text:
The influence of humans on the physical and biological systems of the Earth's surface is not a recent manifestation of modern societies; instead, it is ubiquitous throughout our history. As human populations have grown, so has their footprint, such that between 30 and 50 percent of the Earth's surface has now been transformed (Vitousek et al., 1997). Most of this land area is not covered with pavement; indeed, less than 10 percent of this transformed surface is truly "urban" (Grübler, 1994). However, urbanization causes extensive changes to the land surface beyond its immediate borders, particularly in ostensibly rural regions, through alterations by agriculture and forestry that support the urban population (Lambin et al., 2001). Within the immediate boundaries of cities and suburbs, the changes to natural conditions and processes wrought by urbanization are among the most radical of any human activity.
In the United States, population is growing at an annual rate of 0.9 percent (U.S. Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2007edition.html); the majority of the population of the United States now lives in suburban and urban areas (Figure 1-1). Because the area appropriated for urban land uses is growing even faster, these patterns of growth all but guarantee that the influences of urban land uses will continue to expand over time. Cities and suburbia obviously provide the homes and livelihood for most of the nation's population. But, as this report makes clear, these benefits have been accompanied by significant environmental change. Urbanization of the landscape profoundly affects how water moves both above and below ground during and following storm events; the quality of that stormwater (defined in Box 1-1); and the ultimate condition of nearby rivers, lakes, and estuaries. Unlike agriculture, which can display significant interchange with forest cover over time scales of a century (e.g., Hart, 1968), there is no indication that once-urbanized land ever returns to a less intensive state. Urban land, however, does continue to change over time; by one estimate, 42 percent of land currently considered "urban" in the United States will be redeveloped by 2030 (Brookings Institute, 2004). In their words, "nearly half of what will be the built environment in 2030 doesn't even exist yet" (p. vi). This truth belies the common belief that efforts to improve management of stormwater are doomed to irrelevancy because so much of the landscape is already built. Opportunities for improvement have indeed been lost, but many more still await an improved management approach.
Measures of urbanization are varied, and the disparate methods of quantifying the presence and influence of human activity tend to confound analyses of environmental effects. Population density is a direct metric of human presence, but it is not the most relevant measure of the influence of those people on their surrounding landscape. Expressions of the built environment, most commonly
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The influence of humans on the physical and biological systems of the
Earth's surface is not a recent manifestation of modern societies; instead, it is
ubiquitous throughout our history. As human populations have grown, so has
their footprint, such that between 30 and 50 percent of the Earth's surface has
now been transformed (Vitousek et al., 1997). Most of this land area is not cov-
ered with pavement; indeed, less than 10 percent of this transformed surface is
truly "urban" (Grübler, 1994). However, urbanization causes extensive changes
to the land surface beyond its immediate borders, particularly in ostensibly rural
regions, through alterations by agriculture and forestry that support the urban
population (Lambin et al., 2001). Within the immediate boundaries of cities and
suburbs, the changes to natural conditions and processes wrought by urbaniza-
tion are among the most radical of any human activity.
In the United States, population is growing at an annual rate of 0.9 percent
(U.S. Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2007edition.html);
the majority of the population of the United States now lives in suburban and
urban areas (Figure 1-1). Because the area appropriated for urban land uses is
growing even faster, these patterns of growth all but guarantee that the influ-
ences of urban land uses will continue to expand over time. Cities and suburbia
obviously provide the homes and livelihood for most of the nation's population.
But, as this report makes clear, these benefits have been accompanied by signifi-
cant environmental change. Urbanization of the landscape profoundly affects
how water moves both above and below ground during and following storm
events; the quality of that stormwater (defined in Box 1-1); and the ultimate
condition of nearby rivers, lakes, and estuaries. Unlike agriculture, which can
display significant interchange with forest cover over time scales of a century
(e.g., Hart, 1968), there is no indication that once-urbanized land ever returns to
a less intensive state. Urban land, however, does continue to change over time;
by one estimate, 42 percent of land currently considered "urban" in the United
States will be redeveloped by 2030 (Brookings Institute, 2004). In their words,
"nearly half of what will be the built environment in 2030 doesn't even exist
yet" (p. vi). This truth belies the common belief that efforts to improve man-
agement of stormwater are doomed to irrelevancy because so much of the land-
scape is already built. Opportunities for improvement have indeed been lost, but
many more still await an improved management approach.
Measures of urbanization are varied, and the disparate methods of quantify-
ing the presence and influence of human activity tend to confound analyses of
environmental effects. Population density is a direct metric of human presence,
but it is not the most relevant measure of the influence of those people on their
surrounding landscape. Expressions of the built environment, most commonly
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FIGURE 1-1 Histogram of population for the United States, based on 2000 census data.
The median population density is about 1,000 people/km2. SOURCE: Modified from Pozzi
and Small (2005), who place the rural–suburban boundary at 100 people/km . Reprinted,
with permission, from ASPRS (2005). Copyright 2005 by the American Society for Photo-
grammetry and Remote Sensing.
What Is "Stormwater"?
"Stormwater" is a term that is used widely in both scientific literature and regulatory
documents. It is also used frequently throughout this report. Although all of these usages
share much in common, there are important differences that benefit from an explicit discus-
Most broadly, stormwater runoff is the water associated with a rain or snow storm that
can be measured in a downstream river, stream, ditch, gutter, or pipe shortly after the pre-
cipitation has reached the ground. What constitutes "shortly" depends on the size of the
watershed and the efficiency of the drainage system, and a number of techniques exist to
precisely separate stormwater runoff from its more languid counterpart, "baseflow." For
small and highly urban watersheds, the interval between rainfall and measured stormwater
discharges may be only a few minutes. For watersheds of many tens or hundreds of
square miles, the lag between these two components of storm response may be hours or
even a day.
From a regulatory perspective, stormwater must pass through some sort of engi-
neered conveyance, be it a gutter, a pipe, or a concrete canal. If it simply runs over the
ground surface, or soaks into the soil and soon reemerges as seeps into a nearby stream,
it may be water generated by the storm but it is not regulated stormwater.
This report emphasizes the first, more hydrologically oriented definition. However, at-
tention is focused mainly on that component of stormwater that emanates from those parts
of a landscape that have been affected in some fashion by human activities ("urban storm-
water"). Mostly this includes water that flows over the ground surface and is subsequently
collected by natural channels or artificial conveyance systems, but it can also include water
that has infiltrated into the ground but nonetheless reaches a stream channel relatively
rapidly and that contributes to the increased stream discharge that commonly accompanies
almost any rainfall event in a human-disturbed watershed.
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road density or pavement coverage as a percentage of gross land area, are more
likely to determine stormwater runoff-related consequences. An inverse metric,
the percentage of mature vegetation or forest across a landscape, expresses the
magnitude of related, but not identical, impacts to downstream systems. Alter-
natively, these measures of land cover can be replaced by measures of land use,
wherein the types of human activity (e.g., residential, industrial, commercial) are
used as proxies for the suite of hydrologic, chemical, and biological changes
imposed on the surrounding landscape.
All of these metrics of urbanization are strongly correlated, although none
can directly substitute for another. They also are measured differently, which
renders one or another more suitable for a given application. Land use is a
common measure in the realm of urban planning, wherein current and future
conditions for a city or an entire region are characterized using equivalent cate-
gories across parcels, blocks, or broad regions. Road density can be reliably and
rapidly measured, either manually or in a Geographic Information System envi-
ronment, and it commonly displays a very good correlation with other measures
of human activity. "Land cover," however, and particularly the percentage of
impervious cover, is the metric most commonly used in studying the effects of
urban development on stormwater, because it clearly expresses the hydrologic
influence and watershed scale of urbanization. Box 1-2 describes the ways in
which the percent of impervious cover in a watershed is measured.
There is no universally accepted terminology to describe land-cover or land-
use conditions along the rural-to-urban gradient. Pozzi and Small (2005), for
example, identified "rural," "suburban," and "urban" land uses on the basis of
population density and vegetation cover, but they did not observe abrupt transi-
tions that suggested natural boundaries (see Figure 1-1). In contrast, the Center
for Watershed Protection (2005) defined the same terms but used impervious
area percentage as the criterion, with such labels as "rural" (0 to 10 percent im-
perviousness), "suburban" (10 to 25 percent imperviousness), "urban" (25 to 60
percent imperviousness) and "ultra-urban" (greater than 60 percent impervious-
Beyond the problems posed by precise yet inconsistent definitions for
commonly used words, none of the boundaries specified by these definitions are
reflected in either hydrologic or ecosystem responses. Hydrologic response is
strongly dependent on both land cover and drainage connectivity (e.g., Leopold,
1968); ecological responses in urbanizing watersheds do not show marked
thresholds along an urban gradient (e.g., Figure 1-2) and they are dependent on
not only the sheer magnitude of urban development but also the spatial configu-
ration of that development across the watershed (Alberti et al., 2006). This re-
port, therefore, uses such terms as "urban" and "suburban" under their common
usage, without implying or advocating for a more precise (but ultimately limited
and discipline-specific) definition.
Changing land cover and land use influence the physical, chemical, and bio-
logical conditions of downstream waterways. The specific mechanisms by
which this influence occurs vary from place to place, and even a cursory review
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Measures of Impervious Cover
The percentage of impervious surface or cover in a landscape is the most frequently
used measure of urbanization. Yet this parameter has its limitations, in part because it has
not been consistently used or defined. Most significant is the distinction between total imper-
vious area (TIA) and effective impervious area (EIA). TIA is the "intuitive" definition of impervi-
ousness: that fraction of the watershed covered by constructed, non-infiltrating surfaces such
as concrete, asphalt, and buildings. Hydrologically, however, this definition is incomplete for
two reasons. First, it ignores nominally "pervious" surfaces that are sufficiently compacted or
otherwise so low in permeability that the rate of runoff from them is similar or indistinguishable
from pavement. For example, Burges and others (1998) found that the impervious unit-area
runoff was only 20 percent greater than that from pervious areas—primarily thin sodded lawns
over glacial till—in a western Washington residential subdivision. Clearly, this hydrologic con-
tribution cannot be ignored entirely.
The second limitation of TIA is that it includes some paved surfaces that may contribute
nothing to the stormwater-runoff response of the downstream channel. A gazebo in the middle
of parkland, for example, probably will impose no hydrologic changes into the catchment except
for a very localized elevation of soil moisture at the edge of its roof. Less obvious, but still rele-
vant, would be the different downstream consequences of rooftops that drain alternatively into a
piped storm-drain system with direct discharge into a natural stream or onto splash blocks that
disperse the runoff onto the garden or lawn at each corner of the building. This metric therefore
cannot recognize any stormwater mitigation that may result from alternative runoff-
management strategies, for example, pervious pavements or rainwater harvesting.
The first of these TIA limitations, the production of significant runoff from nominally pervi-
ous surfaces, is typically ignored in the characterization of urban development. The reason for
such an approach lies in the difficulty in identifying such areas and estimating their contribution,
and because of the credible belief that the degree to which pervious areas shed water as over-
land flow should be related, albeit imperfectly, with the amount of impervious area: where con-
struction and development are more intense and cover progressively greater fractions of the
of the literature demonstrates that many different factors can be important, such
as changes to flow regime, physical and chemical constituents in the water col-
umn, or the physical form of the stream channel itself (Paul and Meyer, 2001).
Not all of these changes are present in any given system—lakes, wetlands, and
streams can be altered by human activity in many different ways, each unique to
the activity and the setting in which it occurs. Nonetheless, direct influences of
land-use change on freshwater systems commonly include the following (Nai-
man and Turner, 2000):
• Altering the composition and structure of the natural flora and fauna,
• Changing disturbance regimes,
• Fragmenting the land into smaller and more diverse parcels, and
• Changing the juxtaposition between parcel types.
Historically, human-induced alteration was not universally seen as a prob-
lem. In particular, dams and other stream-channel "improvements" were a
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watershed, it is more likely that the intervening green spaces have been stripped and com-
pacted during construction and only imperfectly rehabilitated for their hydrologic functions dur-
ing subsequent "landscaping."
The second of these TIA limitations, inclusion of non-contributing impervious areas, is
formally addressed through the concept of EIA, defined as the impervious surfaces with direct
hydraulic connection to the downstream drainage (or stream) system. Thus, any part of the TIA
that drains onto pervious (i.e., "green") ground is excluded from the measurement of EIA. This
parameter, at least conceptually, captures the hydrologic significance of imperviousness. EIA
is the parameter normally used to characterize urban development in hydrologic models.
The direct measurement of EIA is complicated. Studies designed specifically to quantify
this parameter must make direct, independent measurements of both TIA and EIA (Alley and
Veenhuis, 1983; Laenen, 1983; Prysch and Ebbert, 1986). The results can then be general-
ized either as a correlation between the two parameters or as a "typical" value for a given land
use. Sutherland (1995) developed an equation that describes the relationship between EIA
and TIA. Its general form is:
where A and B are a unique combination of numbers that satisfy the following criteria:
TIA = 1 then EIA = 0%
TIA = 100 then EIA = 100%
A commonly used version of this equation (EIA = 0.15 TIA ) was based on samples
from highly urbanized land uses in Denver, Colorado (Alley and Veenhuis, 1983; Gregory
et al., 2005). These results, however, are almost certainly region- and even neighborhood-
specific, and, although highly relevant to watershed studies, they can be quite laborious to
common activity of municipal and federal engineering works of the mid-20th
century (Williams and Wolman, 1984). "Flood control" implied a betterment of
conditions, at least for streamside residents (Chang, 1992). And fisheries "en-
hancements," commonly reflected by massive infrastructure for hatcheries or
artificial spawning channels, were once seen as unequivocal benefits for fish
populations (White, 1996; Levin et al., 2001).
By almost any currently applied metric, however, the net result of human al-
teration of the landscape to date has resulted in a degradation of the conditions
in downstream watercourses. Many prior researchers, particularly when consid-
ering ecological conditions and metrics, have recognized a crude but monotoni-
cally declining relationship between human-induced landscape alteration and
downstream conditions (e.g., Figure 1-2; Horner et al., 1997; Davies and Jack-
son, 2006). These include metrics of physical stream-channel conditions (e.g.,
Bledsoe and Watson, 2001), chemical constituents (e.g., Figure 1-3; House et al.,
1993), and biological communities (e.g., Figure 1-4; Steedman, 1988; Wang et
al., 1997).
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FIGURE 1-2 Conceptual model (top) and actual response (bottom) of a biological system's
response to stress. The "Urban Gradient of Stressors" might be a single metric of urbani-
zation, such as percent watershed impervious or road density; the "Biological Indicator"
may be single-metric or multi-metric measures of the level of disturbance in an aquatic
community. The right-declining line traces the limits of a "factor-ceiling distribution" (Thom-
son et al., 1986), wherein individual sites (i.e., data points) have a wide range of potential
values for a given position along the urban gradient but are not observed above a maxi-
mum possible limit of the biological index. The bottom graph illustrates actual biological
responses, using a biotic index developed to show responses to urban impacts plotted
against a standardized urban gradient comprising urban land use, road density, and popu-
lation. SOURCE: Top figure reprinted, with permission, from Davies and Jackson (2006).
Copyright by the Ecological Society of America. Bottom figure reprinted, with permission,
from Barbour et al. (2006). Copyright by the Water Environment Research Foundation.
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FIGURE 1-3 Example relationships between road density (a surrogate measure of urban
development) and common water quality constituents. Direct causality is not necessarily
implied by such relationships, but the monotonic increase in concentrations with increasing
"urbanization," however measured, is near-universal. SOURCE: Reprinted, with permis-
sion, from Chang and Carlson (2005). Copyright 2005 by Springer.
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FIGURE 1-4 Plots of Effective Impervious Area (EIA, or "connected imperviousness")
against metrics of biologic response in fish populations. SOURCE: Reprinted, with permis-
sion, from Wang et al. (2001). Copyright 2001 by Springer.
The association between watercourse degradation and landscape alteration
in general, and urban development in particular, seems inexorable. The scien-
tific and regulatory challenge of the last three decades has been to decouple this
relationship, in some cases to reverse its trend and in others to manage where
these impacts are to occur.
Since passage of the Water Quality Act of 1948 and the Clean Water Act
(CWA) of 1972, 1977, and 1987, water quality in the United States has meas-
urably improved in the major streams and rivers and in the Great Lakes. How-
ever, substantial challenges and problems remain. Major reporting efforts that
have examined state and national indicators of condition, such as CWA 305(b)
reports (EPA, 2002) and the Heinz State of the Nation's Ecosystem report
(Heinz Center, 2002), or environmental monitoring that was designed to provide
statistically valid estimates of condition (e.g., National Wadeable Stream As-
sessment; EPA, 2006), have confirmed widespread impairments related to dif-
fuse sources of pollution and stressors.
The National Water Quality Inventory (derived from Section 305b of the
CWA) compiles data in relation to use designations and water quality standards.
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As discussed in greater detail in Chapter 2, such standards include both (1) a
description of the use that a waterbody is supposed to achieve (such as a source
of drinking water or a cold water fishery) and (2) narrative or numeric criteria
for physical, chemical, and biological parameters that allow the designated use
to be achieved. As of 2002, 45 percent of assessed streams and rivers, 47 per-
cent of assessed lakes, 32 percent of assessed estuarine areas, 17 percent of as-
sessed shoreline miles, 87 percent of near-coastal ocean areas, 51 percent of
assessed wetlands, 91 percent of assessed Great Lakes shoreline miles, and 99
percent of assessed Great Lakes open water areas were not meeting water qual-
ity standards set by the states (2002 EPA Report to Congress).1
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has also embarked on a
five-year statistically valid survey of the nation's waters (http://www.epa.gov/
owow/monitoring/guide.pdf). To date, two waterbody types—coastal areas and
wadeable streams—have been assessed. The most recent data indicate that 42
percent of wadeable streams are in poor biological condition and 25 percent are
in fair condition (EPA, 2006). The overall condition of the nation's estuaries is
generally fair, with Puerto Rico and Northeast Coast regions rated poor, the Gulf
Coast and West Coast regions rated fair, and the Southeast Coast region rated
good to fair (EPA, 2007). These condition ratings for the National Estuary Pro-
gram are based on a water quality index, a sediment quality index, a benthic
index, and a fish tissue contaminants index.
The impairment of waterbodies is manifested in a multitude of ways. In-
deed, EPA's primary process for reporting waterbody condition (Section 303(d)
of the CWA—see Chapter 2) identifies over 200 distinct types of impairments.
As shown in Table 1-1, these have been categorized into 15 broad categories,
encompassing about 94 percent of all impairments. 59,515 waterbodies fall into
one of the top 15 categories, while the total reported number of waterbodies
impaired from all causes is 63,599 (which is an underestimate of the actual total
because not all waterbodies are assessed). Mercury, microbial pathogens, sedi-
ments, other metals, and nutrients are the major pollutants associated with im-
paired waterbodies nationwide. These constituents have direct impacts on
aquatic ecosystems and public health, which form the basis of the water quality
standards set for these compounds. Sediments can harm fish and macroinverte-
brate communities by introducing sorbed contaminants, decreasing available
light in streams, and smothering fish eggs. Microbial pathogens can cause dis-
ease to humans via both ingestion and dermal contact and are frequently cited as
the cause of beach closures and other recreational water hazards in lakes and
estuaries. Nutrient over-enrichment can promote a cascade of events in water-
bodies from algal blooms to decreases in dissolved oxygen and associated fish
kills. Metals like mercury, pesticides, and other organic compounds that enter
EPA does not yet have the 2004 assessment findings compiled in a consistent format
from all the states. EPA is also working on processing the states 2006 Integrated Reports
as the 303(d) portions are approved and the states submit their final assessment findings.
Susan Holdsworth, EPA, personal communication, September 2007.
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waterways can be taken up by fish species, accumulating in their tissues and
presenting a health risk to organisms (including humans) that consume the fish.
However, Table 1-1 can be misleading if it implies that degraded water
quality is the primary metric of impairment. In fact, many of the nation's
streams, lakes, and estuaries also suffer from fundamental changes in their flow
regime and energy inputs, alteration of aquatic habitats, and resulting disruption
of biotic interactions that are not easily measured via pollutant concentrations.
Such waters may not be listed on State 303(d) lists because of the absence of a
corresponding water quality standard that would directly indicate such condi-
tions (like a biocriterion). Figure 1-5A, B, and C show examples of such im-
pacted waterbodies.
TABLE 1-1 Top 15 Categories of Impairment Requiring CWA Section 303(d) Action
Cause of Impairment Number of Waterbodies Percent of the Total
Mercury 8,555 14%
Pathogens 8,526 14%
Sediment 6,689 11%
Metals (other than mercury) 6,389 11%
Nutrients 5,654 10%
Oxygen depletion 4,568 8%
pH 3,389 6%
Cause unknown - biological
2,866 5%
Temperature 2,854 5%
Habitat alteration 2,220 4%
PCBs 2,081 3%
Turbidity 2,050 3%
Cause unknown 1,356 2%
Pesticides 1,322 2%
Salinity/TDS/chlorides 996 2%
Note: "Waterbodies" refers to individual river segments, lakes, and reservoirs. A single
waterbody can have multiple impairments. Because most waters are not assessed, how-
ever, there is no estimate of the number of unimpaired waters in the United States.
SOURCE: EPA, National Section 303(d) List Fact Sheet (http://iaspub.epa.gov/waters/
national_rept.control). The data are based on three-fourths of states reporting from 2004
lists, with the remaining from earlier lists and one state from a 2006 list.
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FIGURE 1-5A Headwater tributary in Philadelphia suffering from Urban Stream Syndrome.
SOURCE: Courtesy of Chris Crockett, Philadelphia Water Department.
Center for Watershed Protection
FIGURE 1-5B A destabilized stream in Vermont. SOURCE: Courtesy of Pete LaFlamme,
Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation.
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of stormwater discharges combined with a regulatory process that was created
for point sources (the NPDES permitting approach). These problems are com-
pounded by the shear number of entities requiring oversight. Although exact
numbers are not available, EPA estimates that the number of regulated MS4s is
about 7,000, including 1,000 Phase I municipalities and 6,000 from Phase II.
The number of industrial permittees is thought to be around 100,000. Each year,
the construction permit covers around 200,000 permittees each for both Phase I
(five acres or greater) and Phase II (one to five acres) projects. Thus, the total
number of permittees under the stormwater program at any time numbers greater
than half a million. There are fewer than 100,000 non-stormwater (meaning
wastewater) permittees covered by the NPDES program, such that stormwater
permittees account for approximately 80 percent of NPDES-regulated entities.
To manage this large number of permittees, the stormwater program relies heav-
ily on the use of general permits to control industrial, construction, and Phase II
MS4 discharges, which are usually statewide, one-size-fits-all permits in which
general provisions are stipulated.
An example of the burden felt by a single state is provided by Michigan
(David Drullinger, Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Water Bu-
reau, personal communication, September 2007). The Phase I Stormwater regu-
lations that became effective in 1990 regulate 3,400 industrial sites, 765 con-
struction sites per year, and five large cities in Michigan. The Phase II regula-
tions, effective since 1999, have extended the requirements to 7,000 construction
sites per year and 550 new jurisdictions, which are comprised of about 350
"primary jurisdictions" (cities, villages, and townships) and 200 "nested juris-
dictions" (county drains, road agencies, and public schools). Often, only a hand-
ful of state employees are allocated to administer the entire program (see the
survey in Appendix C).
In order to comply with the CWA regulations, permittees must fulfill a
number of requirements, including the creation and implementation of a storm-
water pollution prevention plan, and in some cases, monitoring of stormwater
discharges. Stormwater pollution prevention plans document the stormwater
control measures (SCMs; sometimes known as best management practices or
BMPs) that will be used to prevent or slow stormwater from quickly reaching
nearby waterbodies and degrading their quality. These include structural meth-
ods such as detention ponds and nonstructural methods such as designing new
development to reduce the percentage of impervious surfaces. Unfortunately,
data on the degree of pollutant reduction that can be assigned to a particular
SCM are only now becoming available (see Chapter 5).
Other sources of variability in EPA's stormwater program are that (1) there
are three permit types (municipal, industrial, and construction), (2) some states
and local governments have assumed primacy for the program from EPA while
others have not, and state effluent limits or benchmarks for stormwater dis-
charges may differ from the federal requirements, and (3) whether there are
monitoring requirements varies depending on the regulating entity and the type
of activity. For industrial stormwater there are 29 sectors of industrial activity
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covered by the general permit, each of which is characterized by a different suite
of possible contaminants and SCMs.
Because of the industry-, site-, and community-specific nature of stormwa-
ter pollution prevention plans, and because of the lack of resources of most
NPDES permitting authorities to review these plans and conduct regular compli-
ance inspections, water quality-related accountability in the stormwater program
is poor. Monitoring data are minimal for most permittees, despite the fact that
they are often the only indicators of whether an adequate stormwater program is
being implemented. At the present time, available monitoring data indicate that
many industrial facilities routinely exceed "benchmark values" established by
EPA or the states, although it is not clear whether these exceedances provide
useful indicators of stormwater pollution prevention plan inadequacies or poten-
tial water quality problems. These uncertainties have led to mounting and con-
tradictory pressure from permittees to eliminate monitoring requirements en-
tirely as well as from those hoping for greater monitoring requirements to better
understand the true nature of stormwater discharges and their impact.
To improve the accountability of it Stormwater Program, EPA requested ad-
vice on stormwater issues from the National Research Council's (NRC's) Water
Science and Technology Board as the next round of general permits is being
prepared. Although the drivers for this study have been in the industrial storm-
water arena, this study considered all entities regulated under the NPDES pro-
gram (municipal, industrial, and construction). The following statement of task
guided the work of the committee:
(1) Clarify the mechanisms by which pollutants in stormwater discharges
affect ambient water quality criteria and define the elements of a "protocol" to
link pollutants in stormwater discharges to ambient water quality criteria.
(2) Consider how useful monitoring is for both determining the potential of
a discharge to contribute to a water quality standards violation and for determin-
ing the adequacy of stormwater pollution prevention plans. What specific pa-
rameters should be monitored and when and where? What effluent limits and
benchmarks are needed to ensure that the discharge does not cause or contribute
to a water quality standards violation?
(3) Assess and evaluate the relationship between different levels of storm-
water pollution prevention plan implementation and in-stream water quality,
considering a broad suite of SCMs.
(4) Make recommendations for how to best stipulate provisions in storm-
water permits to ensure that discharges will not cause or contribute to ex-
ceedances of water quality standards. This should be done in the context of gen-
eral permits. As a part of this task, the committee will consider currently avail-
able information on permit and program compliance.
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(5) Assess the design of the stormwater permitting program implemented
under the CWA.
The report is intended to inform decision makers within EPA, affected indus-
tries, public stormwater utilities, other government agencies and the private sec-
tor about potential options for managing stormwater.
EPA requested that the study be limited to those issues that fall under the
agency's current regulatory scheme for stormwater, which excludes nonpoint
sources of pollution such as agricultural runoff and septic systems. Thus, these
sources are not extensively covered in this report. The reader is referred to NRC
(2000, 2005) for more detailed information on the contribution of agricultural
runoff and septic systems to waterbody impairment and on innovative technolo-
gies for treating these sources. Also at the request of EPA, concentrated animal
feeding operations and combined sewer overflows were not a primary focus.
However, the committee felt that in order to be most useful it should opine on
certain critical effects of regulated stormwater beyond the delivery of traditional
pollutants. Thus, changes in stream flow, streambank erosion, and habitat altera-
tions caused by stormwater are considered, despite the relative inattention given
to them in current regulations.
Chapter 2 presents the regulatory history of stormwater control in the
United States, focusing on relevant portions of the CWA and the regulations that
have been created to implement the Act. Federal, state, and local programs for
or affecting stormwater management are described and critiqued. Chapter 3
deals with the first item in the statement of task. It reviews the scientific aspects
of stormwater, including sources of pollutants in stormwater, how stormwater
moves across the land surface, and its impacts on receiving waters. It reflects
the best of currently available science, and addresses biological endpoints that
go far beyond ambient water quality criteria. Methods for monitoring and mod-
eling stormwater (the subject of the second item in the statement of task) are
described in Chapter 4. The material evaluates the usefulness of current bench-
mark and MS4 monitoring requirements, and suggestions for improvement are
made. The latter half of the chapter considers the multitude of models available
for linking stormwater discharges to ambient water quality. This analysis makes
it clear that stormwater pollution cannot yet be treated as a deterministic system
(in which the contribution of individual dischargers to a waterbody impairment
can be identified) without significantly greater investment in model develop-
ment. Addressing primarily the third item in the statement of task, Chapter 5
considers the vast suite of both structural and nonstructural measures designed
to control stormwater and reduce its pollutant loading to waterbodies. It also
takes on relevant larger-scale concepts, such as the benefit of stormwater man-
agement within a watershed framework. In Chapter 6, the limitations and possi-
bilities associated with a new regulatory approach are explored, as are those of
an enhanced but more traditional scheme. Numerous suggestions for improving
the stormwater permitting process for municipalities, industrial sites, and con-
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struction are made. Along with Chapter 2, this chapter addresses the final two
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Discussions Started (1) | Replies | Latest Activity |
First Natural Childbirth out of 4 kidsAfter watching the BOBB I was amazed at how many women had the same experiences I did. My first child in 2003 was a healthy pregnancy no is… Started by Atarah Greiwe in Birth Stories |
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« The Baseball Project playing a baseball (card) event @ the Met tonight; Cold Cave tix on sale; Grouper tonight too | Frances Cobain says Twitter should ban her mother »
Posted in music | tour dates on April 13, 2012
The Tallest Man on Earth @ Webster Hall 2010 (more by Jessica Amaya)
The Tallest Man on Earth added a couple more North American shows to his itinerary since the 2nd NYC show, which goes on sale at 11am, was announced. Updated dates are listed below...
The Tallest Man on Earth -- 2012 Tour Dates
05/31/12: Stockholm, Sweden - Sodra Teatern
06/01/12: Stockholm, Sweden - Sodra Teatern
06/03/12: Goteberg, Sweden - Pusterviksbaren
06/12/12: Los Angeles, CA - The Wiltern
06/15/12: Toronto, ON- Queen Elizabeth Theatre
06/19/12: New York, NY - Town Hall
06/20/12: New York, NY - Town Hall -SOLD OUT
07/03/12: London, UK - Hackney Empire
07/04/12: Amsterdam, NL - Paradiso
07/06/12: Berlin, Germany - Lido
07/07/12: Dachau, Germany - Dachauer Musiksommer
07/29/12: Newport, RI - Newport Folk Festival
08/03/12: Chicago, IL- Lollapalooza
08/17/12: Hasselt, Belgium - Pukkelpop
Comments (15)
Please, inform us all on how he is an asshole. I'm dying to know.
Posted by Anonymous | April 13, 2012 10:47 AM
Seriously, what a stupid and uninformed comment.
Tallest Man on Earth > Black People
Posted by Anonymous | April 13, 2012 10:53 AM
I think we need a steel cage match between King Dude and The Tallest Man On Earth to find out who's got the goods and who is full of hyperbole.
Posted by Anonymous | April 13, 2012 12:39 PM
Oh I like this game. 12:33, you used the word "ain't," and "$$" instead of "ss." Therefore, you're an asshole.
Posted by Anonymous | April 13, 2012 12:59 PM
I agree - any faggot that uses the $ instead of just typing out asshole (or the 1 when typing nigger for that matter) is a total douchenozzle.
Posted by Anonymous | April 13, 2012 2:03 PM
Pastey no-muscle hipsters acting tough on a message board. Good stuff.
Posted by Anonymous | April 13, 2012 4:55 PM
It was really rocking! The band was incredible. The night was really loud too.
Posted by Jay P. Clark | February 2, 2013 12:38 AM
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LPI Linux Certification/Customising System Startup & Boot Processes
From Wikibooks, open books for an open world
Detailed Objective[edit]
Weight: 4
Candidates should be able to query and modify the behaviour of system services at various run levels. A thorough understanding of the init structure and boot process is required. This objective includes interacting with runlevels.
- Key Knowledge Areas:
- Linux Standard Base Specification (LSB)
- The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
- /etc/inittab
- /etc/init.d/
- /etc/rc.d/
- chkconfig
- update-rc.d


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BioBlitz: Saguaro National Park
This two-day celebration of biodiversity centers on a 24-hour race to count species. Join this mission to add wildlife spottings in the Tucson area before, during, and after this great event. Naturalists and taxonomy specialists not attending the event are also invited to participate by using their expertise to help identify observations submitted to the mission. Submitted photos will also be added to National Geographic's Flickr set which you can visit here. Sign in to join mission


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The below documents describe the updates and changes to the NRS from recent program years and other guidance about NRS policies and procedures.
State Assessment Policy Guidance
508 Compliant Version
All states must submit annually an assessment policy to DAEL that meets NRS requirements. This guide for state staff describes the key topics and information that must go into this policy.
NRS Test Benchmarks for Educational Functioning Levels (EFL) (Updated February 2015)
508 Compliant Version
Quick reference to current test benchmarks for educational functioning levels.
(Last updated July 2014)
Follow this link to learn more about file formats, file viewers, and support for the visually impaired.


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Driving Through Time - The Digital Blue Ridge Parkway
About this Image
Title | Push Plans For Scenic Parkway |
Date | February 1, 1934 |
Description | This article reports on plans for a North Carolina delegation set to attend the February 6 Parkway planning conference in Baltimore. Mentions a plan for a "loop" route as a concession for Tennessee. |
Creator Organization | Raleigh News and Observer |
Tags |
Blue Ridge Parkway--Planning
Clippings (Books, newspapers, etc.) Ehringhaus, J.C.B. (John Christoph Blucher) Jeffress, E.B. (Edwin Bedford) |
Credit | North Carolina Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill |


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Reach: A Wakeboard Film
A Wakeboarding video by reachfilms - 5,826 views
Featuring Tom Fooshee, Marc Shuster, Daniel Grant and Nick Davies, Nick Kamper, James Young, Lior Sofer, and Diego Shaw! Reach has been a year in the making and I have had the most fun filming this project. I hope you enjoy watching it as I did making it, if you like the movie feel free to comment on the page and tell us about it. Special thanks to Jeff Trudeau and wakehelp.com Enjoy, Geoff
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Penguins acquire defenseman Murray from San Jose
Penguins/NHL Videos
Ray Shero is not thinking about the Stanley Cup.
"What we've talked about is getting to the playoffs and winning four games," said Shero, the Penguins general manager. "Just win four games. Then we're going to get onto the next four games. That's all we're going to do. You have to have the right complement of players to try to do that, to give yourself the best chance."
The Penguins added rugged defenseman Douglas Murray from San Jose on Monday afternoon. The exchange was a second-round pick at the 2013 NHL Entry Draft and a conditional third-round pick next year.
Murray, 33, is on an expiring contract. If he re-signs with the Penguins, that conditional pick becomes a second rounder. Also, that 2014 pick would become a second rounder if the Penguins win two playoff rounds this season.
Murray did not play top-four minutes with the Sharks, averaging a tick more than 17 minutes. However, his nearly three minutes of shorthanded ice time was second for San Jose, and his 64 blocked shots rated among the top 25 of all NHL players.
Murray will not play for the Penguins against Montreal at Consol Energy Center on Tuesday but should debut against Winnipeg at home Thursday.
Shero may have made another move or two by then.
His aim is to shore up a penalty kill that ranked 21st as of Monday, but he has not ruled out anything other than goaltender — even another top-six winger or a bottom-six forward.
The Penguins have a little less than $20 million in prorated salary-cap space to spend on players in advance of the April 3 trade deadline. Murray is the 47th player on a Reserve List that maxes out at 50.
Shero and his staff have spent the past four regular seasons trying to preserve as much cap space as possible for possible deadline-period moves.
Five years ago, he turned roster flexibility into wingers Marian Hossa and Pascal Dupuis and defenseman Hal Gill at the trade deadline. The Penguins played in the Stanley Cup Final that June and won the Cup the next year.
"There's one thing to have salary-cap space, but if you don't have the assets it's tough to get anybody," Shero said.
Murray was had in part because Shero secured a 2013 third-round pick — Dallas' lowest of multiple Round 3 picks — in the trade for left winger Brenden Morrow on Sunday afternoon. To land Morrow, Shero surrendered Joe Morrow, a top defensive prospect, and the Penguins' 2013 fifth-round pick.
The Penguins (25-8-0, 50 points) lead the Eastern Conference and have won 12 consecutive games, but Shero does not seem influenced by either his club's record or winning streak.
Morrow and Murray add an element of toughness, coach Dan Bylsma said.
The Penguins have not admitted they lacked that attribute in their last three playoff losses — all to lower-seeded opponents — but Shero and Bylsma have each recently referred to a favorite phrase: "tough to play against."
Shero's best clubs — those Cup Final teams — have blended skill and grit, youth and experience and a nucleus with fresh faces.
These Penguins fit that mold.
"Everybody believes they have a good team," Shero said. "We have a nice, good team. You try to do what you can to strengthen it and let them play."
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Released: Mar 01st, 2001
Running Time: 89
Director: Slain Wayne
Company: Extreme Associates
Valentino (I), Brandon Irons, Mark Wood, Kat Langer, Susie (I), Tony Michaels (I), Others, Porsche, Luciano (I)
Critical Rating: AAAA
Genre: All-Sex
Stock prominently in your gangbang section where the eye-catching box cover will help it move, but warn about rough content (this ain't your Grandma's gangbang - the times, they are a-changin').
It's Porsche's first and last gangbang, and she really makes it count. My God, this woman can suck a mean dick while getting banged! Ya gotta respect a gal who can multitask in the midst of a herd of testosterone-saturated manhood like this bunch, and not go ballistic when the face-slapping and spitting starts. Every orifice gets crammed with man-meat - there's rotating d.p. action, double-vag, and in the end, so much cum on her kisser that her face and shoulders look like a glazed donut.
Susie is sandwiched between Porsche and Kat Langer, but doesn't quite touch the sexual feats that the other two embrace. Kat takes her multi-positional double vaginals like a seasoned pro, but the flesh-pretzel triple-vag is truly make-me-wince phenomenal. She doesn't miss a beat, and that's saying a lot.


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Special Rates
Why not stay over at the Glynhill Hotel?
We are offering special rates for guests while attending Festive Functions within the Hotel.
Double or Twin Rooms from £33.00 per person sharing Twin or Double Room.
Upgrade to Club Rooms from £10.00 extra per person sharing.
Single rooms from £53.00 per night.


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• Total time: 35 minutes
• Meal Type: Main course
• Region: Nigeria
Looks yummy! Have you tried using a 1/4 cup of pure extra virgin coconut oil? Living foods brand is the best, best I tell you (got it from Health plus pharmacy here in Lekki, but it's available anywhere fine foods are sold - check it out on Amazon.com). Used it for Jollof rice this evening and I tell you that literally as I type, my husband is having seconds :-D. The coconut flavor is resplendent, and the health benefits are myriad. No more coconut milk for me :-)


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New Images Of Henry Cavil As A Bearded Clark Kent On The Set 'Man Of Steel'
Socialitelife have got their mitts on these intriguing photos of Henry Cavill as a bearded Clark Kent on the Vancouver set of Zack Snyder's upcoming 'Superman: Man of Steel.' From these images it looks like Clark/Superman falls on some hard times through the course of the movie.
Alongside Henry Cavill the film also stars Amy Adams as the plucky journalist Lois Lane, Michael Shannon as General Zod, Antje Traue as Faora, Laurence Fishburn as Perry White, Russell Crowe as Jor-El, Superman's Kryptonian father, Ayelet Zureras as Superman's Kryptonian mother Lara Lor-Van, Kevin Costner as Superman/Clarke's adoptive father Jonathan Kent, and Diane Lane, who plays his wife Martha. Written by David Goyer and Jonathan Nolan, the film is set for release June 14th, 2013. Check out the rumoured brief synopsis for the film below.
"In the pantheon of superheroes, Superman is the most recognized and revered character of all time. Clark Kent/Kal-El (Cavill) is a young twentysomething journalist who feels alienated by powers beyond anyone's imagination. Transported to Earth years ago from Krypton, an advanced alien planet, Clark struggles with the ultimate question – Why am I here? Shaped by the values of his adoptive parents Martha (Lane) and Jonathan Kent (Costner), Clark soon discovers that having super abilities means making very difficult decisions. But when the world needs stability the most, it comes under attack. Will his abilities be used to maintain peace or ultimately used to divide and conquer? Clark must become the hero known as "Superman," not only to shine as the world's last beacon of hope but to protect the ones he loves."
This entry was posted by admin on October 6, 2011 at 10:53 am, and is filed under Film. Follow any responses to this post through RSS 2.0. You can leave a response or trackback from your own site. |


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Culture, History, Gastronomy, Beauty, The List Goes on…
Few places inspire the imagination quite like Tuscany. Stretching from the west coast to the center of the Italian peninsula, its countryside is characterized by sienna-colored hills, sinuous rows of cypress trees, and hill-top villages spiked with campanili and domed cathedrals.
Siena, Florence's longstanding rival to the south, sits majestically on three hill tops and preserves an incomparable mix of architectural and cultural traditions. While it too is a popular destination for travelers, the Sienese live for themselves, and the fabric and traditions of daily life are every bit as authentic today as they were 400 years ago. The Palio, its famous medieval pageant, inspires ancient passions to this day, culminating in a rowdy horse race in the main "Campo" piazza before crowds of thousands. Each race is preceded by street parties where neighborhoods gather for communal dinners, and the horse for each contrada (city district) is blessed in the parish church.
Chianti and the wine regions around Pienza, Montepulciano and Montalcino offer a portrait of the classic Tuscan landscape – rows of cypress trees punctuate the vineyards, and the brilliant hues of the earth distinguish the stark landscape of the crete. The vistas are spectacular, the wines are renowned – who could ask for anything more? There are even a number of spa towns where you can indulge yourself – San Casciano dei Bagni, where the bagni have been appreciated since Roman times, is one of the most charming (and pampering). Don't be surprised if you recognize a scene from any number of film classics, like Portrait of a Lady or A Room with a View. Or visit the area around Cetona and Cortona to discover the setting of Frances Mayes' popular books, Under the Tuscan Sun and Bella Tuscany.
Tuscany Must-Dos and Can't-Misses…
- Tasting vini nobili in Montepulciano and Montalcino
- Partaking in the passeggiata (the evening stroll) along the main street of any medieval town
- Wandering the galleries of the Uffizi
- Thermal baths in San Casciano dei Bagni or Bagno Vignoni
- The gardens at La Foce
- Pecorino cheese tasting in Pienza and a side visit to San Quirico – two gorgeous towns with few tourists
Tuscany for Kids…
- A private pasta or pizza-making class with one of Hosted Villas' chefs
- A boat ride on Lago Trasimeno
- The Palio in Siena July 2 or August 16 or the pre-Palio festivities
- Hot air ballooning above Pienza
- Hands-on ceramics class
- Gelato!!!
Sumptuous style in the heart of Chianti
Bedrooms: 5Bathrooms: 5Children: YesMax Occupancy: 10Podere due Preti
Modern Italian style in old-world setting
Bedrooms: 5Bathrooms: 5Children: YesMax Occupancy: 10Villa Vico
Spacious hillside villa minutes from Siena
Bedrooms: 5Bathrooms: 5Children: YesMax Occupancy: 10Borgo dei Santi
Spacious farmstead in Senese hills
Bedrooms: 6Bathrooms: 6Children: YesMax Occupancy: 12La Scuola
Zen-like elegance in restored schoolhouse
Bedrooms: 6Bathrooms: 6Children: YesMax Occupancy: 12Campo Dell'Amato
Tuscan living near thermal spas
Bedrooms: 7Bathrooms: 7Children: YesMax Occupancy: 13Castello Della Staffa
An authentic Italian castle
Bedrooms: 7Bathrooms: 9Children: YesMax Occupancy: 15 (+15 in nearby tower)La Senese
Country house splendor minutes from Siena
Bedrooms: 7Bathrooms: 5Children: YesMax Occupancy: 14Villa Porsenna
A unique villa in a Tuscan town
Bedrooms: 7Bathrooms: 7Children: YesMax Occupancy: 14Il Saliceto
Old-world charm in a garden setting
Bedrooms: 8Bathrooms: 7Children: YesMax Occupancy: 16Villa Etrusca
A noble country estate below Cortona
Bedrooms: 8Bathrooms: 7Children: YesMax Occupancy: 16Torre Della Guardia
A gorgeous country estate in the heart of Chianti
Bedrooms: 11Bathrooms: 7Children: YesMax Occupancy: 22Borgo San Michele
The ultimate Tuscan retreat for groups
Bedrooms: 15Bathrooms: 15Children: YesMax Occupancy: 30Casa Passerini
Style in the rolling Tuscan hills
Bedrooms: 7Bathrooms: 6Children: YesMax Occupancy: 12La Farfalla
A modern gem in a historic setting.
Bedrooms: 4Bathrooms: 3Children: YesMax Occupancy: 8


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Sharon Boyd, Editor/Publisher
11/29/05 Bensman & Riggs: Rep. Hodge Advocates for Child Killer, Hundreds More Inmates 11/28/05 Shop, shop, shop -- but do it in Dallas! 11/21/05 Hunt Serf defends the $6.3 mil tax deal for her boss. 11/17/05 Shakedown + Brain-Dead = Two crooked politicians! new comments 11/18 11/14/05 Gray is mud -- can't compromise on right or wrong! 11/10/05 Bensman & Riggs: Feds focus on State Rep Hodge's rent deal w/Potashnik 11/10/05 When voters abdicate their responsibilities, chaos rules at City Hall. 11/07/05 Blaydes and FlipFlop Oakley are Two-Steppin to Wrong Beat. 11/05/05 Allen Gwinn: Why I Voted For Proposition One 11/04/05 We voted for it, before we voted against it. FlipFlop's campaign flyer. 11/04/05 Bensman & Riggs: Terri Hodges got free, unreported rent from Potashnik. 11/03/05 We need accountability. City MisManager's crew is not cutting it!


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ODT Online
ODT /directory
To be a finalist against the ''esteemed'' Mahe Drysdale (sportsman of the year), Valerie Adams (sportswoman of the year) and Sophie Pascoe (disabled sportsperson of the year) was an honour, Bond said.
''It blows my mind. I didn't start rowing to win awards like this. I started because I loved it. To be honest, because I wanted to be Jeff Wilson.''
Bond said the ''phenomenal'' achievements of fellow finalists made it all the more special to win the supreme award, which he added to his four world titles and Olympic gold medal.
He and Murray also won last night's team award, and their coach Richard Tonks won coach of the year for his efforts with the pair, and with Drysdale.
Other finalists in the team category were fellow Olympic gold medal-winning rowers Nathan Cohen and Joseph Sullivan, the All Blacks, and two Olympic yachting crews, Jo Aleh and Polly Powrie, and Peter Burling and Blair Tuke.
Accepting the team award earlier, Bond said elite sport was a ''generally selfish pursuit'' and he thanked his partner, Lizzie Travis, as well as the pair's sponsors, Rowing New Zealand, High Performance Sport New Zealand and all their supporters.
''Usually, Eric does the talking, but I'll say this award means a lot to Eric and I. Coming back to New Zealand, it's been a realisation how much sport does impact on the country, especially the Olympics.
''Rio - it's a long way off but we'll get there,'' he said of the 2016 Olympic Games.
Bond follows in the large footsteps of some great athletes from, or with strong links to, Otago.
Cricketer Bert Sutcliffe (1949, the first year of the awards), athlete Yvette Williams (1950 and 1952), Gary Robertson (as part of the rowing eight in 1971 and 1972), cricketer Glenn Turner (1973), runner Dick Tayler (1974) and swimmer Danyon Loader (1996) all won the supreme award.
A product of Otago Boys' High School, Bond no longer lives in Otago but still wears the colours of his Dunedin club, North End.
He and Murray, unbeaten since 2009, stormed to victory in the pairs at the London Olympics, a year after being named world rowing's greatest crew.
They were named New Zealand team of the year in 2010. Both were also part of the New Zealand four that won the award in 2009.
Dunedin fashion was also a winner at last night's Halberg Awards, as finalists Sarah Walker and Lisa Carrington both wore dresses by Tanya Carlson.
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Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item:
Title: | Transport Service Quality And Social Responsibility Through The Relationship Marketing |
Authors: | Bodmer, Milena Martins, Jorge Antônio |
Issue Date: | 2003 |
Publisher: | Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies. Faculty of Economics and Business. The University of Sydney |
Citation: | International Conference Series on Competition and Ownership in Land Passenger Transport – 2003 – Rio De Janeiro, Brazil– Thredbo 8 |
Series/Report no.: | Thredbo 8 |
Abstract: | This paper focuses on marketing for passenger transport based on the research concerned with urban sustainable development and mobility issues and it is oriented to the conceptual discussion of Relationship Marketing to be adopted in transport policy in consonance of another productive sectors. At first, there are made comments on reasons for development of marketing strategies applications, necessary all over the world. Although some differences between the developed and developing countries are picked out, it becomes evident that new approach for marketing passenger transport is necessary and quite urgent, giving that it should be oriented not only to the market behavior, but also it should involve different actors being called to social accountability. A short review of state-of-the-art and state-of-the-practice in transport marketing, analyzing some critical aspects inherited to the transit service marketing, provides also comments on outstanding importance of social and economic activities as determinants for travel needs and travel behavior. In this context it is brought up a concept of Relationship Marketing, conceived from service marketing field. The main characteristics of this concept consist in pro-active behavior of different, public and private actors, including consumers, local communities, public agencies, transit operators, and non transport businesses. This kind of co-marketing, based on partnership, results in provision of service packages, comprising basic, facilitating, and supporting services, adapted to the clientcitizens needs, trying to retain them on transit. This approach, build on spatial activities network partnership, seems to have a good potential for urban management applications. There is also commented an Integrated Mobility Management Model based on Relationship Marketing, which tripartite framework should articulate management of activities production and accessibility production, both oriented to the client-citizens consumption and welfare. |
Description: | Workshop B |
URI: | http://hdl.handle.net/2123/6285 |
Rights and Permissions: | Copyright the University of Sydney |
Type of Work: | Conference paper |
Appears in Collections: | Thredbo 8 |
This work is protected by Copyright. All rights reserved. Access to this work is provided for the purposes of personal research and study. Except where permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, this work must not be copied or communicated to others without the express permission of the copyright owner. Use the persistent URI in this record to enable others to access this work.
File | Description | Size | Format | |
thredbo8-workshopB-Bodmer-Martins.pdf | 387.24 kB | Adobe PDF | View/Open |
Items in Sydney eScholarship Repository are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise indicated.


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Top Definition
A Bama Butt is someone who has an ass the size of Alabama!
Did you see that chick wearing those skinny jeans, she has a total "Bama Butt"!
লিখেছেন- Alimegz
19 de অগাস্ট de 2009
1 more definition
A posterior roughly the size of Alabama.
"Wow, your mom's got a Bama Butt!"
লিখেছেন- emmdaggs!
28 de জানুয়ারি de 2009


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Sumner County Cemetery Book, by Snider & Yorgason has: Maple Hill Cemetery - Fowler, Wm. Albert - 1 May 1877 - 13 Nov 1941.
Albert Fowler
Albert Fowler, 62, died suddenly of a heart attack at his home in the Fowler Ford community Thursday, Nov. 14. Funeral services were conducted at the home November 15, by the Rev. J. F. Swiney; pastor of the local Methodist church. Surviving are his widow, Mrs. Johnnie Martin Fowler, three sisters, Mrs. Laura Brizendine of Lyons, Ga., Mrs. M. C. Hobdy of Portland and Mrs. Gill Butt of Indianapolis, Ind., one brother, Charles Fowler also of Portland. Burial was in Maple Hill cemetery.
Genealogist's Companion to Research in Sumner County, Tennessee


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Lifestyle Therapy for Youth With Type 2 Diabetes (BDT)
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- Disclaimer
- How to Read a Study Record
Background: Little is known about the efficacy of intensive lifestyle therapy (i.e. increased physical activity and dietary changes) for the management of glycemia and cardiometabolic risk factors in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes (T2DM).
Our hypothesis is that education regarding healthy lifestyle changes will significantly reduce blood sugars in youth with T2DM that do not require insulin therapy. Our secondary hypothesis is that the intensive lifestyle therapy will cause quick and sustained reductions in health risk measured by body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, waist circumference, LDL cholesterol, serum triglycerides and apolipoprotein B.
Condition | Intervention |
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus |
Behavioral: Lifestyle Counselling |
Study Type: | Interventional |
Study Design: | Allocation: Randomized Endpoint Classification: Efficacy Study Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Prevention |
Official Title: | Beating Diabetes Together: A Randomized Controlled Trial for Intensive Lifestyle Therapy for Youth With Type 2 Diabetes |
- Glycemic control determined by a standard fasting measure of glycosylated hemoglobin using internationally recognized DCCT assay [ Time Frame: 16 weeks ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ]
- Cardiometabolic risk Z score [ Time Frame: 16 weeks ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ]This is a composite score based on BMI z-score, waist circumference, c-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides (TG) and apolipoprotein B (apoB), and a marker of fatty liver disease, alanine transaminase (ALT)
- Presence of microalbuminuria [ Time Frame: 16 weeks ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ]defined as a first morning albumin:creatinine ratio (ACR) 2.5-25 mg/mmol in a first morning urine collection
- Hypertension [ Time Frame: 16 weeks ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ]defined as a systolic blood pressure load >25% or a mean 24 hour systolic blood pressure >95th %ile for sex and height on 24 hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring
- Anthropometrics [ Time Frame: 16 weeks ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ]Waist circumference in centimeters, body mass index (BMI) z-score and percent body fat will be assessed to determine if changes in body composition are associated with improvements in cardiometabolic risk
- Cardiovascular structure and function [ Time Frame: 16 weeks ] [ Designated as safety issue: No ]Vascular health will be assessed with non-invasive assessments of arterial stiffness, endothelium-dependant relaxation and carotid intima media thickness which will be treated as continuous variables. Left ventricular structure and function will be assessed using standard M-mode and doppler ultrasound techniques
Enrollment: | 15 |
Study Start Date: | September 2012 |
Study Completion Date: | May 2014 |
Primary Completion Date: | May 2014 (Final data collection date for primary outcome measure) |
Arms | Assigned Interventions |
Experimental: Lifestyle counselling
Exercise, nutrition and self-efficacy based lifestyle training in a peer mentoring setting
Behavioral: Lifestyle Counselling
Participants will take part in 2-3 group based peer-led sessions per week in which they will learn about healthy lifestyle choices
No Intervention: Control
Youth randomized to the control group will receive standard care for the first 16 weeks followed by 16 weeks of intervention
Detailed Description:
Youth between the ages of 10-20 years living with type 2 diabetes and not currently on insulin therapy will be randomly assigned to either a lifestyle intervention group or a control group. The lifestyle intervention group will meet 2-3 times per week for 16 weeks to take part in healthy living education sessions involving physical activity, healthy cooking, healthy gardening and how to start and sustain a healthy lifestyle change. At the beginning and end of the 16 weeks the investigators will measure the participants' blood sugars, height, weight, cholesterol, triglycerides and liver enzymes. The investigators will also take a picture of their kidney, heart and blood vessels using ultrasound. Those youth assigned to the control group will receive the 16 week intervention following their 16 week control period.
Ages Eligible for Study: | 10 Years to 20 Years |
Genders Eligible for Study: | Both |
Accepts Healthy Volunteers: | No |
Inclusion Criteria:
- youth with a BMI considered overweight according to the International Obesity Task Force
- diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, confirmed with a 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test within two years of enrollment
Exclusion Criteria:
- youth with type 1 diabetes
- use of insulin or other anti-diabetic drugs
- youth with medication-induced diabetes
- youth who have recently been admitted to hospital with ketoacidosis
- youth have experienced weight loss or enrolled in a weightloss program in the last 6 months
- youth with an orthapaedic injury preventing them from exercising
- youth who have a history of alcohol or drug abuse
Please refer to this study by its ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01597154
Canada, Manitoba | |
Manitoba Institute of Child Health | |
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, R3E 0P4 |
Principal Investigator: | Jonathon McGavock, PhD | University of Manitoba |
No publications provided
Responsible Party: | Jon McGavock, Assistant Professor, University of Manitoba |
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: | NCT01597154 History of Changes |
Other Study ID Numbers: | B2012:023 |
Study First Received: | May 9, 2012 |
Last Updated: | July 28, 2014 |
Health Authority: | Canada: Health Canada |
Keywords provided by University of Manitoba:
Adolescent Type 2 Diabetes Peer mentorship |
Additional relevant MeSH terms:
Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 Endocrine System Diseases Glucose Metabolism Disorders Metabolic Diseases |
ClinicalTrials.gov processed this record on April 30, 2015


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Thinking about committing fraud is hopefully and most likely the last thing on a claimant's mind when navigating the frustratingly tricky waters of workers' compensation in New York. However, even someone with a legitimate and meritorious claim for benefits can unknowingly commit fraud due to the complexity of a system that has only grown more and more burdensome over the past decade.
Workers' compensation fraud under N.Y. Workers' Compensation Law Section 114-a occurs when a person knowingly and intentionally makes a false, "material" statement regarding a claim. Whether a statement is "material" is a question for a Law Judge to decide, but it essentially means that the statement would be considered important in making a determination regarding a claim. Unfortunately, a claimant can do this in a number of ways.
Most obviously, lying about being hurt, either at work, or at all, is a simple case of fraud. It is also fraudulent to return to work without notifying the insurance carrier of your status; collecting benefits from workers' compensation and collecting checks from your employer is fraud. While those may be obvious example, there are also more subtle missteps that claimants may make.
For example, failing to report a prior injury to your now injured body part in your initial claim for benefits can be considered fraudulent. Omissions of fact may be considered material to your claim. Remember: the insurance carrier may be investigating you and monitoring your activities to check on whether you are truly injured and/or working. It is important to have a truthful mindset and to act under the assumption that the insurance carrier and the Workers' Compensation Board will find out if you attempt to lie.
More than ever, insurance carriers are raising fraud on claimants. While often times a charge of fraud can be deterred by an effective attorney, it is important to note that workers' compensation fraud is a class E felony, meaning conviction could result in both fines and jail time. It is imperative that you consult with an attorney if the insurance carrier raises fraud against you. A proactive approach to avoiding fraud is answering all questions and forms honestly and openly, preferably with the help of an attorney. In order to most effectively avoid a finding of fraud against you, retaining an experienced and knowledgeable workers' compensation attorney before fraud is ever raised is certainly your best course of action.
DISCLAIMER: Because of the generality of this update, the information provided herein may not be applicable in all situations and should not be acted upon without specific legal advice based on particular situations.
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Kansas governor to deliver state of state on Jan. 15
Gov. Sam Brownback will deliver his state of the state address Tuesday, Jan. 15, at 6:30 p.m., his administration announced Thursday.
The annual speech is often used to unveil major plans. Last year, Brownback used the opportunity to announce his plan to cut income taxes and eliminate several popular tax credits and deductions.
This time, many expect Brownback to again discuss changes to the tax code as well as share his strategy for dealing with a sharp decline in revenue forecast because of income tax cuts he signed into law in 2012.
Brownback's speech will be televised live by KPTS-TV, and readers can check Kansas.com for analysis and response.
Join the Discussion
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Feb 13, 2014 Reply by Tom Conlon |
"We just don't have any money to spend right now because of....." whatever the reason given.That quote was from a member of this forum H Skinner some time ago and it is still true today. For the most we work mainly in the commerc… Started by Barry NewDelman |
0 | Dec 20, 2013 |
Building a case for energy efficiency upgradesWhen dealing with a commercial business, big or small, we always get the same reply when we talk about energy efficiency upgrades; "We jus… Started by Hal Skinner |
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Aug 8, 2013 Reply by Barry NewDelman |
Bribing a prospective customer.OK, our company works with a radiant barrier coating, looks and applies like paint. We found out early on that the more intelligent and in… Started by Hal Skinner |
0 | Aug 8, 2013 |
Free Energy Efficiency Tools / CalculatorsI'm interested in locating some online tools that roughly calculate homeowner energy efficiency. Things similar to this - http://c01.apog… Started by Tyler Gillette |
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May 16, 2013 Reply by Rick Karg |
Slighty off the TrackIf you know of a Reigious Instituiton or a Non for Profit Organization that would like to receive a monthly income by saving thier members… Started by Barry NewDelman |
0 | Apr 23, 2013 |
What is the Consumer Attitude towards Energy Efficiency Products & ServicesMuch has been written in recent times on consumer attitudes towards investing in energy efficiency retrofits, a recent GTM article http://w… Started by Bijou Lulla |
0 | Apr 13, 2013 |
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