text: There are no translations available. Homeopathic Materia Medica by DunhamPRINCIPLES OF HOMEOPATHY( )PRINCIPLES vs. PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE In entering upon the general consideration of any subject involving a number of topics, it is expedient always to seek to obtain at the very outset a clear view of the scope and extent of the subject; to comprehend what it involves and to perceive what are its limits and what its relations with other kindred subjects. Let us begin our course by doing this with reference to homeopathy, the principles of which it is my duty to lay before you. You all know that by homeopathy is generally understood that system of practical medicine, in accordance with which the physician seeks to cure his patient by giving him a remedy which has been known to produce in the healthy subject symptoms similar to those which the patient presents. It is a system claiming to be the only scientific system of medicine, inasmuch as it possesses a "law of cure" as it is termed; or, as it might be more correctly expressed, a law for the selection of the remedy in any concrete case of illness; the law expressed by the now familiar formula — "SIMILIA SIMILIBUS CURANTUR." You will hear also that homeopathy is called the science of therapeutics, and I will add that it is the only therapeusis which exists possessing the elements of a natural science; that it is the only science of therapeutics. Now, by therapeusis or therapeutics, we mean the science of treating diseased persons by means of drugs. We thus arrive at a view of the limits and scope of our subject, homeopathy. It is a therapeutics. It deals with the science and method of treating the sick by means of drugs. And this is its whole scope. As homeopathists strictly, and confining yourselves to the application of the science of homeopathy, you will perform your entire function when you accurately select and rightly administer a suitable drug to your patient. But you will go forth from these halls as doctors of medicine. Shall you have no other professional duties toward your patients than to administer drugs to them? Assuredly you will. Then you must be homeopathists and something beside. The injuries and accidents to which men are exposed, involving destructive injury to limb or tissues, may require the interference of the operative surgeon. As such you will act under the law of mechanics, guided by your knowledge of anatomy and physiology, and governed by the traditions and maxims of surgery. It is true that few surgical cases occur which do not sooner or later involve the entire organism in such a way that the patient's condition demands the co-operation of the therapeutist; and as you will combine in your own person the function of operative surgeon and therapeutist, you, who have when operating, acted outside of your office as homeopathist or therapeutist, will now select and administer a drug suited to the condition of your patient, in accordance with the therapeutic law. You will, thus, in treating this case, act in a double capacity. You will be both an operative surgeon and a prescriber of drugs. It is in the latter capacity only that you will be a therapeutist, that you will practice homeopathy. It is true that your possession of a science of therapeutics will make the intervention of operative surgery much less frequently necessary than it is deemed to be by our allopathic brethren, who have no science of therapeutics. For homeopathy gives us the means of curing many diseases formerly supposed to require mechanical treatment; and in so far your function as homeopathist will encroach on that of surgeon. Yet the two are in a scientific aspect entirely distinct, and may not be confounded, unless you would introduce confusion into your views of the principles of medicine. So, likewise, as obstetrician, you are called upon to superintend the physiological process of parturition, to prevent accidents or to remedy them; to anticipate or to cure diseases that may complicate the process. Some of your interference will be mechanical, as when you turn the child or use instruments. Such interference does not come under the scope of homeopathy. It belongs to another department of science and art. Another kind of treatment for the abnormal conditions which may supervene during parturition, consists in the administration of drugs in accordance with the homeopathic law. In doing this you are acting of course within the limits of the science of homeopathy, being therapeutists. Thus in the practice of obstetrics you fill a double office; you are therapeutists, and as such, homeopathists, and may also be operative surgeons, exercising another art. Here again homeopathy puts us in possession of remedial means which, in a great many cases, obviate the necessity of resorting to mechanical interference, because they enable us to prevent the occurrence of morbid states which lead to conditions requiring such interference; and thus the function of the homeopathic therapeutist circumscribes that of the operative obstetrician, as it is laid down in the text-books of the allopathists. And it should be our aim so to develop our therapeutic science as still further to circumscribe its limit and do away with the necessity for operative interference. For instance, if I may venture to spend a moment on this subject, homeopathy, as a system of therapeutics, educating our powers of observation and sharpening our clinical foresight, enables us to anticipate the recurrence of uterine haemorrhage as an incident of parturition, and so to prescribe that we prevent or control it; thus making the mechanical appliances so frequently resorted to by the allopathists at least so seldom requisite that some homeopathists have affirmed that the tampon, etc., can never be required. In the same way and to the same extent of rarest use or absolute disuse has homeopathy brought the entire apparatus of pessaries and supporters and bandages for the treatment of uterine disease. In these cases, as in other similar cases, it will be for you, in the exercise of a sound judgment, to determine whether the best interests of your patient demand that you shall act solely as operative surgeon, or solely as therapeutist, or whether you shall combine these functions. You cannot exercise this sound discretion aright unless you are fully instructed in both departments of science, unless you know all that can be effected by therapeutics from the stand-point of the homeopathist, and know also the resources and limits of operative surgery. The point which I wish to make is that as doctors of medicine you combine in yourselves the functions of therapeutist, surgeon and obstetrician; and that in the latter capacity you do not, cannot, and are not called upon to act as homeopathists, inasmuch as the homeopathic law applies only to the selection of drugs for diseased conditions. Once more, hygiene is that department of medical science which includes the prevention of disease, and the removal or cancellation of material causes which induce or perpetuate disease. The advances of physiology and pathology, chemistry and natural history, within the last thirty years, have given to sanitary science a scope and importance which were not heretofore imagined. Many epidemic diseases have been shown to be dependent upon the conditions in which the individual, the family and the community live—conditions which by knowledge and care might be obviated, I refer in general to improper drainage of the soil, deficient ventilation, unwholesome food and drink, lack of light and heat, injurious occupations, improper social habits and relations. Surely the doctor of medicine can have no more important business than the prevention of disease by diligent endeavor,—whether as a public officer or as the medical adviser of a family or of an individual,— to modify unfavorable conditions, and thereby remove material causes of disease, and place those with whose care he is charged under circumstances most favorable to health. In doing this you will apply the principles of chemistry or of mechanics or of vegetable physiology; and although fulfilling one of your most important vocations, you, who will style yourselves homeopathic physicians, will not be acting within the scope of homeopathy; will not be applying its law of cure. You will, as hygienists, have nothing to do with homeopathy. Furthermore, it has been ascertained by modern research, that certain diseases depend for their perpetuation, if not wholly for their origin, upon parasitic vegetable or animal growths, the removal of which by chemical or mechanical means is an essential condition of speedy cure. While you effect this removal by such means, you are fulfilling your duty as those intrusted with the care of the sick, just as faithfully and fully as when you administer, in accordance with the homeopathic law, the remedy which shall so change the vital processes of the patient as that his body shall no longer be a favorable nidus for these parasitic germs. But remember that when you seek the aid of chemistry or of mechanics to remove these parasites, you are not exercising your vocation as homeopathists, because you are acting as hygienists, not as therapeutists ; you are not combating disease by drugs. I lay stress upon these instances. I desire to show clearly, and impress upon your minds the fact, that homeopathy applies only to the treatment of the sick by means of drugs ; because, unless your minds are clear upon this point, unless you perceive plainly that as curators of the sick you have other functions beside that very important and essential one of administering drugs, you may err as many do who strive to apply the homeopathic law of cure to their every action as medical men; and to make it cover not only their treatment by drugs, but also the surgical, obstetrical, hygienic, chemical and mechanical expedients and procedures. They come into the dilemma, that either dreading to prove recreant to their guiding principle, which they cannot perceive to lead them in any of these procedures, they neglect something which is essential to their patient's safety or recovery, and thus fail of their duty as doctors ; or else, resorting to measures which their common sense and experience show to be necessary, they attempt to explain them in such a way as to bring them under the homeopathic law, and. thus make themselves ridiculous and bring ridicule upon the science which as therapeutists they profess and honor. Remember, then, the scope and limits of homeopathy. It is the science of therapeutics, and concerns only the treatment of the sick by means of drugs. Do not misunderstand me, and think me to say, inasmuch as I am a homeopathist, that therefore I believe diseases are to be treated only by drugs. Being a science, the elements of which are natural phenomena, viz. : those of the sick and the phenomena of drugs in their relation to the living human being, homeopathy takes rank with the other natural physical sciences. For the better understanding of our subject let us take a general view of the nature and elements of a physical science. The physical sciences are variously arranged. There are sciences of classification, and sciences which are pursued with a view to the practical application of the knowledge they afford us to the affairs of daily life. But all of them deal with the phenomena of the physical universe as we observe them by means of our senses, aided by the resources of art. Let us study for a moment the science of astronomy, the most perfect and least complicated of the physical sciences. It deals with the phenomena of the bodies which compose the universe. We observe these phenomena, which consist of the movements of the heavenly bodies in space and upon their axes; and our observation is assisted by whatever instruments the ingenuity of man has contrived for the purpose, every successive invention enabling us to discover some new feature of these phenomena. In observations of the movements of the heavenly bodies we observe their movements in relation to each other. This is obvious, since the motion of one body is perceptible only in relation to some other body. Our object is to understand the relations of the heavenly bodies to each other in respect of their phenomena, and then to be able to foresee and predict what will be their relations and relative positions at some future time. We accomplish this object when, by virtue of our studies of the phenomena of the heavenly bodies and their relations, we are able to foretell the occurrence of eclipses at definite times, and to indicate, years beforehand, the position of the heavenly bodies at a given time. I ask you now to notice several facts respecting this science. FIRST: In all its processes we never think of bringing in the question—What is the CAUSE of the motion of the heavenly bodies? Such a question must present itself of course to every reflecting mind; but its consideration belongs to the speculative or metaphysical sciences, and has nothing to do with astronomy proper, or celestial mechanics, —is certainly in no sense and to no degree a basis of it. Our opinions on this point may be most various; yet this variety will not prevent our perfect agreement in the processes and conclusions of astronomy when considering the relations of, say two heavenly bodies. SECOND: Astronomy deals with two series of phenomena, viz.: those of the two heavenly bodies, or systems of bodies, under consideration. And this science reckons the effects of one body or system of bodies upon the other in accordance with some law or formula which is general, applying to all bodies, and which expresses the mechanical action of bodies upon each other as regards mass and distance; in other words, their mechanical relations to each other. THIRD: This law or formula, expressing the relation of bodies to each other, was perceived in a single instance. The mind which perceived it formed at once the hypothesis that it was a general formula expressive of the relation which exists between all bodies. A vast number of experiments and observations having confirmed this hypothesis, it is now universally accepted as the law of the mechanical relations of bodies. FOURTH: Observe that this law, which is a bare statement that bodies attract each other directly as their mass, and inversely as the square of their distances, is not based upon any theory of the nature of attraction — how it is that one body attracts another. Myriads of hypotheses on this subject might be framed, defended and overthrown, yet this formula would remain unshaken. It expresses the relations of phenomena which we observe, and nothing more—the relations therefore of what we know. For, what besides phenomena can we know—phenomena or things which are apparent to our senses, which may be seen and touched, smelt and tasted and heard. How disastrous would it be if in our science of astronomy the phenomena were limited by a law or formula based upon a theory of the cause of attraction. Phenomena we see and apprehend, and may be said to know, but the causes of them no man has seen or touched. Causes are hidden from our senses. We can reach them only by the action of the mind in hypothetic speculation. It must needs be that with every advance in observation a new hypothesis would spring up, overturning former doctrines of causation, and with them whatever laws or formulae might be based upon them; and if the central formula of the science rested on them, it would be overturned to give place for a brief interval to some as short-lived successor. Progressive knowledge would be impossible on such a basis. FIFTH: Observe, finally, that one great object of the cultivation of this science is, that it affords us the means of prevision ; it enables us to foretell events within its domain. And this is true of all the natural sciences when constructed on a sound basis. It would, therefore, furnish a test of the soundness of a science so called. For, on ultimate analysis, every natural science (save those of classification) consists of two series of phenomena connected by a law expressive of their relation to each other. Now, in the application of the. science to the purpose of prevision the problem is this: Given one series of phenomena and the law of relation to find the other series of phenomena, to foretell what they will be. This problem is continually applied in astronomy, and the results uniformly attest the accuracy of the method. In conclusion, then, this episode enables us to state understandingly the elements of a natural science. They consist of two series of phenomena (the result of observation) and a law which expresses a uniform and invariable relation between these series of phenomena. The phenomena must be susceptible of indefinite exploration, study and elaboration without disturbing the law of relation. The law must be such as will enable us to foresee and predict future events. One series of phenomena and the law being given, we must be able to indicate the other series of phenomena; and this in advance of any observation of them or of any experiment. Such must be the structure and the elements of the science of therapeutics, the only possible science the elements of which are capable of being developed independently by study and experiment and observation without detriment to the science as a whole, and which in its integrity will enable us to foretell the future, will put it in our power, having one series of phenomena and the law, to predict the other series. Therapeutics being the science of treating the sick with drugs, it must deal with two series of phenomena, viz.: those of the sick and those of the drug as it affects the living human body; and it must present us with a law expressive of some constant and general relation between the phenomena of the sick and the phenomena of the drug as it acts on the human body. And by means of this law we must be able to foretell events. If we have the phenomena of the sick and the law, we must be able to tell correctly what shall be the phenomena of the drug which will cure the patient, even though no such experience has ever been had. Or, conversely, having the phenomena of the drug as it acts on the human body and the law, we must be able to tell what phenomena of disease that drug will remove, even though none such have ever been witnessed or experimented with. Now, gentlemen, homeopathy is just such a science of therapeutics. It has again and again submitted to this test, and has come forth triumphant. It possesses this law, which is not interfered with by the indefinite expansion of the phenomena with which it deals. I proceed to state it in detail in the light of what has been said. The object of your study as medical practitioners is of course the patient—the sick person who sends for you. Your first care is to ascertain if he be really sick. He states perhaps that some organ is the seat of pain, that some function is not properly performed, or that the unusual appearance of some part of his body has attracted his attention and excited his alarm; and now he asks your opinion, advice and assistance. He wishes to know what ails him, what will be the issue of his sickness, and how long it will last, and finally he wishes you to assuage his sufferings and restore him to health as quickly, safely and gently as you can. The first question is this, Is the patient sick ? Is any organ or tissue in an unnatural condition? Is any function arrested, or performed in an unnatural manner? You compare the patient with your recollection of a sound and healthy man. Your knowledge of anatomy will enable you in this comparison to detect abnormal conditions of organs or tissues. Your knowledge of physiology puts it in your power to discern the abnormal performance of functions. In a word, you observe whatever of a material character is wrong with your patient. Where it is possible you assist your senses by instruments. The functions of respiration and circulation are inspected by means of the stethoscope; the tissues of the eye by means of the ophthalmoscope ; of the ear by the otoscope; the tissues and, to some extent, the functions of the larynx, by the laryngoscope; the renewal and waste of tissue, to some extent, by the thermometer; to some extent, by chemical examination, the excretions and secretions. These examinations, which are made by the aid of a comparison of the patient with our recollection of a standard, healthy, living human being, furnish us with the objective phenomena which the patient presents. Besides these there is another class of phenomena. Rarely are any tissues or functions in an abnormal state without the existence of some sensations in various parts of the body complained of by the patient, unless he be in such a benumbed condition that he cannot feel nor describe. Such phenomena, since they are perceived only by the patient, are called subjective phenomena; we cannot verify them. The patient may deceive us in stating them. He may not be capable of describing them so that we can understand him or get a distinct idea of what he feels, or, he may be dull or comatose and take no note of them. These objective and subjective phenomena together constitute that in which the patient differs from a healthy man. He wants to know what ails him, for the purpose of forming an idea whether and how soon he can get well. You form your diagnosis by means of your knowledge of the relation of phenomena to lesions of tissue; and you give your prognosis from your knowledge of the history of the course of diseases under treatment. You have not come to your duties as therapeutists until your diagnosis and prognosis have been made and pronounced. This having been done, your great duty as curers of the sick lies before you. Is the case one in which it will suffice to order a change in the mode of life, abstinence from some hurtful article of food or drink, change from a noxious habitation to a more wholesome one, substitution of suitable for injudicious raiment, of a nutritious for a scanty diet, of a healthy for a baneful occupation ? If so, you will have done your whole duty when, from the stand-point of hygiene or sanitary science, you have cared for these things, and have placed the patient under the conditions which are requisite for the normal performance of the functions of the body and mind. But we will assume that, these things having been attended to, the patient remains ill; and that we need to apply to his organism some special stimulus which shall bring him back to a healthy condition. A drug is such a stimulus. We are now in a position to apply the science of therapeutics. The phenomena of the patient with which we deal, are the subjective and objective phenomena of which we have already spoken. We include these under the general term " symptoms," and we consider that, practically, the aggregate of the symptoms constitutes the disease under which the patient labors. A great outcry has been raised against homeopathists because of their alleged exclusive attention to symptoms. It is affirmed that they prescribe on symptoms only, not taking cognizance of the disease, and this is made a reproach to them. In part this reproach springs from the failure to start on a mutual understanding of the term symptom. The old school does not give it so extensive an application as we do. For we include among the symptoms of the patient every deviation from a healthy condition of mind or body which the physician can in any way discover or perceive, or which the patient makes known by his statement or complaints, or which the attendants of the patient have observed and can communicate to the physician. Now, this definition includes every possible deviation from a healthy condition of tissue or function whether objective or subjective, which it is possible to have. And what is called a disease in contradistinction to such an aggregate of symptoms, is simply an abstraction, a mental conception devised for the purpose of expressing this aggregate in a single phrase. For example, the patient has heat of skin, a hard, frequent pulse, rapid and short respiration, a quick, dry cough or cough with rusty sputa. These are objective symptoms which the physician may observe. The patient in addition complains of oppression of the chest, of sharp pains through the lung on coughing, or of rawness behind the sternum. The physician, by physical exploration of the chest, discovers, on percussing a certain part of the chest, dullness, or a fine crepitation. Let this collection of symptoms constitute all there is about this patient which is a deviation from his condition when in health. These phenomena, being the results of positive observation, are known; there can be no error or uncertainty about them. Now, if we wish to express to another physician the condition of our patient, it may be and is convenient to have a brief term which will include and imply the presence of these phenomena. But does it add anything to our knowledge if we designate this aggregate of symptoms by the name pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs ? The fallacy is that we are in danger of including under the given name cases agreeing in anatomical lesion, but differing in symptoms, and requiring different treatment. It has been objected to the use of a collection of symptoms as the basis of a prescription, that, if we depend on symptoms alone, we may fail to discover the existence of latent disease. But if disease be really latent, not manifested by any symptom whatever, by any deviation from a healthy condition, why then it must be so completely latent, must lie so hidden, that in no way is it discoverable. Let us remember that Hahnemann taught, and that we believe and teach, that the aggregate of symptoms, which we regard as identical with the disease itself, includes and comprises everything which the physician and attendants discover or have observed about the patient as different from his condition in health, and every deviation from health of which the patient is conscious. Let the physician avail himself of all the appliances of the modern accessory medical sciences, the most approved methods of research and observation; whatever he observes in any way in the patient which is a deviation from health, is a symptom in the sense of the homeopathist, and the aggregate of these symptoms constitutes for him the disease. I may say that the most recent and most enlightened writers of the old school, Virchow, Carpenter, Bouchut, express themselves much in the same sense. These symptoms, then, these phenomena of the patient, constitute one series of the phenomena with which the science of therapeutics deals. The other series of phenomena are those of the action of drugs upon the living body. Let us come to an understanding of what we mean by a drug. The condition of a sick person is this: The organs which, while the patient was in health, have been performing their functions regularly and normally, under the action of the general stimuli of light, heat, aliment, etc., on which we all depend, have in some way, through some cause, come to act abnormally. Now we seek for some special stimulus which is capable of modifying the action of the organism; and if we can hit upon that stimulus which will modify them in just the right way and to the right extent, we shall have the means of modifying the organism back from its perverted action to a healthy action. To hit upon this special stimulus, this is the therapeutic problem. We gather from this statement that any substance whatever which has the power to produce in the living organism a definite deviation from its healthy, normal action, may come under the designation of a drug. Thus almost every substance in the world, provided it have the power, as most substances have, of producing a definite and constant modification of function and tissue in the organism, may be a drug, and may be used to cure disease if we only know how to use it. Those who deny the possibility of curing disease affirm that a pathological process once begun cannot be arrested;—why not as well as a physiological process ? As a matter of course, almost as early as men began to record observations of nature, in however rude a way, they began to note the effects produced upon the organism by natural objects taken into the system accidentally or by design. And these observations were the foundation of the science of pharmacodynamics, or the effects of drugs upon the living organism. Subsequently systematic observations and experiments began to be made, with a view of extending our knowledge of pharmacodynamics and making it exact. It was not however until a very recent period that these experiments were instituted on the proper basis and in the proper way to secure permanent and valuable results. At first, and indeed until a very recent date, experiments and observations with drugs upon the human organism, were made in the case of sick persons in the way of endeavors to cure them. Now in this way we could not arrive at any certain knowledge of the action of the drug upon the organism, because of the organism being already in abnormal action under the influence of the cause of disease, whatever it might be. When we add the modifying influence of the drug, the result would be a kind of action due to the combined influence of drug and morbific cause. Nor could we know how much or what deviation to ascribe to each of these influences. Such an experiment could give us knowledge of nothing save the action of the drug upon an organism already affected by disease, precisely as the subject of the experiment is affected. But when we consider how very rarely two identically diseased conditions occur, it will be very apparent that such knowledge would be of but little practical value to us. It would not afford us the constant quantities we seek. It was apparent to some of the most clear-headed of the earlier physicians, after the restoration of learning, that in no way could a knowledge of the properties of drugs in relation to the human organism be obtained except by observations of their action upon the healthy subject. Although this conviction was expressed with more or less clearness by several, and notably by Haller, it was reserved for Hahnemann both to demonstrate its truth, and to illustrate it by undertaking and accomplishing a gigantic series of experiments with drugs upon the healthy organism; experiments of which the results constitute the bulk of our materia medica; and which form the most splendid and enduring monument of scientific acumen and philanthropic devotion of which humanitarian science can boast. The remarks which were made in relation to symptoms as compared with abstract conceptions supposed to be represented by them, apply to observations of the action of drugs; since the effects of drugs are really artificial diseases. The phenomena observed by the prover or his friends upon him, whether subjective or objective, constitute facts; constitute what we know about the action of the drug. Speculations about its mode of producing these symptoms are certainly interesting, and may lead to further discoveries, and certainly do stimulate to closer observation; but they are no part of the positive facts which constitute this second series of phenomena of our science of therapeutics. We have now two series of facts or phenomena ; the symptoms of the patient and the symptoms produced by drugs upon the healthy. It is reasonable to believe that if we knew how to bring the latter action to bear upon the former we might arrest the morbid action of the organism; might modify it back to a healthy action, if, among all the drugs which act with such a variety of difference upon the organism, we only knew how to select the right one. Wanted, then, a law of selection; a rule for selecting the right drug for each patient; a formula expressing the relation between the symptoms of the patient and the symptoms of the drug which would cure that patient, the law of the interference of symptoms. This law, of which others had had vague glimpses, was discovered by Hahnemann to be the general law of therapeutics. It was expressed by the phrase "SIMILIA SIMILIBUS CURANTUR"; or "Likes are to be treated by likes." It is the law for the selection of the drug. It expresses nothing concerning the MODUS OPERANDI of the cure. It ventures nothing of hypothesis. It is as bare and as general a formula as that of celestial mechanics. Discovered by accident, supported by multitudes of instances, established by direct experimentation and clinical demonstration, it interferes in no way with the growth of either series of phenomena,— either the phenomena or symptoms of disease, their causation and connection, or the phenomena of drug action; and yet it affords us the means of prevision that have already been most fruitful of blessings to mankind, as in the case of cholera in 1831. Let us for a moment, in conclusion, suppose the science of therapeutics otherwise constructed, first on the rationalistic, and then on the empirical basis. On the former, the symptoms are observed and a cause is assumed for their existence. The action of a drug is observed and a theory formed of the cause of its action. Here two theories come in to introduce two possible points of error. The science cannot progress, because advancing knowledge must continually change the hypotheses concerning the cause of symptoms and of drug effects upon which the treatment was based. Take for example the use of mercury in liver diseases. It was assumed from observation in disease that mercury increases the formation and discharge of bile. In certain diseases then, which were supposed to depend upon a diminished secretion of bile, mercury was administered. But subsequent experiments showed that mercury does not increase the flow of bile. Then all observations and conclusions based on this treatment must be thrown away as worthless, and we must begin again; and so on AD INFINITUM. The empirical method simply records that A. has cured a patient sick with B., and concludes that A. is a remedy for B. But diseases occur alike so very rarely that the results of treatment based on such experience never agree. Nor does this method afford means of prevision, a defect which is fatal to its claims as a science. Nothing remains but the science as we have explained it, and of which we shall proceed to study in detail and in a practical way the different elements. The subject of the next lecture will be: " Symptoms ; or, How to take the Case."


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Do catamarans, beaches, the rush of Iguassu & buzz of Rio sound like you? Mix this with cosmopolitan Buenos Aires & you've got the perfect combo of adventure, discovery & sun-seeking in 10 epic days through Argentina & Brazil.
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ME Time optionals will take your trip to a whole new level with unforgettable experiences unique to the places you visit. See more, do more, live more & go home completely regret-free. Costs for these aren't included in your tour cost & are payable to your Trip Manager in local currency.
On our trips we don't just take you to the destinations, we make sure you get under the skin of every place you visit. From amazing food & accommodation, to exclusive access to incredible experiences, with Contiki you'll get unbeatable value & a completely unique travel experience.
Welcome to Argentina. Known as the Country of Seven Continents, the diversity of landscapes here is super cool. You'll find rainforest, plains and deltas, red sand desert, the southern Lakes District of Patagonia including Ushuaia the world's most southern city. You'll also find the Andes and Aconcagua (the western hemisphere's highest peak) let's not forget Iguassu Falls.
We'll arrive in the capital city, Buenos Aires, known as South America's most cosmopolitan city and paradise for the urbanite. As a refuge for many Europeans after the Second World War, its diversity is reflected in its people, an awesome melting pot of Spanish, Italian, German, Slavic and Syrian descent.
On the first day we will dive into the heart of the city with a half-day city bike tour. We'll visit the city's historic center, San Telmo, the renowned neighborhoods like the colourful La Boca, including Maradona's Statue at Boca Juniors stadium, Caminito and other renowned neighborhoods and areas such as Puerto Madero with it's trendy shops and cafes.
Buenos Aires is perfect for unleashing the culture vulture within! It is the birthplace of Tango and there is a love of music, art, dance and of course football! The Argentines also love to dine and no visit to the capital would be complete without trying their world-renowned beef and of course, their delicious red wine.
Hotel Dinner
- Visit the neighbourhoods of San Telmo, La Boca & Puerto Madero
- Tango lesson, show & dinner
Your second day in BA is a day to enjoy the city your way. We'll give you some ideas of how to spend it, doing stuff like watching a Polo game and then experiencing it for yourself, or get into the Argentinian cuisine with a lesson on how to cook different types of local favourites. The best part is you get to eat them when you're done!
If hanging in town is what you're after, there are loads of options. Check with your Tour Manager what is going on in town, there might be a football (soccer) game on, maybe rub elbows with the city's elite while drinking champagne at a polo match or try your luck at the racetrack. For those interested in hitting the shops there is fantastic shopping in the boutiques and galleries that line La Florida, one of two pedestrian streets in the city centre. You could also visit the historic Gran Café Tortoni where you can ask for a 'café con leche' (Spanish for coffee with milk). Tonight, head out and find a local night spot to get a taste of Argentina's famous beef, or try some of the homemade pizza and pasta that is the pride of the Italian population found in BA (Buenos Aires). Whatever you choose remember to save a little bit of energy for another night out on the town.
Hotel Breakfast
- Argentinan culinary experience To Be Confirmed
- Polo Experience Approx. cost: 1,598 ARS
Today we depart Argentina to stay on the Brazilian side of Iguassu Falls. Iguassu Falls lies along the border of Argentina and Brazil, with awesome views from both sides, and you'll experience them both! From the airport in Puerto Iguazu we'll cross the border into Brazil and head to the Foz do Iguacu. You could get things started with a different perspective of the falls on an optional helicopter flight, providing you with awesome panoramic views and photo ops.
Although the parks on both sides are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, there is often debate about who has the better side of the Falls. We'll leave it up to you, but it's widely believed that that the view from the Brazilian side is second to none. Take in all 275 individual waterfalls that make up the falls and get an up-close view of the Devil's Throat (the largest of the 275 falls).
Later, make an optional stop at a bird sanctuary on the way back to town, where you can get up close to some of the Amazon's famous residents like the toucan, Hyacinth Macaw and other tropical species living in their natural habitat.
This evening we'll check into our hotel and enjoy the Brazilian national drink, a caipirinha.
Hotel Breakfast
- Visit Iguassu National Park (Parque Nacional do Iguaçu - Brazilian side)
- Helicopter flight over the falls Approx. cost: 230 BRL
Get ready for an awesome day at Iguassu. First up, we'll cross back into Argentina and visit their side of the falls. You could feel the spray of the falls on a speed boat ride, or if you feel like a wander, there's a short hike to the edge of the Devil's Throat. We have all day, so you can do it all if you want to.
Later, we'll say farewell Argentina and it's back to Brazil for another night of wining, dining and dancing. Tonight join us for a rooftop BBQ and chill night in Iguassu.
Hotel Breakfast,Dinner
- Visit Iguassu National Park (Parque Nacional Iguazú - Argentinian side)
- See the Devils Throat
- Taste delicious Brazillian BBQ
- Speed boat ride to the falls $350 BRL
It's time to take it down a notch today as we start the next part of our journey in beachside Buzios. We'll catch a flight to Rio de Janiero where we'll transfer to this famous beachside resort town. Located on a peninsula and surrounded by more than 20 different beaches from small coves with white sand, to endless stretches of gold this is the perfect place for a little bit of R&R.
Later on head out for a tasty local meal. Buzios is the perfect place to try some delicious seafood that is on offered all along Brazil's coast. Don't forget, it's a place to dress to impress, so maybe glam up & get ready for a night on the town.
Hotel Breakfast
If you're keen, you can rise early and catch a gorgeous sunrise over the Atlantic Ocean. For those that prefer to sleep in, don't worry, today's another day to relax, chill and do what you want. Head down to the beach and try surfing, get a bit of a workout with an ocean swim or simply read a book while working on your tan with a cocktail in hand.
Tonight, you could take a stroll through town and check out all of the shops, restaurants and bars here, before settling on one to spend your last night in town.
Hotel Breakfast
- Learn to surf lesson $145 BRL
Hello, Rio! Say farewell to the beach as we head to the city for our last 2 days on tour. Home to the world's largest Carnival celebration, the famous Copacabana and Ipanema beaches, the Brazilian bikini and of course some of the world's best football (soccer) players, Rio goes off!
First up, we will head to Rio's old Cathedral, one of the city's most important historical buildings before visiting the Lapa district and its 150 year-old aqueduct, the Arches of Lapa and Passeio Publico, the first public park in the city.
After the orientation tour of the city, we'll check–in to our hotel with time to rest up before a night out on the town. From evening football games, to bars, clubs and Favela parties, Rio's nightlife will not disappoint. Just ask your Tour Manager for some cool places to head.
Hotel Breakfast,Dinner
- City tour of the Catedral, Lapa Steps & Paseo Publica
This morning we'll visit the Christ the Redeemer statue located atop 'Corcovado' and recently designated as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World. Not only will you be amazed by the sheer size of the monument, but also by the incredible view of Rio in its entirety.
Next up is Sugarloaf Mountain. Climb 1299ft (396m) in glass-paneled cable cars to the summit for more astounding views of the city and its beaches. The trip is broken in two and if you take a break after the first car on Morro de Acucar you might meet some of the mountain's naughtier residents, tiny monkeys who will be more than happy to steal your food.
This afternoon join us for a Favela tour to get a deeper understanding of how many of the city's inhabitants live. You can visit the markets and shops throughout the city or just relax on the beach and watch the Cariocas, (residents of Rio), do what they do best, play football and practice Capoeira a martial art mixed with dance from the northeast of the country. You could also learn some tricks yourself if you're keen.
Hotel Breakfast
- Visit Christ the Redeemer statue
- Hang gliding Approx. cost from: 315 BRL
- Favela party Approx. cost: 65 BRL
- Carretao Brazilian Rodizio Dinner BRL$68.00
Today is yours to explore this amazing city. Try hang gliding, hang on the beach and this afternoon chill on a boat cruise around Rio's famous harbour. Tonight, end the trip as we head out for a meal & our last night out in this amazing city!
Hotel Breakfast,Dinner
- Boat cruise with caipirinhas, sun & music
- Visit Christ the Redeemer statue
- Hang gliding Approx. cost from: 315 BRL
Don't forget to swap addresses with your mates and Tour Manager, as our South American adventure ends this morning after breakfast.
Ready to book?

subset: commoncrawl


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Walmart Sales Ad: January 23, 2013
Walmart prices may vary greatly by store, though are usually very close. However, make sure you double check our prices with your local Walmart sales ad to avoid any surprises at the register.
Read the tips and hints for saving money at Walmart stores to maximize your savings. Don't forget to keep a copy of the Walmart coupon policy in your coupon holder to help you (or your cashier) when needed.
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WATCHMAN CAMPGROUND, UTSite, Loop:A015R, Loop A
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Watson is an outspoken Christian golfer, and he uses his Twitter account—along with his platform as one of the PGA Tour's magnetic personalities—to share about his faith in Christ. read more
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Can You Pass the Ultimate 'Man Test'?
It's not what you do on a field, on a court or at the office. Read on to discover God's biggest challenge for you as a man and a leader. read more


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PointSavers offers up to 33% in point savings, depending on the hotel category and number of nights requested. This hotel is offering Seasonal Awards, so you can use fewer points when you book a stay during these dates.
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When a Japanese schoolgirl sits on a guy´s face with her pantyhose still on, you know to expect something hot. You get the good action right away too, as she bends down and takes a wanker in her mouth and just stays in that position to get fucked hard from behind. With a view of her nice ass and a cock balls deep in her cunt, cumshot is near!
Screenshots (Total 73) | Comments (0) | Detailed Info | More Stuff |
Yuria Satomi |
Yuria Satomi is a hot Asian MILF in her office suit. She is in the break room with a co worker and he is interested in her sexy pantyhose and her pussy. She is making out with him and doing some hand work on his cock when he gets to her w..
Yuria Satomi |
Round tit and horny babe Yuria Satomi making out and hardcore fucked. She tease and makes out with her hung lover and strips down on her sexy dress. She get her boobies squuezed and wet pussy licked. She humps on his cock, grinds on it ti..
Yuri Matsushima |
Yuri Matsushima is a hot Asian MILF with a busty form she likes having her boyfriend lick when she is lactating. They are in the bedroom and she is in her sexy lingerie while participating in some foot licking through her ripped pantyho..
More Japanese AV Model
Tina is a horny Asian model who enjoys getting a cock whenever the chance comes up. She does many things in the course of a day. She is a lovely and sexy gal who likes to get her pussy exersized by the office workers in the building. She enjoys her toys and cock when she is in the party mood. She has a web site she enjoys putting her videos on and she makes a mint when she sells them on the web. Her best stuff is when she is riding on top of some hot cock and not paying attention to anything around her.
Naughty Tina is on a date with her boyfriend. They are back at his place for the evening and he decides to get kinky and rub her with oil and then they will have sex all night long. It is a messy deal but good for the cameras she carries with her. She enjoys getting her sex life on the web to her sites because they always sell well with the kinky stuff. Her boyfriend has no idea yet that his bare ass is all over the web, so it will be interesting to see what happens when he does learn!
Tina is one hot Asian model! She enjoys showing off in her lingerie and acting on stage during the adult shows. She is big on dildos and has plenty to entertain herself and the audience. She gets the club so packed we are usually so full there is just no room even for standing. She has her own live action website and it is selling videos like crazy because of the unusual content on them. She is definitely going to be a star in her own right one of these days.
Rio is a lovely nurse. She is making rounds with the doctors and when they are finished, one of the doctors stays behind to get her to make out with him. She plays with his cock and gets him hard so she can suck him off. They are having a good time in the locker room while she is sucking him off and getting a hot load in her face!
Rio is a hot Asian milf in a hot sex session with her guy. He has her on the floor and rips her pantyhose so he can finger and lick her wet pussy. She swallows his cock in a hot blowjob and gets a cock ride and hardcore doggy style slamming before he dumps his cumshot on her tits!
Nurse Rio is a horny gal. She enjoys her patients sometimes too much! She enjoys giving blowjobs to the patients when the mood strikes her! Sometimes she will have a threesome if there isn´t much to do on the floor and she will get her pussy licked while sucking cock and licking balls. She is a good looking gal with a firm body that is made to fuck. Most of all when she is having hospital fucks she enjoys getting cum on her face in the end.
Naughty college student enjoys some hot sex in the storage room off the gym. She likes the coach and his sneaky ways. Having sex in public places is the thrill for her! She is studying business and journalism in school so she should do well when she is finally finished with schooling. She is popular too with the older guys because she acts like a silly Asian doll some of the time. She is also a party seeker when she is in the clubs and her reputation gets her into lots of hot places for finding a cock or two.
Rio and her boyfriend are having some fun in her room. She has her blue lingerie on and he is enjoying her nice tits and pussy. He fingers her pussy and gets her vibrator to play in her wet pussy . She gives him a hot blowjob as he is masturbating her with a dildo and they do some position 69 before they get into a doggy style fucking and a nice cock ride for their day of sex fun!
Rio nice Asian teen is with her horny guy. He is exposing her hot pussy and spreading her legs so he can lick her wet slit. She moans with the stimulation as he gets hardcore and stuffs his cock in for a rear fucking! He slams her pussy hard, and cums on her pretty face!
Nurse Rio is called into the office at the hospital where she works. Her boss has called her in for a meeting. She turns on the charm because there was a mix up somewhere and she was getting in trouble for something someone else did. She talks him into a favor and as a thank you he wants his cock sucked. She obliges and sucks him off in the office!
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