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On June 5, 1981, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a report describing a rare lung infection known as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in five homosexual men in Los Angeles. Expert review of the cases suggested that the disease likely was acquired through sexual contact and that it appeared to be associated with immune dysfunction caused by exposure to some factor that predisposed the affected individuals to opportunistic infection. The following month the CDC published a report describing an outbreak of cases of a rare cancer called Kaposi sarcoma in homosexual men in New York City and San Francisco. The report noted that in many instances the cancers were accompanied by opportunistic infections, such as P. carinii pneumonia. The infections and cancers were later determined to be manifestations of AIDS. In addition to affecting homosexual men, the disease was detected in intravenous drug users, who became infected mainly by sharing contaminated hypodermic needles.
In 1983 French and American researchers isolated the causative agent, HIV. (In 2008 French virologists Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of HIV.) By 1985 serological tests to detect the virus had been developed.
According to a 2011 United Nations report on AIDS, an estimated 34 million people were living with HIV, approximately 2.7 million people were newly infected with HIV, and about 1.8 million people died of AIDS and AIDS-related conditions in 2010. Between 1997 and 2010, the annual number of new infections dropped 21 percent, and since about 2005, the annual number of deaths from AIDS has also declined. The latter trend has been due in large part to improved access to treatment for the afflicted. Thus, there has been an increase in the overall number of people living with AIDS. Since 1981, however, more than 25 million people have died of the disease.
People living in sub-Saharan Africa account for about 70 percent of all infections, and in some countries of the region the prevalence of HIV infection of inhabitants exceeded 10 percent of the population. Rates of infection are lower in other parts of the world, but different subtypes of the virus have spread to Europe, India, South and Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Rates of infection have leveled off somewhat in the United States and Europe. In the United States nearly one million people are living with HIV/AIDS, and half of all new infections are among African Americans. In Asia the sharpest increases in HIV infections are found in China, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Access to retroviral treatment for AIDS remains limited in some areas of the world, although more people are receiving treatment today than in the past.
Details of the origin of HIV remain unclear. However, a lentivirus that is genetically similar to HIV has been found in chimpanzees and gorillas in western equatorial Africa. This virus is known as simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and it was once widely thought to be harmless in chimpanzees. However, in 2009 a team of researchers investigating chimpanzee populations in Africa found that SIV in fact causes AIDS-like illness in the animals. SIV-infected chimpanzees have a death rate that is 10 to 16 times higher than their uninfected counterparts. The practice of hunting, butchering, and eating the meat of chimpanzees may have allowed transmission of the virus to humans, probably in the late 19th or early 20th century. The strain of SIV found in gorillas is known as SIVgor, and it is distinct from the strain found in chimpanzees. Because primates are suspected to be the source of HIV, AIDS is considered a zoonosis, an infection that is shared by humans and other vertebrate animals.
Genetic studies of a pandemic strain of HIV, known as HIV-1 group M, have indicated that the virus emerged between 1884 and 1924 in central and western Africa. Researchers estimate that this strain of the virus began spreading throughout these areas in the late 1950s. Later, in the mid-1960s, an evolved strain called HIV-1 group M subtype B spread from Africa to Haiti. In Haiti this subtype acquired unique characteristics, presumably through the process of genetic recombination. Sometime between 1969 and 1972, the virus migrated from Haiti to the United States. The virus spread within the United States for about a decade before it was discovered in the early 1980s. The worldwide spread of HIV-1 was likely facilitated by several factors, including increasing urbanization and long-distance travel in Africa, international travel, changing sexual mores, and intravenous drug use.
Genetic studies have led to a general classification system for HIV that is primarily based on the degree of similarity in viral gene sequence. The two major classes of HIV are HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is divided into three groups, known as group M (main group), group O (outlier group), and group N (new group). Worldwide, HIV-1 group M causes the majority of HIV infections, and it is further subdivided into subtypes A through K, which differ in expression of viral genes, virulence, and mechanisms of transmission. In addition, some subtypes combine with one another to create recombinant subtypes. HIV-1 group M subtype B is the virus that spread from Africa to Haiti and eventually to the United States. Pandemic forms of subtype B are found in North and South America, Europe, Japan, and Australia. Subtypes A, C, and D are found in sub-Saharan Africa, although subtypes A and C are also found in Asia and some other parts of the world. Most other subtypes of group M are generally located in specific regions of Africa, South America, or Central America.
In 2009 a new strain of HIV-1 was discovered in a woman from Cameroon. The virus was closely related to a strain of SIV found in wild gorillas. Researchers placed the new virus into its own group, HIV-1 group P, because it was unique from all other types of HIV-1. It was unclear whether the newly identified virus causes disease in humans.
HIV-2 is divided into groups A through E, with subtypes A and B being the most relevant to human infection. HIV-2, which is found primarily in western Africa, can cause AIDS, but it does so more slowly than HIV-1. There is some evidence that HIV-2 may have arisen from a form of SIV that infects African green monkeys.
HIV is transmitted by the direct transfer of bodily fluids, such as blood and blood products, semen and other genital secretions, or breast milk, from an infected person to an uninfected person. The primary means of transmission worldwide is sexual contact with an infected individual. HIV frequently is spread among intravenous drug users who share needles or syringes. Prior to the development of screening procedures and heat-treating techniques that destroy HIV in blood products, transmission also occurred through contaminated blood products; many people with hemophilia contracted HIV in that way. Today the risk of contracting HIV from a blood transfusion is extremely small. In rare cases transmission to health care workers may occur by an accidental stick with a needle used to obtain blood from an infected person.
The virus can be transmitted across the placenta or through the breast milk from mother to infant; administration of antiretroviral medications to both the mother and the infant around the time of birth reduces the chance that the child will be infected with HIV. Antiretroviral therapy can reduce the risk of transmission from infected persons to their uninfected sexual partners by some 96 percent when prescribed immediately upon diagnosis.
HIV is not spread by coughing, sneezing, or casual contact (e.g., shaking hands). HIV is fragile and cannot survive long outside of the body. Therefore, direct transfer of bodily fluids is required for transmission. Other sexually transmitted diseases, such as syphilis, genital herpes, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, increase the risk of contracting HIV through sexual contact, probably through the genital lesions that they cause.
The main cellular target of HIV is a special class of white blood cells critical to the immune system known as helper T lymphocytes, or helper T cells. Helper T cells are also called CD4+ T cells because they have on their surfaces a protein called CD4. Helper T cells play a central role in normal immune responses by producing factors that activate virtually all the other immune system cells. These include B lymphocytes, which produce antibodies needed to fight infection; cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which kill cells infected with a virus; and macrophages and other effector cells, which attack invading pathogens. AIDS results from the loss of most of the helper T cells in the body.
HIV is a retrovirus, one of a unique family of viruses that consist of genetic material in the form of RNA (instead of DNA) surrounded by a lipoprotein envelope. HIV cannot replicate on its own and instead relies on the mechanisms of the host cell to produce new viral particles. HIV infects helper T cells by means of a protein embedded in its envelope called gp120. The gp120 protein binds to a molecule called CD4 on the surface of the helper T cell, an event that initiates a complex set of reactions that allow the HIV genetic information into the cell.
Entry of HIV into the host cell also requires the participation of a set of cell surface proteins that normally serve as receptors for chemokines (hormonelike mediators that attract immune system cells to particular sites in the body). These receptors, which occur on T cells, are often described as coreceptors, since they work in tandem with CD4 to permit HIV entry into the cells. Chemokine receptors that are known to act as HIV coreceptors include CCR5 (chemokine [C-C motif] receptor 5) and CXCR4 (chemokine [C-X-C motif] receptor 4), both of which are classified as G protein-coupled receptors. The binding of gp120 to CD4 exposes a region of gp120 that interacts with the chemokine receptors. This interaction triggers a conformational change that exposes a region of the viral envelope protein gp41, which inserts itself into the membrane of the host cell so that it bridges the viral envelope and the cell membrane. An additional conformational change in gp41 pulls these two membranes together, allowing fusion to occur. After fusion the viral genetic information can enter the host cell. Both CCR5 and CXCR4 have generated significant interest as targets for drug development; agents that bind to and block these receptors could inhibit HIV entry into cells.
Once the virus has infected a T cell, HIV copies its RNA into a double-stranded DNA copy by means of the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase; this process is called reverse transcription because it violates the usual way in which genetic information is transcribed. Because reverse transcriptase lacks the "proofreading" function that most DNA synthesizing enzymes have, many mutations arise as the virus replicates, further hindering the ability of the immune system to combat the virus. These mutations allow the virus to evolve very rapidly, approximately one million times faster than the human genome evolves. This rapid evolution allows the virus to escape from antiviral immune responses and antiretroviral drugs. The next step in the virus life cycle is the integration of the viral genome into the host cell DNA. Integration occurs at essentially any accessible site in the host genome and results in the permanent acquisition of viral genes by the host cell. Under appropriate conditions these genes are transcribed into viral RNA molecules. Some viral RNA molecules are incorporated into new virus particles, while others are used as messenger RNA for the production of new viral proteins. Viral proteins assemble at the plasma membrane together with the genomic viral RNA to form a virus particle that buds from the surface of the infected cell, taking with it some of the host cell membrane that serves as the viral envelope. Embedded in this envelope are the gp120/gp41 complexes that allow attachment of the helper T cells in the next round of infection. Most infected cells die quickly (in about one day). The number of helper T cells that are lost through direct infection or other mechanisms exceeds the number of new cells produced by the immune system, eventually resulting in a decline in the number of helper T cells. Physicians follow the course of the disease by determining the number of helper T cells (CD4+ cells) in the blood. This measurement, called the CD4 count, provides a good indication of the status of the immune system. Physicians also measure the amount of virus in the bloodstream—i.e., the viral load—which provides an indication of how fast the virus is replicating and destroying helper T cells.
The genome of HIV mutates at a very high rate, and thus the virus in each infected individual is slightly different. The genetic mechanisms that underlie this individual variation have been investigated through approaches based on genome sequencing. The HIV-1 genome in 2009 was the first HIV genome to be sequenced in its entirety. Prior to this achievement, the ability of HIV RNA to fold into highly intricate structures had complicated attempts to elucidate the genomic sequence, and scientists could sequence only small segments of the genome. The HIV-1 genome is composed of 9,173 nucleotides of RNA (nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids).
Sequencing revealed that variation occurs throughout the HIV genome but is especially pronounced in the gene encoding the gp120 protein. By constantly changing the structure of its predominant surface protein, the virus can avoid recognition by antibodies produced by the immune system. Sequencing also has provided useful insight into genetic factors that influence viral activity. Knowledge of these factors is expected to contribute to the development of new drugs for the treatment of AIDS.
The course of HIV infection involves three stages: primary HIV infection, the asymptomatic phase, and AIDS. During the first stage the transmitted HIV replicates rapidly, and some persons may experience an acute flulike illness that usually persists for one to two weeks. During this time a variety of symptoms may occur, such as fever, enlarged lymph nodes, sore throat, muscle and joint pain, rash, and malaise. Standard HIV tests, which measure antibodies to the virus, are initially negative because HIV antibodies generally do not reach detectable levels in the blood until a few weeks after the onset of the acute illness. As the immune response to the virus develops, the level of HIV in the blood decreases.
The second phase of HIV infection, the asymptomatic period, lasts an average of 10 years. During this period the virus continues to replicate, and there is a slow decrease in the CD4 count (the number of helper T cells). When the CD4 count falls to about 200 cells per microlitre of blood (in an uninfected adult it is typically about 1,000 cells per microlitre), patients begin to experience opportunistic infections—i.e., infections that arise only in individuals with a defective immune system. This is AIDS, the final stage of HIV infection. The most common opportunistic infections are Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium infection, herpes simplex infection, bacterial pneumonia, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus infection. In addition, patients can develop dementia and certain cancers, including Kaposi sarcoma and lymphomas. Death ultimately results from the relentless attack of opportunistic pathogens or from the body's inability to fight off malignancies.
A small proportion of individuals infected with HIV have survived longer than 10 years without developing AIDS. It was suspected for many years that such individuals mount a more vigorous immune response to the virus, but scientists could not explain why. Then, in 2006, a variation called a single nucleotide polymorphism, or SNP, in the HLA-G gene—human leukocyte antigen G, a gene that codes for a molecule that stimulates immune response—was identified in a subset of female prostitutes who had remained HIV-negative despite having had sexual contact with more than 500 HIV-positive men. In 2007 scientists identified three additional SNPs responsible for an estimated 15 percent of the variability in viral load and disease progression between HIV-infected individuals. Two of these SNPs are located in genes that code for HLA-B and HLA-C, molecules that are similar to HLA-G in that they specialize in pathogen recognition and immune system activation. The third SNP is located in a gene called HCP5 (HLA complex P5), an inactive retrovirus first incorporated into the human genome millions of years ago that shares similarities in DNA sequence with HIV and is thought to interfere with viral replication.
In 2009 scientists discovered that HIV is capable of rapidly mutating to escape recognition by certain HLA immune molecules. In particular, researchers identified two forms of the HLA-B gene, known as HLA-B*51 and HLA-B*27, that produced immune molecules particularly susceptible to escape by HIV. The mutation of HIV to avoid these molecules is directly correlated to the frequency at which the HLA-B*51 and HLA-B*27 genes occur within populations. For example, the percentage of HIV-infected individuals that carried mutant virus capable of escaping immune detection by HLA-B*51 and HLA-B*27 molecules was high in populations with the highest frequencies of the HLA-B*51 and HLA-B*27 genes. In contrast, in populations with the lowest frequencies of these genes, only a small percentage of HIV-infected individuals were infected with mutant virus. The ability of HIV to mutate and hence rapidly evolve to escape immune detection by the most prevalent HLA molecules is similar to the rapid adaptation and mutation of other infectious viruses such as influenza.
Tests for the disease check for antibodies to HIV, which appear from four weeks to six months after exposure. The most common test for HIV is the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). If the result is positive, the test is repeated on the same blood sample. Another positive result is confirmed using a more specific test such as the Western blot. A problem with ELISA is that it produces false positive results in people who have been exposed to parasitic diseases such as malaria; this is particularly troublesome in Africa, where both AIDS and malaria are rampant. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests, which screen for viral RNA and therefore allow detection of the virus after very recent exposure, and Single Use Diagnostic Screening (SUDS) are other options. Because these tests are very expensive, they are often out of reach for the majority of the population at risk for the disease. Pharmaceutical companies are developing new tests that are less expensive and that do not need refrigeration, allowing for a greater testing of the at-risk population around the world.
HIV infection is treated with three classes of antiretroviral medications. Protease inhibitors, which inhibit the action of an HIV enzyme called protease, include ritonavir, saquinivir, indinavir, amprenivir, nelfinavir, and lopinavir. Nucleoside reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibitors (e.g., abacavir [ABC], zidovudine [AZT], zalcitabine [ddC], didanosine [ddI], stavudine [d4T], and lamivudine [3TC]) and non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (e.g., efavirenz, delavirdine, and nevirapine) both inhibit the action of reverse transcriptase. Each drug has unique side effects, and, in addition, treatment with combinations of these drugs leads to additional side effects including a fat-redistribution condition called lipodystrophy.
Because HIV rapidly becomes resistant to any single antiretroviral drug, combination treatment is necessary for effective suppression of the virus. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), a combination of three or four RT and protease inhibitors, has resulted in a marked drop in the mortality rate from HIV infection in the United States and other industrialized states since its introduction in 1996. Because of its high cost, HAART is generally not available in regions of the world hit hardest by AIDS. Although HAART does not appear to eradicate HIV, it reduces plasma viral load, thereby allowing the immune system to reconstitute itself. Levels of free virus in the blood become undetectable; however, the virus is still present in reservoirs, the best-known of which is a latent reservoir in a subset of helper T cells called resting memory T cells. The virus can persist in a latent state in these cells, which have a long life span due to their role in allowing the immune system to respond readily to previously encountered infections. These latently infected cells represent a major barrier to curing the infection.
Patients successfully treated with HAART no longer suffer from the AIDS-associated conditions mentioned above, although severe side effects may accompany the treatment. Patients must continue to take all of the drugs without missing doses in the prescribed combination, or they will risk developing a drug-resistant virus. In general, resistance develops because drug concentrations are too low, and while this can occur as a result of poor patient compliance, it also may occur as a result of drug interactions or poor absorption of drug by the body. If HAART is discontinued or fails, viral replication resumes, reflected in increased plasma viral load. This necessitates a change in the patient's treatment regimen. Resistance testing is used to determine which individual drugs and classes of drugs have been rendered ineffective by viral resistance, thereby allowing health care providers to tailor the new HAART regimen, which is known as a salvage regimen, to the patient. Salvage regimens often entail multiple drug rescue therapy (MDRT), or mega-HAART, the use of between 5 and 9 different drugs, including RT and protease inhibitors and sometimes hydroxyurea.
Antiretroviral therapy may be either immediate or delayed. In the past, delayed antiretroviral therapy was the preferred approach, with treatment initiated once CD4 levels had fallen to 200 cells per microlitre of blood, which generally coincides with the establishment of symptomatic disease. In most patients, initiating treatment at this point provides maximal therapeutic effectiveness, in that it minimizes the severity of drug toxicities and thus the risk for discontinuance of treatment and development of drug resistance. However, studies have indicated that in patients with morbidity-increasing factors, such as coinfection with a hepatitis virus or unusually rapid CD4 decline or high viral load, initiating treatment earlier, when CD4 levels have declined to 350 cells per microlitre, can improve survival and delay the onset of AIDS-related diseases significantly. Other studies have indicated that beginning antiretroviral treatment in infants immediately following diagnosis, rather than waiting until symptoms appear, can reduce infant mortality and disease progression dramatically. Taken together with the ability of antiretroviral therapy to reduce the risk of disease transmission, such studies have resulted in treatment recommendations that are more dynamic today than in the past, thereby improving treatment outcomes for certain subsets of patients with HIV.
There is no cure for HIV infection. Efforts at prevention have focused primarily on changes in sexual behaviour such as the practice of abstinence and the use of condoms. Attempts to reduce intravenous drug use and to discourage the sharing of needles led to a reduction in infection rates in some areas.
Antiretroviral therapy represents another important prevention strategy. Research has indicated that preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP), in which uninfected persons take an antiretroviral pill daily, can be highly effective in preventing infection. PrEP studies conducted in Kenya, Uganda, and Botswana revealed that the Truvada pill, which contains the antiretroviral medications tenofovir and emtricitabine, reduced the risk of HIV infection by between 63 and 73 percent in sexually active individuals. Other study participants took a pill known as Viread, which contained only tenofovir; those individuals experienced 62 percent fewer infections relative to participants who did not take the pill.
The first vaccine to demonstrate some level of effectiveness in preventing HIV infection was RV144, which actually consisted of two different vaccines given in succession, a strategy known as "prime boost." Each vaccine was designed to work against strains of HIV circulating in Southeast Asia. In 2009 results from a clinical trial involving more than 16,000 volunteers in Thailand revealed that RV144 reduced the risk of HIV infection by 31.2 percent in healthy men and women between the ages of 18 and 30. Subsequent analysis of the trial's data, however, indicated that the reduction in risk was closer to 26 percent, too low for statistical significance (i.e., the chances for protection with vaccination were no better than the chances for protection in the absence of vaccination).
In 2010 scientists reported the discovery of naturally occurring antibodies that neutralize (inactivate) about 90 percent of HIV strains and hence have considerable potential for facilitating the generation of vaccines for HIV prevention. The antibodies neutralize virus particles through interactions with highly conserved CD4 receptors, which are similar or identical to each other and which are found on most strains of HIV. Knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the interaction between the antibodies and the CD4 receptors was being used for investigation into the development of synthetic molecules that mimic the antibodies and stimulate their production.
Vaginal antimicrobial gels also have been investigated for the prevention of HIV infection. These agents are particularly valuable for women in relationships where mutual monogamy or condom use have failed or are not possible. Some of the first gels tested in large trials included Ushercell, which was made up of cellulose sulfate, and PRO 2000, which contained a polymer of naphthalene sulfonate. Each of these gels was designed to prevent the binding of HIV to cells in the vagina. Although initial investigations were promising, both gels failed to demonstrate effectiveness when tested in large numbers of women (more than 1,400 women in the Ushercell trial and nearly 9,400 in the PRO 2000 trial). In 2010 scientists reported that a newer vaginal gel, formulated to contain 1 percent tenofovir, demonstrated success in early trials. The study involved 889 women in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and indicated that, on average, the gel reduced the risk of HIV infection in women by 39 percent. Women who used the gel regularly experienced a 54 percent reduction in risk.
The identification of gene variations in HLA-B, HLA-C, HLA-G, and HCP5 has opened avenues of drug and vaccine development that had not been previously explored for HIV infection. Scientists anticipate that therapies aimed at these genes will serve as ways to boost immune response.
As with any epidemic for which there is no cure, tragedy shadows the disease's advance. From wreaking havoc on certain populations (such as the gay community in San Francisco in the 1980s) to infecting more than one-third of adults in sub-Saharan African countries such as Botswana, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe at the turn of the 21st century, AIDS has had a devastating social impact. Its collateral cultural effect has been no less far-reaching, sparking new research in medicine and complex legal debates, as well as intense competition among scientists, pharmaceutical companies, and research institutions. Since the mid-1980s, the International AIDS Society has held regular conferences at which new research and medical advances were discussed.
In order to raise public awareness, advocates promote the wearing of a loop of red ribbon to indicate their concern. Activist groups lobby governments for funding for education, research, and treatment, and support groups provide a wide range of services including medical, nursing, and hospice care, housing, psychological counseling, meals, and legal services. Those who have died of AIDS have been memorialized in the more than 44,000 panels of the AIDS Memorial Quilt, which has been displayed worldwide both to raise funds and to emphasize the human dimension of the tragedy. The United Nations designated December 1 as World AIDS Day.
Regarding access to the latest medical treatments for AIDS, the determining factors tend often to be geographic and economic. Simply put, developing nations often lack the means and funding to support the advanced treatments available in industrialized countries. On the other hand, in many developed countries specialized health care has caused the disease to be perceived as treatable or even manageable. This perception has fostered a lax attitude toward HIV prevention (such as safe sex practices or sterile needle distribution programs), which in turn has led to new increases in HIV infection rates.
Because of the magnitude of the disease in Africa, and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular, the governments of this region have tried to fight the disease in a variety of ways. Some countries have made arrangements with multinational pharmaceutical companies to make HIV drugs available in Africa at lower costs. Other countries, such as South Africa, have begun manufacturing these drugs themselves instead of importing them. Plants indigenous to Africa are also being scrutinized for their usefulness in developing various HIV treatments.
In the absence of financial resources to pay for new drug therapies, many African countries have found education to be the best defense against the disease. In Uganda, for example, songs about the disease, nationally distributed posters, and public awareness campaigns starting as early as kindergarten have all helped to stem the spread of AIDS. Prostitutes in Senegal are licensed and regularly tested for HIV, and the clergy, including Islamic religious leaders, work to inform the public about the disease. Other parts of Africa, however, have seen little progress. For example, the practice of sexually violating very young girls has developed among some HIV-positive African men because of the misguided belief that such acts will somehow cure them of the disease. In sub-Saharan Africa the stigma associated with homosexuality and the illegal nature of this sexual orientation in some countries there have discouraged gay men from seeking treatment for the disease and have severely hindered the extension of AIDS outreach programs to this population. In 2009 the incidence of AIDS among homosexual males in certain African countries was found to be alarmingly high—some 10 times higher than in the male population at large. Furthermore, many homosexual men in those areas were reportedly unaware that the disease could be transmitted from male to male. In the opinion of many, only better education can battle the damaging stereotypes, misinformation, and disturbing practices associated with AIDS.
Laws concerning HIV and AIDS typically fall into four broad categories: mandatory reporting, mandatory testing, laws against transmission, and immigration. The mandatory reporting of newly discovered HIV infections is meant to encourage early treatment. Many countries, including Canada, Switzerland, Denmark, and Germany, have enacted mandatory screening laws for HIV. Some countries, such as Estonia, require mandatory testing of prison populations (in response to explosive rates of infection among the incarcerated). Most of the United States requires some form of testing for convicted sex offenders. Other legal and international issues concern the criminalization of knowing or unknowing transmission (more prevalent in the United States and Canada) and the rights of HIV-positive individuals to immigrate to or even enter foreign countries. In 1987 the United States added AIDS to its list of communicable diseases that prevent an infected person's entry into the country. Eleven other countries—including Saudi Arabia, Libya, Qatar, Russia, and South Korea—also imposed immigration bans against persons infected with HIV. On January 4, 2010, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama lifted the U.S. ban, declaring that it contradicted the country's goal of serving as a leader in the global fight against AIDS.
In the United States some communities have fought the opening of AIDS clinics or the right of HIV-positive children to attend public schools. Several countries—notably Thailand, India, and Brazil—have challenged international drug patent laws, arguing that the societal need for up-to-date treatments supersedes the rights of pharmaceutical companies. At the start of the 21st century many Western countries were also battling the reluctance of some governments to direct public awareness campaigns at high-risk groups such as homosexuals, prostitutes, and drug users out of fear of appearing to condone their lifestyles.
For the world of art and popular culture, HIV/AIDS has been double-edged. On the one hand, AIDS removed from the artistic heritage many talented photographers, singers, actors, dancers, and writers in the world. On the other hand, as with the tragedy of war and even the horror of the Holocaust, AIDS has spurred moving works of art as well as inspiring stories of perseverance. From Paul Monette's Love Alone, to John Corigliano's Symphony No. 1, to the courage with which American tennis star Arthur Ashe publicly lived his final days after acquiring AIDS from a blood transfusion—these, as much as the staggering rates of infection, constitute the legacy of AIDS.


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Growth in emerging markets has produced an unprecedented spike in global demand for natural resources, and global commodity prices have skyrocketed.
China's recent restrictions on export of rare-earth metals are an early warning of the ways in which resource competition policies can both feed off and fuel price spikes, creating volatile cycles and economic risks.
For companies able to manage risks, resource scarcity will create opportunities.

subset: commoncrawl


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A look into the life of wrestling superstar, C.W. Anderson. From his humble beginings in North Carolina to life on the road in ECW and now in Japan for Zero One. C.W. provides a candid look at his wrestling career with other well known names in wrestling such as Rob Van Dam, Tommy Dreamer, Paul Heyman, and more.
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Check out some available loans that are similar to this one!
In 2008, Luzviminda joined HSPFI to gain access to financial services to help improve her living situation and ability to engage in business activities. Luzviminda has successfully repaid a previous loan of 14,000 PHP from HSPFI which she used to purchase additional inventory and as working capital. Luzviminda is requesting a new loan of 16,000 PHP to purchase additional products to sell such as t-shirts and blouses. This will be her fifth loan from HSPFI. She plans to use the additional revenue generated to improve and expand her business.
About HSPFI: HSPFI is one of accredited partners of Opportunity International in the Philippines. It is based in Cagayan de Oro City and is reaching out to the poor households of Northern Mindanao.
*Note: To maximize efficiency and reduce costs, this loan was posted using a template to automate the translation by Kiva. Given that manual translation of entrepreneur profiles is costly, we created this template for our field staff to allow them to continue to post loans in English while providing quality and accurate information to Kiva lenders.
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About Hagdan Sa Pag-uswag Foundation, Inc.
Hagdan Sa Pag-uswag Foundation, Inc. (HSPFI) is a non-governmental development organization founded in 1987 to promote Christian values through microfinance services in the Philippines. It partners with Opportunity International and the Mindanao Microfinance Council among others, and offers a range of business and community development services, including savings and insurance programs in addition to lending.About Philippines
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Success!! The loan was 100% repaid
A loan of $375 helped Luzviminda to purchase additional products to sell such as t-shirts and blouses.
- Repayment Term
- 11 months (Additional Information)
- Repayment Schedule
- Monthly
- Pre-Disbursed:
- Dec 14, 2010
- Listed
- Dec 14, 2010
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- Ended:
- Sep 15, 2011


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...I dated another guy for a couple years in my twenties. After we broke up one Thanksgiving, we tried to stay friends. Why not, right? The break-up was mutual; we were two adults; we enjoyed each other's company. We did a bunch of friendly activities—met for Sunday brunch, went for a bike ride, got dinner at a pizza place, went to a comedy show—but in the end, it was too hard to be friends. It felt weird and emotionally ridden, especially when we both started dating other people. So we did the mature thing: Got in a huge fight and never spoke again.
It's hard, right?
The new movie Celeste and Jesse Forever is about this very thing. Celeste and Jesse are getting divorced but still hang out all the time. Their friendship becomes strained, however, when Jesse starts dating another woman. Are you going to see it?


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Glasakademie is an organization for Swedish glass artists. Its aim is to spread information, inspiration and knowledge about Swedish studio glass.
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We would like to thank Corning Incorporated Foundation and the Klorfine Foundation for their support and generous contributions towards the GAS website redesign project.


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Solved... I have to use the sata_sil driver (go figure...)
I've been trying to make a custom kernel for my laptop, but I can't figure out which kernel options to enable in order to include support for the ATI Radeon Xpress 1100 chipset using the new libata interface...
I have built in SCSI support and AHCI, ATA SFF and ATI PATA support, but I get a kernel panic on booting the kernel. Ext3 support is also built in.
I know it has to work for the gentoo install CD uses the /dev/sda method for accessing the hard drive just fine. Am I missing some configuration here?
Can somebody help me with this? This is the output of lspci:
You can find a copy of my .config file here: http://discworld.dyndns.info/configlivecd ~ # lspci | grep -i ide
00:12.0 IDE interface: ATI Technologies Inc IXP SB400 Serial ATA Controller (rev 80)
00:14.1 IDE interface: ATI Technologies Inc IXP SB400 IDE Controller (rev 80)
Last edited by gd_19; 04-10-2009 at 02:41 PM.
Solved... I have to use the sata_sil driver (go figure...)


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Hello to all fellow captains,I have just almost completed this model and have found it to be the finest,funest and best for $350.00 kit of the Rusian Akula II I have ever seen even in muesems.
I still have to install the ECM and comunication mast arrays that are in themselves a work of art and to scale.
The dry transfer sheet provided is easy to use and once applied can be sealed with a low gloss clear coat to protect it from the elements,highly recomended.
The make SEM has a low gloss elastomeric spray that works realy well.
The prop that is on now is the RC one not the display one.
The bow planes are very thin to scale so be carefull when drilling the shaft for movement.
This sub uses the pump system with a rigid ballast tank ,and runs for about 2.5 hours and is extreamly fast! No I dont use any special motors or speedcontrols just a sealed water cooled heat transfer coils useing anti freez as coolant to keep motor and speedcontrol cool ,that way the baterry also lasts much longer and the can 12 volt motor geared 3.5 to 1 and man youve got a torpedo if you like ,but for scale ops a leasure cruise is proper when needed.See image of powerplant and geared coolant pump and the new type of pressure hull I have developed.I already busted the rudder on a rock but shes alright now.
Well enjoy the pics and build one of these beuties!<img src=" http://i82.photobucket.com/albums.....G][img]%20http://i82.photobucket.com/albums.....G][IMG]%20http://i82.photobucket.com/albums.....G][IMG]%20"%20target="_blank">http://i82.photobucket.com/albums.........MG][IMG]%20[/img]http://i82.photobucket.com/albums....MG]
Edited By DEEPDIVER on 1161048391


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MichaelVash7886 wrote:Got mine at Wal-mart since GameSTOP sold out. Actually have a second pre-order open at Best Buy, but I won't really need it now. Gonna see if a friend wants it or something.
i reserved mine at gs and i hope i have no problems for the first time


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Is Veck as big in the mid Atlantic as in New England?
Scott Busbey, In The Eye Surfboards, Natural Art Surf Shop, Cape Hatteras, since 1977.
Good call on Busbey...he is very gifted and has all that juice at the Lighthouse to test his shapes. Bob Yinger(WRV) is very talented and has shaped for all the pros as well as us locals here on the banx. Hard not to mention Lynn Shell(OBBC) this guy still rips and has been shaping longer than some of us have been breathing. Plus he is real. Nothing like talking to a shaper and watching them mow foam.
My vote for THE best in Maryland and one of the best in the Mid-Atlantic. Give him a call... and you'll see why.
Phil Taylor Handcrafted
Capture4-5-2012-2.45.32 PM11-3-2012-1.20.58 PM.jpg
Tom mahady made my custom perfect. The guy does great work.
Hey All,
Greenlight is OK. Some wind and rain damage but all is fixed and waiting for power.
For those of you not on our mailing list we're having a hurricane sale on all materials and tools.
Planning to shape and sell some boards when power is restored to support local hurricane relief funds. Keep you posted on how anyone can get a new board for cheap and help out some families who've lost it all.
Shape Your Surfing Experience
That's mah stick!
My first board from Phil is the one pictured above.
I'm picking up 2 for a friend and one more of my own from him this week and leaving for PR in 12 days.
So far he has been excellent to deal with. The board's quality and his ideas/knowledge/experience are second to none. Looking forward to picking up the new quiver and def have been pointing friends to him.
i'm a big brian wynn fan...very local to me, grew up here & chose to move back when he started a family. my current favorite board is one he made for me & several of my all-time favorites have been made by him. as beachbreak suggested, scott busby of in the eye in buxton, nc is also a great shaper. i highly recommend both!


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Groovy Stuff® Sahara Peace Letters
Item # WX2-235295
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Groovy Stuff® Sahara Peace Letters is a gorgeous design to liven you empty wall space with age - old symbols!
Groovy Stuff® crafted this piece in their gorgeous reclaimed teakwood... the rich colors and tight grains combine to form the unique character and patina. Suited for both indoor and outdoor use, teak wood offers an earthy look that matures into silver gray coloring if left outside. Plus, you can easily re-nourish the wood with a fresh coat of Briwax once a season to keep original coloring! Measures 14 x 1 x 9".
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The case lid inner bags let you make optimum use of the storage space in the lid of the Zega Pro.
Reinforced with 7 mm foam on the lower and upper sides, the bag is secured directly in the lid of the Zega Pro case using two straps. Heavy items (e.g. a tool roll) can be securely attached anywhere inside the bag using optional straps. The carrying handle lets you take the resilient, dirt-resistant Cordura bag with you everywhere you go.
This inner bag is the fastest and easiest way to make sure that all those small items you need time and again are always close to hand.
No instructions are currently available for this product.


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Book online or call:
Outside the UK call
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Golf Courses
Welcome to GOLF SOUTH AYRSHIRE
Fitness & Leisure Centres
Enjoy an active day out at Citadel Leisure Centre, situated at the south end of Ayr Beach.
Fitness & Leisure Centres
Situated next to Ayr College, Dam Park Stadium is an athletics facility with many features.
Golf Courses
Dalmilling Municipal Golf Course on the outskirts of Ayr is an 18-hole parkland course. Set between the famous racecourse and the A77, this is honest and open parkland that plays away from the clubhouse and dips into a rolling valley.
Horse Racing
Come to see racing at Ayr and enjoy a first-class day out at Scotland's premier racecourse and only Grade 1 track.
Golf Courses
In 1927 James Braid designed what many consider to be the finest, inland public links course in Britain, only ranking behind Carnoustie and St Andrews.
Football Stadiums
Somerset Park in Ayr is the home of Ayr United Football Club.
Golf Courses
Seafield is the less famous of the two 18 hole golf courses within the magnificent grounds of the Belleisle Estate in Ayr.
Golf Courses
The Ayrshire course holds a special place in the golfing history books, having been the venue for the first-ever Open Championship back in 1860.
Swimming Pools
Prestwick Swimming Pool is situated in St Ninian's Park, Prestwick and is a 5 minute walk from the Main Street.


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DominusPrime wrote:
I seriously cant get over the amount of complaining about the "cars" used in this movie! I Had to join this forum just so I can comment. Have any of you actually ever seen the original Transformers TV show? So two complaints I am seeing over and over again are
Number 1 - Too many cars
The original Transformers show in the first two seasons had a combined cast of over 29 vehicles! When Prime rolled our to attack he had a real "strike force" with him not 5 Autobots or a hand full of soldiers he had close to 20 cars with him. Because they are Autobots he had automobiles with him!! And when the first movie came out everyone complained on here that "Why is there only 5 Autobots?) now Bay listens and adds a larger Autobot cast and WE STILL COMPLAIN. They come from a whole planet of transformers why is it so hard to believe there would be more than just 5 of them? Come on people!
Number 2 - The cars are two nice!! Too fancy!!
Again did any of you see the original source material, the majority of the original transformers were all high end expensive cars for their time or tricked out versions of sports cars.
Bluestreak Nissan 280ZX Turbo
Jazz Martini Racing Porsche 935
Mirage Formula One Ligier JS11
Prowl Nissan 280ZX
Sideswipe Lamborghini Countach
Sunstreaker Lamborghini Countach
Wheeljack Lancia Stratos Turbo
Red Alert Lamborghini Countach
Smokescreen Nissan 280ZX-R
Tracks Chevrolet Corvette C3
Cliffjumper Porsche 924 Turbo
Windcharger Pontiac Firebird Trans-Am
ALL COOL CARS! I mean who wants to see a movie or a cartoon staring a Honda Civic and Ford Focus and a Station Wagon! If you watch a movie about 5 women or men super heroes they cast good looking people in that role because they want to attract people who like these men or women and they way they look. So for a movie about robot cars they want to catch eye catching sexy cars, that will attract car lovers and THE BIGGEST feature sell TOYS!!! Because if you cant sell toys you cant make movies! PERIOD. If they make a movie that just Fanboys will love NO ONE BUT THE 100 PEOPLE ON HERE WILL GO SEE IT AND IT WILL MAKE NO MONEY!! You have to appeal to the 38 year man who loves Transformers but also his friends and his wife and his kids. Because you have to sell tickets. And Micheal Bay puts people in theaters and makes fun to watch movies.
He is listening to us giving us more cars and more characters instead of more humans. ENJOY SOMETHING FOR ONCE!
Ok I am done, go ahead and attack back
Slashercon wrote:I seem to be the only one who asked for more robot SCREENTIME rather then a larger robot cast. (There is a difference, and Bay clearly chose the latter.)
Va'al wrote:I keep track of everyone. Backwards.
There are atandarfs to maintain.
LOST Cybertronian wrote:Hey, If Mindmaster survived then you should do just fine.
Michael Bay wrote:The adventure continues to transform with a very different offering from Daimler Trucks North America . . . the imposing 2014 Argosy cab-over truck by Freightliner. High Resolution photo: http://bayhem.com/1akzqZb
william-james88 wrote:I am just glad the conversation has changed from just being about the butt flap
Blast Cannon wrote:This thread is brilliant. Duragrip you are a gloriously weird sexual deviant and I love it.
Delta Magnus wrote:A giant Alpha Bravo that can turn into a torso, so that with the addition of 4 Alpha Bravos one can build "Ruinatus Eternus".
Jeep! wrote:Why do I imagine Dead Metal sounding exactly like Arnie?
Blurrz wrote:10/10
Leave it to Dead Metal to have the word 'Pronz' in his signature.
GuyIncognito wrote:To me it looks like Classics Nemesis Prime.
mooncake623 wrote:GuyIncognito wrote:To me it looks like Classics Nemesis Prime.
You're right it does look similar. You think they might cheap out on the toy and re-release the old classics Nemesis Prime in the new movie line? I really hope not. Can't stop buying Black Primes!!
Return to Transformers Live Action Film Forum
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Conveniently located off I-39/51 at exit 185, the Holiday Inn® Wausau - Rothschild hotel provides easy access to such prominent area attractions as Cedar Creek Mall and businesses like Greenheck. Whether you are visiting her for work or just to relax, we have everything you need.
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Hilary Bride
Hilary Bride rejoined the UREC team in 2012 and now serves as the Assistant Director for Operations. She supervises the Operations Supervisor staff, chairs the UREC Student Training and Development committee, and collaborates on special operations.
Hilary returned to JMU to work with student development and to have the opportunity to grow people. Outside of UREC, she is the advisor for Colleges Against Cancer, coaches the Women's Basketball Club, is an Alternative Breaks Learning Partner and is in the Women of Change program.
Hilary earned her undergraduate degree in Sport Medicine from James Madison University and worked as an Adventure Manager, TEAM Facilitator, EMT, Lifeguard, Day Camp Counselor, Alternative Spring Break leader and Operation Supervisor at UREC. Outside of UREC, you would find Hilary involved with Phi Sigma Pi, the national honors fraternity, or on the sideline athletic training for a varsity athletic team. In addition to being the Student Representative for the state of Virginia for NIRSA, she was an avid presenter for AEE and found a passion in leading groups through facilitation and instruction. She received the William Wasson Award in 2005. Hilary went on to get her Master's in Education at James Madison University in Adult Learning/Human Resource Development with a concentration in Leadership and Facilitation. During that time, she served as the Aquatics and Safety Graduate Assistant for UREC and work for the Harrisonburg High School as a substitute teacher and assisted the athletic training department. In 2007, Hilary won the American Red Cross Extraordinary Personal Action Award for administering C.P.R. and Saving a Life.
Upon graduating from JMU, Hilary headed back to her native New Hampshire to serve as the Assistant Director of Recreation for the town of Moultonborough on Lake Winnipesaukee. Her primary responsibility was youth sports for kindergarten to sixth grade athletes, supervising athletic and park facilities, and serving as an active member in the New Hampshire Park and Recreation Association where she received the Don Heyliger Young Professional Award in 2011. She is a CATCH instructor for the Childhood Anti-Obesity Movement.
Personally, she enjoys competitive powerlifting with Galaxy Gym and has competed at the regional & national level and even placed 2nd in the Sandwich Fair Skillet Toss. She also enjoys her dog Sir Rufus Llama Face, lawn games, supporting her local/home teams, chicken wings & cheese, and making life an adventure. Her favorite quote is, "Greatness is not in where we stand, but in what direction we are moving. We must sail sometimes with the wind and sometimes against it - but sail we must, and not drift, nor lie at anchor" -Oliver Holmes


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text: Berlusconi is everything but an idiot. He knew very well that sever austerity measures were necessary to try and drag Italy out of bankruptcy - after his shameful and scandal-driven government experience - and that's why he supported Monti's government. Now that someone else has finally done all the 'dirty work'on his behalf, he's preparing to come back by attacking the government that he and his party have supported so far. All for the sake of coherency, of course. And let me just remind all of you who are still 'fighting against the 'government of financial lobbies' that Mr Berlusconi also owns major banking and financial institutions. He IS part of the financial lobbies, so stop deluding yourselves.


text: Ascalon studied music and communication as an undergraduate at Rutgers University. Upon graduation, he moved to New York and worked in the advertising and music industries for several years before returning to school to study design. In 2005, he completed his Master's degree in industrial design from Pratt Institute and that same year was recognized by Wallpaper* magazine as one of the "Ten Most Wanted" emerging designers in the world. Read more >


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Let your neighbors know that you're the biggest Phillies fan on the block with this durable tall appliqué team flag featuring an appliqué team logo on a dual team-colored background! Since this flag assembles and installs in mere minutes, you can also stake your territory with a vibrant display of team pride at any tailgate or beach party!
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Greenbrier Estate Homes
Legacy Cottages
Signature Resort Rooms
Windsor Club
These spectacular homes are beautifully appointed and spacious enough to entertain up to 200 guests.
The oldest structures on property, Legacy Cottages have been carefully preserved to welcome guests for over 200 years!
Choose from the luxurious Windsor Club experience to a wide selection of Historic & Classic Suites and Guest Rooms.
For the ultimate in exclusivity, reserve your place in our history with deluxe accommodations in The Windsor Club.
Golf Courses
The Greenbrier Faldo Center
The Greenbrier Classic
Golf Packages & Events
Featuring five championship courses including The Old White TPC, The Greenbrier, The Meadows, historic Oakhurst Links and The Snead.
Experience golf instruction at its finest with our team of instructors teaching the fundamentals found in Sir Nick Faldo's "A Swing for Life.
The most anticipated stop on the PGA TOUR combining great golf and incredible concerts! Join to celebrate Fans, Family and the Fourth of July.
From the Sam Snead Festival each spring to The Greenbrier Classic each summer, enjoy a variety of golf events and packages at a legendary golf resort.
The Restaurant Collection
Bars & Lounges
In-Room Dining
Food & Drink Events
The Greenbrier's excellence is perhaps best exemplified by the exceptional dining experiences offered in our unique restaurants, cafés, bars and lounges.
Visit our bars & lounges and discover stylish meeting places to get together before dinner, watch the big game or toast the end of your perfect day.
Room service is available 24 hours a day and features a wide selection of snacks, entrées and desserts to please even the most discriminating of tastes.
Join us for a variety of special food and drink events ranging from cooking demonstrations and kitchen tours to
wine tastings and themed meals
Spa Treatments
MedSpa Services
Elite guests first visited The Greenbrier to "take the waters" over 230 years ago. Today, we invite a new generation to enjoy the restorative properties at America's Resort.
Board certified in cosmetic and plastic surgery, Dr. Kluska and his team provide a variety of cosmetic surgery and MedSpa services to enhance your natural beauty.
Guest Resources
Meditation & Healing
The Greenbrier Spa has long been one of the resort's most popular amenities. We strongly recommend that Spa appointments be arranged prior to your arrival.
While at The Greenbrier, learn how to slow down and be present with gentle relaxation and connection exercises you can bring home and incorporate any time, any place.
Indoor Activities
The Bunker
The Greenbrier offers an unparalleled range of indoor activities including our Bunker Tours, Laser Tag, Culinary Demonstrations, Indoor Pool and Bowling!
The declassified Bunker at The Greenbrier is a must-see experience that takes you behind the scenes and walks you through a fascinating period in the resort's history.
Outdoor Activities
Events Calendar
The Greenbrier offers popular family activities including Carriage Rides and Falconry to adventurous pursuits such as Off-Road Adventures and Segway Tours!
Experience all that we have to offer with events ranging from exclusive Casino Tournaments and Kitchen Tours to leisurely Wine Tastings and Trunk Shows.
Casino Games
Casino Dining & Entertainment
The Greenbrier holds a long-standing tradition as an award-winning resort. Excellence is part of our history. Gaming is part of our future.
Along with nightly Greenbrier casino shows, the Casino Club at The Greenbrier features international cuisine at In-Fusion, a modern Asian restaurant serving innovative Pacific Rim dishes.
Casino Shopping
Casino Events
Take a stroll along the corridor and mezzanine level of the Casino Club at The Greenbrier and experience the newest addition to The Retail Collection.
The Greenbrier's world-class Casino Club is the place to be for gaming, entertainment, tournaments and more.
The Retail Collection
The Greenbrier Online Store
Find the perfect item to take home as a gift or to make your visit to The Greenbrier unforgettable!
Have your favorite Greenbrier items shipped directly to you anytime and anywhere!
The Art Colony Shops
Trunk Shows & Retail Events
The Art Colony Shops offer unique items by skilled artisans working with metals, leather, wood, glass and pottery.
The Greenbrier vendors and shops offer an exciting line-up of fabulous shopping experiences throughout the year.
Meetings & Groups
Our Sales Team
Group Offers
Whether you have a group 10 or 1,000, our team strives to ensure that every detail is carried out beyond your expectations with a superior level of service.
Presidents, royalty and top executives have entrusted us with their meetings. We invite you to follow in their footsteps with one of our group special offers.
Our Meeting Rooms
Planning Tools
From cozy spaces ideal for informal gatherings to grand ballrooms for a spectacular gala, The Greenbrier has a venue to suit the needs of any size group.
Your Event Service Manager will help you plan every detail, coordinating our 1,800 team members to offer all you need for a meaningful and memorable event.
Signature Wedding Venues
With our unique spaces such as the intimate North Parlor, elegant Cameo Ballroom and rustic Howard's Creek, America's Resort is the perfect destination for your dream wedding!
Wedding Packages
The Greenbrier Wedding Team has created several luxury packages to help you begin your planning process! Everything you need to celebrate your special day is included!
Wedding Inquiry
We would love to hear from you! Let us know what you envision for your special day and we'll eagerly get to planning. Please give us your information and we will reach out to you!
Wedding Image Gallery
The signature white columns, rich landscape, majestic mountains, and vibrant décor are just a few reasons why The Greenbrier provides the picture perfect setting for your special day.
Bars & Lounges
JJ's Sports Lounge
The Restaurant Collection
Main Dining Room
The Forum
Café Carleton
Prime 44 West
The Greenbrier Gourmet
Sam Snead's
Tree Tops Café
Bars & Lounges
Café Carleton
42 Below
Greenbrier Royale
Twelve Oaks
JJ's Sports Lounge
Lobby Bar
Slammin' Sammy's
In-Room Dining
Culinary Team
Culinary Apprenticeship
The Greenbrier Chef's Garden
The Greenbrier Recipes
Food & Drink Events
JJ's at The Greenbrier
Located beneath
Prime 44 West
, JJ's is a fan favorite sports lounge featuring ballpark style food and an extensive selection of beverages. Seating either at the bar or at tables is perfectly situated to
watch your favorite team on one of 11 TVs, including four 70" screens. JJ's now features ESPN GamePlan, NFL SUNDAY TICKET and SEC Football.
Catch the latest scores, watch the game, cheer on your team, socialize and unwind with friends in this relaxed atmosphere.
Dress Code at The Greenbrier
JJ's Sports Lounge:
Resort attire is required (collared sport shirts, sweaters, jackets,dress slacks and walking shorts). The restaurant enjoys a relaxed
environment. If denim is your attire preference, well-kept denim in
a dark shade is ours. Men's hats and baseball caps are not permitted.
Monday-Friday, 4:00pm-11:00pm
Saturday, 12:00noon-11:00pm
Sunday, 1:00pm-11:00pm
(current hours; subject to change)
Food & Drink Menu PDF
(current menus; subject to change)
Happy Hour
Enjoy 50% off select beers, wine by the glass and well drinks daily from 5:00pm to 6:00pm.
Reservations not required.
Please call 855-729-3778 (option 1) with any questions.
For all food and beverage purchases, a 20% service charge (22% for parties of 8 or more), tax and
Historic Preservation Fund
will be added to your check.
The Greenbrier | 300 W. Main Street, White Sulphur Springs, WV 24986 | 855-453-4858
© 2015 The Greenbrier. All Rights Reserved


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Johns & Frank Aim for 'Surprising and New' in Latest "Batman: Earth One" Volume
Comic Books
Showing results 27-71 of 71
Fantastic Four #600âFFâ no more, this title reverts to its original numbering and name as Marvel gives us the return of the âFantastic Four.â Sort of.
November 24th, 2011 | ||
New Avengers #16Daredevil joins the New Avengers and fights some Nazi robots!
September 14th, 2011 | ||
Daredevil #1With a spring in his step and a smile on his face, Daredevil returns to monthly comics. Mark Waid's writing it and Paolo Rivera's drawing it. Oh! Marcos Martin draws some too.
July 20th, 2011 | ||
Captain America #1Steve Rogers slinging the star-spangled shield in a new number one issue just in time for his big screen premiere. It may be more espionage and spy than superheroic, but it works.
July 12th, 2011 | ||
Avengers #14The Red Hulk fights an evil, hammer-wielding Thing. And John Romita, Jr. draws it. What else do you need to know?
June 17th, 2011 | ||
Avengers #12Thanos vs. the Hood! PSYCH! HA! Gotcha! You should see the look on your face...
April 21st, 2011 | ||
Avengers #11It's time for Uatu go to Weight Watchers.
March 30th, 2011 | ||
Avengers #10This month is nothing but transition, but it's a lackluster one at that.
February 23rd, 2011 | ||
Avengers #9Hey, Tony, about that Illuminati group of yours? Secretâs out!
January 30th, 2011 | ||
Avengers #8Whatâs left of the Illuminati finally re-unites, and the Red Hulk joins the cast.
January 3rd, 2011 | ||
Avengers #7The Avengers are still less angsty, but this issue is all set up.
November 22nd, 2010 | ||
The Avengers #6The continued existence of the universe relies upon Ultron letting himself be destroyed. Are we screwed? We are so screwed.
November 1st, 2010 | ||
Kick-Ass 2 #1Kick-Ass and Hit-Girl return in a new series which asks: you defeated the mafia and inspired a superhero epidemic -- what now?
October 24th, 2010 | ||
CLiNT #1Mark Millarâs new comic magazine debuts and is a solid, slick package. Plus, itâs the place to find the debut of âKick-Ass 2.â
September 4th, 2010 | ||
The Avengers #4The Avengers split up to handle threats in the future and the present, and neither group does much good.
August 25th, 2010 | ||
The Incredible Hulk #611The penultimate chapter of âWorld War Hulksâ delivers some smashing action that is big, loud, and green.
August 15th, 2010 | ||
Doomwar #6âDoomwarâ is over. Give peace a chance.
August 5th, 2010 | ||
The Avengers #3Kang on the cover means that this is a classic âAvengersâ book, right? Good stuff gonna happen inside? Well, maybe.
July 21st, 2010 | ||
Avengers #2The team attempts to decipher Kangâs dire warning about the future by enlisting the help of Protector.
June 25th, 2010 | ||
Avengers #1The Avengers are back and, immediately, are confronted by Kang. A great way to begin âThe Heroic Age!â
May 19th, 2010 | ||
Iron Man/Thor (FCBD) #1Think of it as an early look at Matt Fraction's "Thor" run. Or see it as an introduction to two characters that new readers should have a passing familiarity with already. Either way, it's a hit.
May 2nd, 2010 | ||
Doomwar #3The Black Panthers and Fantastic Four prepare to take on Doom, while we see Doom as the possible savior of the world.
April 21st, 2010 | ||
World War Hulks #1As anthology comics go, "World War Hulks" is all right so long as you aren't expecting too much.
April 8th, 2010 | ||
The Incredible Hulk #608When is a conclusion not a conclusion? When it's really just the first half of another story, unfortunately.
March 20th, 2010 | ||
Doomwar #2"Doomwar" is nowhere near as entertaining as "Siege," but then again, it doesn't set out to be. This is a story that plays from the shadows and foxholes of war.
March 17th, 2010 | ||
Doomwar #1TâChalla recruits the X-Men in his fight against Doom.
February 21st, 2010 | ||
The Incredible Hulk #607"Fall of the Hulks" continues at breakneck speed. Lots of guest stars too.
February 16th, 2010 | ||
Kick Ass #8Kick Ass and Hit-Girl conclude their hyper-violent adventures.
January 27th, 2010 | ||
Incredible Hulk #606"Fall of the Hulks" continues to rage on, with much smashing.
January 20th, 2010 | ||
What If? World War Hulk #1"What If?" examines the events of "World War Hulk" to see how things could have gone.
December 15th, 2009 | ||
Dark Reign: The List â Punisher #1After surviving an assassination attempt perpetrated by Frank Castle, Norman Osborn decides to return the favor in his own special way.
October 29th, 2009 | ||
Dark Reign: The Goblin Legacy #1The illustrated history of the Green Goblin, including a reprint of Amazing Spider-Man #39 and #40
August 3rd, 2009 | ||
The Amazing Spider-Man #600If you always wanted to see Hydro-Man escape via toilet, then this book is for you. Of course, the fact that this thing clocks in at 100 pages might interest you too. Oh, and Octo-hostages, but no Octo-mom.
July 21st, 2009 | ||
Kick-Ass #5Crude, juvenile, gratuitous, lacking in subtlety, nuance and taste. Other than that, âKick-Assâ #5 is a great comic.
January 10th, 2009 | ||
Death-Defying Devil #1A solid comic when the action starts, but it lacks an emotional core with an enigmatic hero who may not be what he appears. Not that we care.
December 11th, 2008 | ||
Punisher: War Zone #1The Punisher versus Ma Gnucci round two begins here with Garth Ennis and Steve Dillon back together again. Whatâs not to like?
December 9th, 2008 | ||
Black Terror #1This "Project Superpowers" spin-off is seriously bad.
November 15th, 2008 | ||
The Amazing Spider-Man #571Spider-Man faces both the Thunderbolts and Anti-Venom, and meanwhile Norman Osborn discovers one of Spidey's biggest secrets. By Slott and Romita Jr.
September 17th, 2008 | ||
Amazing Spider-Man #570Anti-Venom strikes, and it doesn't look good for Spidey.
September 3rd, 2008 | ||
Incredible Hercules #120Drawing a close the "Sacred Invasion", Hercules and his God Squad are finally able to go face-to-face with the Skrulls' gods â" Sl'gur't and Kly'bn -- in a hard-hitting adventure.
August 20th, 2008 | ||
The Incredible Hercules #119While the art is uneven, the story is a welcomed addition to an otherwise blah "Secret Invasion" event. "The Incredible Hercules" is a top tier Marvel book, deserving of more attention.
June 24th, 2008 | ||
Kick-Ass #3In this wake of last issueâs success, Dave has become a hero, but Millar and Romita go to great lengths to show that the first victory isnât even remotely the end of it.
June 9th, 2008 | ||
The Incredible Hercules #117How many gods does it take to stop a Skrull invasion?
May 23rd, 2008 | ||
The Incredible Hercules #116Mythologies clash in another good issue of this surprising series.
April 22nd, 2008 | ||
Kick-Ass #2Does it matter that "Kick-Ass" isn't the kind of realistic comic Mark Millar wants it to be?
April 6th, 2008 |


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A peaceful demonstration in Baltimore on Saturday came to an end when police in riot gear tried to hold a line, and a few protesters vandalized police cars, threw objects at officers, cursed at them and scuffled with them.
The WISC-TV studio parking lot was busy with hundreds of viewers bringing their sensitive documents to be destroyed as part of Shredfest with the Better Business Bureau Saturday morning.
A combined 1,295 cars dropped off bags of papers at WISC-TV on Raymond Road and SVA Certified Public Accountants firm on John Q. Hammons Drive.
News 3 and Better Business Bureau team members unloaded bags of documents from viewers' cars and Pellitteri Waste Systems' Data Destruction team put the papers into the shredding trucks.
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A 7.8 magnitude earthquake centered less than 50 miles from Kathmandu rocked Nepal with devastating force early Saturday, killing at least 1,400 people -- and probably more -- in Nepal's capital city, authorities said.
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A bunch of software engineers who have problems with attending meetings, documentation and finance.
Sounds normal.
Probably the problem would vanish within days if Intel or one of the other companies just sponsored an accountant. I wonder why that's not already happening, participation in Open Source Projects is not limited to engineers.


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20 CFR 422.403 - When may we use administrative wage garnishment?
Title 20 published on 2012-04-01
no entries appear in the Federal Register after this date.
Title 20 published on 2012-04-01
The following are ALL rules, proposed rules, and notices (chronologically) published in the Federal Register relating to 20 CFR 422 after this date.
GPO FDSys XML | Text type regulations.gov FR Doc. 2014-06182 RIN 0960-AH36 Docket No. SSA-2011-0053 SOCIAL SECURITY ADMINISTRATION Notice of proposed rulemaking. To ensure that your comments are considered, we must receive them no later than May 23, 2014. 20 CFR Part 422 We propose to create our own administrative debt collection regulations. Currently, we collect these debts under the authority of the Department of Health and Human Services regulations from 1995. However, under the regulations issued by the Department of Justice and Department of the Treasury (Treasury), to perform certain debt collection activities, agencies must publish their own regulations. Therefore, we propose this regulation to improve our authorities to pursue collection of administrative debts from current and separated employees and non-employee debtors as authorized by the Debt Collection Act (DCA) of 1982, amended by the Debt Collection Improvement Act (DCIA) of 1996 and other existing debt collection statutes.


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If you're relocating to the area or on a long-term assignment with a local company, you can take advantage of our special rates for long-term guests. Just stay a minimum of 7 nights and you'll qualify for a discount on your overall stay. The longer you stay, the less you'll pay per night!


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Weekly Adorbs for Feb. 4-8, 2013
the daily dishAdd a Comment
Martha Robertson
What do you mean it's not Friday?!?! Are you SURE it's not Friday!?!? I mean, I pretty sure it's Friday....'cause yesterday was Wednesday....Heeeeyyyyy....wait a minute....DANG!!!
February 20 2013 at 11:34 PM Report abuse Permalink rate up rate down Reply


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Amar�e Stoudemire issued a public plea to Steve Nash, his former Phoenix Suns teammate who will be a free agent on July 1, to join him in New York.
�Everyone knows that Steve loves New York and that New York loves Steve,� Stoudemire told The Daily News. �I love Steve. It would be great to have him here next year.
It is believed that the Knicks would have a better chance at signing Nash if his former coach, Mike D�Antoni, was still coaching the Knicks. However, a source close to Nash asked the veteran that same question and Nash responded by saying he isn�t �ruling out anybody at this point.�
via Frank Isola and Kevin Armstrong of the New York Daily News
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