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Section 2-301 The Departments.
Section 2-302 Assignment and Authority of Commissioners.
Section 2-303 Assignment of Work to Subordinates.
Section 2-304 Codes.
Section 2-301 The Departments.
The executive and administrative powers, authority and duties, not otherwise provided for herein, shall be distributed among at least five (5) departments as follows:
Department of Public Affairs
(b) Department of Finance and Administration
(c) Department of Public Safety
(d) Department of Public Utilities
(e) Department of Public Works
Bureaus and their functions shall be fixed by the Council by ordinance. The distribution of the bureaus and work among departments shall be made and may be changed from time to time by the Mayor by order which shall be filed and preserved as an ordinance. The names of the departments may be changed in like manner. The Mayor may in like manner assign matters relating to any commission to a particular department. [May 3, 1913, part of new sec. 36; rev. 1914, sec. 54; 1928 pub., sec. 54; 1942 recod., sec. 2-201; rev. Nov. 6, 1962.]
Section 2-302 Assignment and Authority of Commissioners.
At the first regular meeting after the election of any Council member, the Mayor shall designate one member to be Commissioner In Charge of each department, who shall thereafter be designated as Commissioner of such department, which designation may be changed and a transfer of Commissioners from one department to another be made, whenever it appears that the public service will be benefitted thereby. Such assignment shall be made by the Mayor by order which shall be filed and preserved as an ordinance. The Commissioner In Charge of each department shall have the supervision and control of all the affairs and property which belong to that department, subject to the provisions of this Charter and to such regulation as may be prescribed by the Council. [May 3, 1913, new sec. 37; rev. 1914, secs. 55 and 56; 1928 pub., secs. 55 and 56; 1942 recod., sec. 2-202; rev. Nov. 6, 1962.]
Section 2-303 Assignment of Work to Subordinates.
The Council shall prescribe the powers and duties of officers and employees, may assign particular officers to one or more of the departments and may require an officer or employee to perform duties in two or more departments. The Council shall make such rules and regulations as may be necessary and proper for the efficient and economical conduct of the business of the City. [May 3, 1913, part of new sec. 36; rev. 1914, sec. 57; 1928 pub., sec. 57; 1942 recod., sec. 2-203; rev. Nov. 6, 1962.]
Section 2-304 Codes.
Codes providing for the administration of the powers, duties and affairs of the different departments and for their organization shall be enacted. Such codes shall provide for a uniform standard for the purchase of materials and supplies and shall provide for a purchasing agent and may provide for inspection and testing of the quality and quantity of the materials and supplies purchased to determine their exact conformity to specifications. Provision shall be made for the transfer of employees from one department to another. Methods shall be provided by which the heads of departments may determine and compare the work accomplished by the department with reference to its expenditures and a comparison with work during a prior period. A definite system of accounting shall be provided for each department showing the work performed and the material furnished compared with the cost thereof, so itemized that it can be determined whether each department is becoming more efficient or less efficient. All materials and supplies of the City shall be properly housed, segregated and tabulated and a perpetual inventory kept showing the additions and depletions thereof. Each department shall report its time and expenses for comparison with the prior month and prior year to show percentage of increase or decrease and shall also report stores and material accounts for like comparison. [May 3, 1913, part of new sec. 36; rev. 1914, sec. 58; 1928 pub., sec. 58; 1942 recod., sec. 2-204; rev. Nov. 6, 1962.]
Chapter 2 Government
Article 1 The Council
Article 2 Elective Offices
Article 3 Executive and Administrative Powers
Article 4 The Mayor
Article 5 The Auditor
Article 6 Officers and Employees
Article 7 Official Undertakings and Bonds
Article 8 Records
Article 9 The Municipal Court
© 2015
City of Portland, Oregon
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Auditor Mary Hull Caballero
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Shopping Cart
Seven years ago, seamstress Vonnie Taylor's husband of one day, Adam Baldwin, annulled their marriage. Now she faces the ultimate indignity: sewing his new intended's wedding dress!
Vonnie hasn't forgotten the handsome rancher, despite the family feud that doomed their love. Now, as the past is uncovered and danger is unleashed, Vonnie finds herself again by Adam's side. Time for this Yellow Rose of Texas to learn that love is worth the wait.
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If you've ever fumble through a jersey pocket to look for an energy gel and successfully knocked your ID, phone, or credit card out while riding, then you'll appreciate the Loaded Lezyne Smart Wallet. A water-proof plastic compartment keeps your spendy electronic device protected, while convenient storage for a multi-tool, tire levers, and patch kit keep you going no matter what's dished out. Unfortunately it doesn't come loaded with cash, but that'd be sweet.
Material: | nylon |
Recommended Use: | organization |
Warranty: | lifetime |


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You need to confirm that you like this page! Do it now!!! -- HG
Hungry but don't wanna be? Check out these super-duper appetite-curbers from HG...
You've likely heard this one before, but it's true. Drinking water will curb your appetite. Try guzzling a full glass of it before a meal, and there's a good chance you'll eat less. If you have trouble getting cold water down, try drinking the stuff at room temperature. Check out
HG's water reviews
for more info on H2O!
Spicy Stuff:
"Hot" foods that pack a lot of spice and heat can help in several ways. First off, they tend to dull your taste buds a bit, which helps you eat less. And they have a metabolism-boosting affect as well. HG's Hot Sauce Pick: Go for Frank's Red Hot over run-of-the-mill Tabasco. Frank's tastes great, and isn't nearly as
red hot
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Broth-Based Soups:
Foods that are simply hot in temperature -- like soup -- can pummel your appetite. Just make sure your soup isn't all creamy and packed with fat. Straight broths -- like chicken or veggie broth -- are AWESOME picks. Be aware of the sodium count if you watch your salt intake. And, to turn your appetite-bashing soup into something even more fun and exciting, dump a bag of Tofu Shirataki Noodles into it. Your HUGE bowl of noodle soup will have about 60 calories! Woohoo!
Apples rock our faces off. It's true, and here's why. They're healthy, fairly low in calories, packed with fiber (so they help you feel full!) and they taste great any time of day. What we like best about 'em, though, is the fact that people very rarely overeat them. Snack on chips (even lowfat ones) and you can easily take in 300-600 calories if you're not very careful. You'll never do that with apples. Try it and see...
We HEART pickles. Yes, we know they're high in sodium, so they're not the best bet for those who avoid high-salt foods, but aside from that they are a fantastic way to help curb cravings. Low in calories and high in flavor, these crunchy critters are extremely satisfying and practically calorie-free. So if you're not a strict sodium-counter, we say pickle it up!
Lowfat/Fat Free Yogurt:
You'd be surprised how satisfying a little cup of lowfat or fat free yogurt can be. We love Yoplait Light -- and a cup of that stuff only has about 100 calories and is fat free. It's a perfect little filling snack any time of day or night...
Green, Leafy Veggies:
Steam a little cabbage or spinach, or chop up some lettuce. Greens can be filling, delicious friends for you, and are a great way to fill out a meal without adding too many calories. Go for it!
HG Tip!
Even though many experts put nuts into the appetite-curbing category, and they CAN help you feel fuller (and they're healthy!), we think they're a little too dangerous to use in this way. Why? Simply because it's hard to keep portion sizes down. In other words, we support nuts and love tossing a few on salads, frozen yogurt, or even in our oatmeal, but thinking of them as a way to curb your appetite could result in your taking in 1000+ calories if you're not careful. So use caution when eating 'em!
Hey...Today, May 25th, is National Brown-Bag-It Day. Bring your lunch wherever you go!
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Since the days of slavery, African Americans have been "systematically prevented from accumulating property," says sociologist Dalton Conley. His new book "Being Black, Living in the Red" explores how the opportunities of blacks have been undermined by their inability to access credit and buy homes, among other issues. |
Although occupation, income and education are generally deemed the defining rungs for climbing the socioeconomic ladder, Conley argues that wealth -- or assets handed down from one generation to another -- is the ultimate source of class differentiation in U.S. society.
In fact, he says, lack of wealth has, more than any other factor, undermined opportunities for African Americans in this nation.
"From the initial wresting of soon-to-be slaves from their families and possessions along the western coast of Africa, to the failed promise of land redistribution after Emancipation, to the dynamics of residential segregation and differential credit access that continue relatively unabated today, African Americans have been systematically prevented from accumulating property," says Conley, who is assistant professor of sociology and African-American studies at Yale.
After taking the reader through the historical and statistical evidence to support his theory, "Being Black, Living in the Red" presents some fresh -- although admittedly imperfect -- solutions to the multifaceted problem.
First and foremost, Conley suggests affirmative action approaches that are based on total parental asset levels rather than race or yearly income alone. This, he says, would result in an affirmative action policy that aids the most disadvantaged minorities while remaining ostensibly color-blind and thus politically more appealing. He also recommends loosening asset restrictions on welfare recipients in order to encourage savings as a path out of welfare dependency.
On the issue of home ownership, which comprises the greatest part of the assets of most American families, Conley evokes a policy suggested by colleagues in the field -- namely government-sponsored "social insurance." Such insurance would protect property owners from the decline in home values that accompanies "white flight" from integrating neighborhoods, notes Conley, who also calls for a massive initiative to promote home ownership in poor urban communities.
To foster the creation of capital by African Americans, Conley suggests that the government might provide reparations, like those Germany made to Holocaust survivors. Although he concedes that this solution is likely to be politically unpalatable, he argues that such a model would be more effective than "community development" programs, such as "enterprise" or "empowerment" zones, which are intended more to create jobs than to provide the profit-driven incentive to accumulate capital.
"Being Black, Living in the Red" is based on Conley's dissertation, which was named best graduate thesis for 1996 by the American Sociological Association. He earned his bachelor's degree from the University of California at Berkeley, and his Ph.D. from Columbia University.
Conley's next book will be published in 2000. Titled "Honky," the work is Conley's personal account of growing up white in a predominantly black and Puerto Rican housing project. Both books are published by the University of California Press.
-- By Dorie Baker
Ex-Secretary of State will present talk at YCIAS
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Blacks undermined by lack of wealth, sociologist argues
Accumulated wealth is the overlooked, but single most powerful derminant of class-based racial inequality in America, contends Yale professor Dalton Conley in his new book "Being Black, Living in the Red."
Yale modifies Divinity School renovation plan
New office to help meet needs of University's international scholars
Taste-test to top tribute to insects
Soderstrom to carry on work of his predecessors in OCR
Artist's depictions of Victorian-era Britain featured in show
Cutting dollars for mental health care increased medical costs, study shows
'Seminars help medical students learn how to become 'culturally competent'
Conference to explore diverse topics in women's health
Study shows affect of long-term abuse of cocaine lingers in brain even after years of abstinence
Blacks undermined by lack of wealth, sociologist argues
Kenneth Starr says post of independent counsel is ineffectual
Biblical figure of Eve is theme of works in Slifka Center exhibit
Staged reading of Shaw's 'Philanderer' to include little-known fourth act
Gerstein's work for Human Genome Project gets $1 million boost from Keck Foundation
New laboratories will seek a cure for spinal cord injuries
Research offers insights into enzyme that makes cancer cells grow
Dr. Harvey Kaetz dies; was internist and oncologist
Memorial service to be held Oct. 1 for Dr. Robert Byck
Benefit will kick off Dr. Mel Goldstein Fund for research on bone marrow cancer
1999-2000 University Directory arriving soon
Peabody Museum hosting open house for would-be volunteers
. . . In the News . . .
New program will bring postdoctoral scholars to Whitney Humanities Center
Talk and dedication open fall Humanities in Medicine series
Allan R. Wagner receives award for scientific work
Yale affiliates featured in 'Books Sandwiched In'
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How wide is the cabinet area behind the doors?
I ordered this at 2:00 am so VISA put a hold on my credit card! I found out at Home Depot the next day. Even with that, I love this piece of furniture. It is absolutely fabulous. I never expected it to be this glorious! It is very heavy. It is NOT that hard to assemble. My friend did it in less than two hours!! It extends perfectly. The fact that it is reversible is so very functional. You actually can move it around. But you would have to empty it to make sure you did not harm your glassware. It is where it will stay unless we use it as a buffet table. I can not say enough good things about this piece. The color is very rich and matches my new dining room set. I have two café chairs next to it and the counter height is perfect for them. I was able to take a ton of stuff out of my high wall cabinets and now have them where I can reach them easily. If you need one - buy this one.
Grand Torino Kitchen Island
Add storage and style to your kitchen with this black kitchen island. Featuring a wine rack on either side, this kitchen island provides all the space you need to organize your kitchen. Antique brass hardware complete the look of this versatile island.
- Details
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The Grand Torino Kitchen Island from Home Styles is constructed from hardwood solids, hardwood veneers, and engineered wood in a blended rustic cherry and black finish. This island creates a marvelous center-piece for any kitchen.- Drawers are pull-through
- Wine rack on each side
- Towel rack
- Pull-out side counter extends the width to 72 inches
- Spindle style legs
- Blended rustic cherry and black finish
- Aged antiqued brass hardware
- Color: Rustic cherry and black
- Materials: Hardwood solids, veneers, and engineered wood
- Finish: Rustic cherry and black
- Dimensions: 36 inches high x 48 inches wide x 25 inches deep
- Number of shelves: Three (3)
- Number of drawers/compartments: Four (4)
- Model: 5012-94
Assembly required.
Features | |
Color | Black Brown Red |
Material | Brass Wood |
Assembly | Assembly Required |
Cart Type | Stationary Island |
Dimensions | See Product Description |
Warranty | 30 day Limited Manufacturer |
Materials | Hardwood solids, veneers, and engineered wood |
Model Number | 5012-94 |
Product Reviews
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Great Kitchen/Dining Room island/cabinet/bar/buffe I ordered this at 2:00 am so VISA put a hold on my credit card! I found out at Home Depot the next day. Even with that, I love this piece of furniture. It is absolutely fabulous. I never expected it to be this glorious! It is very heavy. It is NOT that hard to assemble. My friend did it in less than two hours!! It extends perfectly. The fact that it is reversible is so very functional. You actually can move it around. But you would have to empty it to make sure you did not harm your glassware. It is where it will stay unless we use it as a buffet table. I can not say enough good things about this piece. The color is very rich and matches my new dining room set. I have two café chairs next to it and the counter height is perfect for them. I was able to take a ton of stuff out of my high wall cabinets and now have them where I can reach them easily. If you need one - buy this one.
Read Morehera2 Jun 26, 2014 - Helpful 0
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looks nice but a few problems The product looks nice but putting it together is difficult because the screws don't catch on some parts....one shelf on the wine rack didn't have the correct wood dowel and not even a hole to put one in.....the attachment to the pull out table would not catch with the screw and flat springs so we had to not put it in....the end of the pull out table came completely off before we even used it and we had to 're glue it on you could tell it was assembled wrong......lastly after all was said and done the shelf in the middle is crooked!!! I thought this would be amazing since I have no room for a table but the table is extremely hard to pull out this is not worth 700 dollars but who is going to repack and ship back 2-70 pound boxes.
Read Moreafpl01 Oct 27, 2013 - Helpful 0
- Not Helpful 0
- Flag as Inappropriate
Questions & Answers
Hello Adriane, the center space inside is approximately 20.5 inches wide. Thank you for shopping with us.
I'd like to know if the pull out table can be assembled on either side of the island. When looking at the front of the island, I would like to put the pull out table on the left and shelves on the right. In the pictures on site you have the table pulling out on the right side. Please advise.
Hello shannynb, the kitchen island is reversible. It will come with institutions on how to assemble it. I hope this helps. Shelia B
What can you tell me about the drawer glides? Is it full extension and self-closing? Can the drawers and doors be opened from both sides?
Thank you for your inquiry, gsmith123. The drawers are full extension and do not self close. There is cabinet doors on each side and the drawers are only on one side. We hope this helps. Thank you for shopping with us.
Where is this island made?
Thank you for your inquiry, gsmith123. This island was made in Thailand. We hope this helps. Thank you for shopping with us.
What are the dimensions of the center cabinet space?
Thank you for your question annabux. The center cabinet measures: 20 inches h x 20.5 inches w x 19.5 inches d. Have a great day.
Shopping Guides
Kitchen Island Buying Guide
When you imagine your dream kitchen, it probably has the perfect kitchen island and other kitchen furniture available to store your pots and pans, knives, dishes and appliances easily. Even without your dream kitchen, a kitchen island or smaller kitchen carts can offer some additional counter and storage space and give your kitchen a fresh new look. This buying guide will help you figure out how to buy a kitchen island table for your home and provide you with kitchen island ideas when you're planning your dream kitchen.
How to Add a Kitchen Island
If your kitchen has little counter space but a lot of floor space, adding a kitchen island is a smart way to increase your work and storage areas. There is wide a variety of ready-made kitchen islands and kitchen carts available to match any design, style, or decor, with features that will work in your kitchen.
Best Kitchen Island for Your Home
Add extra storage and counter space without remodeling when you buy a kitchen island for your home. Whether you need a drop-leaf kitchen island so you have plenty of room for chopping vegetables or a sleek stainless steel kitchen island that provides storage for your pots and pans, the following suggestions will help you buy kitchen islands and carts that work for your space. Read on for tips on finding the best kitchen island for your home.
Top 5 Types of Cooktops
A cooktop is one of the most frequently used and essential appliances in the kitchen. Different from traditional stoves, cooktops are independent cooking devices, separate from traditional ranges and ovens. Cooktops can be installed into kitchen islands or over built-in ovens -- anywhere there's space and power available to do so -- and are designed to integrate into kitchen countertops for a contemporary look.
Tips on Choosing Kitchen Furniture
Moving swiftly through your kitchen is essential if you want to prepare a gourmet meal on a schedule. Your kitchen is much more enjoyable when you can find every bowl and you have a clean surface for chopping, mixing and measuring. If your kitchen isn't quite meeting your needs, then you may benefit from some new kitchen furniture. Islands, carts, cabinets and racks can transform your kitchen into a more useful space while adding a fresh new style to your home.
Tips on Buying Bar Stools
You don't sit down on a bar stool; you sit up on a bar stool. And that seems to make all the difference. People sitting on stools seem to be much more lively and talkative. But stools, whether at a bar in your basement or around the center island in your kitchen, still create a casual, relaxed mood. Adding counter stools or bar stools can add a lot of energy to a home. They are well suited for cocktail parties and holiday gatherings when no one wants to establish themselves in one location too long but might want to get off their feet for just a moment. Fortunately, the many styles and colors of stools let you easily find some that are right for you, regardless of your home's decor.
Tips on Organizing a Kitchen Cart
When you need extra storage in your kitchen, a kitchen cart can come in handy. However, you may have some questions about arranging items efficiently on your cart. This guide provides you with tips on organizing a kitchen cart and finding one that works best for your home.
Kitchen Decor Ideas
Over time, the kitchen has moved from being located in a separate building behind the house to a walled-off room inside the house to, finally, where it is today: the heart of the home. Most modern home layouts feature a kitchen that is open to a family room, creating a large area where family and friends can gather. Get creative with your kitchen linens and decor and enjoy a space that is both functional and pleasing to the eye. Read more about some of the most popular kitchen decorating ideas below.
How to Select Kitchen Lighting
If your kitchen looks tired, why not update it with brand-new kitchen lighting? New kitchen pendant lights or a unique chandelier could be just what your space needs for a fresh makeover. In fact, the right kitchen light fixtures add that extra touch that makes a kitchen shine. Whether you want to install recessed kitchen lighting in your home or just want to update a few existing light fixtures, the following tips can help you find lighting that will last for years and keep your kitchen looking great. Read on to learn about selecting kitchen lighting for your home.
Tips on Choosing a Matching Range Hood
Designed to dissipate the smoke and odors that cooking on a stovetop produces, range hoods are essential kitchen appliances. Here are a few tips on finding a range hood that will fit your kitchen and give it an updated feel.
Kitchen Storage Buying Guide
A well-organized kitchen is a great asset to any home or apartment. Maximize comfort and convenience with the right kitchen storage. The first step to figuring out what kind of kitchen storage items will benefit your kitchen the most is to take a look around your kitchen and make a note of all the problem areas and how much space you have to work with. If you have a spacious kitchen, you probably need kitchen storage of an organizational nature. The more space you have, the more options you have for adding things, like baker's racks and kitchen carts. For space-challenged kitchens, kitchen storage is probably a much bigger problem. Your biggest consideration will be efficiency. Read to discover both organizational and efficiency kitchen storage solutions, as well as the major kitchen storage products you can use in your kitchen.
How to Choose a Kitchen Rug
Dress up the central gathering spot in your home with a stylish, durable kitchen rug. It's easy to add color, texture and warmth to your kitchen with a bright kitchen area rug that fits your style. Whether you need non-slip kitchen mats to place near the sink area or decorative accent rugs as a transition into the dining area, the following suggestions will help you find the area rugs that work for your space. Read on for tips on choosing a kitchen rug.
How to Choose Kitchen Lighting
It is easy to overlook the importance of lighting when decorating your kitchen. You spend all that time picking out the best cabinets and appliances and then stick with the same flickering fluorescent fixture that came with the house. Kitchen lighting and ceiling fans can do more than just illuminate your kitchen; they can also decorate as well as accent the best parts of your kitchen design.
Advantages of Installing a Bar Faucet
More and more people are installing bar sinks with bar faucets in their homes as secondary kitchen faucets, but if you've never used one yourself, you may think they're a little superfluous. While it's true that not every kitchen needs a new bar faucet, they can be a very useful addition to your kitchen. If you're thinking about upgrading your kitchen with a new bar sink faucet but you're not entirely sure whether or not it will be worth it, then keep reading for some information on the advantages of installing a bar faucet that may help make your decision easier.
Tips on the Positioning of Kitchen Cabinets
With the wide array of modern kitchen cabinet designs, homeowners can easily choose models that complement and enhance their lifestyles. Picking out the style and color of your kitchen cabinets is easy. But it can be a little more difficult to decide the best way to arrange your cabinets. When positioning kitchen cabinets, it's best to balance functional workspace while keeping an eye on design. In addition to traditional kitchen cabinets, specialty items, such as wine racks, foldout pantry cabinets and slide-out drawers, allow homeowners to combine good looks with functionality. Here are a few home improvement tips to consider when laying out your kitchen design and cabinet positions.
Top 5 Most Popular Styles of Kitchen Sinks
With more options becoming available all the time, there is a wide selection of kitchen sinks to choose from. Whether you're looking for a sink with a specific aesthetic appeal, a sink to match your current decor or a purely functional sink, the style of kitchen sink you choose is important. No longer are only certain styles of sinks the standard. As homes are becoming more customized, more people are choosing what they want instead of letting the developer decide. One of the most customized rooms is the kitchen, with the sink fast becoming one of the most integral parts of the design. The following are five of the most popular styles of kitchen sinks.
Where to Use Bar Stools Besides the Bar
Because of their name, bar stools are usually limited to serving as seating at bars, when in reality they are perfect for many other places around the house. Their height makes them an ideal addition to rooms besides the kitchen. Once you see what else you can do with bar stools, you'll wonder why you went so long before placing them everywhere.
Tips on Gas Cooktops
Many kitchens feature gas ranges for cooking that combine both burners and an oven in one unit. Recently, separate gas cooktops have risen in popularity because they fit into a countertop while allowing storage cupboard space underneath. Gas cooktops are especially popular with chefs because they allow more precise control over temperature and cooking time.
History of KitchenAid Appliances
KitchenAid leads the kitchen appliance industry year after year, so it's no surprise that anyone interested in the very best knows that it's a smart brand to rely on. KitchenAid products, from mixers to cutlery, have combined style and quality for generations. They've been around for nearly a century, so there's some interesting KitchenAid history to learn.
Best Places to Hang Mini Chandeliers
A glistening chandelier can add that little extra something to your home decor, but you don't need to go big to make a huge style statement. Mini chandeliers, sometimes called chandelettes, work well in a variety of settings and are a popular alternative to large, traditional chandeliers. Think of a mini chandelier as piece of jewelry for your home -- a little can go a long way. If you're not sure where you would use one, try hanging a mini chandelier in one of these places.
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Thumb up: Harbor Branch and Indian River dolphins featured on ABC series
DOLPHIN WATCH: Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute at Florida Atlantic University in St. Lucie County will be featured on the season premiere today of the ABC series "Ocean Mysteries with Jeff Corwin from the Georgia Aquarium."
Corwin and his crew visited in June for the annual health and environmental risk assessment of bottlenose dolphins in the Indian River Lagoon. Since the research project on the health of lagoon dolphins began in 2003, more than 200 dolphins have been captured, examined, sampled, marked and released.
The project is not an unexpected topic to be focused on by Corwin and the Georgia Aquarium. Much of that research on dolphin health was conducted by Harbor Branch Chief Marine Mammal Veterinarian Greg Bossart. Bossart is now the chief veterinary officer and senior vice president of veterinary services at the Georgia Aquarium. He heads all veterinary operations and conservation and research programs for the aquarium.
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Nancy Smith Hurd was born on March 6, 1926 in San Antonio, Texas. She was a descendent of the McKean family who came to Texas from Tennessee before the fall of the Alamo. She graduated from Alamo Heights High School and attended Trinity University. In 1957 she married the late John G. Hurd of Laredo, Texas, who was a widower with four young children. In 1970 her husband was appointed as Ambassador to the Republic of South Africa, where he served until 1975. Mrs. Hurd was a gracious and talented First Lady of the Embassy during this exciting period in the lives of the family. She was particularly adept at coping with the task of transferring the embassy residence between Capetown and Pretoria every six months.
Mrs. Hurd supported numerous philanthropic organizations addressing needs in education, charity, arts, medical research and nursing. She had a deep respect for the nurses who care for and tend the sick and wounded.
Application Deadline
*Only requests submitted by the deadline will be considered.
Back to Foundations & Grants
"The Nancy Smith Hurd Foundation will be a trusted funder in Bexar County, Texas, by supporting programs that improve education, health, family well-being, arts, culture, and animal welfare."
Grant Application Guidelines
The Nancy Smith Hurd Foundation makes distributions on a semi-annual basis. These grants are directed to 501(c)(3) organizations which fall within the principal charitable purposes of the foundation as outlined in Article 5 of the document.
The Nancy Smith Hurd Foundation will consider significant grant requests where the award of the grant would make a major impact in the community; create opportunities to partner with other philanthropic minded funders encouraging community collaboration; fund capital campaigns in progress; and for the advancement of an organization which would not occur without the grant.
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Click here for application form.
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Church Info What They're
Saying About "Us" News
from Utah Mormons
We Know Best of
LDS Blogs Saints
& Sports Arts &
Entertainment Opinions
& Features What We
Believe Lesson
Helps Everything Else
Church Info What They're
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from Utah Mormons
We Know Best of
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& Sports Arts &
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Believe Lesson
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I went to church with Mitt Romney this morning
August 19, 2012
source: BuzzFeed
MR says: This reporter writes, "As my colleagues surveyed their surroundings, they commented on how unremarkable it all looked. ... What I saw, though, was a slice of Mormon Americana — a buffet of congregational quirks that any Latter-day Saint would recognize."
A little after 10:00 a.m. on Sunday morning, Mitt Romney got out of a black SUV with his wife, greeted a couple in the parking lot, and walked into a Mormon chapel to take their seats with a small congregation of wealthy vacationers and native New Hampshirites.And I followed him in.
As a member of Romney's traveling press corps, I've followed the candidate across the country over the past eight months. I'm also a fellow Mormon, and I've written thousands of words along the way about how our shared religion seems to be shaping his candidacy. But until today, I had never actually sat in the same chapel as him, sung the same hymns with him, and said "Amen" to the same prayers as him.
Read the rest of this story at buzzfeed.com
Comments 3 comments
Sounds like Brother Romney had a typical Sabbath service, similar to the ones that I attend each week. Why anyone would see ulterior motives in this is beyond me. Our country is founded on Constitutional Rights of Freedom of Religion.. and Freedom of Speech. Why are these freedoms only important when it agrees to our own particular point of view? Have we become so blinded as a nation that we can't see alternatives? Some of the comments to this article are disturbing to me. Politics puts people in a unique situation and why anyone would want to run for President is beyond me, but even politicians should be allowed to enter the church of their choice to worship in a way that they are accustom without interferrence into their private lives. Public people have private lives too. I feel Mr. Romney is genuine in beliefs and if that makes some people uncomfortable, then exercise your right to freedom of speech and turn the channel or skip the article and read something else.
I am in full agreement with "skhunt" and thought it interesting that this reporter seemed to know the financial status of the "wealthy vacationers" that attended the services. Without asking, this is quite a talent to possess. With such forsight, Bro. Coppins may have missed his true calling as a fortune teller or something else equally unuseful.
OH, I don't know, maybe Bro. Coppins simply counted the Lexi, BMWs, and Cadillacs?
Just another Sunday at church, nothing to see here (for those that aren't looking) move along.
IF someone really wants to find out what Mormons believe, they can feel free to visit the nearest chapel near them or visit www.lds.org easy peasy
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Federal Drive Show Blog - May 29, 2013
On the Federal Drive show blog, you can listen to our interviews, find more information about the guests on the show each day, as well as links to other stories and resources we discuss.
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From | Bob Dionne <dio...@dionne-associates.com> |
Subject | Re: Help shape the future of CouchDB: your voice needed! |
Date | Sat, 14 Apr 2012 16:30:48 GMT |
I kind of agree, though I think voting is neat. I'd like to think most of these features are influenced by experiences with users in addition to internal refactoring concerns and so forth. It might help for everyone to see the list of features (here's a cleaned up version I got from BobN) [1]. As Benoit suggests, we need to sort/categorize them first before attaching priorities. One thing we might think of is the areas they might be grouped in, along the line of teams as Jan suggested at the summit. I'm happy to maintain this list as we drill down into the specifics, summarize email threads, and IRC chats. Some of these, .eg. moving metadata out of the docs, could easily require a lot of detailed discussion as they hit many areas of the code, so we should flesh out the details. It was great to meet everyone finally, I think we accomplished a whole lot. Thanks to Cloudant, Bocoup, and others for hosting, beers, etc.. and a big thanks to Sam Bisbee and Joan Touzet for detailed notes and general cat herding. Bob [1] https://github.com/bdionne/couchdb/blob/master/feature-list-from-summit.md On Apr 14, 2012, at 11:10 AM, Klaus Trainer wrote: > <DISCLAIMER> > I know CouchDB's internals to some degree and even contributed a few > bits to its codebase a while ago (and still follow its development to > some degree). However, I see myself primarily as a CouchDB user. I've > been using it successfully not only in my own pet projects, but also > together with a small team in a consulting project for a client. I do > have experience when it comes to explaining CouchDB's ideas, concepts, > and how it can be used in practice to both technical and non-technical > people. > </DISCLAIMER> > > > My initial reaction to this web page was very positive (hey, great to > have a collection of great new features that we can vote upon and > implement!). After voting and having had some sleep on it, I'm pretty > sure that it's not suitable, at least not in this way, though. The main > problem that I have with it is that I'm quite convinced that if we try > to implement the features corresponding to their score on the results > page (http://www.allourideas.org/couchdb2012/results?more=true), we will > either fail executing for some reason, or (the worse case), succeed and > have given CouchDB a more catchy list of features instead of having it > made a better piece of software. Please let me explain the issues that > seem important to me. > > > The main problem with that survey is that it does neither ask nor answer > the questions that are actually important if we want to make CouchDB an > even better piece of software. I collected three main questions: > > 1. What problem, or rather what type of problems does that feature > solve? > > 2. What are the implications and tradeoffs for the different types of > stakeholders that the feature brings with it? > - For me as a CouchDB user, how will that feature affect me when I'm > using CouchDB? > - For me as a third-party developer, how will that feature affect my > work on CouchDB modules/plugins/tools? > - For me as a CouchDB core developer, how will that feature affect > my work on CouchDB? > - For me as as CouchDB package maintainer, how will that feature > affect my work on packaging/maintaining CouchDB? > - For me as as Sysadmin / CouchDB operator, how will that feature > affect me on operating CouchDB? > > 3. How is or how can an existing problem be solved without having the > feature implemented in CouchDB directly? (That is, are there > modules/plugins/tools available that help me solve that problem. If not, > how difficult would it be to create one?) > > > Furthermore, I've got one additional question that, although it likely > helps understanding a feature, however is not as important as the three > above: > > -> What are the reasons that the feature has not already been > implemented? > > This question is probably easier to answer when having a list of > potential answers, for instance: > > * Only very few users have that issue, and most users will likely never > have to deal with it. > * Most users are confronted with that issue at some time, but it's so > trivial to solve it without having the feature in CouchDB anyway. > * It's hard to implement because (although feasible) it's just so much > work. > * It's hard to implement because its highly complex and very uncertain > if it can be brought into CouchDB anyway. > * Although easy to implement or already implemented, it hasn't been > and/or won't be accepted by the CouchDB core developers for some reason. > > > On Fri, 2012-04-13 at 20:24 -0400, Joan Touzet wrote: >> Thanks to everyone who participated in the CouchDB summit in Boston this >> week! In case you didn't know, the (25 pages!) of meeting minutes are >> available for review at http://s.apache.org/ndI . >> >> Here's where we need YOUR HELP. During the summit, the participants >> identified 38 key features we think are important for CouchDB's future. >> Please help us RANK these ideas by visiting our All Our Ideas page: >> >> http://www.allourideas.org/couchdb2012/ >> >> All Our Ideas is a free/open source solution for voting based on >> pairwise comparison - think Kittenwar - and is super easy to use. >> >> Please complete as many comparisons as you can; we'd like all the >> feedback we can get. We'd be thrilled if each of you did at least 100 >> comparisons. >> >> Thanks again for your help in determining the future of Apache CouchDB! >> > | |
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Christmas Bells are Swingin'! / Boston Brass, et al1 CD / Summit Records / 2005-09-13 Works: Traditional: Carol of the Bells; God rest ye merry, gentlemen; Lully, lulla, thow littel tyne child "Coventry Carol"; Ding Dong! Merrily on high; Greensleeves; Hugh Martin: Meet Me in St. Louis; Stev...Conductors: Laverty, John M. Ensemble: Boston Brass; Syracuse University Wind Ensemble Boston Brass's first offering of holiday cheer features the signature sound of the group performing holiday selections from around the world....continue... read more
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Megalodon Temporal range: Middle Miocene-Late Pliocene, 15.9–2.6Ma |
Model of the jaws of megalodon at the American Museum of Natural History. | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Subphylum: | Vertebrata |
Class: | Chondrichthyes |
Subclass: | Elasmobranchii |
Superorder: | Selachimorpha |
Order: | Lamniformes |
Family: | Lamnidae or †Otodontidae |
Genus: | Carcharodon or †Carcharocles |
Species: | †C. megalodon |
Binomial name | |
Carcharodon megalodon or Carcharocles megalodon Carcharodon megalodon, Agassiz, 1843 |
Synonyms | |
Megalodon (/ˈmɛɡələdɒn/ MEG-ə-lə-don; meaning "big tooth", from Ancient Greek: μέγας (megas) "big, mighty" and ὀδoύς (odoús), "tooth"—whose stem is odont-, as seen in the genitive case form ὀδόντος, odóntos)[1] is an extinct species of shark that lived approximately 15.9 to 2.6 million years ago, during the Cenozoic Era (middle Miocene to end of Pliocene).[2]
The taxonomic assignment of C. megalodon has been debated for nearly a century, and is still under dispute. The two major interpretations are Carcharodon megalodon (under family Lamnidae) or Carcharocles megalodon (under the family Otodontidae).[3] Consequently, the scientific name of this species is commonly abbreviated C. megalodon in the literature.
C. megalodon is regarded as one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history,[4] and likely had a profound impact on the structure of marine communities.[5] Fossil remains suggest that this giant shark reached a maximum length of 18 metres (59 ft),[2] and also affirm that it had a cosmopolitan distribution.[3] Scientists suggest that C. megalodon looked like a stockier version of the great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias.[6]
According to Renaissance accounts, gigantic, triangular fossil teeth often found embedded in rocky formations were once believed to be the petrified tongues, or glossopetrae, of dragons and snakes. This interpretation was corrected in 1667 by Danish naturalist Nicolaus Steno, who recognized them as shark teeth, and famously produced a depiction of a shark's head bearing such teeth.[7] He described his findings in the book The Head of a Shark Dissected, which also contained an illustration of a C. megalodon tooth.[8]
Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz gave the shark its initial scientific name, Carcharodon megalodon, in 1835,[9] in his research work Recherches sur les poissons fossiles[10] (Research on fossil fish), which he completed in 1843. Megalodon teeth are morphologically similar to the teeth of the great white shark. On the basis of this observation, Agassiz assigned megalodon to the genus Carcharodon.[9] While the scientific name is C. megalodon, it is often informally dubbed the "megatooth shark",[6] "giant white shark"[11] or "monster shark".[12]
C. megalodon is represented in the fossil record primarily by teeth and vertebral centra.[6] As with all sharks, C. megalodon's skeleton was formed of cartilage rather than bone; this results in mostly poorly preserved fossil specimens.[13] While the earliest megalodon remains were reported from late Oligocene strata, circa 28 million years old,[14][15] a more generally accepted date for the origin of the species is the Middle Miocene, about 15.9 million years ago.[2] Although fossils are mostly absent in strata extending beyond the Tertiary boundary,[6] they have been reported from subsequent Pleistocene strata.[16] It is believed that C. megalodon became extinct around end of the Pliocene, probably about 2.6 million years ago;[2] reported post-Pliocene C. megalodon teeth are thought to be reworked fossils.[13] C. megalodon had a cosmopolitan distribution, its fossils have been excavated from many parts of the world, including Europe, Africa and both North and South America,[6][8] as well as Puerto Rico,[17] Cuba,[18] Jamaica,[19] Canary Islands,[20] Australia,[21] New Zealand,[22] Japan,[6][8] Malta,[22] Grenadines[23] and India.[8] Megalodon teeth have been excavated from regions far away from continental lands, such as the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean.[22]
The most common megalodon fossils are its teeth. Diagnostic characteristics include: triangular shape,[3] robust structure,[6] large size,[3] fine serrations,[3] and visible v-shaped neck.[3] Megalodon teeth can measure over 180 millimetres (7.1 in) in slant height or diagonal length, and are the largest in size of any known shark species.[22]
Some fossil vertebrae have been found.[8] The most notable example is a partially preserved vertebral column of a single specimen, excavated in the Antwerp basin, Belgium by M. Leriche in 1926. It comprises 150 vertebral centra, with the centra ranging from 55 millimetres (2.2 in) to 155 millimetres (6.1 in) in diameter.[6] However, scientists have claimed that considerably larger vertebral centra can be expected.[6] A partially preserved vertebral column of another megalodon specimen was excavated from Gram clay, Denmark by Bendix-Almgeen in 1983. This specimen comprises 20 vertebral centra, with the centra ranging from 100 millimetres (3.9 in) to 230 millimetres (9.1 in) in diameter.[24]
Taxonomy and evolution
Even after decades of research and scrutiny, controversy over C. megalodon phylogeny persists.[9][25] Several shark researchers (e.g. J. E. Randall, A. P. Klimley, D. G. Ainley, M. D. Gottfried, L. J. V. Compagno, S. C. Bowman, and R. W. Purdy) insist that C. megalodon is a close relative of the great white shark. However, others (e.g. D. S. Jordan, H. Hannibal, E. Casier, C. DeMuizon, T. J. DeVries, D. Ward, and H. Cappetta) cite convergent evolution as the reason for the dental similarity. Such Carcharocles advocates have gained noticeable support.[26] However, the original taxonomic assignment still has wide acceptance.[9]
Megalodon within Carcharodon
The traditional view is that megalodon should be classified within the genus Carcharodon along with the great white shark. The main reasons cited for this phylogeny are: (1) an ontogenetic gradation, whereby the teeth shift from coarse serrations as a juvenile to fine serrations as an adult, the latter resembling megalodon's; (2) morphological similarity of teeth of young megalodon to those of C. carcharias; (3) a symmetrical second anterior tooth; (4) large intermediate tooth that is inclined mesially; and (5) upper anterior teeth that have a chevron-shaped neck area on the lingual surface. Carcharodon supporters suggest that megalodon and C. carcharias share a common ancestor, Palaeocarcharodon orientalis.[9][22]
Megalodon within Carcharocles
Around 1923, the genus Carcharocles was proposed by D. S. Jordan and H. Hannibal, to classify the shark C. auriculatus. Later on, Carcharocles proponents assigned megalodon to Carcharocles.[9][22] Carcharocles proponents also suggest that the direct ancestor of the sharks belonging to Carcharocles is an ancient giant shark called Otodus obliquus, which lived during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs.[25][26] According to Carcharocles supporters, Otodus obliquus evolved into Otodus aksuaticus, which evolved into Carcharocles auriculatus, and then into Carcharocles angustidens, and then into Carcharocles chubutensis, and then into megalodon. Hence, the immediate ancestor of C. megalodon is C. chubutensis, because it serves as the missing link between C. augustidens and C. megalodon and it bridges the loss of the "lateral cusps" that characterize megalodon.[22][26]
Reconsideration of megatooth lineage from Carcharocles to Otodus
Shark researchers are apparently reconsidering the genus of entire Carcharocles lineage back to Otodus.[27][28]
Megalodon as a chronospecies
Shark researcher David Ward elaborated on the evolution of Carcharocles by implying that this lineage, stretching from the Paleocene to the Pliocene, is of a single giant shark which gradually changed through time, suggesting a case of chronospecies.[22] This assessment may have credibility.[28]
Mako sharks as closest relatives of great whites
Carcharocles proponents point out that the great white shark is closely related to an ancient shark Isurus hastalis, the "broad tooth mako", rather than to megalodon. One reason cited by paleontologist Chuck Ciampaglio is that the dental morphometrics (variations and changes in the physical form of objects) of I. hastalis and C. carcharias are remarkably similar. Another reason cited is that megalodon teeth have much finer serrations than C. carcharias teeth.[9] Further evidence linking the great white shark more closely to ancient mako sharks, rather than to megalodon, was provided in 2009 — the fossilized remains of a form of the great white shark about 4 million years old were excavated from southwestern Peru in 1988. These remains demonstrate a likely shared ancestor of modern mako and great whites.[25][29]
Ciampaglio asserted that dental similarities between megalodon and the great white are superficial with noticeable morphometric differences between them, and that these findings are sufficient to warrant a separate genus.[9][12] However, some Carcharodon proponents (i.e., M. D. Gottfried, and R. E. Fordyce) provided more arguments for a close relationship between the megatooth and the great white.[15] With respect to the recent controversy regarding fossil lamnid shark relationships, overall morphology – particularly the internal calcification patterns – of the great white shark vertebral centra have been compared to well-preserved fossil centra from the megatooth, including megalodon and C. angustidens. The morphological similarity of these comparisons supports a close relationship of the giant fossil megatooth species to extant whites.[15][30]
Gottfried and Fordyce pointed out that some great white shark fossils are about 16 million years old and predate the transitional Pliocene fossils.[15] In addition the Oligocene megalodon records[22][15] contradict the suggestion that C. chubutensis is the immediate ancestor of C. megalodon. These records also indicate that megalodon co-existed with C. angustidens.[15]
Some paleontologists argue that the genus Otodus should be used for sharks within the Carcharocles lineage and the genus Carcharocles should be discarded.[3]
Several Carcharocles proponents (i.e. C. Pimiento, D. J. Ehret, B. J. MacFadden, and G. Hubbell) claim that both species belong to the order Lamniformes and in the absence of living members of the family Otodontidae, the great white shark is the species most ecologically analogous to megalodon.[3]
Among extant species, the great white shark is regarded as the best analogue to megalodon.[3] The lack of well-preserved fossil megalodon skeletons led scientists to rely on the great white shark as the basis of its reconstruction and size estimation.[6]
Size estimation
Due to fragmentary remains, estimating the size of C. megalodon has been challenging.[22] However, the scientific community has concluded that C. megalodon was larger than the whale shark, Rhincodon typus. Scientists focused on two aspects of size: total length and body mass.
The first attempt to reconstruct a megalodon jaw was made by Bashford Dean in 1909. From the dimensions of this jaw reconstruction, it was hypothesized that C. megalodon could have approached 30 metres (98 ft).[31] Better knowledge of dentition and more accurate muscle structures,[31] led to a rectified version of Dean's jaw model about 70 percent of its original size and to a size consistent with modern findings.[31] To resolve such errors, scientists, aided by new fossil discoveries of C. megalodon and improved knowledge of its closest living analogue's anatomy, introduced more quantitative methods for estimating its size based on the statistical relationships between the tooth sizes and body lengths.[6][31] Some methods are mentioned below.
Enamel height
In 1973, Hawaiian ichthyologist John E. Randall used a plotted graph to demonstrate a relationship between the enamel height (the vertical distance of the blade from the base of the enamel portion of the tooth to its tip) of the largest tooth in the upper jaw of the great white shark and its total length.[31][32] Randall extrapolated this method to estimate C. megalodon's total length. Randall cited two megalodon teeth in his work, specimen number 10356 at the American Museum of Natural History and specimen number 25730 at the United States National Museum, which had enamel heights of 115 millimetres (4.5 in) and 117.5 millimetres (4.63 in) respectively.[32] These teeth yielded a corresponding total length of about 13 metres (43 ft).[31][32] In 1991, Richard Ellis and John E. McCosker claimed that tooth enamel height does not necessarily increase in proportion to the animal's total length.[6]
Largest anterior tooth height
In 1996, after scrutiny of 73 great white shark specimens, Michael D. Gottfried, Leonard Compagno and S. Curtis Bowman proposed a linear relationship between the height of the largest upper anterior tooth and total length in the great white shark. The proposed relationship is: total length in metres = − (0.096) × [UA maximum height (mm)]-(0.22).[6][15] Gottfried and colleagues then extrapolated their technique to C. megalodon. The biggest megalodon tooth in the possession of this team was an upper second anterior specimen, whose maximum height was 168 millimetres (6.6 in). This tooth had been discovered by Compagno in 1993. It yielded an estimated total length of 15.9 metres (52 ft).[6] Rumors of larger megalodon teeth persisted at the time.[6] The maximum tooth height for this method is measured as a vertical line from the tip of the crown to the bottom of the lobes of the root, parallel to the long axis of the tooth.[6] In layman's terms, the maximum height of the tooth is its slant height.[33]
Root width
In 2002, shark researcher Clifford Jeremiah proposed that total length was proportional to the root width of an upper anterior tooth. He claimed that for every 1 centimetre (0.39 in) of width, there is approximately 4.5 feet (1.4 m) of the shark. Jeremiah pointed out that the jaw perimeter of a shark is directly proportional to its total length, with the width of the roots of the largest teeth being a proxy for estimating jaw perimeter. The largest tooth in the possession of Jeremiah had a root width of about 12 centimetres (4.7 in), which yielded 16.5 metres (54 ft) total length. Ward asserted that this method is based on a sound principle that works well with most large sharks.[22]
Crown height
In 2002, paleontologist Kenshu Shimada of DePaul University proposed a linear relationship between tooth crown height and total length in great white sharks after conducting anatomical analysis of several specimens.[34] This relationship is expressed as: total length in centimetres = a + bx, where a is a constant, b is the slope of the line and x is the crown height of tooth in millimetres. This relationship allowed any tooth to be used for the estimate.[3][34] The crown height was measured as maximum vertical enameloid height on the labial side. Shimada pointed out that previously proposed methods were based on weaker evaluation of dental homology, and that the growth rate between the crown and root is not isometric, which he considered in his model.[34] Furthermore, this relationship could be used to predict the total length of sharks that are morphologically similar to the great white shark, such as C. megalodon.[3][34] Using this model, the upper anterior tooth (with maximum height of 168 millimetres (6.6 in)) possessed by Gottfried and colleagues corresponded to a total length of 15.1 metres (50 ft).[34] In 2010, shark researchers Catalina Pimiento, Dana J. Ehret, Bruce J. MacFadden and Gordon Hubbell estimated the total length of C. megalodon on the basis of Shimada's method. Among the specimens found in the Gatun Formation of Panama, specimen number 237956 yielded a total length of 16.8 metres (55 ft).[3] Later on, shark researchers (including Pimiento, Ehret and MacFadden) revisited Gatun Formation and recovered additional specimens, the specimen number 257579 yielded a total length of 17.9 metres (59 ft) on the basis of Shimada's method.[35]
In the 1990s, marine biologists such as Patrick J. Schembri and Staphon Papson opined that C. megalodon may have approached a maximum of around 24 to 25 metres (79 to 82 ft) in total length,[36][37] however Gottfried and colleagues proposed that C. megalodon could likely approach a maximum of only 20.3 metres (67 ft) in total length.[4][6][38] Currently, most experts acknowledge that C. megalodon reached a total length of more than 16 metres (52 ft).[3][4][35][38]
Largest known specimens
Gordon Hubbell from Gainesville, Florida possesses an upper anterior megalodon tooth whose maximum height is 184.1 millimetres (7.25 in).[22] In addition, a megalodon jaw reconstruction contains a tooth whose maximum height is reportedly 193.67 millimetres (7.625 in).[39] This jaw reconstruction was developed by fossil hunter Vito Bertucci,[39] who was known as "Megalodon Man".[22][39]
Body mass estimates
Gottfried and colleagues introduced a method to determine the mass of the great white after studying the length–mass relationship data of 175 specimens at various growth stages and extrapolated it to estimate C. megalodon's mass. According to their model, a 15.9 metres (52 ft) long megalodon would have a mass of about 48 metric tons (53 short tons),[4][6] a 17 metres (56 ft) long megalodon would have a mass of about 59 metric tons (65 short tons),[6] and a 20.3 metres (67 ft) long megalodon would have a mass of 103 metric tons (114 short tons).[4][6]
Dentition and jaw mechanics
A team of Japanese scientists, T. Uyeno, O. Sakamoto, and H. Sekine, discovered and excavated partial remains of a megalodon, with a nearly complete associated set of its teeth, from Saitama, Japan in 1989.[8] Another nearly complete associated megalodon dentition was excavated from Yorktown Formations of Lee Creek, North Carolina in the United States and served as the basis of a jaw reconstruction of C. megalodon at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.[6] These associated tooth sets solved the mystery of how many teeth would be in the jaws of the megalodon in each row. As a result, highly accurate jaw reconstructions became possible. More associated megalodon dentitions were found in later years. Based on these discoveries, scientists S. Applegate and L. Espinosa published an artificial dental formula (representation of dentition of an animal with respect to types of teeth and their arrangement within the animal's jaw) for megalodon in 1996.[6][8] Most accurate modern C. megalodon jaw reconstructions are based on this dental formula.
The dental formula of C. megalodon is: 220.127.116.11.0.8.4.[8]
As evident from the formula, C. megalodon had four kinds of teeth in its jaws.[8]
- Anterior - A
- Intermediate - I (megalodon's tooth technically appears to be an upper anterior and is termed as "A3" because it is fairly symmetrical and does not point mesially (side of the tooth toward the midline of the jaws where the left and right jaws meet), but this tooth is still designated as an intermediate tooth.[9] However, the great white shark's intermediate tooth does point mesially. This point was raised in the Carcharodon vs. Carcharocles debate regarding the megalodon and favors the case of Carcharocles proponents.)
- Lateral - L
- Posterior - P
Megalodon had a very robust dentition,[6] and had a total of about 276 teeth in its jaws, spanning 5 rows. Paleontologists suggest that a very large megalodon had jaws over 2 metres (7 ft) across.[22]
Bite force
In 2008, a team of scientists led by S. Wroe conducted an experiment to determine the bite force of the great white shark, using a 2.4 metres (8 ft) long specimen, and then isometrically scaling the results for its maximum confirmed size and the conservative minimum and maximum body mass of C. megalodon, placing the bite force of the latter between 108,514 N (24,400 lbf) and 182,201 N (41,000 lbf) in a posterior bite. Compared to 18,216 N (4,100 lbf) for the largest confirmed great white shark,[4] and 5,300 N (1,200 lbf) for the placoderm fish Dunkleosteus.[40]
In addition, Wroe and colleagues pointed out that sharks shake sideways while feeding, amplifying the post-cranial generated forces. Therefore the total force experienced by prey is likely higher than the estimate.[4] The extraordinary bite forces in C. megalodon must be considered in the context of its great size and of paleontological evidence suggesting that C. megalodon was an active predator of large whales.[4]
Functional parameters of teeth
Megalodon's exceptionally robust teeth are serrated,[9][22] which would have improved efficiency in slicing its prey's flesh. Paleontologist B. K. Kent suggested that these teeth are comparatively thicker for their size with much lower slenderness and bending strength ratios. Their roots are substantially larger relative to total tooth heights, and so have a greater mechanical advantage. Teeth with these traits are good cutting tools and are well suited for grasping powerful prey and would seldom crack even when slicing through bones.[41]
Skeletal anatomy
Gottfried and colleagues further estimated the schematics of megalodon's entire skeleton.[6] To support the beast's dentition, its jaws would have been massive, stouter, and more strongly developed than those of the great white, which possesses a comparatively gracile dentition. The jaws would have given it a "pig-eyed" profile.[6] Its chondrocranium would have had a blockier and more robust appearance than the great white.[6] Its fins were proportional to its larger size.[6] Scrutiny of the partially preserved vertebral megalodon specimen from Belgium revealed that C. megalodon had a higher vertebral count than specimens of any known shark. Only the great white approached it.[6]
Using the above characteristics, Gottfried and colleagues reconstructed the entire skeleton of C. megalodon, which was later put on display at the Calvert Marine Museum at Solomon's Island, Maryland in the United States.[6][26][42] This reconstruction is 11.5 metres (38 ft) long and represents a young individual. The team stresses that relative and proportional changes in megalodon skeletal features are ontogenetic in nature in comparison to that of great white, as they occur in great whites while growing.[6] Fossil remains of C. megalodon confirm that it had a heavily calcified skeleton while alive.[24]
Paleoecological considerations
Range and habitat
Sharks, especially large species, are highly mobile and experience a complex life history amid wide distribution.[3] Fossil records indicate that it was cosmopolitan,[35] and commonly occurred in subtropical to temperate latitudes.[6] Prior to the formation of the Isthmus of Panama, the seas were relatively warmer.[43] This would have made it possible for the species to live in all oceans.
Megalodon had enough adaptability to inhabit a wide range of marine environments (i.e. coastal shallow waters, coastal upwelling, swampy coastal lagoons, sandy littorals and offshore deep water environments), and exhibited a transient lifestyle.[22][44] Adult megalodon were not abundant in shallow water environments[44] and mostly lurked offshore. C. megalodon may have moved between coastal and oceanic waters, particularly in different stages of its life cycle.
Prey relationships
Sharks are generally opportunistic predators. However, scientists propose that C. megalodon was "arguably the most formidable carnivore ever to have existed."[4] Its great size,[4] high-speed swimming capability,[42] and powerful jaws coupled with formidable killing apparatus,[4][6] made it a super-predator with the capability to consume a broad spectrum of fauna.
Fossil evidence indicates that C. megalodon preyed upon cetaceans (i.e., dolphins),[6][28] small whales,[8] (including cetotherrids,[13] squalodontids,[44] and Odobenocetops[45]), and large whales,[46] (including sperm whales,[22][47] bowhead whales,[48] and rorquals[46][49]), pinnipeds,[13][23][50] porpoises,[22] sirenians,[44][51] and giant sea turtles.[44] Marine mammals were regular prey targets for megalodon. Many whale bones have been found with clear signs of large bite marks (deep gashes) made by teeth that match megalodon's.[6][8] Various excavations have revealed megalodon teeth lying close to the chewed remains of whales,[6][26] and sometimes in direct association with them.[11] Fossil evidence of interactions between megalodon and pinnipeds also exist.[23] In one interesting observation, a 127 millimetres (5.0 in) C. megalodon tooth was found lying very close to a bitten earbone of a sea lion.[50]
C. megalodon faced a highly competitive environment.[5] However, its position at the top of the food chain,[52] likely had a profound impact on the structuring of marine communities.[5][6][53] Fossil evidence indicates a correlation between C. megalodon emergence and extensive diversification of cetaceans.[5][6] Juvenile megalodon preferred habitats where small cetaceans were abundant, and adult megalodon preferred habitats where large cetaceans were abundant. Such preferences may have developed shortly after they appeared in the Oligocene.[6] In addition, C. megalodon were contemporaneous with macro-predatory odontocetes (particularly raptorial sperm whales and squalodontids), which were also likely among the era's apex predators,[5][12] and provided competition.[12][54] In response to competition from giant macro-predatory sharks, macro-predatory odontocetes may have evolved defensive adaptations; some species became pack predators,[12][55] and some attained gigantic sizes, such as Livyatan melvillei.[5][56] By the end of the Miocene, raptorial sperm whales vanished from the fossil record and left an ecological void.[5]
Like other sharks, megalodon also would have been piscivorous.[13][42] Fossil evidence indicates that other notable species of macro-predatory sharks (e.g. great white sharks) responded to competitive pressure from C. megalodon by avoiding regions it inhabited.[6] Megalodon likely also had a tendency for cannibalism.[57]
Feeding strategies
Sharks often employ complex hunting strategies to engage large prey animals. Some paleontologists suggest that great white shark hunting strategies may offer clues as to how C. megalodon hunted its unusually large prey.[12] However, fossil evidence suggests that C. megalodon employed more effective hunting strategies against large prey than those of the great white shark.[41]
Paleontologists surveyed fossils to determine attacking patterns.[41] One particular specimen — the remains of a 9 metres (30 ft) long prehistoric baleen whale (of an unknown Miocene taxon) — provided the first opportunity to quantitatively analyze its attack behavior. The predator primarily focused on the tough bony portions (i.e. shoulders, flippers, rib cage, and upper spine) of the prey, which great white sharks generally avoid. Dr. B. Kent elaborated that C. megalodon attempted to crush the bones and damage delicate organs (i.e. heart, and lungs) harbored within the rib cage. Such an attack would have immobilized the prey, which would have died quickly from injuries to these vital organs. These findings also clarify why the ancient shark needed more robust dentition than that of great whites.[41] Furthermore, attack patterns could differ for prey of different sizes. Fossil remains of some small cetaceans (e.g. cetotheriids) suggest that they were rammed with great force from below before being killed and eaten.[12]
During the Pliocene, larger and more advanced cetaceans appeared.[58] Megalodon apparently further refined its hunting strategies to cope with these large whales. Numerous fossilized flipper bones (i.e., segments of the pectoral fins), and caudal vertebrae of large whales from the Pliocene have been found with megalodon bite marks. This paleontological evidence suggests that megalodon would immobilize a large whale by ripping apart or biting off its locomotive structures before killing and feeding on it.[4]
Nursery areas
Fossil evidence suggests that the preferred nursery sites of C. megalodon were warm water coastal environments, where threats were minor and food plentiful.[3] Nursery sites were identified in the Gatun Formation of Panama, the Calvert Formation of Maryland, Banco de Concepción in Canary Islands,[20] and the Bone Valley Formation of Florida. As is the case with most sharks, C. megalodon also gave birth to live young. The size of neonate megalodon teeth indicate that megalodon pups were around 2 to 4 metres (7 to 13 ft) in total length at birth.[3][6] Their dietary preferences display an ontogenetic shift.[6] Young megalodon commonly preyed on fish,[3] giant sea turtles,[44] dugongs[22] and small cetaceans; mature megalodon moved to off-shore cetacean high-use areas and consumed large cetaceans.[6]
However, an exceptional case in the fossil record suggests that juvenile megalodon may occasionally have attacked much larger balaenopterid whales. Three tooth marks apparently from a 4–7-metre (13–23 ft) long Pliocene macro-predatory shark were found on a rib from an ancestral great blue or humpback whale that showed evidence of subsequent healing.[49][59][60] Scientists suspect that this shark was a juvenile megalodon.[59][60]
The subject of C. megalodon extinction remains under investigation.[12] Several possible causes for its decline and eventual disappearance have been proposed.
Oceanic cooling and sea level drops
The Earth has been in a long term cooling trend since the Miocene Climactic Optimum, 15–17 Ma ago.[61] This trend may have been accelerated by changes in global ocean circulation caused by the closure of the Central American Seaway[8][62] and/or other factors (see Pliocene climate), setting the stage for glaciation in the northern hemisphere.[62] Consequently, during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene, there were ice ages,[63][64] which cooled the oceans significantly.[8] Expansion of glaciation during the Pliocene tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets, resulting in significant sea level drops.[43] The major reason cited is the decline in ocean temperatures at global scale during the Pliocene.[8][26][65] This cooling trend adversely impacted C. megalodon, as it preferred warmer waters,[6][65] and as a result it may have declined in abundance until its ultimate extinction during the Pleistocene.[65] Fossil evidence confirms the absence of C. megalodon in regions around the world where water temperatures had significantly declined during the Pliocene.[6] Furthermore, these oceanographic changes may have restricted many of the suitable warm water nursery sites for megalodon, hindering reproduction.[8] Nursery areas are pivotal for the survival of many shark species, in part because they protect juveniles from predation.[66]
Decline in food supply
Baleen whales attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene,[6] with over 20 recognized genera in comparison to only six extant genera.[67] Such diversity presented an ideal setting to support a gigantic macropredator such as C. megalodon.[6] However, by the end of the Miocene many species of mysticetes had gone extinct;[5] surviving species may have been faster swimmers and thus more elusive prey.[22][42] Furthermore, after the closure of the Central American Seaway, additional extinctions occurred in the marine environment,[68][69] and faunal redistribution took place; tropical great whales decreased in diversity and abundance.[70] Whale migratory patterns during the Pliocene have been reconstructed from the fossil record, suggesting that most surviving species showed a trend towards polar regions.[43] The cooling of the oceans during the Pliocene restricted the access of C. megalodon to polar regions, depriving it of its main food source, the great whales.[6][8][13][70] As a result of these developments, the food supply for megalodon in regions it inhabited during the Pliocene, primarily in low-to-mid latitudes, was no longer sufficient to sustain it worldwide.[8][46][70] C. megalodon was adapted to a specialized lifestyle, and this lifestyle was disturbed by these developments.[26] The resulting shortage of food sources in the tropics during Plio-Pleistocene times may have fueled cannibalism by megalodon. Juveniles were at increased risk from attacks by adults during times of starvation.[12]
New competition
Large raptorial delphinids (members of genus Orcinus) evolved during the Pliocene,[71] and likely filled the ecological void left by the disappearance of raptorial sperm whales at the end of the Miocene.[5] A minority view is that competition from ancestral killer whales may have contributed to the shark's decline[22][42][72] (another source suggests more generally that "competition with large odontocetes" may have been a factor[6]). Fossil records indicate that these delphinids commonly occurred at high latitudes during the Pliocene, indicating that they could cope with the increasingly prevalent cold water temperatures. They also occurred in the tropics (e.g., Orcinus sp. in South Africa).[71]
However, expert consensus suggests that factors such as a cooling trend in the oceans and a shortage of food sources during Plio-Pleistocene times played a significant role in megalodon's demise.[12][28] Paleontologist Albert Sanders suggests that C. megalodon was too large to sustain itself on the declining tropical food supply.[66] Other apex predators seem to have gained from the extinction of this formidable species.[28][65]
In fiction
C. megalodon has been portrayed in several works of fiction, including films and novels, and continues to hold its place among the most popular subjects for fiction involving sea monsters. Many of these works posit that at least a relict population of megalodon survived extinction and lurk in the vast depths of the ocean, and that individuals may manage to surface, either by human intervention or by natural means. Jim Shepard's story "Tedford and the Megalodon" is an example of this. Such beliefs are usually inspired by the discovery of a megalodon tooth by members of HMS Challenger in 1872, which some believed to be only 10,000 years old.[73]
Some works of fiction (such as Shark Attack 3: Megalodon and Steve Alten's Meg series) incorrectly depict C. megalodon as being a species over 70 million years old, and to live during the time of the dinosaurs. The writers of the movie Shark Attack 3: Megalodon depicted this assumption by including an altered copy of Great White Shark by shark researcher Richard Ellis. The copy shown in the film had several pages that do not exist in the book. The author sued the film's distributor, Lions Gate Entertainment, asking for a halt to the film's distribution along with $150,000 in damages.[74] Steve Alten's Meg: A Novel of Deep Terror is probably best known for portraying this inaccuracy with its prologue and cover artwork depicting C. megalodon killing a tyrannosaur in the sea.
The Animal Planet fictional documentary, Mermaids: The Body Found, included an encounter 1.6 million years ago between a pod of mermaids and a megalodon. Later, in August 2013, the Discovery Channel opened its annual Shark Week series with another docufiction Megalodon: The Monster Shark Lives,[75] a controversial[76][77] docufiction about the creature that presented alleged evidence in order to directly imply that Megalodon is still supposedly alive.[78] This program received criticism for being completely fictional; for example, all of the supposed "scientists" depicted were paid actors.[79] In 2014 Discovery re-aired "The Monster Shark Lives," along with a new one-hour program, "Megalodon: The New Evidence," and an additional fictionalized program entitled "Shark of Darkness: Wrath of Submarine," resulting in further backlash from media sources and the scientific community.[80][81][82][83]
See also
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- ^ "Shark Week is once again making things up". vox.com. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ^ "Discovery Revisits Megalodon For Shark Week 2014 Despite Backlash". inquisitr.com. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ^ "Shark Week Is Lying Again About Megalodon Sharks". slate.com. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- ^ "Sorry, Fans. Discovery Has Jumped the Shark Week.". nytimes.com. Retrieved 2014-08-16.
- Bretton W. Kent (1994). Fossil Sharks of the Chesapeake Bay Region. Egan Rees & Boyer, Inc. 146 pages. ISBN 1-881620-01-8
- Dickson, K. A.; Graham, J. B. (2004). "Evolution and consequences of endothermy in fishes". Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 77 (6): 998–1018. doi:10.1086/423743. PMID 15674772.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carcharodon megalodon. |
Wikispecies has information related to: Megalodon |
- The rise of super predatory sharks
- Extinct Megalodon, the largest shark ever, may have grown too big
- Carcharocles: Extinct Megatoothed shark
- Dykens, M.; Gillette, L. "SDNHM Fossil Field Guide: Carcharodon megalodon, Giant "Mega-Tooth" Shark". Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- Jurassic Shark
- Megalodon article on prehistoric-wildlife.com
Paleontological videos
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- Megalodon Giant Shark – National Geographic (full documentary)
- Video Gallery containing video clips featuring megalodon from Discovery Channel
- Paleontologist Mark Renz shows a huge megalodon tooth (one of the largest ever discovered) on YouTube
- A video clip on YouTube depicting aggressive interspecific interactions between megalodon and a pod of killer odontoceti (Brygmophyseter shigensis) from History Channel
- Animated size comparison of megalodon with great white shark, human, and school bus from North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences on YouTube.
- Prehistoric Washington DC: Mega Shark from Discovery Channel (depicts megalodon's prey attacking strategies)
- Shark Week Special on megalodon with Pat McCarthy and John Babiarz on YouTube with comments on its extinction.
- Megalodon fossil teeth show evidence of 10-million-year-old shark nursery on YouTube
- Expert view: information about megalodon on YouTube (featuring expert Dana Ehret)
- Lamniform sharks: 110 million years of ocean supremacy on YouTube (featuring expert Mikael Siverson)
- The Rise and Fall of the Neogene Giant Sharks on YouTube (featuring expert Bretton Kent)
- Clash of the Americas on YouTube (Megalodon's extinction discussed)