--a conflation that I find unhappy.
- William Weedon said...
Fr. Fenton,
I concur, and I had not realized that there had been any conflation at all. A splendid text! - 7:20 PM
- Mimi said...
Thank you very much for the information, I appreciate it. I also did not know of the Pre-Lenten Sundays in the Lutheran tradition, thank you.
(waves to Deb!) - 1:29 PM


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Your search for Cane and Rush work returned the following Craft Websites |
Water Willows
Organic willow growers & weavers, woven willow hurdles, fencing, trellis, obelisks, planters. Living willow structures: Dome, tunnel, wigwam, igloo etc. Standard DIY kits or bespoke design. Cuttings for colour, hedging http://www.watterwillows.com
The Cane and Rush Restoration Company
Based in Reading, Chris Mayor offers a totally reliable, high quality Cane and Rush Restoration service. With over 14 years specialist experience. http://www.caneandrushrestoration.com
Cane and rush seating restoration
chair caning and rush seating replacement service. Hand woven cane for antique chairs and sheet cane replacements for modren furniture. Hand woven natural rush seating replaced. http://www.caneandrushworkshop.com
The leading online retailer of wicker basketware for home and garden. http://www.basketco.co.uk
AJS Crafts
A wide range of bespoke coppice products, services & training. Including, basketry, rustic furniture, garden structures, sculptures, treen, hedgelaying, etc.. http://www.ajscrafts.co.uk
Water Willows
Organically grown willows, living willow structures, arbours, tunnels, wigwams etc. Willow cuttings, hedging, windbreaks,basketry, ornamental, winter colour willows, woven willow, screening, obelisks, hurdles, raised bed kits etc. Weaving courses. http://www.waterwillows.com
Specialist restoration in cane work and rush seating. We can also restore almost all other types of woven furniture. Please ring for some friendly advise. http://thecaneandrushworkshop.co.uk
Former Glory Cane and Rush Materials
Antique furniture restorers specialising in the traditional craft of cane and rush seating. We supply DIY kits for cane and rush seat restoration in addition to Danish cord, seagrass, centre cane, fibre rush and hand cane - all materials are top quality. http://www.formerglory.co.uk |


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Fight Over Climate Aid Threatens to Derail Copenhagen Talks
Less than a week before the Copenhagen climate conference begins, confidential documents reveal that the EU is pushing to use existing aid money, not new funds, to help poorer nations reduce emissions and adapt to climate change—a stance that NGOs say could derail the entire summit.
According to documents obtained by The Guardian, EU negotiators have removed lines from a proposed draft agreement that call for a new climate fund for poor countries most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The text says the EU "cannot accept" proposed language that would call for climate aid to be "additional to" and "separate from" other development assistance funds.
If climate funds were to come entirely from existing pools of money, that would pose a huge problem for international negotiations. The United Nations has estimated that poor countries need as much as $170 billion per year to adapt to climate change. That's $50 billion more than developed countries spent on aid last year.
In public, Britain and Holland have argued that climate funds should be additional, while Germany, France and other smaller nations have said the money should come from existing aid. However, the Guardian also obtained an email from an official in the UK's Department for International Development making it clear that all money pledged for climate change so far is drawn from existing programs. (Most of it is pledged via the World Bank, which doesn't have a reputation for being all that clean when it comes to financing energy development.) This conflicts with public statements from Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who just last Friday proposed a new $10 billion global fund to help poor countries with climate change to much fanfare. As it turns out, that money, too, would also come almost entirely from other aid budgets. The United States, meanwhile, has been even less generous.
For poorer countries, financial aid is a dealbreaker issue. Developing nations—especially places like Tuvalu, the drowning island nation that Rachel Morris reported on for the current issue of Mother Jones—are demanding new, additional funds to deal with the climate problems caused by rich nations. They have called for a minimum of $400 billion each year by 2020 to help curb emissions, expand clean energy development, and adapt to climatic changes that are already occurring.
So far, rich countries have suggested they may be prepared to offer around $100 billion annually, although finance ministers failed to agree on a concrete funding scheme in a meeting earlier this month. If that sum were to be drawn from existing aid, poverty and hunger alleviation programs, public health, agriculture, and other extremely important projects would suffer. "No developing country will sign up to an agreement that could give them no extra money at all," Oxfam senior policy adviser Rob Bailey told The Guardian. "The EU and other rich countries must provide new and additional finance, otherwise there will be no deal at all."
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The Genealogy Bank Blog is reporting the following BIG news:
"FamilySearch.org (the Family History Library - Salt Lake City, UT) announced today that it will complete its online index to the US Census 1790 to 1930, making the entire index free online for the first time."
Wednesday, July 23, 2008
1 comment:
- Randy Seaver said...
May I suggest that you change the title of this post to add the word "Index" .
The entire US census collection will not be free - only the index as you stated in the text.
Randy Seaver - July 23, 2008 at 11:03 AM
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Motorola E725 Launch
Mar 23, 2005, 7:00 PM by Rich Brome @rbrome
On-the-scene report from FFWDMOTO at the M3 music festival in Miami. Full coverage of the new E725 music phone.
Every March, the electronic music industry converges on Miami Beach for the Winter Music Conference and Miami Music and Multimedia, otherwise known as M3. Every night for a whole week, dozens of massive parties take place all over the city, filled with the sounds of the hottest DJs in the world.
This year, the event made a fitting backdrop for Motorola to launch their new E725 music phone.
Click a thumbnail above for a larger view.
The E725 is a CDMA phone for North America. Among its key features are EV-DO high-speed data and the BREW platform for applications and games. Although Motorola can't officially say which carrier might offer it, Verizon is the only major carrier at the moment with that combination of technologies.
Although the E725 is a respectable phone for most any purpose, the focus is on music. Like most new higher-end phones these days, it sports a memory card slot (miniSD) for storing large numbers of music files. An FM radio and built-in stereo speakers are also part of the package.
If that were all there was to it, it wouldn't be much different from several phones announced last week at the CTIA show. But where the E725 goes the extra mile are with features like the 3.5mm headset jack and FM transmitter.
While most phones these days have small 2.5mm jacks that only work with cell-phone headsets, the full-size 3.5mm jack on the E725 lets you jam with a full set of stereo headphones.
But the most unique feature of the E725 is definitely the FM transmitter. FM radio receivers are nothing new, (and the E725 has one of those, too,) but the E725 also lets you broadcast MP3s in stereo to a nearby FM radio - perfect for pumping tunes through a car stereo system.
The music player application on the E725 is implemented as a BREW application. This means it can easily be customized by carriers to integrate with their own over-the-air music download services. The EV-DO data capability ensures songs will download quickly.
Subject | Author | Date |
Nuts, Verizon... | Invader J |
Back-light? | DDA |
Hey look! "Real" photos even Mmcnier can enjoy. | muchdrama |
Blue-tooth? | TAN7000 |
Don't expect this one anytime soon | gjh311 |
FINALLY!!!!!!!!!! | danielson |
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Property name: Berolina Airport
Type: Hotel
Minimum rate per night: USD 36.35
Description Berolina Airport
The hotel Berolina Airport is situated in the Treptow district, in the eastern part of Berlin, offering the ideal base for both business and leisure travellers. You will appreciate our comfortable middle range hotel which offers excellent service at reasonable prices. At guests' disposal conveniently equipped rooms and a cozy lounge bar.
Services and facilities
General facilities | Elevator, Congress, Luggage Storage, Groups welcome, Tourist information, Baby cots/cribs available, Radio, Recently renovated, Meeting Room |
Room | Desk, Heating, Extra beds, Ironing facilities on request, Hairdryer on request, Hypo-allergenic bedding available, Soundproofed rooms, Non-smoking rooms available upon request, Direct dial phone, Cable TV |
Internet | Wireless Internet access |
Parking | Private parking |
Pets | Pets accepted, Dogs allowed |
Credit cards | Credit cards accepted |
Food and drink | Lounge bar |
Berolina Airport
0.5 mi
Airporthotel Berlin-Adlershof
1.1 mi
pentahotel Berlin Köpenick
1.1 mi
Best Western Hotel Am Schloss Köpenick
1.5 mi
Hotel Alter Markt Berlin
1.5 mi
Aparthotel an der Spree
1.5 mi
Hotel Kubrat an der Spree
2.1 mi
M & M Hotel Berlin
2.1 mi
Hotel NH Berlin-Treptow


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Arizona Diamondbacks Appearances
Related Characters
Arizona Diamondbacks Facebook
Welcome to the official Facebook Page about Arizona Diamondbacks. Join Facebook to start connecting with Arizona Diamondbacks. 0 Up Votes, 0 Down Votes, 68 Clicks, Rank of 70 |
Arizona Diamondbacks at espn.com
"Arizona Diamondbacks news, schedule, players, stats, photos, rumors, and highlights on ESPN.com." 0 Up Votes, 0 Down Votes, 23 Clicks, Rank of 25 |
The Official Site of the Arizona Diamondbacks
News, audio and video, scoreboard, schedule, roster, stats, community, and more. 0 Up Votes, 0 Down Votes, 18 Clicks, Rank of 20 |
2007 Arizona Diamondbacks season - Wikipedia, the free ...
The Arizona Diamondbacks' 2007 season started with the Diamondbacks attempting to win the ... The Arizona Diamondbacks' biggest move in the offseason was when, on ... 0 Up Votes, 0 Down Votes, 15 Clicks, Rank of 17 |


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Coaching is not a place for teachers who want a "break from the classroom," transformational leadership coach Elena Aguilar writes in this blog post. Like teaching students, coaches must analyze what teachers need and then recommend the appropriate path, whether taking a different instructional approach, engaging in role-play or reviewing student data. "Coaching is a complex form of teaching, of professional development, of guiding another person in a learning journey," writes Aguilar, who notes the demanding job is worth the struggles that accompany it.
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Find a copy online
Links to this item
galenet.galegroup.com Full text available via Making of Modern Law : Trials
galenet.galegroup.com Full text online
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Genre/Form: | Electronic books Trials, litigation, etc., Trials, litigation, etc |
Material Type: | Document, Internet resource |
Document Type: | Internet Resource, Computer File |
All Authors / Contributors: | American Bell Telephone Company,; National Telephone Manufacturing Company,; United States. Circuit Court (Massachusetts) |
OCLC Number: | 505983631 |
Notes: | At head of title: "Circuit Court of the United States, district of Massachusetts, in equity, no. 653." Reproduction of the original from Harvard Law School Library. |
Description: | 1 online resource (1 v.) |
Series Title: | Making of Modern Law : Trials, 1600-1926. |
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Her images first transfixed me back in December. (…) Read more »
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Earth & Sky, Land & Sea
Dec 31, 2014Every trip I take home is a race against time. The desire to visit every old haunt is tempered only by the hours available. In a day. In a week. I want to fit it all in, see everyone, go everywhere. (…) Read more »
Richmond, Virginia In Photos
Oct 13, 2014I've been lucky enough to travel to many beautiful places in this world, both overseas and across our gorgeous country, and yet, there is always more beauty to discover. This past week, I discovered the beauty that is Richmond, Virginia, and its surrounding countryside. (…) Read more »
Faces of San Francisco: Street Style
Mar 28, 2014My favorite activity since I was a young girl (or at least one of them)?…people watching. There is something about a day of observing and admiring those that pass you by. The small immediate nuances that make an individual, well, individual... on your own, by one's self… headphones in tight with the perfect soundtrack whispering (…) Read more »
What You See // What I See
Mar 10, 2014Part of life's beauty is that it's all about perspective; the reality of the universe is whatever you make of it. (…) Read more »
One Way Ticket
Feb 26, 2014Spring – She's provocative…. isn't she? Gives you that little wink from across the room… a "go ahead… try… take it off… throw it out… cut it off…" (…) Read more »
Travel Lust: Peru
Feb 17, 2014Our dear friend and talented photographer Anna just returned from an amazing trip through Peru. We asked her to share a bit of her journey with us all… (…) Read more »
Higher Love
Dec 26, 2013Show me what I could be… not what I already am. Show me where I could go, not where I've danced before. (…) Read more »
Rose Bowl Flea Market: Street Style
Dec 19, 2013Fancy some of the very best people watching LA has to offer? Put this in your calendar. The second Sunday of every month, up to 20,000 people roll in to shop and sort the 2,500 booths of vintage, furniture, antiques, textiles (and much more) of the Rose Bowl Flea Market. Designers, celebrities, stylists, interior decorators… LA's (…) Read more »
"Brotherhood of The Sun": Commune Living
Nov 07, 2013When I first encountered the photos of "Brotherhood of the Sun", I was completely taken. Taken by the sheer magnitude of happiness and honesty. You really can see it… honesty and happiness that is. (…) Read more »
Happy Father's Day!
Jun 16, 2013Happy Father's Day to all of the amazing dads out there! (…) Read more »


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When an academic program, department, center, institute, or student professional organization needs to produce an informational or promotional publication, The Fox School's Public Relations Office provides complete production services and design capabilities. Depending on the scale of the project, some publications will be produced in conjunction with Temple University's Office of Creative Services or other outside services.
The Fox School's Office of Public Relations works very closely with Temple's Office of Creative Services. The Office of Creative Services offers cutting-edge technological tools and a highly skilled graphic design staff to professionally produce any project including brochures, magazines, newsletters, posters, postcards, invitations and programs.
Services the Office of Creative Services provides to Fox School include design, proof reading, copyediting, art direction, and guidance with using other services, including writing, photography, mailing and processing University paperwork and bidding printing services in keeping with purchasing department guidelines. Design charges are currently $55/hour. Writing or photographic services by outside contractors are an additional cost.
From the receipt of final copy approved by the Dean's Office, estimated production time for the following are:
All invitation packages, brochures, posters, announcements, will either be produced within the Fox School PR office or outside design services will be utilized. The client will be informed at the start of any project as to the resources being used and the costs. The Fox School's PR department acts as an internal liaison with Creative Services and all outside designers, printers and other services, ensuring all materials, including specifications, are final before they are delivered to Creative Services.
Fox PR offers services to produce small brochures, invitations, postcards, posters, banners and e-vites as well as graphic design, photography, copyediting, writing, and bidding printing services. There is no design charge. Writing or photographic services by outside contractors are an additional cost.
In order to provide a fair and equitable process to clients, vendors and designers, Fox clients are required to assign one department project representative, provide written copy and artwork along with a completed publications request form to clarify objectives for the requested project before submitting materials to the Senior Associate Director of Communications and Creative Services.
Once approved, projects will be assigned in the order that they are received. The PR office will work to complete the project by the requested date, however, adjustments may need to be made depending on the scope of the project and the current workload in the PR office.
Whether your project is going to be designed in house or by Temple's Office of Creative Services, one item is essential-adhering to the project timeline. Once your tracking form is processed and after an initial planning meeting, you will receive a project timeline. The timeline is a binding agreement ensuring that if all project deadlines are met by the client and the PR Office, then the project will be delivered on the anticipated date.
Materials that are incomplete, late, or in need of drastic revisions after the process has begun will adversely delay the production of the publication and jeopardize the original delivery date.
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Hotel Free Tour Melbourne
Trip Start
Oct 28, 2012
Trip End
Nov 09, 2012
Where I stayed
Announcement cry out for the tour and I hop on to the mini bus with my butt adhere steadily on the seat waiting for the tour to begin. The melbournian tour guide is kinda fun and know his shit! We were briefed on what happen where along the journey to each itineraries. It's the second free tour I joined in Melbourne and its easy to notice that melbourneian take their job seriously and professionally.
Itineraries for the free tour are;
>Asian Market
>Prahan Market
>Chapel Street
>Brighton beach
>Denny beach
>St. Kilda Beach
>Luna Park
On the final itinerary I left Phil (tour guide) and fellow travellers in St. Kilda to continue my exploration in St. Kilda. It's Saturday and travel with Myki is flat rate of $3.30 whole day long so why rush back home?
Prahan Market is distinctively stand out from the Asian Market. It's extremely clean and well organized and stuff mostly with western food andtheir things, more on the upper market scale. Well, it's not too bad to just window shop around before heading to chapel street to fill my stomach.
Labyrinth alley and confusing architecture everywhere, I was late for 5mins to board the bus. It's a nice place with various style of architecture from contemporary, bohemian to classic scattered all around in an organic fashion. Sellings there ranges from food, clothing and deco things of all kinds. I got myself a microfiber tower from Kathmandu (-70% discount) and started to fall in love in this place and if given more time I'd sniff out more good deals.
It's has been quite some time I saw those little colorful box houses dotted on the beach in TV and guide books and NOW! here I'm, in front of Bayside beach with a good view of Melbourne city skyscrapers and little house just a stone throw distant away. The air is a bit stinky though! I guess it's the dried seaweed dying on the shore that emit the smell. Water was crystal clear but freezing.
Strolling and busy with my hand snapping photos at every nice angle deem worth memory along the beach side. Ended the beach walks at the Brighton Life Guard House. A few patches of flowers glowing wildly here and there and my camera just can't miss it out.
Next station is the second to the last, St. Kilda Beach, where I managed to spotted a few little guys dress in tuxedo, ya! It was the little penguins call the jetty their home. I'm consider lucky as they are shy creature and not normally show up in the day.*Day time is the time they go fishing and fatten their body for a better mating experience.
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