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Dyslipidemia increases circulating levels of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) and this may induce alveolar bone loss through toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and 4. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of dyslipidemia on osteoclast differentiation associated with TLR2 and TLR4 in periodontal tissues using a rat dyslipidemia (apolipoprotein E deficient) model.
Levels of plasma OxLDL, and the cholesterol and phospholipid profiles in plasma lipoproteins were compared between apolipoprotein E-deficient rats (16-week-old males) and wild-type (control) rats. In the periodontal tissue, we evaluated the changes in TLR2, TLR4, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) and tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) expression.
Apolipoprotein E-deficient rats showed higher plasma levels of OxLDL than control rats (p<0.05), with higher plasma levels of total cholesterol (p<0.05) and LDL-cholesterol (p<0.05) and lower plasma levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (p<0.05). Their periodontal tissue also exhibited a higher ratio of RANKL-positive cells and a higher number of TRAP-positive osteoclasts than control rats (p<0.05). Furthermore, periodontal gene expression of TLR2, TLR4 and RANKL was higher in apolipoprotein E-deficient rats than in control rats (p<0.05).
These findings underscore the important role for TLR2 and TLR4 in mediating the osteoclast differentiation on alveolar bone response to dyslipidemia.
Apolipoprotein E-deficient model; Alveolar bone; Toll-like receptor 2; Toll-like receptor 4; Osteoclast differentiationBackground
Periodontal disease is a chronic inflammatory disease of the tooth-supporting structures. Studies have confirmed a positive association between periodontal disease and dyslipidemia. For instance, it has been reported that patients with dyslipidemia showed a significantly higher number of sextants with increased periodontal pockets than the control group [1]. It is also known that the ratio of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) to total cholesterol is associated with gingival index and percentage of bleeding on probing in patients with dyslipidemia [2]. Furthermore, it is shown that plasma level of lipid peroxidation was associated with the severity of periodontal disease in type 2 diabetes patients [3]. Although the cause of periodontal disease is oral bacterial pathogens (e.g., lipopolysaccharide [LPS]), it is conceivable that dyslipidemia contributes to the destructive aspects of the host response against bacterial pathogens that leads to periodontal disease, including alveolar bone loss.
Dyslipidemia increases the risk for overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in multiple organs [4], and excess ROS production impairs circulating oxidative/anti-oxidative balance that contributes to increased blood levels of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL) [5]. Studies have demonstrated that OxLDL modulates toll-like receptor (TLR) expression and signaling [6,7]. TLR2 and TLR4 are critical receptors and signal transducers for oral bacterial LPS [8,9], and activate receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) expression [10], resulting in osteoclast differentiation in alveolar bone [11]. Therefore, it is possible that increased OxLDL following dyslipidemia advances periodontal disease through osteoclast differentiation via TLR signaling.
We previously found that diet-induced dyslipidemia is able to induce alveolar bone loss [12-14]. However, the role of TLR in dyslipidemia-induced alveolar bone loss has not been determined. In the present study, we hypothesized that the increased OxLDL in dyslipidemia may induce osteoclast differentiation on alveolar bone through TLR signaling. The apolipoprotein E (apoE)-deficient animal model is known to develop dyslipidemia [15-17]. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of dyslipidemia on osteoclast differentiation and TLR expression in periodontal tissue using an apoE-deficient rat model. To gain better insight into the mechanism of action, we analyzed histological changes and changes in TLR2, TLR4 and RANKL expression. In addition, expression of interleukin (IL)-1β in the periodontal tissue was evaluated as a parameter of periodontal inflammation activity.
Materials and methods
Control (wild-type) and dyslipidemic (apoE-deficient) rats (all Sprague–Dawley strain background; each group, n=6; age, 15 weeks) were obtained from Sigma Laboratory (St. Louis, MO). All experimental procedures were performed in compliance with guidelines approved by the Animal Research Control Committee of Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences (OKU-2011004). Animals were maintained under standard conditions and given free access to food (MF; Oriental Yeast Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan) and drinking water. The 7-day experiment was carried out at the same time for all groups. Collection of blood, sacrifice of rats and periodontal tissue isolation were performed as described previously [18].
Histological analysis
For histological analysis, the maxillary molar regions (tooth and periodontal tissues) were resected en bloc from each rat and were immediately fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/l phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) for 1 day. Tooth and periodontal tissues were decalcified with 10% tetrasodium-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid aqueous solution (pH 7.4) for 8 weeks at 4°C. Paraffin-embedded bucco-lingual sections (4 μm) were stained with hematoxylin and eosin or other stains, as described below.
Immunostaining for lipid A, TLR2, TLR4 and RANKL were performed using a commercial kit (Histofine Simple Stain MAX PO; Nichirei Co., Tokyo, Japan). Monoclonal antibodies against TLR2 (Bioss Inc., Woburn, MA) and TLR4 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, CA) and polyclonal antibody against RANKL (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) were diluted at 1/200, 1/300 and 1/100 in phosphate buffered saline, respectively. Color was developed by placing sections in a solution of 3-3'-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride. To identify osteoclasts, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity was also detected using the azo dye method [18]. Sections were counterstained with Mayer's hematoxylin.
A single examiner (T. T.), blinded to the treatment assignment, performed histometric analyses using a microscope (Olympus Co., Tokyo, Japan). The distances between the cemento-enamel junction and the alveolar bone crest (an indicator of alveolar bone loss) were measured using a microgrid at a magnification of ×200 [12,18]. RANKL-positive osteoblasts, total osteoblasts and TRAP-positive osteoclasts on the surface of alveolar bone were counted using a light microscope at ×400 magnification and are reported in terms of number/millimeters [13,14]. We evaluated intra-examiner reproducibility by double-scoring 10 randomly selected sections at two-week intervals. Agreement for RANKL-positive cells and TRAP-positive osteoclasts was more than 90%.
Gene expression analyses
Total RNA was extracted from periodontal tissue samples using a commercial reagent (Invitrogen). The purity of mRNA was determined by 260/280 nm absorbance ratio, and only samples with a ratio greater than 1.8 were used. Samples (2 μg) of total RNA from each group, which was reverse transcribed by AMV Reverse Transcriptase (TAKARA, Kyoto, Japan) at 42°C for 30 min, were used to perform first-strand cDNA synthesis using a commercial kit (Roche, Tokyo, Japan). cDNA prepared as described above was diluted 10-fold with yeast RNA (10 μg/mL). Primer sequences for the genes encoding rat TLR2, TLR4, RANKL, IL-1β and β-actin are shown in Table 1. Cycling conditions using TOYOBO SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (TOYOBO, Osaka, Japan) in a LightCycler™ (Roche Applied Science, Mannheim, Germany) system were as follows: 95°C for 30 s, 59°C for 30 s and 72°C for 30 s for 45 cycles. mRNA levels were expressed in terms of relative copy number ratio for TLR2, TLR4, RANKL or IL-1β against β-actin for each sample. Gene expression in the dyslipidemia group was calculated in terms of relative copy number ratio for each mRNA against the control group for each sample.
Table 1. Primer sequences for IL-1β, RANKL, TLR2, TLR4 and β-actin
Analysis of blood samples
Blood samples were collected from the heart at age 8 weeks. Blood was allowed to clot at room temperature, and plasma was separated by centrifugation at 1,500 ×g for 15 min. Levels of plasma OxLDL were measured using an ELISA kit (Cusabio Biotech Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China) [19]. The cholesterol and phospholipid profiles in plasma lipoproteins were analyzed using a dual detection high-performance liquid chromatography system at Skylight Biotech (Akita, Japan) [20]. We quantified individual subfractions using best curve fitting analysis, assuming that the particle sizes for all subfractions followed a Gaussian distribution. Particle sizes for individual subfractions were determined as 30–80 nm (very low-density lipoprotein [VLDL]), 16–30 nm (LDL) and 8–16 nm (HDL).
Statistical analysis
All data are expressed as means ± S.D. Comparisons between the dyslipidemia and control groups were performed by independent t-test using a statistical software package (SPSS 17.0 J for Windows, IBM, Tokyo, Japan). A p value of < 0.05 was accepted as statistically significant. Sample size was calculated using the nQuery Advisor (Statistical Solutions, Saugus, MA), based on the results of our previous studies [13,14]. A sample size of 6 per group was required for detection of significant differences (80% power, two-sided, 5% significance level).
No significant differences were observed between the control and dyslipidemia groups with regard to food consumption, body weight or growth pattern during the 7-day period.
In the dyslipidemia group, periodontal tissues showed extension of blood vessels, root resorption and increased numbers of inflammatory cells; however, the control group showed no pathological changes at 7 days (Figure 1). The numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, RANKL-positive osteoblasts and TRAP-positive osteoclasts in the dyslipidemia group were also higher than those in the control group (p< 0.05) (Table 2). Furthermore, the periodontium in the dyslipidemia group showed high expression of TLR2, TLR4, RANKL, and TRAP, as compared to the control group (Figures 2 and 3). In addition, although the dyslipidemia group showed greater distances between the cemento-enamel junction and alveolar bone crest than the control group, this difference was not statistically significant.
Figure 1. Hematoxylin and eosin staining of rat periodontal tissue at 7 days. No pathological changes were observed in the periodontium in any of the samples in the control group (A). The dyslipidemia group showed extension of blood vessels, root resorption (white arrows) and the increased number of inflammatory cells subjacent to the junctional epithelium (JE) (black arrows) (B). AB, alveolar bone and CM, cementum. Original magnification × 10.
Figure 2. Immunohistochemical staining for TLR-2 (A and B) and TLR-4 (C and D) in the periodontal tissue. The dyslipidemia group (B and D) showed higher expressions of TLR2 and TLR4 compared to the control group (A and C), respectively. Original magnification × 20.
Figure 3. Immunohistochemical staining for RANKL and TRAP in the periodontal tissue. The dyslipidemia group (B) showed higher expressions of RANKL and TRAP (arrows) compared to the control group (A). Original magnification × 40.
Table 2. Histopathological evaluation in periodontal tissues (mean ± SD)
Gene expression of TLR2, TLR4 and RANKL was 1.90, 1.37, and 1.52 times higher in periodontal tissues obtained from the dyslipidemia group than in those obtained from the control group, respectively (p < 0.05) (Figure 4). Gene expression of IL-1β in periodontal tissues was also higher in the dyslipidemia group than that in the control group (p < 0.05).
Figure 4. Fold changes of gene expression on rat periodontal tissue (mean ± SD). The mRNA levels were calculated in terms of the relative copy number ratio of each mRNA to β-actin for each sample (n=6 per group). All values in the dyslipidemia group were significantly higher than those in the control group (p < 0.05).
At 7 days, plasma levels of OxLDL were 2.31 times higher in the dyslipidemia group than in the control group (p < 0.05) (Table 3). Plasma levels of total cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol were also higher in the dyslipidemia group than in the control group (p < 0.05). On the other hand, plasma HDL cholesterol levels were lower in the dyslipidemia group than in the control group (p < 0.05).
Table 3. Plasma levels of lipoproteins and oxLDL in rats (mean ± SD)
The apoE-deficient rats showed higher plasma levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and VLDL cholesterol, and lower plasma levels of HDL cholesterol, as compared to control rats. Thus, the apoE-deficient rats exhibited dyslipidemia in this study. In addition, the periodontal tissues in the apoE-deficient rats exhibited higher expression levels of TLR2, TLR4, RANKL and TRAP than those in the control rats. TLR activates RANKL expression [10], resulting in osteoclast differentiation [11]. It is possible that dyslipidemic conditions are associated with TLR-induced osteoclast differentiation in periodontal tissues.
Previous studies have demonstrated that OxLDL has direct effects on TLR2 and TLR4 expression [6,7]. In this study, dyslipidemic conditions induced higher plasma levels of OxLDL than normal conditions. Increased plasma levels of OxLDL following dyslipidemic conditions may induce increased expression of TLR2 and TLR4. TLR 2 and 4 are critical receptors for oral bacterial LPS [8,9]. Dyslipidemic conditions would alter the interaction between bacterial pathogens and the cellular membrane, by increasing plasma levels of OxLDL.
In this study, dyslipidemic conditions were associated with higher plasma levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and VLDL cholesterol, and lower plasma levels of HDL cholesterol when compared with normal conditions. In clinical studies, it has been shown associations between blood lipid parameters and periodontal condition [21-23]. Therefore, it is also possible that impaired plasma lipids had direct effects on TLR2 and TLR4 expression in the current model. However, we previously found that changes in osteoclast differentiation under hypercholesterolemic conditions did not depend on blood lipids [13,24]. This suggests that impaired lipids do not play a crucial role in TLR2 and TLR4 expression in the periodontal tissue.
It has been reported that activation of TLR2 and TLR4 promotes expression of inflammatory cytokines [25,26]. In the present study, dyslipidemic conditions induced gene expression of IL-1β, an inflammatory cytokine. Inflammatory cytokines promote osteoclast differentiation both directly and indirectly [27]. These observations indicate that the increased osteoclast differentiation under dyslipidemic conditions is partly caused by induction of inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, overproduction of inflammatory cytokines can stimulate inflammatory responses [28], and this would advance periodontal inflammation. In fact, inflammatory histological changes, such as increased number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and root resorption, were also observed in the current dyslipidemia model.
In our previous study [14], hypercholesterolemic rats (age, 20 weeks) fed a high-cholesterol diet for 8 weeks showed increased numbers of RANKL-positive cells on the alveolar bone surface. In that study, the ratio of RANKL-positive cells to total cells (mean ± SD) was 0.15 ± 0.04 in the control group and 0.32 ± 0.10 in the hypercholesteromic group [14]. In the present study using an apoE-deficient model (age, 16 weeks), the ratio of RANKL-positive cells to total cells (mean ± SD) was 0.18 ± 0.05 in the control group and 0.41 ± 0.07 in the dyslipidemic group. These results are in agreement with previous findings that impaired lipid metabolism induces RANKL expression.
Studies have shown positive association between dyslipidemia and periodontal disease [21,29,30]. In our previous animal study, feeding with a high-cholesterol diet increased serum lipid peroxidation and the number of TRAP-positive osteoclasts, with an increase in RANKL expression [14]. In this study, we demonstrated that activation of TLR2 and TLR4 is involved in osteoclast differentiation on the surface of alveolar bone under dyslipidemic conditions. Therefore, suppression of TLR expression may be an effective method for preventing osteoclast differentiation under dyslipidemic conditions. However, further studies are necessary.
Our study has several limitations. As the bacterial flora in the gingival sulcus of rats differs from that in humans, we did not investigate how dyslipidemic conditions directly affect bacterial flora. More studies are thus necessary in order to clarify this issue. In addition, although osteoclast differentiation increased under dyslipidemic conditions, the linear distance between the cemento-enamel junction and alveolar bone crest did not change in our model. As the experimental period was only 7 days, long-term analysis is necessary.
In conclusion, dyslipidemia induces osteoclast differentiation on the alveolar bone surface by activation of TLR2 and TLR4 in the rat apolipoprotein E knockout model.
Apo E: Apolipoprotein E;HDL: High-density Lipoprotein;LPS: Lipopolysaccharide;IL: Interleukin;LDL: Low-density Lipoprotein;OxLDL: Oxidized Low-density Lipoprotein;RANKL: Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor Kappa B Ligand;ROS: Reactive Oxygen Species;TRAP: Tartrate Resistant Acid Phosphatase;TLR: Toll-like Receptor;VLDL: Very low-density Lipoprotein
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: TT and MM. Performed the experiments: TT, KI, KK, and TY. Analyzed the data: DE and YE. Wrote the paper: TT and MM. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
This work was supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (23390480 & 23792512) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan. The authors report no conflicts of interest related to this study.
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"Our proposals have been crafted to reflect our priority of meeting participants' needs as well as we can, in addition to being mindful of the requirements placed on us by state and federal law," said Chris Newman, Behavioral Health Division senior administrator with WDH.
A law approved by the Wyoming Legislature and the governor earlier this year called for a redesign of current programs. "The legislative intent was clearly to provide needed services for more of the people who are on our unfortunately long waiting list without increased funding," Newman said. "We believe what we are proposing is the best possible path to accomplish our goals and we very much appreciate the input we received from interested Wyoming residents online and during the public forums we held across the state."
Two new waivers have been developed: a capped "Supports Waiver" and a "Comprehensive Waiver" that will use a combination of state and federal Wyoming Medicaid dollars.
The Supports Waiver is intended to help individuals and their families use both natural supports and paid providers to support participants in their own homes. The Supports Waiver provides self-directed opportunities for enhanced health, freedom, choice, control and responsibility over services received. Waiver participants may also opt for traditional service delivery or a mix of the two.
The Comprehensive Waiver has similar goals and is intended for individuals with a higher level of service needs, including community-based residential care such as group homes.
The new waivers will replace the existing "Adult Developmental Disabilities Waiver" and the "Child Developmental Disabilities Waiver." Current participants will be transitioned to the new waivers beginning January 2014. "We understand that many people may have concerns about the coming changes. Our staff is planning for extensive outreach and support for those involved during our transition periods," Newman said.
Newman said another improvement to the overall system requested by the legislature will be a switch to what is known as "conflict-free case management" targeted for July 2014. "Right now case managers assigned to help folks receiving waiver services are often employees of the very same organizations that are getting paid to support these individuals. Under conflict-free case management that will not be permitted in most cases," Newman explained.
Documents describing the new waiver programs, as well as more information about the waiver redesign project, are available online at http://www.health.wyo.gov/DDD/index.html.


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JP09505193H | May, 1997 | |||
JP09261064H | October, 1997 | ENCODER AND DECODER | ||
JP11262100H | September, 1999 | CODING/DECODING METHOD FOR AUDIO SIGNAL AND ITS SYSTEM | ||
JP11317672 | November, 1999 | STEREOPHONIC AUDIO CODING AND DECODING METHOD/APPARATUS CAPABLE OF BIT-RATE CONTROL | ||
KR96-003455 | March, 1996 | |||
98 | January, 1998 | |||
This application is a divisional application of U.S. Ser. No. 10,483,453 filed on Jan. 8, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,382,886.
The present invention relates to low bitrate audio source coding systems. Different parametric representations of stereo properties of an input signal are introduced, and the application thereof at the decoder side is explained, ranging from pseudo-stereo to full stereo coding of spectral envelopes, the latter of which is especially suited for HFR based codecs.
Audio source coding techniques can be divided into two classes: natural audio coding and speech coding. At medium to high bitrates, natural audio coding is commonly used for speech and music signals, and stereo transmission and reproduction is possible. In applications where only low bitrates are available, e.g. Internet streaming audio targeted at users with slow telephone modem connections, or in the emerging digital AM broadcasting systems, mono coding of the audio program material is unavoidable. However, a stereo impression is still desirable, in particular when listening with headphones, in which case a pure mono signal is perceived as originating from "within the head", which can be an unpleasant experience.
One approach to address this problem is to synthesize a stereo signal at the decoder side from a received pure mono signal. Throughout the years, several different "pseudo-stereo" generators have been proposed. For example in [U.S. Pat. No. 5,883,962], enhancement of mono signals by means of adding delayed/phase shifted versions of a signal to the unprocessed signal, thereby creating a stereo illusion, is described. Hereby the processed signal is added to the original signal for each of the two outputs at equal levels but with opposite signs, ensuring that the enhancement signals cancel if the two channels are added later on in the signal path. In [PCT WO 98/57436] a similar system is shown, albeit without the above mono-compatibility of the enhanced signal. Prior art methods have in common that they are applied as pure post-processes. In other words, no information on the degree of stereo-width, let alone position in the stereo sound stage, is available to the decoder. Thus, the pseudo-stereo signal may or may not have a resemblance of the stereo character of the original signal. A particular situation where prior art systems fall short, is when the original signal is a pure mono signal, which often is the case for speech recordings. This mono signal is blindly converted to a synthetic stereo signal at the decoder, which in the speech case often causes annoying artifacts, and may reduce the clarity and speech intelligibility.
Other prior art systems, aiming at true stereo transmission at low bitrates, typically employ a sum and difference coding scheme. Thus, the original left (L) and right (R) signals are converted to a sum signal, S=(L+R)/2, and a difference signal, D=(L−R)/2, and subsequently encoded and transmitted. The receiver decodes the S and D signals, whereupon the original L/R-signal is recreated through the operations L=S+D, and R=S−D. The advantage of this, is that very often a redundancy between L and R is at hand, whereby the information in D to be encoded is less, requiring fewer bits, than in S. Clearly, the extreme case is a pure mono signal, i.e. L and R are identical. A traditional L/R-codec encodes this mono signal twice, whereas a S/D codec detects this redundancy, and the D signal does (ideally) not require any bits at all. Another extreme is represented by the situation where R=−L, corresponding to "out of phase" signals. Now, the S signal is zero, whereas the D signal computes to L. Again, the S/D-scheme has a clear advantage to standard L/R-coding. However, consider the situation where e.g. R=0 during a passage, which was not uncommon in the early days of stereo recordings. Both S and D equal L/2, and the S/D-scheme does not offer any advantage. On the contrary, L/R-coding handles this very well: The R signal does not require any bits. For this reason, prior art codecs employ adaptive switching between those two coding schemes, depending on what method that is most beneficial to use at a given moment. The above examples are merely theoretical (except for the dual mono case, which is common in speech only programs). Thus, real world stereo program material contains significant amounts of stereo information, and even if the above switching is implemented, the resulting bitrate is often still too high for many applications. Furthermore, as can be seen from the resynthesis relations above, very coarse quantization of the D signal in an attempt to further reduce the bitrate is not feasible, since the quantization errors translate to non-neglectable level errors in the L and R signals.
The present invention employs detection of signal stereo properties prior to coding and transmission. In the simplest form, a detector measures the amount of stereo perspective that is present in the input stereo signal. This amount is then transmitted as a stereo width parameter, together with an encoded mono sum of the original signal. The receiver decodes the mono signal, and applies the proper amount of stereo-width, using a pseudo-stereo generator, which is controlled by said parameter. As a special case, a mono input signal is signaled as zero stereo width, and correspondingly no stereo synthesis is applied in the decoder. According to the invention, useful measures of the stereo-width can be derived e.g. from the difference signal or from the cross-correlation of the original left and right channel. The value of such computations can be mapped to a small number of states, which are transmitted at an appropriate fixed rate in time, or on an as-needed basis. The invention also teaches how to filter the synthesized stereo components, in order to reduce the risk of unmasking coding artifacts which typically are associated with low bitrate coded signals. Alternatively, the overall stereo-balance or localization in the stereo field is detected in the encoder. This information, optionally together with the above width-parameter, is efficiently transmitted as a balance-parameter, along with the encoded mono signal. Thus, displacements to either side of the sound stage can be recreated at the decoder, by correspondingly altering the gains of the two output channels. According to the invention, this stereo-balance parameter can be derived from the quotient of the left and right signal powers. The transmission of both types of parameters requires very few bits compared to full stereo coding, whereby the total bitrate demand is kept low. In a more elaborate version of the invention, which offers a more accurate parametric stereo depiction, several balance and stereo-width parameters are used, each one representing separate frequency bands.
The balance-parameter generalized to a per frequency-band operation, together with a corresponding per band operation of a level-parameter, calculated as the sum of the left and right signal powers, enables a new, arbitrary detailed, representation of the power spectral density of a stereo signal. A particular benefit of this representation, in addition to the benefits from stereo redundancy that also S/D-systems take advantage of, is that the balance-signal can be quantized with less precision than the level ditto, since the quantization error, when converting back to a stereo spectral envelope, causes an "error in space", i.e. perceived localization in the stereo panorama, rather than an error in level. Analogous to a traditional switched L/R- and S/D-system, the level/balance-scheme can be adaptively switched off, in favor of a levelL/leveIR-signal, which is more efficient when the overall signal is heavily offset towards either channel. The above spectral envelope coding scheme can be used whenever an efficient coding of power spectral envelopes is required, and can be incorporated as a tool in new stereo source codecs. A particularly interesting application is in HFR systems that are guided by information about the original signal highband envelope. In such a system, the lowband is coded and decoded by means of an arbitrary codec, and the highband is regenerated at the decoder using the decoded lowband signal and the transmitted highband envelope information [PCT WO 98/57436]. Furthermore, the possibility to build a scalable HFR-based stereo codec is offered, by locking the envelope coding to level/balance operation. Hereby the level values are fed into the primary bitstream, which, depending on the implementation, typically decodes to a mono signal. The balance values are fed into the secondary bitstream, which in addition to the primary bitstream is available to receivers close to the transmitter, taking an IBOC (In-Band On-channel) digital AM-broadcasting system as an example. When the two bitstreams are combined, the decoder produces a stereo output signal. In addition to the level values, the primary bitstream can contain stereo parameters, e.g. a width parameter. Thus, decoding of this bitstream alone already yields a stereo output, which is improved when both bitstreams are available.
The present invention will now be described by way of illustrative examples, not limiting the scope or spirit of the invention, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 illustrates a source coding system containing an encoder enhanced by a parametric stereo encoder module, and a decoder enhanced by a parametric stereo decoder module.
FIG. 2a is a block schematic of a parametric stereo decoder module,
FIG. 2b is a block schematic of a pseudo-stereo generator with control parameter inputs,
FIG. 2c is a block schematic of a balance adjuster with control parameter inputs,
FIG. 3 is a block schematic of a parametric stereo decoder module using multiband pseudo-stereo generation combined with multiband balance adjustment,
FIG. 4a is a block schematic of the encoder side of a scalable HFR-based stereo codec, employing level/balance-coding of the spectral envelope,
FIG. 4b is a block schematic of the corresponding decoder side.
The below-described embodiments are merely illustrative for the principles of the present invention. It is understood that modifications and variations of the arrangements and the details described herein will be apparent to others skilled in the art. It is the intent therefore, to be limited only by the scope of the impending patent claims, and not by the specific details presented by way of description and explanation of the embodiments herein. For the sake of clarity, all below examples assume two channel systems, but apparent to others skilled in the art, the methods can be applied to multichannel systems, such as a 5.1 system.
FIG. 1 shows how an arbitrary source coding system comprising of an encoder, 107, and a decoder, 115, where encoder and decoder operate in monaural mode, can be enhanced by parametric stereo coding according to the invention. Let L and R denote the left and right analog input signals, which are fed to an AD-converter, 101. The output from the AD-converter is converted to mono, 105, and the mono signal is encoded, 107. In addition, the stereo signal is routed to a parametric stereo encoder, 103, which calculates one or several stereo parameters to be described below. Those parameters are combined with the encoded mono signal by means of a multiplexer, 109, forming a bitstream, 111. The bitstream is stored or transmitted, and subsequently extracted at the decoder side by means of a demultiplexer, 113. The mono signal is decoded, 115, and converted to a stereo signal by a parametric stereo decoder, 119, which uses the stereo parameter(s), 117, as control signal(s). Finally, the stereo signal is routed to the DA-converter, 121, which feeds the analog outputs, L′ and R′. The topology according to FIG. 1 is common to a set of parametric stereo coding methods which will be described in detail, starting with the less complex versions.
One method of parameterization of stereo properties according to the present invention, is to determine the original signal stereo-width at the encoder side. A first approximation of the stereo-width is the difference signal, D=L−R, since, roughly put, a high degree of similarity between L and R computes to a small value of D, and vice versa. A special case is dual mono, where L=R and thus D=0. Thus, even this simple algorithm is capable of detecting the type of mono input signal commonly associated with news broadcasts, in which case pseudo-stereo is not desired. However, a mono signal that is fed to L and R at different levels does not yield a zero D signal, even though the perceived width is zero. Thus, in practice more elaborate detectors might be required, employing for example cross-correlation methods. One should make sure that the value describing the left-right difference or correlation in some way is normalized with the total signal level, in order to achieve a level independent detector. A problem with the aforementioned detector is the case when mono speech is mixed with a much weaker stereo signal e.g. stereo noise or background music during speech-to-music/music-to-speech transitions. At the speech pauses the detector will then indicate a wide stereo signal. This is solved by normalizing the stereo-width value with a signal containing information of previous total energy level e.g., a peak decay signal of the total energy. Furthermore, to prevent the stereo-width detector from being trigged by high frequency noise or channel different high frequency distortion, the detector signals should be pre-filtered by a low-pass filter, typically with a cutoff frequency somewhere above a voice's second formant, and optionally also by a high-pass filter to avoid unbalanced signal-offsets or hum. Regardless of detector type, the calculated stereo-width is mapped to a finite set of values, covering the entire range, from mono to wide stereo.
FIG. 2a gives an example of the contents of the parametric stereo decoder introduced in FIG. 1. The block denoted 'balance', 211, controlled by parameter B, will be described later, and should be regarded as bypassed for now. The block denoted 'width', 205, takes a mono input signal, and synthetically recreates the impression of stereo width, where the amount of width is controlled by the parameter W. The optional parameters S and D will be described later. According to the invention, a subjectively better sound quality can often be achieved by incorporating a crossover filter comprising of a low-pass filter, 203, and a high-pass filter, 201, in order to keep the low frequency range "tight" and unaffected. Hereby only the output from the high-pass filter is routed to the width block. The stereo output from the width block is added to the mono output from the low-pass filter by means of 207 and 209, forming the stereo output signal.
Any prior art pseudo-stereo generator can be used for the width block, such as those mentioned in the background section, or a Schroeder-type early reflection simulating unit (multitap delay) or reverberator. FIG. 2b gives an example of a pseudo-stereo generator, fed by a mono signal M. The amount of stereowidth is determined by the gain of 215, and this gain is a function of the stereo-width parameter, W. The higher the gain, the wider the stereo-impression, a zero gain corresponds to pure mono reproduction. The output from 215 is delayed, 221, and added, 223 and 225, to the two direct signal instances, using opposite signs. In order not to significantly alter the overall reproduction level when changing the stereowidth, a compensating attenuation of the direct signal can be incorporated, 213. For example, if the gain of the delayed signal is G, the gain of the direct signal can be selected as sqrt(1- G′). According to the invention, a high frequency roll-off can be incorporated in the delay signal path, 217, which helps avoiding pseudo-stereo caused unmasking of coding artifacts. Optionally, crossover filter, roll-off filter and delay parameters can be sent in the bitstream, offering more possibilities to mimic the stereo properties of the original signal, as also shown in FIGS. 2a and 2b as the signals X, S and D. If a reverberation unit is used for generating a stereo signal, the reverberation decay might sometimes be unwanted after the very end of a sound. These unwanted reverb-tails can however easily be attenuated or completely removed by just altering the gain of the reverb signal. A detector 250 designed for finding sound endings can be used for that purpose. If the reverberation unit generates artifacts at some specific signals e.g., transients, a detector 250 for those signals can also be used for attenuating the same.
An alternative method of detecting stereo-properties according to the invention, is described as follows. Again, let L and R denote the left and right input signals. The corresponding signal powers are then given by PL˜L2 and PR˜R2. Now, a measure of the stereo-balance can be calculated as the quotient of the two signal powers, or more specifically as B=(PL+e)/(PR+e), where e is an arbitrary, very small number, which eliminates division by zero. The balance parameter, B, can be expressed in dB given by the relation BdB=10 log10(B). As an example, the three cases PL=10PR, PL=PR, and PL=0.1PR correspond to balance values of +10 dB, 0 dB, and −10 dB respectively. Clearly, those values map to the locations "left", "center", and "right". Experiments have shown that the span of the balance parameter can be limited to for example +/−40 dB, since those extreme values are already perceived as if the sound originates entirely from one of the two loudspeakers or headphone drivers. This limitation reduces the signal space to cover in the transmission, thus offering bitrate reduction. Furthermore, a progressive quantization scheme can be used, whereby smaller quantization steps are used around zero, and larger steps towards the outer limits, which further reduces the bitrate. Often the balance is constant over time for extended passages. Thus, a last step to significantly reduce the number of average bits needed can be taken: After transmission of an initial balance value, only the differences between consecutive balance values are transmitted, whereby entropy coding is employed. Very commonly, this difference is zero, which thus is signaled by the shortest possible codeword. Clearly, in applications where bit errors are possible, this delta coding must be reset at an appropriate time interval, in order to eliminate uncontrolled error propagation.
The most rudimental decoder usage of the balance parameter, is simply to offset the mono signal towards either of the two reproduction channels, by feeding the mono signal to both outputs and adjusting the gains correspondingly, as illustrated in FIG. 2c, blocks 227 and 229, with the control signal B. This is analogous to turning the "panorama" knob on a mixing desk, synthetically "moving" a mono signal between the two stereo speakers.
The balance parameter can be sent in addition to the above described width parameter, offering the possibility to both position and spread the sound image in the sound-stage in a controlled manner, offering flexibility when mimicking the original stereo impression. One problem with combining pseudo stereo generation, as mentioned in a previous section, and parameter controlled balance, is unwanted signal contribution from the pseudo stereo generator at balance positions far from center position. This is solved by applying a mono favoring function on the stereo-width value, resulting in a greater attenuation of the stereo-width value at balance positions at extreme side position and less or no attenuation at balance positions close to the center position.
The methods described so far, are intended for very low bitrate applications. In applications where higher bitrates are available, it is possible to use more elaborate versions of the above width and balance methods. Stereo-width detection can be made in several frequency bands, resulting in individual stereowidth values for each frequency band. Similarly, balance calculation can operate in a multiband fashion, which is equivalent to applying different filter-curves to two channels that are fed by a mono signal. FIG. 3 shows an example of a parametric stereo decoder 301 using a set of N pseudo-stereo generators according to FIG. 2b, represented by blocks 307, 317 and 327, combined with multiband balance adjustment, represented by blocks 309,319 and 329, as described in FIG. 2c. The individual passbands are obtained by feeding the mono input signal, M, to a set of bandpass filters, 305, 315 and 325. The bandpass stereo outputs from the balance adjusters are added, 311, 321, 313, 323, forming the stereo output signal, L and R. The formerly scalar width- and balance parameters are now replaced by the arrays W(k) and B(k). In FIG. 3, every pseudo-stereo generator and balance adjuster has unique stereo parameters. However, in order to reduce the total amount of data to be transmitted or stored, parameters from several frequency bands can be averaged in groups at the encoder, and this smaller number of parameters be mapped to the corresponding groups of width and balance blocks at the decoder. Clearly, different grouping schemes and lengths can be used for the arrays W(k) and B(k). S(k) represents the gains of the delay signal paths in the width blocks, and D(k) represents the delay parameters. Again, S(k) and D(k) are optional in the bitstream.
The parametric balance coding method can, especially for lower frequency bands, give a somewhat unstable behavior, due to lack of frequency resolution, or due to too many sound events occurring in one frequency band at the same time but at different balance positions. Those balance-glitches are usually characterized by a deviant balance value during just a short period of time, typically one or a few consecutive values calculated, dependent on the update rate. In order to avoid disturbing balance-glitches, a stabilization process can be applied on the balance data. This process may use a number of balance values before and after current time position, to calculate the median value of those. The median value can subsequently be used as a limiter value for the current balance value i.e., the current balance value should not be allowed to go beyond the median value. The current value is then limited by the range between the last value and the median value. Optionally, the current balance value can be allowed to pass the limited values by a certain overshoot factor. Furthermore, the overshoot factor, as well as the number of balance values used for calculating the median, should be seen as frequency dependent properties and hence be individual for each frequency band.
At low update ratios of the balance information, the lack of time resolution can cause failure in synchronization between motions of the stereo image and the actual sound events. To improve this behavior in terms of synchronization, an interpolation scheme based on identifying sound events can be used. Interpolation here refers to interpolations between two, in time consecutive balance values. By studying the mono signal at the receiver side, information about beginnings and ends of different sound events can be obtained. One way is to detect a sudden increase or decrease of signal energy in a particular frequency band. The interpolation should after guidance from that energy envelope in time make sure that the changes in balance position should be performed preferably during time segments containing little signal energy. Since human ear is more sensitive to entries than trailing parts of a sound, the interpolation scheme benefits from finding the beginning of a sound by e.g., applying peak-hold to the energy and then let the balance value increments be a function of the peak-holded energy, where a small energy value gives a large increment and vice versa. For time segments containing uniformly distributed energy in time i.e., as for some stationary signals, this interpolation method equals linear interpolation between the two balance values. If the balance values are quotients of left and right energies, logarithmic balance values are preferred, for left-right symmetry reasons. Another advantage of applying the whole interpolation algorithm in the logarithmic domain is the human ear's tendency of relating levels to a logarithmic scale.
Also, for low update ratios of the stereo-width gain values, interpolation can be applied to the same. A simple way is to interpolate linearly between two in time consecutive stereo-width values. More stable behavior of the stereo-width can be achieved by smoothing the stereo-width gain values over a longer time segment containing several stereo-width parameters. By utilizing smoothing with different attack and release time constants, a system well suited for program material containing mixed or interleaved speech and music is achieved. An appropriate design of such smoothing filter is made using a short attack time constant, to get a short rise-time and hence an immediate response to music entries in stereo, and a long release time, to get a long fall-time. To be able to fast switch from a wide stereo mode to mono, which can be desirable for sudden speech entries, there is a possibility to bypass or reset the smoothing filter by signaling this event. Furthermore, attack time constants, release time constants and other smoothing filter characteristics can also be signaled by an encoder.
For signals containing masked distortion from a psycho-acoustical codec, one common problem with introducing stereo information based on the coded mono signal is an unmasking effect of the distortion. This phenomenon usually referred as "stereo-unmasking" is the result of non-centered sounds that do not fulfill the masking criterion. The problem with stereo-unmasking might be solved or partly solved by, at the decoder side, introducing a detector aimed for such situations. Known technologies for measuring signal to mask ratios can be used to detect potential stereo-unmasking. Once detected, it can be explicitly signaled or the stereo parameters can just simply be decreased.
At the encoder side, one option, as taught by the invention, is to employ a Hilbert transformer to the input signal, i.e. a 90 degree phase shift between the two channels is introduced. When subsequently forming the mono signal by addition of the two signals, a better balance between a center-panned mono signal and "true" stereo signals is achieved, since the Hilbert transformation introduces a 3 dB attenuation for center information. In practice, this improves mono coding of e.g. contemporary pop music, where for instance the lead vocals and the bass guitar commonly is recorded using a single mono source.
The multiband balance-parameter method is not limited to the type of application described in FIG. 1. It can be advantageously used whenever the objective is to efficiently encode the power spectral envelope of a stereo signal. Thus, it can be used as tool in stereo codecs, where in addition to the stereo spectral envelope a corresponding stereo residual is coded. Let the total power P, be defined by P=PL+PR, where PL and PR are signal powers as described above. Note that this definition does not take left to right phase relations into account. (E.g. identical left and right signals but of opposite signs, does not yield a zero total power.) Analogous to B, P can be expressed in dB as PdB=10 log10(P/Pref), where Pref is an arbitrary reference power, and the delta values be entropy coded. As opposed to the balance case, no progressive quantization is employed for P. In order to represent the spectral envelope of a stereo signal, P and B are calculated for a set of frequency bands, typically, but not necessarily, with bandwidths that are related to the critical bands of human hearing. For example those bands may be formed by grouping of channels in a constant bandwidth filterbank, whereby PL and PR are calculated as the time and frequency averages of the squares of the subband samples corresponding to respective band and period in time. The sets P0, P1, P2, . . . , PN-1 and B0, B1, B2, . . . , BN-1, where the subscripts denote the frequency band in an N band representation, are delta and Huffman coded, transmitted or stored, and finally decoded into the quantized values that were calculated in the encoder. The last step is to convert P and B back to PL and PR. As easily seen form the definitions of P and B, the reverse relations are (when neglecting e in the definition of B) PL=BP/(B+1), and PR=P/(B+1).
One particularly interesting application of the above envelope coding method is coding of highband spectral envelopes for HFR-based codecs. In this case no highband residual signal is transmitted. Instead this residual is derived from the lowband. Thus, there is no strict relation between residual and envelope representation, and envelope quantization is more crucial. In order to study the effects of quantization, let Pq and Bq denote the quantized values of P and B respectively. Pq and Bq are then inserted into the above relations, and the sum is formed: PLq+PRq=BqPq/(Bq+1)+Pq/(Bq+1)=Pq(Bq+1)/(Bq+1)=Pq. The interesting feature here is that Bq is eliminated, and the error in total power is solely determined by the quantization error in P. This implies that even though B is heavily quantized, the perceived level is correct, assuming that sufficient precision in the quantization of P is used. In other words, distortion in B maps to distortion in space, rather than in level. As long as the sound sources are stationary in the space over time, this distortion in the stereo perspective is also stationary, and hard to notice. As already stated, the quantization of the stereo-balance can also be coarser towards the outer extremes, since a given error in dB corresponds to a smaller error in perceived angle when the angle to the centerline is large, due to properties of human hearing.
When quantizing frequency dependent data e.g., multi band stereo-width gain values or multi band balance values, resolution and range of the quantization method can advantageously be selected to match the properties of a perceptual scale. If such scale is made frequency dependent, different quantization methods, or so called quantization classes, can be chosen for the different frequency bands. The encoded parameter values representing the different frequency bands, should then in some cases, even if having identical values, be interpreted in different ways i.e., be decoded into different values.
Analogous to a switched L/R- to S/D-coding scheme, the P and B signals may be adaptively substituted by the PL and PR signals, in order to better cope with extreme signals. As taught by [PCT/SE00/00158), delta coding of envelope samples can be switched from delta-in-time to delta-in-frequency, depending on what direction is most efficient in terms of number of bits at a particular moment. The balance parameter can also take advantage of this scheme: Consider for example a source that moves in stereo field over time. Clearly, this corresponds to a successive change of balance values over time, which depending on the speed of the source versus the update rate of the parameters, may correspond to large delta-in-time values, corresponding to large codewords when employing entropy coding. However, assuming that the source has uniform sound radiation versus frequency, the delta-in-frequency values of the balance parameter are zero at every point in time, again corresponding to small codewords. Thus, a lower bitrate is achieved in this case, when using the frequency delta coding direction. Another example is a source that is stationary in the room, but has a non-uniform radiation. Now the delta-in-frequency values are large, and delta-in-time is the preferred choice.
The P/B-coding scheme offers the possibility to build a scalable HFR-codec, see FIG. 4. A scalable codec is characterized in that the bitstream is split into two or more parts, where the reception and decoding of higher order parts is optional. The example assumes two bitstream parts, hereinafter referred to as primary, 419, and secondary, 417, but extension to a higher number of parts is clearly possible. The encoder side, FIG. 4a, comprises of an arbitrary stereo lowband encoder, 403, which operates on the stereo input signal, IN (the trivial steps of AD-respective DA-conversion are not shown in the figure), a parametric stereo encoder, which estimates the highband spectral envelope, and optionally additional stereo parameters, 401, which also operates on the stereo input signal, and two multiplexers, 415 and 413, for the primary and secondary bitstreams respectively. In this application, the highband envelope coding is locked to P/B-operation, and the P signal, 407, is sent to the primary bitstream by means of 415, whereas the B signal, 405, is sent to the secondary bitstream, by means of 413.
For the lowband codec different possibilities exist: It may constantly operate in S/D-mode, and the S and D signals be sent to primary and secondary bitstreams respectively. In this case, a decoding of the primary bitstream results in a full band mono signal. Of course, this mono signal can be enhanced by parametric stereo methods according to the invention, in which case the stereo-parameter(s) also must be located in the primary bitstream. Another possibility is to feed a stereo coded lowband signal to the primary bitstream, optionally together with highband width- and balance-parameters. Now decoding of the primary bitstream results in true stereo for the lowband, and very realistic pseudo-stereo for the highband, since the stereo properties of the lowband are reflected in the high frequency reconstruction. Stated in another way: Even though the available highband envelope representation or spectral coarse structure is in mono, the synthesized highband residual or spectral fine structure is not. In this type of implementation, the secondary bitstream may contain more lowband information, which when combined with that of the primary bitstream, yields a higher quality lowband reproduction. The topology of FIG. 4 illustrates both cases, since the primary and secondary lowband encoder output signals, 411, and 409, connected to 415 and 417 respectively, may contain either of the above described signal types.
The bitstreams are transmitted or stored, and either only 419 or both 419 and 417 are fed to the decoder, FIG. 4b. The primary bitstream is demultiplexed by 423, into the lowband core decoder primary signal, 429 and the P signal, 431. Similarly, the secondary bitstream is demultiplexed by 421, into the lowband core decoder secondary signal, 427, and the B signal, 425. The lowband signal(s) is(are) routed to the lowband decoder, 433, which produces an output, 435, which again, in case of decoding of the primary bitstream only, may be of either type described above (mono or stereo). The signal 435 feeds the HFR-unit, 437, wherein a synthetic highband is generated, and adjusted according to P, which also is connected to the BFR-unit. The decoded lowband is combined with the highband in the HFR-unit, and the lowband and/or highband is optionally enhanced by a pseudo-stereo generator (also situated in the HFR-unit), before finally being fed to the system outputs, forming the output signal, OUT. When the secondary bitstream, 417, is present, the HFR-unit also gets the B signal as an input signal, 425, and 435 is in stereo, whereby the system produces a full stereo output signal, and pseudo-stereo generators if any, are bypassed.
Stated in other words, a method for coding of stereo properties of an input signal, includes at an encoder, the step of calculating a width-parameter that signals a stereo-width of said input signal, and at a decoder, a step of generating a stereo output signal, using said width-parameter to control a stereo-width of said output signal. The method further comprises at said encoder, forming a mono signal from said input signal, wherein, at said decoder, said generation implies a pseudo-stereo method operating on said mono signal. The method further implies splitting of said mono signal into two signals as well as addition of delayed version(s) of said mono signal to said two signals, at level(s) controlled by said width-parameter. The method further includes that said delayed version(s) are high-pass filtered and progressively attenuated at higher frequencies prior to being added to said two signals. The method further includes that said width-parameter is a vector, and the elements of said vector correspond to separate frequency bands. The method further includes that if said input signal is of type dual mono, said output signal is also of type dual mono.
A method for coding of stereo properties of an input signal, includes at an encoder, calculating a balance-parameter that signals a stereo-balance of said input signal, and at a decoder, generate a stereo output signal, using said balance-parameter to control a stereo-balance of said output signal.
In this method ,at said encoder, a mono signal from said input signal is formed, and at said decoder, said generation implies splitting of said mono signal into two signals, and said control implies adjustment of levels of said two signals. The method further includes that a power for each channel of said input signal is calculated, and said balance-parameter is calculated from a quotient between said powers. The method further includes that said powers and said balance-parameter are vectors where every element corresponds to a specific frequency band. The method further includes that at said decoder it is interpolated between two in time consecutive values of said balance-parameters in a way that the momentary value of the corresponding power of said mono signal controls how steep the momentary interpolation should be. The method further includes that said interpolation method is performed on balance values represented as logarithmic values. The method further includes that said values of balance-parameters are limited to a range between a previous balance value, and a balance value extracted from other balance values by a median filter or other filter process, where said range can be further extended by moving the borders of said range by a certain factor. The method further includes that said method of extracting limiting borders for balance values, is, for a multiband system, frequency dependent. The method further includes that an additional level-parameter is calculated as a vector sum of said powers and sent to said decoder, thereby providing said decoder a representation of a spectral envelope of said input signal. The method further includes that said level-parameter and said balance-parameter adaptively are replaced by said powers. The method further includes that said spectral envelope is used to control a HFR-process in a decoder. The method further includes that said level-parameter is fed into a primary bitstream of a scalable HFR-based stereo codec, and said balance-parameter is fed into a secondary bitstream of said codec. Said mono signal and said width-parameter are fed into said primary bitstream. Furthermore, said width-parameters are processed by a function that gives smaller values for a balance value that corresponds to a balance position further from the center position. The method further includes that a quantization of said balance-parameter employs smaller quantization steps around a center position and larger steps towards outer positions. The method further includes that said width-parameters and said balance-parameters are quantized using a quantization method in terms of resolution and range which, for a multiband system, is frequency dependent. The method further includes that said balance-parameter adaptively is delta-coded either in time or in frequency. The method further includes that said input signal is passed though a Hilbert transformer prior to forming said mono signal.
An apparatus for parametric stereo coding, includes, at an encoder, means for calculation of a width-parameter that signals a stereo-width of an input signal, and means for forming a mono signal from said input signal, and, at a decoder, means for generating a stereo output signal from said mono signal, using said width-parameter to control a stereo-width of said output signal.


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Video:Prenatal Fitness Activities
with Kathy MooreStaying healthy and fit during pregnancy isn't just good for you, it's also good for the baby. Check out these simple ways to increase activity while you're pregnant.See Transcript
Transcript:Prenatal Fitness Activities
Hi, I'm Kathy Moore for About.com Parenting. Experts recommend that pregnant women engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate activity most days of the week.This program will offer a few easy exercises to help reduce your stress and help you to feel great.
Talk to Your Doctor
Being pregnant may mean changing your workouts just a bit, and a few exercises should be avoided when you are pregnant, so talk to your doctor before starting any new exercise routine.Walking is Good Exercise
I found the easiest pregnancy exercise to be walking. I put my kids in the stroller and away we go.I can determine how fast I go, whether I tackle a few hills or not and what time of day is best to avoid the heat and humidity. And if the weather is bad, I can hit the mall and walk inside.
Try Prenatal Yoga
Prenatal yoga is another great exercise to reduce stress and strengthen muscles. Many of the traditional poses are completely safe for pregnant women. You will find several great videos on prenatal yoga within about.com.Swimming is a Relaxing Exercise
Swimming is probably the most relaxing exercise. The water not only is cool and refreshing, but also can reduce many of the aches and gravity pains that come with pregnancy.Water really lightens your belly while you are submerged. There are also a few simple exercises or activities you can do anywhere, anytime:
- park at the far end of the parking lot and when you visit the grocery store
- mow the lawn using a push mower
- do simple stretches while you are making diner, waiting in line, or watching your kids play
Strengthen Your Muscles
Lastly, Kegel exercises involve tightening the muscles that help control the flow of urine. By practicing tightening and releasing these muscles, you are learning how to control the muscles that help with labor.Exercising while pregnant will not only relieve your stress and help you stay fit, but it is also known to reduce labor pain and provide a faster recovery after you give birth. Who wouldn't want that?
Thanks for watching. To learn more, visit us on the Web at parenting.about.com.
About videos are made available on an "as is" basis, subject to the User Agreement.


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hey yall!!
Well i recently started cycling and i absolutely love it!
Im 17 years old...and i recently purchased a Fuji Nevada 3.0 ..to crave my cycling hunger..
Well 3 days ago i rode for 22 miles against the wind some up hills and stuff..then the day after, i jogged for 2 miles.. today i am pretty sore...my question is should i ride today.?
or rest ive heard different opinions on this..my dad says i should ride .. and it will go away plus i will stretch my muscles....
Any input is greatly appreciated!!!
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April 20, 2010
Logan Lowery BulldogBlitz.com
There isn't a day that goes by this spring that Itawamba Community College defensive tackle Jeff Howie doesn't wish he was already at Mississippi State.The 6-foot-4, 332-pounder is the only junior college signee that did not graduate early. Taking a visit to Starkville for the spring game this past weekend didn't help those feelings. ...More... To continue reading this article you must be a member. Sign Up Now!
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Olivia Johnson joins a group of friends in the back yard of the Boys and Girls Club after school. Nearly every day, the group tries to complete the same task. Johnson and four or five other children try to jump in unison with one long rope while two adult mentors swing the ends.
"One ... two ... three ... go!"
Five bodies bob up and down in the air as the hot-pink plastic rope slaps the concrete beneath their feet. Inevitably, one student jumps too high or too low, and the rope comes to a halt. "Olivia!" one screams.
"It wasn't me!" she says, puckering her lips and putting her hands on her hips.
A mentor stops the squabbling, and the students try again.
By the time the group has a routine together, they are called inside, and each student files into an assigned room for "power hour," a time to focus on homework.
Olivia joins Myron Lewis' room. Mentors circle the room tutoring students in science, math and reading.
As the hour ticks by, students get anxious and wait to be released. Some scatter to play pool, foosball, cards or a game of Mancala. Olivia, however, moves through the crowd of students to a cramped room with a piano. A mentor sits with her for an hour and works with her on piano lessons, something that Olivia wanted to learn at the club.
Olivia shrugs when asked what the club means to her. She isn't quite sure, but she knows that she likes it there.
Wish Box
GROUP: Boys and Girls Club
SUMMARY: The club provides children, from elementary to high school level, with a safe place to learn and grow. The club offers life-enhancing programs and character development experiences with adult professionals. The mentors and tutors inspire students, especially those from disadvantaged circumstances, to grow into confident, helpful and strong individuals.
CONTACT: Vera Riechlin, interim director, Boys and Girls Club, 874-1697
1002 Fay St., Columbia, 65201
Checks should be made out to: Boys and Girls Club
WISH: Olivia Johnson, 7, would like a phonics reading book called "Leap Frog." She also wishes the Boys and Girls Club had a bike that the children could use.


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Got a tip for us? Let us know
Apr 18, 2012, 05:49 AM | #1 |
Apple TV optivcal out problem
I am having troublewith my new Apple TV 3 optical out and DAC.
When I plug it in to my DAC the sound it Intermittent in short bursts. My DAC is a stereo one. does anyone know what the Apple TV output is form the optical. is it 5.1 and would this be why as it is confusing my DAC, which is only really set up for stereo??? It could also be that it does not like the upsampling to 48 mhz, athough my DAC copes fine with this my Blue Ray player which happlily sends 48khx through optical to my DAC. Any help or workrounds suggested whouidl be muc appreciated. |
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Apr 18, 2012, 06:42 AM | #2 | |
Audio is sent out as it is in the file without the apple TV touching it. So music will be stereo and movies 5.1. The status indicators on my amp back this up - when I play music the stereo light comes on, just as when I play a CD through the optical connector. When I play a film the 5.1 light comes on/ Therefore I would not expect movie soundtracks to work through your system. It just won't know what to do with the 5.1 data. You could try in the Audio and video settings changing "audio output" to 16 bit. |
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Apr 18, 2012, 06:47 AM | #3 |
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Apr 18, 2012, 02:16 PM | #4 | |
This could well be the problem. |
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Apr 18, 2012, 03:44 PM | #5 |
It's a Cyrus DacX which understand works with both 44.1 and 48 kHz
My blue ray player runs through it fine whch outputs at 48 kHz Confused! Last edited by cappers; Apr 18, 2012 at 04:09 PM. |
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Apr 19, 2012, 05:52 AM | #6 |
I'm going to pick up on this because I had a DAC X and used it with ATV1 for a couple of years. It worked flawlessly for most of that time, then out of the blue, the audio via ATV's optical out started to have the odd dropout glitch, and after another few weeks became intermittent and unusable. Then it stopped working entirely, but I discovered that if I pulled the optical cable out slightly from ATV so it wasn't fully seated in the socket, it worked, if I pushed it back in again fully it stopped working again. I tried different optical inputs on the DAC X and different cables with the same results. I also tried other devices with optical out, and they worked fine, so I came to the conclusion that the ATV must be faulty. However, when I bought a new ATV2, it was exactly the same. I never resolved it because I sold the DAC X for other reasons, but I believe it was actually a hardware fault in the DAC X because the same ATV2 worked fine with the replacement (AVR) via optical. I don't know why the fault only affected ATV/ATV2 and not other devices, but maybe the light level is higher then normal and it was getting swamped or something due to an issue with the input light level gain control circuitry. Maybe you should contact Cyrus and see if they have had any other similar issues reported.
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Apr 19, 2012, 06:54 AM | #7 | |
I contacted Cyrus and they said not aware of any compatability problem and to speak to Apple! My DAC also works fine with everything else (my DVD Blu ray player has shown signs of this through the other optical in, but seems OK, but has happened witht his in the past |
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Day one. A real introduction!
Trip Start
Aug 05, 2012
Trip End
Aug 10, 2012
Either way, it was a great day.
Starting in Costa Mesa we boarded our industrial tractor and began our route south on rt 1. We got to Dana Point when the folks from EagleRider called and told us they forgot to give us some paperwork so we met them on the junction of I-5 and 74. That was really the start of the journey. Rt 74, or the Ortega Hwy is an amazing road. It feels like the road leading toward Radiator Springs. We tried to adjust to the heat as we settled in for the first 4 hours or so.
We stopped for lunch in a real biker bar called Hells Kitchen where there was no air con, and the outside temp was over 100. The salad bar for the burgers is inside a coffin and the shack is adorned with many signs that I should not publish on this blog... It was great to go there and I'm please we weren't in or witnessed a fit. Kinda expected the local Hells Angels crowd to show up and get all 'smack down' on these white skinned, strange accented, hog riders.
Once we'd put another 75 miles or so between us and the bar and were climbing into the mountains at about 5000ft when, suddenly, the heavens opened. Really big, heavy, stinging rain. In the high heat, these freezing rain drops were very welcome and there was a moment where I actually felt cold. It lasted about 5 minutes then we were through it. It dropped the temperature (according to the bike) by 40 degrees (f). For the first time since we started, we were at a really comfortable temp but drying rapidly. Didn't take long for the sun to do it's work.
Moved on up to Perris where we had to take another break due to heat. Then jumped on the freeway for a bit headed for Palm Springs. Gotta love the m/b community. We stopped on the side of the road to double-check the map and some friendly chap from Canada pulled up on his bike and asked if we were OK or broken down. Very nice !
Covered freeway 10 for a few miles then took Route 62 to twentynine palms. Took us a while, including passing the Joshua Tree reseve (made famous by the US album name) but we arrived after 200 miles and 7 hours. Jumped in the pool and let the steam rise from our hot, tired, limbs and then took the bikes into town for fajitas in a mexican. Great food and after such a repaste we thought to check out the stars which are supposed to be legendary in this area. In looking for a side road just off the main drag, Paul asked "should we go down here, it's sandy". "Why not" was my reply. Paul was in front and after 200 feet I saw him wobble and nearly take a spill. When he returned after 5 mins of struggle, we parked up and looked where we where. There was some debate over whether we could see the milky way or it was just cloud but either way we could see a lot of stars, and thankfully, no rattlers.
Got back to the hotel and slept.


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Sione Fua DT Stanford | ||
Ht: 6'2″
Wt: 308 |
Strengths: | ||
Decent size. Has the build and strength to play nose tackle at the next level; experienced at nose tackle and the three-technique. Does a good job staying low and using leverage to power his way into the backfield. A physical player with an impressive motor. Quick off the snap; delivers a quick punch to offensive linemen. Does a really nice job fighting with his hands. | ||
Weaknesses: | ||
Not much of an athlete, won't get to the quarterback with any consistency. Unable to chase down the ball carrier. Doesn't have the size to get his hands up and disrupt passing plays. Probably limited to nose tackle in the NFL. | ||
Comments: | ||
Name pronounced see-own-ay foo-ah… Fua could develop into a starter in the NFL, but he won't be an attractive option for everyone. His lack of athleticism probably means he isn't a great fit for most teams in the 4-3. At first glace he doesn't look like he has nose tackle size, but he clearly demonstrates the strength necessary to play that role at the next level. He doesn't do any one thing great, but he's very consistent. I wouldn't reach for him to fill a need, but if he falls to the late 3rd or 4th round he could be a steal. |


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Today we've got 4-5 deals in the line up. We will Rapid Fire through them every few of hours so be sure to watch the timer on the Camofire homepage for each item to change. If one sells out the next shooter will show up.
The hunting deals for today will include:
- CORE4ELEMENT CAMO MERINO 190 BOTTOM (51% off)
- RUSSELL 3D DIFFUSION BALACLAVA (60% off)
- BADLANDS 2200 HUNTING BACKPACK (38% off)
- BROWNING 3D LONG SLEEVE TEE (66% off)
Today's First Shooter – CORE4ELEMENT CAMO MERINO 190 BOTTOM
Suggested Retail Price: $89.99
Camofire Price: $44.26 – 53% OFF
The Merino 190 Base Layer Pant takes hunting and performance base layers to the next level. By using pure 100% New Zealand merino wool with its natural wicking and odor fighting properties, you're sure to stay comfortable and odor free all day.
Flat seams provide a smooth, abrasion-free finish against the skin. If the weather turns warm, the beauty of pure merino is they will breathe exceptionally well but as the weather turns cold they insulate much better than synthetic polyester fabrics. Added leg length ensure they will stay riding where they are supposed to and not creep up during a hard days hunting.
They are ideal for up-before-dawn days when you're glassing distant ridges, hiking into remote basins or following a bulls bugle deep in the timber.
Got something to say about the CORE4ELEMENT CAMO MERINO 190 BOTTOM? Tell the world by commenting below.


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Tannhäuser Hermetics
Tannhäuser B.P.R.D.
Heroscape Customs
Tuesday, February 5, 2013
Pulp Ark Awards!
The Pulp Ark Award nominations were announced today on the
All Pulp blog
and I am proud to say that Mike Fyles was nominated for his cover of The Claim!
Congratulations, Mike!
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~MARK CONWAY~ ORPHEUS SPEAKS I saved you. I wanted you more than before, more than this lord, the one who holds you now. What's he got down there—heifers trussed for the altar, cheap candles, and you, in effigy to yourself? Don't you know I saved you more dying? You think I was weak, hungry for your pale body — that I couldn't keep from staring at you? Listen. Before I looked I knew I could have you. But you can't ask me to bring you back, not after I've seen what it's like, going down there. © by Mark Conway
© by Mark Conway
Contributor's note Next page Table of contents VPR home page


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Title: | Scattering Behaviour of fractal based metallo-dielectric structures |
Author: | Chandran,A R; Gopikrishna, M; Aanandan,C K; Mohanan, P; Vasudevan, K |
Abstract: | The scattering behaviour of fractal based metallodielectric structures loaded over metallic targets of different shapes such as flat plate, cylinder and dihedral corner reflector are investigated for both TE and TM polarizations of the incident wave. Out of the various fractal structures studied,square Sierpinski carpet structure is found to give backscattering reduction for an appreciable range of frequencies. The frequency of minimum backscattering depends on the geometry of the structure as well as on the thickness of the substrate. This structure when loaded over a dihedral corner reflector is showing an enhancement in RCS for corner angles other than 90◦. |
URI: | http://dyuthi.cusat.ac.in/purl/2725 |
Date: | 2007 |
Files | Size | Format | View | Description |
Dyuthi-P00362.pdf | 1.068Mb |
View/ |


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33 year old man | Murray Hill, NY, USA | Seeking women 25-35 within 10 miles of New York, NY
I've got to get home there's a garden to tend
I'm incredibly loyal to my friends and family, but that's something you have to earn. Once you've won me over you can count on me for life. I'm always busy, and I mean always. But will without hesitation find time for the important things. I dabble in cooking, gardening, and a bunch of other creative outlets. Big on doing right by the world. I love to bomb down a mountain on my snowboard, or cruise through the 5 boroughs on my bike. Looking for a long term lady. Someone who's more in to experiences than material goods. Tell me all the cool things you want to make/do in your life, and I'll do the same.
Camping , Coffee and conversation , Cooking , Dining out , Fishing/Hunting , Gardening/Landscaping , Hobbies and crafts , Movies/Videos , Museums and art , Music and concerts , Exploring new areas , Nightclubs/Dancing , Playing cards , Playing sports , Political interests , Shopping/Antiques , Travel/Sightseeing , Video games , Volunteering , Watching sports , Wine tasting
Auto racing / Motorcross, Bowling, Cycling, Football, Inline skating, Skiing, Soccer, Walking / Hiking, Yoga
I exercise 3-4 times per week.
I like Birds, Cats, Dogs, Exotic Pets, Fish, Horses
Behind the wheel of a car on a windy road. Early morning in San Francisco Farmer's market at day break First run of the day on my snowboard Anywhere under mother nature's canopy or along her beautiful waterways
Jack Johnson, Good Eats, Futurama, little stores in NYC where you can get to know the owner. My bike - '74 Schwinn Varsity that I am restoring Trying to eat as local/sustinable as possible - it's a fun challenge
Making the city a little bit greener, populating dark spaces with my friends, trying out new recipes, and generally doing whatever comes to mind
currently working through Slapstick (Kurt Vonnegut) - and just purchased a big stack of books from the St. Mark's Bookshop - so all set for winter.
Him | What he is looking for | |
Appearance | ||
Height: | 6'2" (187cms) | 5'6" (167cms) to 8'0" (243cms) |
Body type: | Athletic and toned | Slender, About average, Athletic and toned |
Eyes: | Hazel | Black, Blue, Brown, Grey, Green, Hazel |
Hair: | Dark brown | Black, Light brown, Dark brown |
Lifestyle | ||
Smoke: | No Way | No Way |
Drink: | Social Drinker | Never, Social Drinker, Moderately |
Occupation: | Technical / Science / Computers / Engineering | No preference |
Income: | I'll tell you later | No preference |
Relationship: | Never Married | Never Married |
Have kids: | No | No |
Wants kids: | Definitely | Definitely, Someday |
Background | ||
Ethnicity: | White / Caucasian | No preference |
Faith: | Spiritual but not religious | No preference |
Languages: | English, French | English |
Education: | Bachelors degree | Bachelors degree, Graduate degree, PhD / Post Doctoral |


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Can't find your city? Try Time Out World for great nights out and all that's going on near you – wherever you are in the world.
Magazines and Visitor Guides are also available in Malta, Porto and Muscat.
By Time Out editors Tue Nov 15 2011
Photograph: Hannah Mattix
La Boite a Epice Mini Spice Set
La Bote Epice Mini Spice Sets Daniel vet Lior Lev Sercarz has established himself as the spicer to star chefs, creating custom blends for restaurants like Le Bernardin and Marc Forgione. But amateur epicures and thoughtful gift givers can also get their hands on his exotic, high-end mixes: These trio sets include carefully balanced combos like orange, fennel and fleur de sel, recommended for seafood, poultry and vegetables, or crystallized honey, anise, cinnamon and ginger for desserts. Available at La Bote Epice, 724 Eleventh Ave between 51st and 52nd Sts (212-247-4407). Three 1oz jars $29.
Bellocq Teas
Bellocq Tea Caddies The team behind this artisan tea company---a pair of Martha Stewart alums and a design-firm exec---opened a Greenpoint boutique in October to showcase their small-farm, organic products. Given the group's pedigree, it's no surprise that they pack their fragrant loose-leaf beauties in stunning stainless steel and silver-plated tins with handsome labels. Discerning aesthetes will approve. Available at bellocq.com. $32--$91.
ProTeak Renewable Forestry Cheeseboard This gorgeous, eco-friendly cheese board is a cut above most chopping blocks: It's made from durable hardwood teak that is softer on knife blades, water-repellent and naturally antimicrobial, thanks to its high resin content. Each unique piece is constructed from smaller blocks featuring sections of the wood's beautiful growth rings. Available at gilttaste.com. 18" x 7" $49.95.
See more in Restaurants + Bars


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