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Bird migration
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Many species of birds undertake seasonal journeys of various lengths, a phenomenon known as Bird migration. The different strategies followed by bird groups are detailed below.
[show]Long-distance land bird migration
Many species of land migratory birds migrate very long distances, the most common pattern being for birds to breed in the temperate or arctic northern hemisphere and winter in warmer regions, often in the tropics or the temperate zones of the southern hemisphere.
There is a strong genetic component to migration in terms of timing and route, but this may be modified by environmental influences. An interesting example where a change of migration route has occurred because of such a geographical barrier is the trend for some Blackcaps in central Europe to migrate west and winter in Britain rather than cross the Alps. Theoretical analyses, summarised by Alerstam (2001), show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food in order to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's Thrush, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.
The advantage of the migration strategy is that, in the long days of the northern summer, breeding birds have more hours to feed their young on often abundant food supplies, particularly insects. As the days shorten in autumn and food supplies become scarce, the birds can return to warmer regions where the length of the day varies less and there is an all year round food supply. Most of the passerine migrants fly by night in small flocks. During dusk prior to migration, they show a restlessness which is termed zugunruhe. They may also sing at night during this period of pre-migration restlessness.
The downside of migration is the hazards of the journey, especially when difficult habitats such as deserts and oceans must be crossed, and weather conditions may be adverse.
The risks of predation are also high. The Eleonora's Falcon which breeds on Mediterranean islands has a very late breeding season, timed so that autumn perching bird migrants can be hunted to feed its young.
Whether a particular species migrates depends on a number of factors. The climate of the breeding area is important, and few species can cope with the harsh winters of inland Canada or northern Eurasia. Thus the Blackbird Turdus merula is migratory in Scandinavia, but not in the milder climate of southern Europe.
The nature of the staple food is also important. Most specialist insect eaters are long-distance migrants, and have little choice but to head south in winter.
Sometimes the factors are finely balanced. The Whinchat Saxicola rubetra of Europe and the Siberian Stonechat Saxicola maura of Asia are a long-distance migrants wintering in the tropics, whereas their close relative, the European Stonechat Saxicola rubicola is a resident bird in most of its range, and moves only short distances from the colder north and east.
Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for migrating birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England. Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites.
Another cause of birds occurring outside their normal ranges is the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended.
A mechanism which can lead to great rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range is reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly.
Recent research suggests that long-distance passerine migrants are of South American and African, rather than northern hemisphere, evolutionary origins. They are effectively southern species coming north to breed rather than northern species going south to winter.
Broad-winged long distance migrants
Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles and buzzards, but also storks.
Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals can only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances.
The Mediterranean and other seas therefore present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which are forced to cross at the narrowest points. This means that massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as Gibraltar, Falsterbo and the Bosphorus at migration times. Commoner species, such as the Honey Buzzard, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn.
Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants.
Short-distance land bird migration
The long-distance migrants in the previous section are effectively genetically programmed to respond to changing lengths of days. However many species move shorter distances, but may do so only in response to harsh weather conditions.
Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as Wallcreeper and White-throated Dipper, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as Merlin and Skylark will move further to the coast or to a more southerly region.
Species like the Chaffinch are not migratory in Britain, but will move south or to Ireland in very cold weather. Interestingly, in Scandinavia, the female of this species migrates, but not the male, giving rise to the specific name coelebs, a bachelor.
Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those which have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the Chiffchaff, are species of southern hemisphere origins which have progressively shortened their return migration so that they stay in the northern hemisphere.
Those species which have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings, are effectively moving in response to winter weather, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.
Wildfowl and waders
The typical image of migration is of northern landbirds such as swallows and birds of prey making long flights to the tropics. Many northern-breeding ducks, geese and swans are also long-distance migrants, but need only to move from their arctic breeding grounds far enough south to escape frozen waters.
This means that most wildfowl remain in the Northern hemisphere, but in milder countries. For example, the Pink-footed Goose migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries. Usually wintering grounds are traditional and learned by the young when they migrate with their parents.
Some ducks, such as the Garganey, do move completely or partially into the tropics.
A similar situation occurs with waders (called "shorebirds" in North America). Many species, such as Dunlin and Western Sandpiper, undertake long movements from their arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as Semipalmated Sandpiper travel huge distances to the tropics.
Most of the wildfowl are large and powerful, and even the waders are strong fliers. This means that birds wintering in temperate regions have the capacity to make further shorter movements in the event of particularly inclement weather.
The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long-distance land-bird migration apply to water birds, but in reverse: a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites is a barrier to a water bird. Open sea may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters. Detours avoiding such barriers are observed: for example, Brent Geese migrating from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Wadden Sea travel via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and northern Scandinavia.
For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to "refuel" for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay.
Some Alaskan Bar-tailed Godwits have the longest non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km to their New Zealand wintering grounds (BTO News 258: 3, 2005). Prior to migration, 55% of their bodyweight is stored fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.
Much of what has been said in the previous section applies to many seabirds. Some, such as the Black Guillemot and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most of the terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move south varying distances in winter. The Arctic Tern has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its arctic breeding grounds to the antarctic wintering areas. One Arctic Tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 miles). Seabirds, of course, have the advantage that they can feed on migration.
The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses in general spread thinly over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many of them are also among the longest-distance migrants; Sooty Shearwaters nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (9,000 miles) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway, and some Manx Shearwaters do the same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx Shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan.
Pelagic birding trips attract petrels and other procellarids by tipping "chum", a mixture of fish oil and offal, into the sea. Within minutes, a previously apparently empty ocean is full of petrels, fulmars and shearwaters attracted by the food.
A few seabirds, such as Wilson's Petrel and Great Shearwater, breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.
The tropics
In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for an adequate food supply. Apart from the seasonal movements of northern hemisphere wintering species, most species are in the broadest sense resident. However many species undergo movements of varying distances depending on the rainfall.
Many tropical regions have wet and dry seasons, the monsoons of India being perhaps the best known example. An example of a bird whose distribution is rain associated is the Woodland Kingfisher of west Africa.
There are a few species, notably cuckoos, which are genuine long-distance migrants within the tropics. An example is the Lesser Cuckoo, which breeds in India and winters in Africa.
In the high mountains, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, there are also seasonal altitudinal movements in many species.
Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern-Hemisphere phenomenon. In the Southern Hemisphere, seasonal migration tends to be much less marked. There are several reasons for this.
First, the largely uninterrupted expanses of land mass or ocean tend not to funnel migrations into narrow and obvious pathways, making them less obvious to the human observer. Second, at least for terrestrial birds, climatic regions tend to fade into one another over a long distance rather than be entirely separate: this means that rather than make long trips over unsuitable habitat to reach particular destinations, migrant species can usually travel at a relaxed pace, feeding as they go. Short of banding studies it is often not obvious that the birds seen in any particular locality as the seasons change are in fact different members of the same species passing through, gradually working their way north or south.
Relatively few Australasian birds migrate in the way that so many European and North American species do. This is largely a matter of geography: the Australasian climate has seasonal extremes no less compelling than those of Europe; however, they are far less predictable and tend to take place over periods both shorter and longer. A couple of weeks of heavy rain in one part or another of the usually dry centre of Australia, for example, produces dramatic plant and invertebrate growth, attracting birds from all directions. This can happen at any time of year, summer or winter and, in any given area, may not happen again for a decade or more.
Broader climatic extremes are highly unpredictable also: expected seasonal heat or rain arrives or does not arrive, depending on the vagaries of El Niño. It is commonplace to have stretches of five or ten years at a time when winter rains do not eventuate during the El Niño cycle, and equally common to have La Niña periods which turn arid zones into areas of lush grass and shallow lakes. Long distance migration requires a heavy investment in time and body mass—and, given the random nature of El Niño, an investment with an uncertain return.
In broad terms, Australasian birds tend to be sedentary or nomadic, moving on whenever conditions become unfavourable to whichever area happens to be more suitable at the time.
There are many exceptions, however. Some species make the long haul to breed in far distant northern climes every year, notably swifts, and a great many wading birds that breed in the Arctic Circle during the southern winter.
Many others arrive for the southern spring and summer to breed, then fly to tropical northern Australia, New Guinea, or the islands of South East Asia for the Southern winter. Examples include cuckoos, the Satin Flycatcher, the Dollarbird, and the Rainbow Bee-eater.
Others again are altitudinal migrants, moving to higher country during summer, returning to warmer areas in winter such as several robins, or travel north and south with the seasons but within a relatively restricted range. The tiny 10 cm Silvereye is an example: most of the southernmost Tasmanian race crosses the 200 miles of Bass Strait after breeding to disperse into Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales and even southern Queensland, replacing the normal residents who fly still further north, following the band of fertile country along the coast, feeding through the day and travelling mostly at night. The northernmost populations, however, are nomadic rather than migratory, as are the Silvereyes of southern Western Australia, which is bounded by thousands of miles of desert to the north and east, and sea to the south and west.
Study techniques
Bird migration has been studied by a variety of techniques of which ringing is the oldest. Color marking, use of radar, satellite tracking and stable hydrogen isotopes are some of the other techniques being used to study the migration of birds.
Migration conditioning
It has been possible to teach a new migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schmes. After a trial with Canada Geese, microlites were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced Whooping Cranes [1].
See also
- Bird ringing
- Flyway
- Mississippi Flyway
- Categories Migratory birds (Eastern hemisphere) and Migratory birds (Western hemisphere)
- Alerstam, T. (2001). Detours in bird migration. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 209, 319-331.
- Berthold, Peter (2001) Bird Migration: A General Survey. Second Edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850787-9
- Weidensaul, Scott. Living On the Wind: Across the Hemisphere With Migratory Birds. Douglas & McIntyre, 1999.
- Dingle, Hugh. Migration: The Biology of Life on The Move. Oxford Univ. Press, 1996.
External links
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- Bird Research by Science Daily- includes several articles on bird migration
- The Nature Conservancy's Migratory Bird Program
- The Compasses of Birds - a review from the Science Creative Quarterly
- BBC Supergoose - satellite tagging of light-bellied brent geese
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Pau Gasol to be sidelined three months after undergoing knee procedure
May 9, 2013, 9:49 PM EDT
As we told you on Wednesday, Pau Gasol underwent a procedure to remove scar tissue from his patellar tendons in both knees non-surgically.
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The Rise of Endymion | ||||||||
Dan Simmons | ||||||||
Bantam Books, 480 pages | ||||||||
A review by Wayne MacLaurin
In 1989, Hyperion burst onto the Science Fiction field
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Drum! magazine conducted an interview with drummer Chad Smith (CHICKENFOOT, RED HOT CHILI PEPPERS) at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California during the 2011 NAMM (National Association Of Music Merchants) show, a massive music-products convention that runs through Sunday. You can now watch the chat below.
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15th January 2015 @ 11:53am
There have been a lot of stars linked to the role of Han Solo in the spinoff movie and here we take a look at a few of them
10th January 2015 @ 01:54pm
Penn Badgley was photographed receiving a 'slap' from co-star Uma Thurman after she gave him a kiss while filming the highly anticipated project "The Sl ...
25th March 2013 @ 07:33pm
A new clip of Penn Badgley performing the song Once I Was, as Jeff Buckley in the movie Greetings From Tim Buckley


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Al's Past Treasures
Milk glass by Imperial in the pattern Vintage Grape. It bears the mark that dates these pieces between 1955 & 1977. The bowl measures 2.25" high x 4.5" across. The bottom saucer is 5.75" across. Both pieces are in excellent condition. See all the many other great listings I have for your consideration.


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Netflix of video games: Twitch coming to PS4
LOS ANGELES — Twitch is another step closer to becoming the Netflix of the video game world.
The popular video game footage streaming service will be available on Sony's next-generation PlayStation 4 when it's released later this year. By tapping the new "share" button on the PS4 controller, users will be able to broadcast gameplay directly to Twitch. Microsoft announced similar Twitch integration earlier this year for its upcoming Xbox One.
"We've been clear with all our partners that we love gaming and the gaming industry, and we think our reason for being as a company is to be the ubiquitous platform," said Emmett Shear, co-founder and CEO of Twitch. "For us, it was really important to be able to work with every platform because Twitch is something that every gamer should have access to."
Twitch, originally part of the streaming video site Justin.tv, was spun off in 2011 and has become one of the most popular ways for gamers to share footage online. Currently, more than 600,000 broadcasters — ranging from everyday "Minecraft" builders to professional "League of Legends" players — are watched by more than 38 million viewers a month.
Over the past two years, Twitch has become an ESPN for video games. The site's live and recorded broadcasts include comically narrated clips of game footage, streamed matches from seasoned e-sports veterans and so-called "speed runs" — clips of players plowing through mostly old-school games in record time. There are also commercials. Lots of them.
Shear said he expects the number of Twitch broadcasters to grow exponentially with PS4 and Xbox One integration. He also anticipates that game publishers and e-sports organizers will more readily stream content with Twitch because it won't require any additional technology, such video capture hardware, because it's all built into next-gen systems.
"If you go back to the beginning of video games and look at pictures of people in arcades, most of them aren't actively playing a game," said Shear. "They're standing there watching and waiting their turn, but they're having a good time watching. I think that type of spectating has always been and continues to be a big part of video game culture."
Sony Corp. previously announced that the PS4 would allow users to share gameplay experiences on the social networking site Facebook and video streaming service Ustream. Meanwhile, Microsoft Corp. demonstrated streaming a match from the "Killer Instinct" fighting game on Xbox One with Twitch during its Electronic Entertainment Expo presentation in June.
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Police in Nashua have arrested two men in connection with a robbery at a fast-food restaurant.
Police said they first got a call Friday night at a Wendy's, which reported two men demanded money from the register. The men left without any money.
A short time later, police also heard about a robbery at a McDonald's across the street from the Wendy's. Police said money was taken from the restaurant.
Police said 40-year-old Louis Spaulding, of Nashua, has been charged with two counts of robbery. They said 34-year-old Raymond Ward was charged with acting as an accomplice.


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This Item is Currently Out of Stock
Puma 10 + 1 357 Rem. Mag w/20" Round Barrel/Blue Finish/No S
Model PUM56005NS | Condition Factory New |
Bud's Item # 60593 | UPC 682146702880 |
*Please Note!! Many of our pictures are stock photo's provided to us by the manufacturer and do not necessarily represent the actual item being purchased. Please verify this picture accurately reflects the product described by the title and description on this page before you place your order.


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NYC is the place for inquisitive minds looking for new things to see, hear, taste and learn.
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The Bridges of Madison County Before there was Fifty Shades of Grey, housewives were furiously flipping the pages of Robert James Waller's 1992 novel The Bridges of Madison County, which chronicles the passionate affair between Francesca, an Italian immigrant housewife, and the ruggedly handsome photographer Robert Kincaid. Francesca is living on a farm in Iowa, and she meets Kincaid when he stops by the house to ask directions. This winter, the love story will be heating up the Great White Way, with composer Jason Robert Brown and playwright Marsha Norman's musical adaptation. Brown hasn't had much luck on the Broadway stage up to now, considering that shows like Parade and 13 were short-lived—nevertheless, Parade won him a Tony award and his Off-Broadway hit The Last Five Years is currently being made into a big-budget Hollywood film. Waller's material definitely has some sap to it, but audiences may relinquish their initial cynicism and be seduced by the romance, since Broadway veteran Kelli O'Hara and Rescue Me's Steven Pasquale play the two lovers, and the production generated good buzz during its premiere at the Williamstown Theatre Festival this past summer. Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre, 236 W. 45th St. Previews start January 17; opens February 27.


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Click here to view the item | |
Creator: | Baldowski, Clifford H., 1917- |
Title: | What's one brick? / Baldy [1961 Aug. 9]. |
Date: | 1961 Aug. 9 |
Description: | The Clifford "Baldy" Baldowski cartoon depicts a man wearing a mortar board labeled "State Education Board" and removing a brick from a gigantic dam labeled "locally controlled desegregation." As he hands the brick to another man, the dam is cracking, and water flows through the hole created by the brick's removal. Published version differs: the brick is labeled "transfer rule." |
Types: | Editorial cartoons | Visual works |
Subjects: | Georgia. State Board of Education | School integration--Georgia | Georgia |
Collection: | Baldy Editorial Cartoons, 1946-1982, 1997: Clifford H. Baldowski Editorial Cartoons at the Richard B. Russell Library. |
Institution: | Digital Library of Georgia |
Contributors: | Clifford H. Baldowski Editorial Cartoon Collection (Digital Library of Georgia) | Digital Library of Georgia | Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies |
Online Publisher: | [Athens, Ga. : Digital Library of Georgia] | 2001 |
Original Material: | 1 item ; 32 x 39 cm. paper pen and ink. [Atlanta, Ga. : Atlanta Constitution, 1961 Aug. 9] |
Rights and Usage: | The Baldowski cartoons created for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution are licensed to the Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, University of Georgia Libraries by The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Contact repository re: reproduction and usage. Cite as: [Title of the cartoon], [Date of cartoon], editorial cartoon by Clifford H. Baldowski, Clifford H. Baldowski Editorial Cartoon Collection, Richard B. Russell Library for Political Research and Studies, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens, presented in the Digital Library of Georgia. |
Related Materials: | Forms part of the Clifford H. Baldowski Editorial Cartoon Collection. |
Persistent Link to Item: | http://dlg.galileo.usg.edu/bald/id:am-2260 |


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C & C Mark I Input
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Hi there ...
Im in the process of purchasing my first sailboat. I am an experienced "crew member" but would consider myself to be an overall beginner sailor that sails cautiously. My experience in sailing thus far has been on an O'Day 25 (keel centreboard, with a draft of 24" CB up, 4' CB down.)
Im comfortable with light to mid winds, moderate heeling and looking for a nice weekend cursor. I am more interested in overall weekend comfort and cursing stability over racing. I will be sailing primarily solo, or with my boys (aged 11 & 13.)
I am interested in purchasing a 1973 C & C Mark I. I have seen and sailed the boat, it is in really excellent condition, comes with many new sails, some modern instrumentations and a new marine head and tanks. (Link to ad:
1973 C & C Mark I
Questions / Advice please .... specifically:
#1. Is $5,900 a fair price, considering the boat has no rolling furling, no stereo, no shore power and no trailer?
#2. I test sailed it on a fairly windy day (I believe wind gusts up to 30 knots) and white capped water) so the boat FLEW but really heeled. (As a beginner, it scared me a bit.
) Is the C&C 25 generally stable? Forgiving? Does it tend to always heel?
#3. Im looking for a boat to grow in, but will likely never race her (.... who knows though...) Was the C & C 24 built more for racing or cursing?
#4. Overall impressions of the C & C 25 Mark I. Any current owners have any input/review of their boat?
#5. Is this a suitable boat to learn on and grow with?
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Chemical Safety Board Makes PSM a Top Priority
Agency wants to modernize process safety management regulations
12/15/2014See Risks More Clearly
Avoid a number of common errors that can blur your vision
11/11/2014Learn from a Safety Guru
Take advantage of the insights in the books of a renowned expert
10/23/2014Learn from the West Fertilizer Plant Explosion
Third-party assessments can provide crucial insights
10/07/2014Succeed at Global Compliance
Being proactive can provide a variety of benefits
09/16/2014Safety: Boost Your Plant's Profitability
Measuring and managing safety risk can drive improvements
08/04/2014Dust: Hidden Hazard Lurks
Facility finds danger from accumulated dust and effectively addresses it
07/14/2014Spotlight Shines on Plant Safety
Efforts underway could significantly revamp process safety policies, regulations and standards
05/22/2014CP Talks to Head of New Safety Center
Trish Kerin shared her thoughts about what the ISC aims to do.
03/11/2014Plant Assesses Alarm Displays
Trial finds that many operators prefer an alternative visualization approach
03/06/2014Get To The Root Of Accidents
Systems thinking can provide insights on underlying issues not just their symptoms
02/27/2014Select the Right Process Safety System
Keeping several do's and don'ts in mind can help.
12/02/2013Trevor Kletz Bequeaths Better Process Safety
British expert introduced and championed key concepts to avoid accidents.
11/19/2013Don't Neglect Pressure Gauges
Inadequate attention can make plants vulnerable to mishaps
10/29/2013Achieve Effective Process Safety Management
"Felt leadership" plays a crucial role in ensuring success
09/24/2013Dust Explosion Standard Gets Significant Revisions
Major changes to NFPA 654 include new administrative requirements.
08/13/2013Process Safety Begins In the Board Room
Senior management should take six important steps.
03/21/2013Properly Protect Your Plant's Perimeter
Advances in security technology ease the task and make good business sense.
05/03/2012Improve Safety Despite Limited Resources
Even small plants can run an effective process safety program.
04/16/2012Is Your Process Safety Documentation Adequate?
Don't wait for a safety audit or OSHA inspection to find out.


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Chris Daggett on Tax Reform |
Between federal, state and local taxes, New Jerseyans probably bear the most punishing tax burden in the nation, especially when you factor in the high cost of living. But the state budget isn't even the biggest problem.
Property taxes, not state taxes--local spending, not state spending--are the biggest problems. These are self-inflicted wounds, and we need a governor willing to start talking seriously about reducing the real cost drivers of ever-rising salary, health care benefit and pension costs and the price we all pay to fund 566 municipalities and more than 600 school districts in the name of home rule.


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US 6204139 B1 Résumé A method for switching properties of perovskite thin film materials, including the colossal magnetoresitive (CMR) and high temperature superconducting (HTSC) materials, is provided. Short electrical pulses are applied to the materials in thin films to change both reversibly and non-reversibly the electrical, thermal, mechanical and magnetic properties of the material. Reversible resistance changes of over a factor of 10 are induced in CMR materials at room temperature and in zero external magnetic field by electrical pulsing. Applications of the method and materials to form memory devices, resistors in electronic circuits which can be varied in resistance and other applications are disclosed.
Revendications(13) 1. A method for modifying a property of a perovskite material, comprising the steps of:
supplying the perovskite material in a thin film between a pair of electrodes, the film having an electrical resistance; and
applying an electrical pulse to the pair of electrodes, the electrical pulse having a selected polarity, a selected width, a selected maximum value and a selected waveform, between the pair of electrodes, so as to create an electric field in the film greater than a threshold electric field value to change the property of the film, the pulse having a pulse energy less than a pulse energy required to damage the perovskite material.
2. The method of claim 1 wherein the perovskite material is selected from the group of materials consisting of colossal magnetoresistance materials.
3. The method of claim 1 wherein the perovskite material is selected from the group of materials consisting of high temperature superconductivity materials.
4. The method of claim 1 wherein the property modified in the film is the electrical resistance of the film.
5. The method of claim 1 wherein the property modified in the film is the temperature sensitivity of the material.
6. The method of claim 1 wherein the property modified in the film is the magnetic field dependence of the material.
7. The method of claim 1 wherein the selected waveform between the pair of electrodes results from a pulse generated, the pulse generated having a waveform selected from the group of waveforms consisting of square, saw-toothed, triangular and sine wave.
8. The method of claim 1 wherein the selected maximum value of the pulse is in the range from about 5 volts to about 150 volts.
9. The method of claim 1 wherein the selected duration of the pulse is in the range from about 1 nanosecond to about 100 microseconds.
10. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of applying a selected number of pulses having a first selected polarity to the pair of electrodes, the selected number of pulses being greater than one.
11. The method of claim 10 wherein the selected number, selected width, selected maximum value, selected waveform and selected polarity of the pulses is selected to modify the physical property to a selected range of values.
12. The method of claim 11 wherein the polarity of the pulses is reversed during application of the selected number of pulses.
13. The method of claim 11 wherein the physical property is alternately modified to a second range of values and returned to a first range of values.
Description 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to thin film materials having a perovskite structure. More particularly, a method of using an electrical pulse to modify or switch the characteristics of materials such as colossal magnetoresistive and high temperature superconducting materials is provided and applications of the method are provided. 2. Description of Related Art The materials having a perovskite structure, among them colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) materials and high temperature superconductivity (HTSC) materials, are important in many fields. The common and the most substantial characteristic of the CMR and HTSC materials is that their electrical resistance can be changed significantly by external influence, such as temperature, magnetic field or electric field. The CMR materials have wide applications. They can provide a cheap and practical means of sensing magnetic fields ("Colossal Magnetoresistance not just a Load of Bolometers," N. Mathur, Nature, vol. 390, pp. 229-231, 1997), and lead to dramatic improvements in the data density and reading speed of magnetic recording systems ("Thousandfold Change in Resistivity in Magnetoresistive La—Ca—Mn—O Films," S. Jin, et al, Science, vol. 264, pp. 413-415, 1994). They can also become a new material for thermal or infrared detectors, and a new material for photo and X-ray detection ("Photoinduced Insulator-to-Metal Transition in a Perovskite Manganite," K. Miyano, et al, Physical Review Letters, vol. 78, pp. 4257-4260, 1997; "An X-ray-induced Insulator-metal Transition in a Magnetoresistive Manganite," V. Klyukhin, et al, Nature, vol. 386, pp. 313-315, 1997). Moreover, a static electric field can trigger the collapse of the insulating charge-ordered state of CMR materials to a metallic ferromagnetic state, and so provide a route for fabricating micrometer- or nanometer-scale electromagnets ("Current Switching of Resistive States in Magnetoresistive Manganites," A. Asamitsu, et al, Nature, vol. 388, pp. 50-52, 1997). The main use of the recently discovered HTSC materials is, of course, as the superconductors, and their conductivity can be affected by applied electric current or magnetic field ("Transient Behavior and Memory Effect of a PbZrxTi1−xO3/YBa2Cu3O7−x Three-terminal Device," H. Lin, et al, Appl. Physics Letters, vol. 65, pp. 953, 1994). However, they also have some other uses, for example as the conductive layer in the epitaxial multilayer structures used at room temperature ("Heterostructures of Pb(ZrxTi1−x)O3 and YBa2Cu3O7−δ on MgO Substrate Prepared by Pulsed Laser Ablation, N. J. Wu, et al, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., vol. 32, pp. 5019-5023, 1993). Although it has been known that temperature, magnetic field, or static electric field can change the properties of the CMR and HTSC materials, it has been observed that these stimuli do not switch the states or permanently modify the properties of these materials. Therefore, when the stimulus vanishes, the changed material's state or property will return back to its original value. For example, the resistance of CMR materials changes with large applied magnetic fields. When the magnetic field increases, the resistance of a CMR material decreases, and when the magnetic field decreases and goes back to zero, the resistance of the CMR material will increase and return to its original value. Only at very low temperatures does a relatively large resistive lag occur in these materials, which is somewhat like the magnetic lag for ferromagnets. Another limitation of previously observed changes in the properties of CMR materials as a result of a stimulus is that they significantly respond to changes in magnetic field only under large magnetic fields (several Tesla), or changes in static electric field only at very low temperatures. Therefore, it is not convenient in many cases to use magnetic or static electric fields to change the properties of the CMR materials. As many of the current applications of CMR and HTSC materials are based on using thin films, there is great interest in modifying thin film properties of these materials. What is needed is a method which can be used to repeatedly switch the state or modify the properties of CMR, HTSC and films of other perovskite-like materials such that a modified property will continue after the stimulus to switch is removed. The method should work conveniently, repeatedly and at room temperature. A method for modifying the properties of thin film materials having a perovskite structure, especially for the CMR and HTSC materials, by applying one or more short electrical pulses to a thin film or bulk material is provided. The electric field strength or electric current density from the pulse is sufficient to switch the physical state of the materials so as to modify the properties of the material. The pulse is of low enough energy so as not to destroy the material. The electrical pulse may have square, saw-toothed, triangular, sine, oscillating or other waveforms and may be of positive or negative polarity. Multiple pulses may be applied to the material to produce incremental changes in properties of the material. Applications of the method include: resistance-based read only or random access memory devices with high data density and reading speed, resistors that can be changed in resistance value by electrical pulsing for use in electronic circuits, and sensors that can be changed in sensitivity by pulsing. FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a CMR film in a bilayer structure and the electrical connections required to modify film properties according to the invention. FIG. 2a shows the resistance versus electrical pulse number for a bilayer CMR film grown a metallic substrate and exposed to 47 electrical pulses having an amplitude of 32 volts. FIG. 2b shows the resistance versus electrical pulse number for a CMR film grown on a conducting oxide substrate and exposed to 168 electrical pulses having an amplitude of 27 volts. FIGS. 3(a), 3(b), 3(c), 3(d), 3(e) and 3(f) show the waveforms of the applied electrical pulses according to the invention. FIG. 4a shows switching in the resistance versus electrical pulse number curve for a bilayer CMR film exposed to both positive and negative electrical pulses. FIG. 4b shows switching in the resistance changes of a CMR bilayer sample exposed to a series of pulses before measurement of resistance. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a CMR film in a single layer structure and the electrical connections required to modify film properties according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a section of a memory device consisting of CMR resistors in an array according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a variable resistor made of etched CMR film for circuit application according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of a section of an infrared detection array of the etched and modified CMR film as the sensors according to an embodiment of the invention. Referring to FIG. 1, a diagram of a bi-layer device using a colossal magnetoresistive (CMR) thin film material is shown. Conductive layer 10 is used as the bottom electrode layer on substrate 12. Bottom electrode contact 13 is joined to layer 10. Bottom layer 10 is then partially covered with CMR thin film 14. Top electrode contacts 15 and 16 are made to thin film 14. Contacts 13, 15 and 16 are connected to wires 17, 18 and 19, respectively. Conductive layer 10 may be crystalline or polycrystalline, but its resistivity should be less than that of CMR layer 14. A typical bi-layer device of this invention is made of a conductive oxide or other conductive material bottom layer, e.g. YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO) or Pt, of thickness in the range from about 5 nm to about 5000 nm, for bottom electrode layer 10. This layer 10 is deposited on an oxide or other atomically ordered or polycrystalline substrate 12, e.g. (100) LaAlO3, Si, TiN, etc. Active layer top layer 14 is made of a perovskite material, such as a CMR or HTSC material, e.g. Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3 (PCMO), of thickness in the range from about 5 nm to about 5000 nm. Bottom contact 13 and two top contacts 15 and 16 may be made of Ag, Au, Pt or other metal or a conducting oxide, and may be deposited by any variety of techniques onto the active CMR, HTSC or other perovskite layer. By applying an electrical pulse between wires 18 and 19, an electric field and current will be created across CMR film 14. Because the electrical resistivity of the film is much larger than that of the bottom layer, the current will primarily flow through the CMR film vertically. Therefore, if the CMR film is thin and the areas of the electrode contacts are small, a strong electric field strength and a strong electric current density will be produced in the CMR film in the vicinity of electrode contact 15 even if the peak voltage of the pulse is not high. This field or current changes the resistive properties of the film. The characteristics of the CMR materials are affected significantly by their internal charge distribution (see the article "Current Switching of Resistive States in Magnetoresistive Manganites," referenced above). A sufficiently high electric field strength or/and electric current density can change their charge distribution, and possibly their microstructures, and thus switch their states or modify their properties such as resistivity, sensitivity to temperature, magnetic field, electric field, and mechanical pressure. However, high electric field strength or/and high electric current can damage the materials and destroy their crystal or microscopic structure. We have discovered that an electric field high enough to change the properties of perovskite materials can be used by applying the electrical field in short pulses. Further, we have found that the changed properties will remain in the altered state after the pulse. Further, if pulse energy is sufficiently small the material is not damaged. Prior methods that result in changes in material characteristics similar to the modification described here can only be used during the preparation of the material, not to modify the properties or to switch the state of a CMR material repeatedly after the material has been made. For example, a defect structure or a heterostructure of the CMR material can respond to small changes in magnetic field, as reported in the article "Colossal Magnetoresistance not just a Load of Bolometers," referenced above, but this defect structure has to be injected into the material during its preparation. Electrical pulses may be applied to the perovskite material in layer 14 through wires 17 or 18 and 19. Voltages from about 5 volts to about 150 volts can be used dependent on thickness of the perovskite and structure and composition of the electrode. When the peak voltage of the applied pulses increases above a threshold value, the resistance of material in layer 14 changes, even in zero magnetic field and at room temperature. The threshold voltage depends on active film thickness and film composition, shape of the contact pads and the distance between the pads. Typically, a voltage greater than 5 volts will yield an electrical field of ˜105 V/cm in the perovskite material of layer 14. After applying each pulse to the sample, the resistance increases or decreases depending on the following parameters: the pulse peak voltage, the pulse waveform, the direction of electric field and the history of the change of the resistance. The changed resistance value is stable to another static or pulsed electric field as long as the voltage of that succeeding field is lower than the threshold value for the specific material/device. A curve of resistance versus number of unipolar electrical pulses in zero magnetic field and at room temperature is shown in FIG. 2a. The device is composed of a Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3 layer of about 600 nm thickness deposited by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) on top of a YBCO bottom electrode layer of about 1000 nm also deposited by PLD on top of a LaAlO3 (100) single crystal substrate. The top electrode on the PCMO is a sputtered silver dot, as is the electrical contact pad on the YBCO bottom layer. Silver wires are attached to these pads for electrical stimulation. Such oxide films can be made by a number of deposition techniques including pulsed laser deposition, rf-sputtering, e-beam evaporation, thermal evaporation, metalorganic deposition, sol gel deposition, and metal organic chemical vapor deposition. The pulsed laser deposition method used here incorporates a target composed of a sintered or crystalline oxide of the composition similar to that of the final oxide film (Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3) which is irradiated by a pulsed and focused laser beam usually with wavelength in the near ultra-violet region as from an excimer laser (wavelengths of 157 nm, 193 nm, 248 nm, 308 nm, and 351 ) and at a beam energy of ≧approximately 200 mJ. The target is housed in a vacuum chamber and is typically rotated such that the laser beam continuously hits a different point on the target. The laser beam impact on the target causes a plume of target material to be ejected from the target surface. A substrate is mounted approximately 1 to 4 cm in front of the target such that it intercepts the plume of materials and as a result a film of materials is deposited on the substrate. The substrate is held at an elevated temperature (nominally from 250° C. to about 900° C.) and in an oxidizing environment (nominally O2 at from a few 10's milliTorr to a few Torr) during the deposition process. Deposition times vary from a few minutes to several tens or hundreds of minutes for oxide films of from 10 nm to 1000 nm thickness. The resistance increased with increasing number of pulses. The pulses had a square waveform, such as shown in FIG. 3(a), a peak voltage of +31V and a duration of about 71 ns. Electrical pulse-induced changes in the resistance of more than a factor of 10 were observed. Resistance increases were small until about 40 pulses had been applied, and then resistance increased rapidly. Experiments showed that other pulse shapes can be used, such as those shown in FIGS. 3(c) and 3(e). Since there are small inter-electrode capacitances, the waveform of the pulses was distorted upon application to the contacts, so the pulse from a square wave generator, such as shown in FIG. 3(a), appeared as shown in FIG. 3(b) upon application to the contacts. With the configuration of the test apparatus, a typical pulse peak voltage of about 5V or greater was needed to see the resistance changes in the material. Pulse durations of from about 1 ns to more than 100 μs can be used to initiate the changes in properties. Under conditions of a conducting oxide bottom electrode, the resistivity changes measured for the device can become extremely large as shown in FIG. 2b. This device is composed of a Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3 layer of about 550 nm thickness deposited by pulsed laser deposition (PLD) on top of a YBCO bottom electrode layer of about 500 nm also deposited by PLD on top of a LaAlO3 (100) single crystal substrate. Electrical connections are similar to those of the sample in FIG. 2a. The large resistivity change exhibited in FIG. 2b is driven by both the change of the CMR layer and changes in the electrode/CMR layer interfaces, and is generally not fully reversible. Applied electrical pulses may have square, triangular, saw-toothed, sine or other waveforms shown in FIGS. 3(a), 3(c) and 3(e), with the response at the wires as shown in FIGS. 3(b), 3(d) and 3(f). The pulses can be of any waveform provided that the pulses can create sufficiently high electric field strength or/and electric current density in the material to modify its state and the peak height and duration are small enough, that is, the pulse energy is small enough, so that the material will not be destroyed. Pulsing the bilayer device of FIG. 1 with pulses of different polarity showed a reversible switching effect. Referring to FIG. 4a, the graph shows that the resistance of a 400 nm thick Gd0.7Ca0.3BaCo2O5+5 based device with bottom YBCO electrode of thickness 850 nm and electrical contacts as for the device of FIG. 2a, increases from 175 ohms to a saturation value of 400 ohms after about five to seven pulses of −12 volts. Upon reversing the polarity of the pulses to +12 volts, the resistance dropped back to the initial starting value, 175 ohms. Upon application of pulses of the original polarity, resistance then increased again to 400 ohms. This behavior was shown to be repeatable on reversing pulse polarity. If a series of pulses is used between measurements, less pulses are required of the "+" type to switch the material than the "−" type, where "+" indicates a positive voltage pulse applied to the bottom electrode of the device. A series of pulses can switch the material smoothly from low to high resistance in a very regular manner, as shown in FIG. 4b. The device in FIG. 4b consists of a PCMO film 750 nm thickness deposited on a Pt film of 120 nm thickness on LaAlO3 with electrical contracts as for the device of FIG. 2a. Three positive pulses of 51 volts and eight negative pulses of 51 volts were used to produce the regular pattern of FIG. 4b. The pulses were 109 ns in length are there were 10 pulses per second. A second embodiment of a device of this invention is shown in FIG. 5. A single layer 24 of a perovskite material, such as CMR or HTSC film (e.g., PCMO), of thickness in the range from about 5 nm to about 5000 nm is shown on an oxide or other atomically ordered or polycrystalline but insulating substrate 20, (e.g., (100) LaAlO3). Two electrode contacts 21 and 22 are joined to the PCMO layer such that the distance between the electrode contacts is much less than the equivalent radii of the electrodes, in the range from about 0.1 micrometers to about 100 micrometers. Electrical pulses are applied to the film through the two electrode contacts to produce a resistance change, in zero magnetic field and at room temperature, with the number of pulses, as described above. CMR materials and other materials having a perovskite structure, because their crystal types are similar to the CMR materials, can be changed in properties by application of short electrical pulses. Specifically, the resistance of a HTSC film of YBCO can be changed by short electrical pulses, and after the resistance of a YBCO film is changed by electrical pulses, the sensitivity of the film to temperature change and mechanical pressure will be changed. Therefore, the method of applying electrical pulses can be used to change the sensitivity of sensors based on perovskite materials. This is a new capability. The inventors do not wish to be bound by any explanation of the changes in the properties of perovskite materials resulting from electrical pulses as described and claimed herein, but note that the behavior described herein cannot be explained by the traditional CMR resistance change effect under high magnetic fields, as set out, for example, in the paper "Growth, Transport, and Magnetic Properties of Pr0.67Ca0.33MnO3 Thin Films," S. K. Singh, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, pp. 263-265, 1996. The pulsed electric field or pulsed current through the sample cannot create a high enough magnetic induction to change the resistance of the PCMO, and if it did, the resistance would decrease into a lower resistance state under this mechanism, and not to a higher resistance state as observed. Because the perovskite thin film materials, especially the CMR and HTSC materials are very useful in many fields and will become increasingly available, the state switching and properties modification method described above has many applications. The materials and methods may be used to make random access or read only memory devices with high data density and reading speed. Referring to FIG. 6, a section of a memory device having a CMR, HTSC or other perovskite resistor array is shown. Conductive layer 26, to be used as the bottom electrode, is formed on substrate 25. Over layer 26 a thin layer of CMR or HTSC material is grown and etched to form an electrical resistor array. Each resistor forms a memory unit. A top electrode array which shape matches the resistor array is then made on the resistors. The arrangement of connection wires 29 may adopt the schemes used in existing integrated circuits, which are well known in the art. For writing information into this memory device, one may apply short electrical pulses to the chosen memory units through their top and bottom electrodes, thus making each of the chosen resistors have a special resistance value. According to that mentioned above, since these resistors are made of the CMR or HTSC film or other perovskite material having similar structure, the resistance of each resistor can be changed over an order of magnitude or more. Therefore, each memory unit can store much more information than those currently commonly existing. For example, by applying electrical pulses to resistor 27 through its top electrode 28 and bottom electrode 26, the resistance between the top and bottom electrodes may be changed significantly, such as from 100 ohms to 1,000 ohms. If this range of resistance is divided into 100 divisions by linear or nonlinear intervals, an interval such as a linear interval 10 ohms wide can be set by a specific number of pulses having selected characteristics. When one takes the resistance value of 100 ohms to 110 ohms as number 1, the value of 110 ohms to 120 ohms as 2, and so on, the largest number which can be stored in this unit will be 100. It means that a such memory unit, which can have a size less than a transistor, will have a memory ability equivalent to that of a 0.1 kilobit memory element in the common memory devices. This device will be non-volatile and radiation-hard. Furthermore, the read access time can be much shorter than for common memory, because the measurement of resistance of a resistor requires shorter time than to read the information stored in a 0.1 kilobit transistor memory element, and to measure a resistor with high resistance requires about the same time as that to measure one with low resistance. Such CMR or other perovskite non-volatile memory devices may be read-only memory, and as well as random access memory, because the information stored in each memory unit, that is, the resistance of each resistor may be reset to its original value by reversing the direction of a pulsed electric field. Another application of this properties-modification method is to make the film or bulk CMR material be a variable resistor that can be used in electronic circuits. FIG. 7 shows such a variable resistor in an integrated circuit, where CMR film resistor 30 is made by deposition and etching on substrate 31. Two electrodes, 32 and 33, which are on both sides of resistor 30, are used for changing its resistance. Wires 34 and 35 connect resistor 30 to the circuit. By applying electrical pulses to the resistor through the electrodes 32 and 33, the resistor's resistance may be changed. The electrical pulses may also be applied to the resistor through connecting wires 34 and 35; however, using the additional electrodes may avoid the influence to other elements in the circuit. This type of variable resistor has no moving parts or complex structures and thus can have smaller size, longer lifetime and the ability to change resistance over a large range. Another application of this method is to modify the characteristics of the perovskite thin film materials, especially the CMR and HTSC materials, so as to increase or decrease their detection sensitivities when they are used as sensors for temperature, magnetic field, electric field, and mechanical pressure. An example of this is an infrared detector such as shown in FIG. 8. A CMR thin film 39 is made on substrate 36, then is etched into an array. Readout electronics can be imbedded between the CMR film and the substrate. The temperature sensitivity of the sensors can be changed by applying an individual pulse in the array, for example, using the electrodes 37 and 38 to apply pulses to sensor 39. If the sensor's thermometric sensitivity is increased, then it is possible to use such device to obtain infrared image information from a target at room temperature. When infrared radiation falls on a sensor, its resistance will change measurably even at room temperature. The additional readout electronics provides currents through each pair of electrodes. The intensity of the current passing through each sensor will change with incident infrared radiation. By using suitable readout electronics and image display, an infrared image of the target will be generated. While particular preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described, it is not intended that these details should be regarded as limitations upon the present invention, except as and to the extent that they are included in the following claims. Citations de brevets
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Entryway: The space features the cool colors and movement reflected in the artwork of Claude Monet.   See the Image
Master Bedroom: This luxury master suite features subtle, rich textures and a serene palette of purples and grays to create a harmonious retreat.   See the Image
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Kid's Room: classic and stylishly sweet for a growing toddler.   See the Image
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When middle school teacher Chelsea was searching for an affordable home large enough for her growing family, Realtor Christy Temple turned her attention to the HUD Good Neighbor Next Door program.…   Read the Article


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Rockefeller University researchers are changing the face of drug addiction treatment
...within the system, says Kellogg, who is a clinical psychologist in Kreek's laboratory "We are hoping this study, which describes the experience of using contingency management from the vantage point of each group of participants, will inspire other people to think that this is something that they might want to br...Exercise, stress management show physiological benefits for heart patients
...modifying psychosocial factors," said Duke medical psychologist James Blumenthal, Ph.D., lead author of a study appearing in the April 6, 2005 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Society. The trial was supported by a $4.3 million grant from the National Institutes of Health. "Our results suggest that exe...Money doesn't buy happiness - - except when disability strikes
...h Services Research & Development Center and a U-M psychologist and internal medicine research investigator. Ubel directs, and Smith is a member of, the U-M Center for Behavioral and Decision Sciences in Medicine. They note that research has already shown that psychological well-being, or lack of it, can affect p...Certain weight control behaviors may precipitate obesity among adolescent girls
...n Psychological Association (APA). In this study, psychologist Eric Stice, Ph.D., of the University of Texas at Austin and co-authors found that 496 adolescent girls (11-15 year olds) who used radical weight-control, were depressed and had obese parents were more likely to become obese. On the other hand, the au...Abnormal lung cancer screening results may help smokers quit
...ng cancer. According to Matthew M. Clark, Ph.D., a psychologist working with the investigative team, they found that the more abnormal screenings a smoker received, the more likely they were to quit and remain smoke free at the end of three years. After the third annual follow-up visit, 42 percent of baseline smo...Alcohol magnifies the rewarding effects of smoking, even for light smokers
..., the heavier the smoking," said Andrea C. King, a psychologist and associate professor in the department of psychiatry at the University of Chicago, and first author of the study. "Prior to our study, research examining alcohol's effects on smoking urge included direct smoking 'cues,' such as having smokers hol...Child sex abuse policy recommendations published in Science magazine
EUGENE, Ore. -- A University of Oregon psychologist is calling for the creation of a new national institute on child abuse and interpersonal violence in a major policy article published in the April 22 issue of the journal Science. Jennifer Freyd , an authority on trauma, is the lead author of "The S...Program for abdominal and pelvic health offered at Rush University Medical Center
...ducation on overall health, as well as access to a psychologist to address the stresses of living with a physical ...eila Dugan; physical therapist Vonna Karoghlanian; psychologist Dr. Laurie Keefer, and radiologists Dr. Steven Archibald, Dr. Virginia Schreiner and Dr. Claire Smit...Patients with pituitary gland tumors are often misdiagnosed
... of height and prolactin for milk production. CINN psychologist Dino Kostas said pituitary tumor patients have unique concerns, such as loss of vision, that require a different approach. He emphasized that an educational seminar is a great way to allay patient fears while allowing patients to ask questions of any...Perceived discrimination linked to coronary artery calcification
...ascular outcomes," said Ten Lewis, Ph.D., a health psychologist in preventive medicine at Rush University Medical Center, Chicago. "Discrimination appears to be a stressor that has particular relevance for the health of African-American women." Previous research has suggested that social status stressors in the...Therapy to overcome fears helps children with obsessive-compulsive disorder
... OCD, says Jonathan Abramowitz, Ph.D., Mayo Clinic psychologist and lead researcher on the study. The study is pub..." says Stephen Whiteside, Ph.D., Mayo Clinic child psychologist and coauthor of the study. "That's because children learn skills in therapy that no one can ever tak...Some primary care residents feel unprepared to provide preventive counseling
...letely comfortable," says Elyse Park, PhD, the MGH psychologist who led the study. "They also may find it hard to bring up such matters in patient visits that have so many competing priorities and time constraints." The study examined data from a comprehensive survey of medical residents taken in 1998 with the ...Integrated chemical-dependency and mental-health treatment best for adolescents
...tice," concurred Michael Dennis, a senior research psychologist at Chestnut Health Systems. "Moreover, many medium to small urban and rural communities have no psychiatrist specializing in child and adolescent psychiatry. Adult psychiatrics and mental-health professionals tend to focus on common internalizing d...UCLA study tackles aging issues of adults with developmental disabilities
...ofessor at the University of La Verne and research psychologist at Casa Colina Centers for Rehabilitation. The research team studied 201 adults with disabilities who were living in non-institutional settings without nursing care. Their ages ranged from 19 to 79. The study aimed to test whether a comprehensive a...Psychologist: Make culture part of the new collaborative science
...rring questions, a University of Wisconsin-Madison psychologist will announce to attendees (May 27) at the 17th Annual Convention of the American Psychology Society in Los Angeles. Academic fields are rapidly converging to form emerging hybrids with tongue-twisting names such as psychoneuroimmunology. But, Ryff s...Short on time, long on feeling: Study suggests deadlines intensify emotions
...cohort. What accounts for the difference, wondered psychologist Ursina Teuscher: Wisdom gained with the gathering years? A shift in values thanks to greater life experience? Or, is it a keener sense of time a precious and, of necessity, diminishing resource? To test the notion that time limits and approaching en...Home-based intervention increases physical activity in breast cancer survivors
...hD, lead author of the Moving Forward study, staff psychologist at The Miriam Hospital, and associate professor at Brown Medical School. "In addition, some breast cancer survivors report somatic complaints such as chronic fatigue, weight gain and difficulty sleeping that linger for months or years after the end...Researchers discover 'window on the brain' that could help treat disorders
...as announced today (June 20). University of Oregon psychologist Don Tucker says signals of electrical activity in the human brain become distorted when they pass through the skull, much like light through frosted glass. Measurements of brain activity using electrodes attached to the skull, such as an EEG (electro...Survey shows that physicians are more religious than expected
... scientists date back to a landmark 1916 survey by psychologist James Leuba that documented widespread disbelief. Leuba found that only 40 percent of scientists believed in a personal God, 15 percent were uncertain and 45 percent disbelieved. Surveys published in Nature in 1997 and 1998, showed little change s......taking part in electro-shock suffered memory loss, psychologist Svenja Schulze-Rauschenbach confirmed. Even so, magnetic stimulation is not a miracle cure, since, like electro-shock, it is not a lasting cure for depression. The patients still have to continue to be treated afterwards with other methods. 'TMS is j...


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Kukla's Korner Hockey
AO Has Confidence In Caps
by Paul on 03/30/07 at 09:54 PM ET
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from Wes Goldstein at CBS Sportsline,
His numbers are down a bit, his team won't make the playoffs and the rival he'll likely spend his entire career being compared to has risen to greater heights. So why is it that nothing seems to be bothering Alexander Ovechkin these days?
"You know it's been tough because we didn't win, but it happens," said the young Washington Capitals superstar. "We didn't have much luck, but I think we're going to move forward. I'm happy about that."
Filed in: Washington Capitals, | KK Hockey | Permalink
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Paul Kukla founded Kukla's Korner in 2005 and the site has since become the must-read site on the 'net for all the latest happenings around the NHL.
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My SportsFMX | My PhotosPro Sk8teR B.J.P.CMy Videos7 Comments1-7 of 7 Posted by pikapita17 January 30, 2010 06:15pm PSTReply | Report Abuse __+880_________________________++_ Posted by buckworthswa2hc January 5, 2010 07:49pm PSTReply | Report Abuse hiiii Posted by omgitsmiily August 27, 2009 08:49am PDTReply | Report Abuse Hey thanx for the invitee.! Posted by sara9805 August 24, 2009 08:59am PDTReply | Report Abuse whatz up Reply by bjcurtis1 August 24, 2009 03:54pm PDTReport Abuse not much you Posted by dirtbikequeen August 23, 2009 03:53pm PDTReply | Report Abuse thanks for the add! Reply by bjcurtis1 August 23, 2009 07:14pm PDTReport Abuse you welcome man Reply by dirtbikequeen August 24, 2009 03:06pm PDTReport Abuse *girl:) I'm just messin with ya Posted by lexy324 August 23, 2009 11:50am PDTReply | Report Abuse i like your hair and check out my pro its sick Posted by gorgeous girl August 23, 2009 01:54am PDTReply | Report Abuse Hi bjcurtis1, Reply by bjcurtis1 August 23, 2009 08:59am PDTReport Abuse you welcome it was my pleasure!!! |


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Build Dependencies
From Stellarium Wiki
Revision as of 11:26, 2 June 2007 by Matthewg42 (Talk | contribs)
Stellarium needs a few things to be installed on your system before you can build it.
Dependency | Ubuntu package name | Notes |
Automake | automake1.9 | website. |
Autoconf | autoconf | website. |
GNU C Compiler | gcc | Or compatible alternative. |
GNU C++ Compiler | g++ | Or compatible alternative. |
Open GL | libgl1-mesa-dev | |
GLU | libglu1-mesa-dev | |
SDL | libsdl-dev | website |
Zlib | zlib1g-dev | website |
PNG | libpng12-dev | website |
Subversion | subversion | Optional. Only necessary if you want to build the latest development version (not the "release" versions). |
Freetype | libfreetype6-dev | website. |
Boost C++ Libraries | libboost-dev | Since about 2006-08-28 |
JPEG libraries | libjpeg-dev | New in version 0.9.x |
Curl library | libcurl3-dev | New in version 0.9.x |
QT 4.2 library | libqt4-dev | New in version 0.9.x. You must make sure that if you have alternatives for QT development tools for QT3, that you set up your alternatives to point at the QT4 versions of the tools (moc etc.). Since SVN revision 2162, QT is required, not just an optional dependency. |
CMake | cmake | Since late May 2007, we are using CMake instead of automake/autoconf. Get version 2.4-patch 6 or higher of CMake. |
Doxygen | doxygen | Optional. If you want to build the API documentation you will need this. |
Graphviz | graphviz | Optional. If you want to build the API document and include fancy class diagrams, you will need this. |
SDL-mixer | libsdl-mixer1.2-dev | Optional. If you want to enable audio features in scripting. |
This list is getting quite long... We hope to remove some dependencies after the 0.9.0 release.
Linux users: if your distribution separates libraries into normal and development version, make sure you get the development ones (e.g. in Debian/Ubuntu, the ...-dev packages). Ubuntu users can install all these dependencies in one go by running this command in a terminal:
sudo aptitude install build-essential automake1.9 autoconf \ libfreetype6-dev cvs libsdl-mixer1.2-dev libpng12-dev \ libsdl1.2-dev zlib1g-dev libglu1-mesa-dev libgl1-mesa-dev \ gcc g++ libboost-dev libboost-thread-dev libjpeg-dev \ libcurl3-dev libboost-filesystem-dev subversion \ libqt4-dev graphviz doxygen cmake


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Looking for ways to save energy? Check out these tips that every homeowner should try. | Infographic by Sarah Gerrity, Energy Department. Updated January 2, 2014.
Editor's Note: It's a new year, and that means new resolutions. Whether this is the first year you're looking for ways to save energy or you want to lower your energy bills even more than last year, check out our eight strategies for saving energy. We first released these tips in 2013, and while a couple of the energy-saving numbers have changed, for a second year in a row, they remain the top eight ways you can save money at home.
At the beginning of every new year, millions of Americans make New Year's resolutions, which inevitably are forgotten by the end of January. This year, forget making a New Year's resolution. Instead make a home energy efficiency resolution.
Need some ideas on resolutions to make your home more energy efficient? To get you started, I consulted with our experts in the Building Technologies Office -- who work on developing innovative, cost-effective solutions to saving energy -- to create a list of the top ways to save energy and money at home. They came up with eight strategies all homeowners should adopt to lower their energy bills no matter the time of the year or their price range. Some tips are free or low cost and can be used daily to increase your energy savings, while others require a larger investment for long-term savings. This year, resolve to try one or more of these tips for improving your home's energy efficiency, and start seeing savings on your next energy bill.
1. Install and set a programmable thermostat. You could save an estimated 10 percent per year on heating and cooling costs by using a programmable thermostat, and by resetting it when you are asleep or away from home, you won't have to sacrifice comfort.
2. Use sunlight to your advantage. The sun's rays can contribute heat in the winter but force air conditioners and fans to work harder -- and use more energy -- in the summer. During winter months, you can take advantage of sunlight by opening your curtains during the day to allow the sun to naturally heat your home. During warmer months, use light-colored window shades or blinds to reflect heat back outside, keeping your home cooler and more efficient. Using natural lighting effectively will also reduce the need to use artificial light.
3. When replacing appliances or purchasing electronics, look for ENERGY STAR appliances, fans and electronics. Your home's appliances and electronics account for close to 20 percent of your energy bills. Using ENERGY STAR® certified products -- which incorporate advanced technologies that use 10-15 percent less energy and water than standard models -- throughout your home could save nearly $750 over the lifetime of the products. For example, ENERGY STAR clothes washers use about 40 percent less energy than conventional clothes washers while reducing water bills. ENERGY STAR washers also require less detergent and are gentler on clothes, saving you money on clothing expenses.
4. Choose energy-saving lighting. About 10 percent of the energy your home uses goes to lighting costs. By just replacing five of your home's most frequently used lights with energy-efficient ENERGY STAR bulbs, you could save $75 a year in energy costs. Compared to traditional incandescent bulbs, compact fluorescent bulbs can yield as much as 75 percent energy savings and last six-times longer. You can get even more energy savings, longer life span and less wasted heat by switching to ENERGY STAR LEDs.
5. Use an electronic power strip for your electronic equipment. Many electronic devices and equipment continue to consume unnecessary energy even when not in use. Often called energy vampires, these devices cost families about $100 a year. Use a power strip for electronic devices and turn it off when not in use to eliminate energy vampires. And be sure to unplug your chargers -- they draw energy even when they aren't connected to a device.
6. Reduce energy for water heating. Water heating is a large energy expense in your home, accounting for about 14-18 percent of your utility bills. By taking low-cost steps, you can reduce your water heating bills. Make sure your water heater is set to no higher than 120 degrees. Install low-flow showerheads or temperature-sensitive shower valves. Newer water heaters have more insulation than older ones. If your water heater is more than five years old, you should wrap a water heater jacket around it to stop heat loss from the tank.
7. Hire a professional to maintain your heating and cooling system. Arrange for annual maintenance with a qualified technician. This includes checking the airflow over the coil, testing for the correct fluid (refrigerant) level, checking the combustion process and heat exchanger are operating safely, and ensuring proper air-flow to each room. In addition, you should clean the air filters in your heating and cooling system once a month, and replace them regularly.
8. Consult a home performance contractor to achieve large savings. There is a growing industry of professionals who are qualified to make recommendations to homeowners on how to improve the overall energy efficiency of their homes. These professional energy assessors will do a comprehensive energy audit of your whole house using special tools -- such as a blower door test and an infrared camera to locate air leaks -- to measure home energy efficiency.
A professional energy audit gives you a thorough picture of where your home is losing energy and what you can do to save money. By making upgrades (especially sealing air leaks and properly insulating your home), you can expect to save 15-30 percent or more in energy costs, while also improving your home's comfort and air quality. Visit the Home Performance with ENERGY STAR website to learn more about this approach and to locate home performance contractors near you.