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Integrated CTION PLA Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy Greater Jakarta, Indonesia RETA 5937 Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia ACTION PLAN Integrated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy for Greater Jakarta, Indonesia Prepared by Indonesian Multi-sectoral Action Plan Group on Vehicle Emissions Reduction July 2002 This report was prepared by consultants for the Asian Development Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in it do not necessarily represent the views of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) or those of its member governments. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this report and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY ii Authors (In Aphabetical Order) Ahmad Syafruddin The Lead Phase-Out Committee (KPBB) Bambang Tri Budiman PT Suar Budy P. Resosudarmo1 Domestic Consultant ADB RETA-5937 Fitri Harwati Ministry of Environment Haryo Satriyo Tomo Domestic Consultant ADB RETA-5937 Liliansari Loedin BPLHD DKI Jakarta Moekti Handajani Soejachmoen Pelangi Indonesia Foundation NGA Restiti Swisscontact Ridwan D. Tamin Ministry of Environment Roma Manurung Domestic Consultant ADB RETA-5937 Shanty Syahril Domestic Consultant ADB RETA-5937 Shelagh Rosenthal English Editor ADB RETA-5937 Lucentezza Napitupulu is Resosudarmo's research assistance for this work 1 INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY iii Contents Authors ii Abbreviations v Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Background 1 Objectives 2 Scope of the Action Plan 3 Outline of the Report 7 Chapter 2 Air Quality in Jakarta 8 Air Quality Monitoring 8 Emission Load Estimation 14 Air Pollution Control Targets 18 Health and Economic Impacts 22 Chapter 3 Air Quality Management Governance 30 Existing Legislation and Regulations for Management 30 Roles and Responsibilities in the Regional Autonomy Era 30 Problems and Constraints 31 Chapter 4 Fuels 37 Overview of Oil and Gas Policy 37 Current Conditions of the Oil Business 37 Domestic Consumption 39 Pricing Policy 39 Current Fuel Quality 39 Fuel Quality Improvements 42 Alternatives Fuels 43 Chapter 5 Vehicle Emissions Standards and Vehicle Technology 45 Overview of Responsibility for Standards Setting 45 Current Vehicle Emissions Standards 45 Proposed National Standard for Type Approval 46 Chapter 6 Inspection and Maintenance 52 Type Approval 52 Commercial Vehicle Inspection 52 INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY iv Inspection and Maintenance for Jakarta's Private Passenger Vehicles 54 Inspection for Motorcycles 56 Chapter 7 Transport Planning and Management 57 Overview of Responsibility 57 Characterization of Current Transport Planning and Management 57 Status of Public Transport 58 Impact of Congestion on Air Pollution and Energy Consumption 59 Under-funding of the Transport Sector 59 Nonmotorized Transport 59 Lack of Integrated Transport Planning and Land-use Planning 59 Chapter 8 Principles for Action Plan Design 61 Institutional Aspects 61 Technical Aspects 62 Chapter 9 Action Plan 63 Component: Air Quality Management Governance 63 Component: Fuel 65 Component: Vehicle Standards and Vehicle Technology 67 Component: Inspection and Maintenance 68 Component: Transport Planning 70 Chapter 10 Impacts of the Proposed Action Plan 71 Direct Interventions to Reduce Vehicle Emissions 71 Impacts of the Countermeasures on Air Pollution Levels 73 Health and Economic Impacts of the Countermeasures 74 Chapter 11 Implementation Arrangements and Follow Up 77 Strengthen the MEB 77 Determine the Sequence and Timing of Implementation 78 Assist in Preparing Proposal Documents 78 Financing for Action Plan Implementation 78 References 79 INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY v Abbreviations AAQS Ambient Air Quality Standards ADB Asian Development Bank ADO Automotive Diesel Oil AQMS network Air Quality Monitoring Stations Networks BKPM The Investment Coordinating Board BPLJSKB Roadworthiness and certification center CAP Clean Air Project CH4 Methane CNG Compressed Natural Gas CO Carbon monoxide CPO Crude Palm Oil Dirjen Migas Director of Ditjen Migas DKI Special District of the Capital City Jakarta GDI Gasoline Direct Injection HOMC High Octane Mogas Component I/M Inspection and Maintenance IAQM Study on the Integrated Air Quality Management by JICA and Bapedal, 1997 IDO Industrial Diesel Oil IDR Indonesian rupiah IVERS Integrated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas MAPG Multi-sectoral Action Plan Group MBM Multi Box Model - Dispersion model in the RETA 5937 study MEB Mitra Emisi Bersih-Partnership on Clean Emissions MEIP Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Program MOPS Mid Oil Platt Singapore NILU Dispersion model in the URBAIR study NKLD DKI Local Environment Balance Reports of DKI Jakarta NMHC Non methyl hydrocarbon NO Nitrogen monoxide NO2 Nitrogen dioxide NOx Nitrogen oxides O3 Oxidant OD Origin Destination Pb Lead PKB Inspection center PM10 Particle less than 10 micrometer in diameter PSI Pollutant Standard Index RAD Restricted Activity Days RC Regional Center RETA 5937 Regional Technical Assistance-Action Plan for Reducing Vehicle Emissions RGDP Regional Gross Domestic Product RTRW Regional Land Use Planning SITRAMP Study on Integrated Transportation Master Plan for Jabotabek Phase 1 SO2 Sulfur dioxide SOx Sulfur oxides SURASH Dispersion model in the IAQM study INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY vi TDM Transport Demand Management THC Total hydrocarbon TSP Total suspended particulate TT Unleaded symbol UN ECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UP Refinery Unit UPPDN Regional Representatives Offices of Pertamina URBAIR Urban Air Quality Management Strategy US AEP US Asia Environmental Partnership USD US dollar US-EPA US Environmental Protection Agency VSL Value of Statistical Life WHO World Health Organization WWFC World-Wide Fuel Charter CHAPTER 1 Introduction Background Indonesia's rapid urbanization and industrialization have created severe air pollution problems, particularly in the country's major cities. Air quality in the nation's largest cities and industrial areas currently exceeds Indonesia's ambient air quality standards (AAQS) for several pollutants, and nowhere is this more pronounced than in the country's capital city, Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta (DKI Jakarta or the Special District of the capital city of Jakarta). In 1998, the highest average annual measurements from four continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations in DKI Jakarta were estimated as follows: nitrogen oxides (NOx) 120 µg/m3; sulfur dioxide (SO2) 28µg/m3; fine particles less than 10 µm in diameter (PM10) 81 µg/m3; and ozone (O3) 42 µg/m3 (Syahril et. al., 2002). All except SO2 exceeded the AAQS. The economic value of health problems associated with NO2, SO2 and PM10 for this period was estimated at Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) 1,786,803 million (USD 181 million) and was projected to increase to IDR 4,348,558 million (USD 403 million) by 2015, unless serious control efforts were implemented (Syahril et. al., 2002). In recognition of the growing severity of air pollution caused by industrial expansion, rapid ur- banization and increasing vehicle numbers, the World Bank initiated the Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) in 1992 as part of its Metropolitan Environmental Improve- ment Program (MEIP). In Jakarta, the main objective of URBAIR was to assist local institutions to develop an action plan as an integral part of an air quality management system for the met- ropolitan region. Through a consultative process with government, industry and non- government organizations, an action plan was formulated based on a review of air quality data by international and local experts and researchers. The plan recommended abatement meas- ures for the short, medium and long terms, which were divided into institutional and technical categories. It was recommended that a single institution with a clear mandate and sufficient resources should take responsibility for air quality in Jakarta, while the technical actions fo- cused on improving diesel quality, vehicle inspection and maintenance, vehicle emissions stan- dards, cleaner fuel oil, and awareness-raising. In 1995, JICA and Bapedal cooperated to con- duct the IAQM study that also developed an air pollutant map for Jakarta, however, the IAQM also included Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi (this area is known collectively as Jabotabek). Following on from this work, JICA and Bapedal commenced their Integrated Air Quality Man- agement (IAQM) study, which continued air pollution studies in the Jabotabek1 area from 1994 to 1997. This study prepared an air pollution control strategy for the area up to 2010, and conducted an investigation and analyses of Jabotabek's socio-economy, environment, meteor- ology, air quality, and air pollution sources. This information enabled it to formulate a more concrete action plan. Based on the results of simulation, the proposed strategy recommended eighteen countermeasures and categorized eight as high priority. The action plan subsequently focused on three of the high priority countermeasures: (i) strengthening the ambient air moni- toring system, (ii) preparation of a stationary source inventory, and (iii) preparation of a mobile source inventory. 1 This area includes DKI Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 2 To date, several critical components of the URBAIR and IAQM action plans have been imple- mented. These include the commencement of lead gasoline phase out in July 2001; the estab- lishment of a networking system and stations for monitoring ambient air quality in ten Indone- sian cities; and the development of emissions standards for stationary and mobile sources. However, a number of important air pollution countermeasures proposed in the earlier studies have not yet been implemented effectively. These include the planning and implementation of integrated air pollution controls, with a particular focus on strengthening and reinforcing rele- vant existing organizations and systems. The URBAIR study action plan was formulated through a process that involved several sectors and agencies, and this was reflected in an integrated approach to control vehicular air pollu- tion control in Jakarta. Nevertheless, the action plan was not followed by appropriate institu- tional arrangements as several sectors and agencies would need to be involved in the imple- mentation. A single institution was proposed for air quality management, yet there was no initiative for institutional development. Consequently, each concerned sector and agency was less committed to implement the proposed action plan due to a lack of coordination and agreement amongst them. Many representatives were listed in working groups, including national and local government as well as universities. However, other important sectors and agencies were not included such as the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MoE & MR) and representatives from civil society and the private sector. The latter sectors and agencies play important roles in improving diesel quality and clean fuel oil, as well as awareness raising—all of which were components of the action plan. As a result, groups critical to the implementation of the action plan had a di- minished sense of ownership in the plan. The IAQM study action plan was formulated by the JICA team and subsequently discussed with relevant sectors and agencies through seminars as a consultative process. Inputs from these groups were expected to complete the action plan. With this condition, some compo- nents of the action plan might not suit their priorities at that time, and as a result the imple- mentation was not as effective as expected. In addition, institutional development was not proposed to implement the action plan, hence relevant sectors and agencies would implement in accordance with their own perceptions and conditions, which in turn meant that integrated efforts were barely accomplished. An important next step was a workshop organized by Swisscontact in May 2000, which in- volved a large number of local organizations. In addition to discussing Swisscontact's Clean Bus Program and Indonesia's lead phase-out plans, the workshop also reviewed a number of the other components included in the original URBAIR strategy. An important secondary output of the workshop was the establishment of a broad-based alliance of organizations, both within and outside government, who pledged to work together on air quality management. However, an institutional arrangement amongst stakeholders to establish good air quality governance has still not been formalized. Despite the sound technical quality of the previous action plans, there remains a need to pro- duce an integrated action plan with consensus from all stakeholders to ensure effective im- plementation. In addition, all stakeholders should be included in an effective institutional ar- rangement to ensure good coordination in implementing the action plan. Objectives The objective of action plan formulation is to develop an integrated vehicle emission reduction strategy for DKI Jakarta so that it can fulfill the DKI Jakarta AAQS. The action plan was built on the results of earlier studies and formulated using a participatory and process approach. Fur- thermore, the resulting consensus document is expected to serve as policy guidelines for all stakeholders to reduce vehicle emissions in DKI Jakarta. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 3 The principal objectives and tasks undertaken to formulate the action plan were: To collect, review and summarize information for each component of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy; To determine the institutional and technical principles for action plan design; To develop strategies and plans to reduce Jakarta's vehicle emissions based on possible changes in each component of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy. These possible changes include fuel specifications and type, strengthening of new and in-use vehicle emissions standards, improvements in the inspection and maintenance system, and improvements in traffic flow due to improved traffic management; and To set implementation arrangements and necessary follow-up to ensure the action plan will be effectively implemented. Scope of the Action Plan TARGET AREA The target area is DKI Jakarta. Later in this report, Jakarta is used as terminology for the target area. Jakarta is situated on the northern coast of the island of Java, around the mouth of Ciliwung River at approximately 6o12' South and 106o48' East. According to Governor's Decree 1989 No. 1227, Jakarta comprises 661.52 km2 land area and 6,977.5 km2 sea area, and includes more than 110 islands spread across the Thousand Island Archipelago as depicted in Figure 1.1. Along the coast of Jakarta, which extends approximately 35 km from west to east, the land- scape is very flat with a mean elevation of seven meters above sea level. The southern area of the city is slightly undulating with a ground elevation of approximately 50 meters above sea level. Further south of Jakarta, near Bogor, the mountains reach 3,000 meters. There are no natural topographical barriers near Jakarta. The climate of Jakarta is generally tropical, with daytime highs of 31.4oC and nighttime lows of 25.4oC. Daily rainfall can reach 1,913.8 mm with humidity of 77%, and average wind velocity reaches 1.5 m/s. The construction of more high-rise buildings in the future may alter the mi- croclimate at street level. Before the 1997 financial crisis, Jakarta's annual regional gross domestic product (RGDP) for the previous 5 years grew at approximately 9%. In 1997, the annual growth rate of RGDP dropped to approximately 5%, and in 1998 it was -18%. In 1999, Jakarta's annual RGDP was -1% but in 2000 the city managed to have a positive RGDP of 4%. A study on air quality in Jakarta (Syahril et. al., 2002) completed in preparation for this Action Plan assumed that Ja- karta's annual RGDP growth rate will slowly increase to the pre-1997 crisis condition by 2006, when it is expected to be approximately 9%. After that time, it is assumed that RGDP annual growth rate will remain stable at approximately 9%. Figure 1.1 Jakarta INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 5 COMPONENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE VEHICLE POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGY The Action Plan proposes improvements to four components of a comprehensive vehicle pollu- tion control strategy, which comprises all the elements depicted in Figure 1.2 (Walsh, 2002A). Vehicle emissions and fuel quality are closely inter-linked components, and progressively tighter emissions standards can be met only through a combination of improved fuel quality and ad- vanced engine technology. Each of these components is addressed to a large extent in sepa- rate chapters in this document. In addition to the four components of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy, good governance of Jakarta's air quality is a key to achieving the goal of vehicle emission reduction. According to UNDP (1997)2, governance is defined as the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority to manage a country's affairs at all levels of society, and while this in- cludes the state, it transcends it by including the private sector and civil society. The elements of state include executive, legislative and judiciary powers. Civil society is defined as organiza- tions and associations of people, formed for various purposes, which are not created or man- dated by governments. These may include non-governmental as well as grassroots organiza- tions, trade unions, cooperatives, religious groups, media, professional, and business associa- tions. Figure 1.2 Elements of a Comprehensive Vehicle Pollution Control Strategy Clean Vehicle Technology Appropriate Transportation & Maintenance Land Use Planning Clean Fuels MULTI-SECTORAL ACTION PLAN GROUP AND ACTION PLAN FORMULATION PROCESS To ensure broad-based involvement of all stakeholders in drafting an action plan, an Integrated Vehicle Emissions Reduction Strategy (IVERS) workshop was held on 16 to18 October 2001. The workshop was organized through the cooperation of national and local government, the private sector, non-government organizations and donor agencies. As a result of the IVERS Workshop, a Multi-sectoral Action Plan Group (MAPG) forum titled Mitra Emisi Bersih (MEB or partnership for clean emissions) was set up with the guiding principles of commitment, participation, openness, equity, and independence. 2 Available on the World Wide Web at http://magnet.undp.org/policy/ INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 6 The MEB forum objective is to formulate and implement an air pollution reduction strategy aimed at reducing mobile emission sources, and to coordinate the existing efforts of several institutions. A primary goal of this group was to develop an action plan through a participatory and process approach. An important aim of the plan is to avoid institutional overlap on issues related to reducing vehicle emissions. The Forum's secretariat is located at the Ministry of Envi- ronment (MoE) office in Jakarta, and since its inception has held regular monthly meetings. Members of the MEB forum consist of representatives from national and local government, the private sector and civil society as presented in Table 3.2. Consensus-building activities that occurred during the action plan formulation included the establishment of an internal electronic network as a communication forum to share informa- tion, experience and technology, and monthly consensus-building meetings. The draft action plan was reviewed at the Forum's regular meeting on 21 February 2002, and prepared for presentation at the final RETA 5937 workshop (Action Plans for Reducing Vehicle Emissions) in Manila at the beginning of March 2002. TARGETED POLLUTANTS The pollutants targeted by this action plan are the primary pollutants, i.e.: nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), fine particles less than 10 µm in diameter (PM10), carbon monoxide (CO), and total hydrocarbons (THC) from vehicle sources. Although secondary pollutants are not directly addressed, the reduction of primary pollutants is consequently expected to reduce secondary pollutants. DATA SOURCES The action plan used the results of earlier air quality studies as a basis. The following compre- hensive studies that focused solely on Jakarta's air pollution situation served as background to this study include: Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia, Jakarta Report (World Bank, 1997), referred to in this document as the URBAIR, and The Study on the Integrated Air Quality Management for the Jakarta Metropolitan Area Vol- ume I Main Report (JICA and Bapedal, 1997A) and Volume II Supporting Report (JICA and Bapedal, 1997B), referred to in this document as the IAQM. Moreover, for Jakarta's decision-makers to be effective in addressing the problem of air pollu- tion, an air quality assessment study was conducted in parallel with formulation of the action plan. The full results of this study are compiled in a separate report titled "The Study on Air Quality in Jakarta: Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Values and Policy Options" by Shanty Syahril, Budi P. Resosudarmo and Haryo S. Tomo (2002). The study results (included in this document) give an important indication of air pollution levels in Jakarta. These also indi- cate the impact on pollution levels in various parts of Jakarta up to the year 2015 that will re- sult from possible changes to the five aforementioned strategy components. In addition, the study quantifies the health and economic impacts of air pollution levels in Jakarta. SOURCES OF FUNDING Funds to assist the MEB forum to formulate the draft Integrated Vehicle Emission Re- duction Action Plan and conduct the Jakarta air quality assessment study were pro- vided by ADB under its Regional Technical Assistance Project (RETA 5937) titled Action Plan for Reducing Vehicle Emissions. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 7 Outline of the Report The Introduction chapter presents information related to formulation of the action plan, and includes the background, objectives, and scope of the action plan. The second chapter provides comprehensive results from the air quality assessment study that was conducted in parallel with action plan formulation. It describes air pollution levels and the health and economic impacts of Jakarta's mobile source air pollution. The third to seventh chapters describe the five components of the comprehensive vehicle pol- lution control program: air quality management governance; fuel quality; emissions standards and vehicle technology; inspection and maintenance; and transport planning and manage- ment. The third chapter on air quality governance includes information on existing legislation and regulation, the roles and responsibilities of multiple stakeholders, and problems and constraints in implementing good air quality governance. The fourth chapter on fuels presents an overview of current oil and gas policy, followed by a description of the current oil business, domestic consumption, pricing policy, current and po- tential improvements to fuel quality, and alternative fuels development. The fifth chapter on vehicle emissions standards and technology consists of an overview of the institutional responsibilities for standards setting, and a description of the existing vehicle emis- sions standards. The proposed emissions standard for new type vehicles (that includes the pre- requisite condition in implementing the new standard) is also addressed in this chapter. Chapter six on vehicle inspection and maintenance covers the type approval for new type vehi- cles and current inspection for in-use commercial vehicles, as well as inspection and mainte- nance for Jakarta's in-use passenger cars. The seventh chapter presents an overview of institutional responsibilities related to transport planning and management, and a description of current transport planning and management. Also addressed are constraints related to public transport, the impacts of congestion and un- der-funding of transport, and the development of nonmotorized transport. The lack of inte- grated transport planning and land-use planning is also revealed. The principles for action plan design for both institutional and technical issues are outlined in the eighth chapter. The ninth chapter is a core chapter in answering the strategies and plans to reduce vehicle emissions in Jakarta. It presents the interventions aimed at reducing vehicle emissions, as well as proposed actions, a timetable for execution, and the organizations responsible for imple- mentation of each intervention. The estimated impacts of the action plan on Jakarta's emission load and air quality, as well as the health and economic aspects, are presented in the tenth chapter. Finally, the implementation arrangements and follow-up are presented in the last chapter. CHAPTER 2 Air Quality in Jakarta This chapter summarizes the results of "The Study on Air Quality in Jakarta: Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Values and Policy Options", compiled to assist decision-makers in addressing mobile source air pollution in Jakarta. This chapter describes Indonesia's ambient air quality monitoring network as well as Jakarta's air monitoring system, and an analysis of the situation based on data collected in 1998. An emissions inventory result is discussed, based on that comprised of industrial, domestic and vehicle sources in Jakarta to evaluate the contribu- tion of vehicle emission to overall pollution. However, only the vehicle emissions inventory is elaborated in detail. This chapter also presents the level of control for targeted pollutants from mobile sources. These levels were calculated based on the target of improving ambient air quality, the prediction of pollution without countermeasures, and the carrying capacity of Ja- karta's air. Finally, this chapter provides an estimate of the health and economic impacts of Jakarta's air pollution. Air Quality Monitoring NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORKS The Bureau of Meteorology and Geophysics (BMG) began monitoring ambient air quality in Indonesia in the 1970's, and continues to do so today. By 1991, the BMG had approximately twenty monitoring stations in large cities throughout Indonesia (including Jakarta) but these measured only total suspended particulates (TSP). In 1999, Indonesia established a network of ambient air quality monitoring stations in ten cities (AQMS network), with the center in Bapedal (see Table 2.1). The aims of this monitoring net- work are as follows: Provision of public information on the status of air quality. Implementation of the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) system. Monitoring of trans-boundary air quality issues, such as forest fires and acid deposition. Monitoring for emergency response in the event of any catastrophic emission. Provision of technically valid data to assist measures to control air pollution. The ambient air quality network monitors the concentration values of five key point ambient air pollutants: NO2, SO2, PM10, CO, and O3. In addition, the monitoring stations also measure meteorological data that includes wind direction, wind speed, humidity, solar radiation, and temperature. The ambient air quality network in each city consists of a monitoring station, meteorology sta- tion, a Regional Center (RC), and data display. The RCs operate and maintain the monitoring stations and function as data centers. At each RC, the online data are used to calculate the PSI values, which are then published on data displays to the public. The PSI number gives informa- tion about the city's air quality condition with the following index: good, moderate, not healthy, very unhealthy, and dangerous. Furthermore, each RC compiles monthly and annual reports to evaluate air quality status. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 9 Table 2.1 The Allocation of Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations No City Fixed Station Mobile Station RC/MC Data Display 1 MoE Jakarta - 1 MC 1 2 DKI Jakarta 5 1 RC 5 3 Bandung 5 1 RC 5 4 Semarang 3 1 RC 3 5 Surabaya 5 - RC 5 6 Denpasar 3 1 RC 5 7 Medan 4 1 RC 4 8 Pekanbaru 3 1 RC 1 9 Palangkaraya 3 1 RC 1 10 Jambi 1 - - - 11 Pontianak 1 - - - Total 33 9 30 Source: Rasudin and Harwati, 2001. JAKARTA'S AIR QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK Jakarta's ambient air quality is currently monitored by the BPLHD DKI using manual and con- tinuous monitoring stations (Table 2.2). In addition, BPLHD DKI owns and operates one mobile monitoring unit. Twelve manual monitoring stations (No's. 1 to 12) are operated on a rotational basis, and the parameters are measured for 24 hours every eight days at each station. Five continuous moni- toring stations (i.e. No's. 18 to 22) are integrated into the online monitoring system, which is part of the AQMS network. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARD National AAQS's in Indonesia are based on Government Decree of the Republic of Indonesia Number 41 (1999). Jakarta also has ambient air quality standards that are tighter than the na- tional standards, based on DKI Jakarta Governor's Decree No. 551 (2001). Both standards are presented in Table 2.3, together with World Health Organization (WHO) air quality guidelines and United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) AAQS's. JAKARTA'S AIR QUALITY MONITORING RESULTS Jakarta's air quality was evaluated based on results from its continuous air quality monitoring stations. Due to constraints on data availability at the commencement of the study, the 1998 data from four ambient monitoring stations (Pluit, Kelapa Gading, Pulogadung II, and BPLHD DKI) and two roadside monitoring stations (Thamrin and Gambir) in Jakarta were utilized. One-year Average Calculations of the geometric mean concentration at each monitoring station (January to De- cember 1998) reveal that NOx was higher than 50 µg/m3 at all stations, and exceeded the Ja- karta ambient air quality standard (DKI AAQS) at Pulogadung, Pluit, Thamrin and Gambir sta- tions (Figure 2.1). SO2 concentrations were less than half of the level specified in the DKI AAQS, and O3 concentrations exceeded the DKI AAQS at Pulogadung and Kelapa Gading sta- tions. No annual DKI or National AAQS are currently available for parameter PM10. However, Figure 2.1 clearly shows that PM10 concentration at all stations approached -- if not exceeded -- the US-EPA AAQS. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 10 Table 2.2 Description of Air Quality Monitoring Stations in Jakarta No Nama Stasiun Type Method Parameter Remarks 1 Cilincing Ambient Manual A 2 Dunia Fantasi Ambient Manual A 2 Pulogadung I Ambient Manual A 3 Pondok Gede Ambient Manual A 4 East Jakarta Municipality Building Ambient Manual A 5 Radio Dalam Ambient Manual A 6 Tebet Ambient Manual A 7 Kahfi Ambient Manual A 8 Gelora Bung Karno Ambient Manual A 9 Rawa Buaya Ambient Manual a 10 Al-Firdaus Mosque Ambient Manual a 11 Istiqlal mosque Ambient Manual a 12 Pluit (City forest) Ambient Continuous b d,e,f 13 Kelapa Gading Ambient Continuous b d,e,f 14 Pulogadung II Ambient Continuous b e,f 15 BPLHD DKI Ambient Continuous b e,f 16 Thamrin Roadside Continuous b d,e,f 17 Gambir Roadside Continuous b g 18 East Jakarta Municipality Building Ambient Continuous c h 19 Pondok Indah Ambient Continuous c h 20 West Jakarta Municipality Building Ambient Continuous c h 21 Gelora Bung Karno Ambient Continuous c h 22 Kemayoran Ambient Continuous c h Source: Supalal, 2000 and Loedin, 2001. Notes: a: Measure parameter SO2, NO, NO2, CO, TSP, Pb. b: Measure parameter SO2, NO, NO2, NOx, CO, PM10, O3, CH4, NHMC, THC, Meteorol- ogy. c: Measure parameter SO2, SOx, NO2, NOx, CO, PM10, O3, Meteorology. d: Measurement results in 1999 were not complete for all parameters. e: Calibrated during year 2000. f: Measurement results in 2001 had not been uploaded during the study. g: Down after 1998. h: Integrated on the national ambient air quality monitoring network. Started meas- urement end of year 2001. Shorter Time Averages As shown in Figure 2.2, the 24-hour average NOx concentration values exceeded the DKI AAQS on at least 42 days at all stations. The highest number of days exceeding the standard was 111 days out of 115 days at Thamrin station. All 24-hour average concentration values of SO2 from each monitoring station satisfied the DKI AAQS. PM10 also exceeded the DKI AAQS at all stations except at Kelapa Gading. CO hourly concentrations exceeded the DKI AAQS at all stations as depicted in Figure 2.3. The highest number of hours exceeding the CO standard occurred at Gambir station, for 619 out of 744 hours. NOx hourly concentrations exceeded the DKI AAQS at all stations except Pu- INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 11 logadung, while SO2 hourly average concentrations at each monitoring station satisfied the DKI AAQS. O3 concentrations exceeded the DKI AAQS for at least one hour at Kelapa Gading sta- tion, and up to 258 out of 1704 hours at Pulogadung station. A recent study on hourly variation for parameters CO, NO, SO2, PM10 and O3 in Jakarta shows that all the monitored parameters with the exception of SO2 and O3 have a sharp concentration peak in the morning. This coincides with traffic congestion (Supalal 2001) and indicates that vehicle emissions influence the concentrations of these parameters. Table 2.3 Ambient Air Quality Standards Duration of Threshold Value Pollutant Measure- Jakarta National WHO* EPA ment Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 1 hour 900 900 N/A N/A 24 hours 260 365 125 365 1 year 60 60 50 80 Carbon monoxide (CO) 1 hour 26,000 30,000 30,000 40,000 8 hour N/A N/A 10,000 10,000 24 hours 9,000 10,000 N/A N/A Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 1 hour 400 400 200 N/A 24 hours 92.5 150 N/A N/A 1 year 60 100 40 100 Oxidant (O3) 1 hour 200 235 N/A 235 8 hour N/A N/A 120 157 1 year 30 50 N/A N/A Hydrocarbons 3 hours 160 160 N/A N/A Particulates < 10 µm (PM10) 24 hours 150 150 N/A 150 1 year N/A N/A N/A 50 Total Suspended Particu- 24 hours 230 230 N/A N/A lates (TSP) 1 year 90 90 N/A N/A Lead (Pb) 1 year N/A 1 0.5 N/A Note: Unit: in µg/m . Values are based on the atmospheric conditions at 25 C and pressure 1 atm. 3 o * WHO air quality guidelines INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 12 Figure 2.1 Normalized one-year average concentration in 1998 5 4.3 Normalized one-year average 4 3 2.0 2 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.9 1.0 1 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0 NOx (60) SO2 (60) O3 (30) PM10* (50) Pulogadung II Pluit BPLHD DKI Kelapa Gading Thamrin Gambir Note: Normalized to DKI AAQS, except PM10* to US-EPA AAQS. The figures in the brackets are annual AAQS in microgram per cubic meter of air. Figure 2.2 Number of days exceeding DKI AAQS for 24-hour average in 1998 365 100% Normalized to total possible number of sample in a year 292 80% Number of sample 219 60% 146 40% 73 20% 0 0% NOx SO2 PM10 CO (92.5) (260) (150) (9000) INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 13 Figure 2.3 Number of days exceeding DKI AAQS for 1-hour average in 1998 8760 100% Normalized to total possible number of sample in a year 7008 80% Number of sample 5256 60% 3504 40% 1752 20% 0 0% NOx SO2 CO O3 (400) (900) (26,000) (200) Figure 2.4 Number of days exceeding DKI AAQS for 3-hour average in 1998 2920 100% Normalized to total possible number of sample in a year 2336 80% Number of sample 1752 60% 1168 40% 584 20% 0 0% THC (160) Total Sample Pulogadung Total Sample Pluit Total Sample Thamrin Total Sample BPLHD DKI Total Sample Gambir Total Sample Kelapa Gading Sample Over DKI AAQS Note: The figures in the brackets are DKI AAQS in microgram per cubic meter of air. Evaluation of Ambient Air Quality for 1998 At all stations, NOx concentrations barely satisfied the DKI AAQS for all categories (annual, 24- hour, and hourly average). In addition to the toxicity of NOx itself, NOx is a primary pollutant in O3 formation. The 3-hour average concentration of THC exceeded the DKI AAQS in not less than 50% of total samples at all stations (Figure 2.4); THC concentrations were thus also a problem pollutant. THC is not known to cause human health problems at the standard con- centration, however in the presence of sunlight, atmospheric hydrocarbons and NOx, it causes photochemical reactions that produce O3. Given that the annual concentration of O3 exceeded the DKI AAQS at Pulogadung and Kelapa Gading stations, THC and NOx should be reduced to decrease O3 concentrations. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 14 According to WHO, CO diffuses rapidly across the alveolar, capillary and placental membranes and therefore WHO guideline values are set to shorter time averages (15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour and 8 hour) than for other pollutant parameters (WHO, 2000). With these averages, the present findings suggest that CO is a serious problem in almost all areas of Jakarta. Up to 23% of the total samples of PM10 in 24-hour concentrations exceeded the standard at Pu- logadung and Thamrin stations. In addition, the annual concentration of PM10 approached, if not exceeded, the US-EPA AAQS at all stations. These findings suggest that PM10 may be con- sidered a problem in certain areas. No evaluation of the TSP concentration was conducted as it was not monitored at the stations. SO2 did not present a problem, as measurements at all monitoring stations satisfied the DKI AAQS categories. Emission Load Estimation The RETA 5937 study targeted pollutants NOX, SO2, PM10, CO and THC from vehicle sources. However, the contribution of industrial and domestic sources was also estimated in order to evaluate the contribution of vehicle sources to overall pollution. Pollutant emissions from other mobile sources such as ships and aircraft – to which the IAQM study attributed approximately 2% of total emissions load in 1995 -- and other sources (i.e. open burning and natural sources) were not estimated in this study. As a baseline case without countermeasures in the present study, the emission load from various sources was estimated for 1998, and predicted for years 2005 and 2015. The total emission load from industrial sources was predicted using the corresponding year's ratio of Jakarta's regional gross domestic product (RGDP) for 1995 as estimated in the IAQM study. The RGDP ratios are 0.94, 1.30 and 3.07 for year 1998, 2005 and 2015, respectively. The total emission load from domestic sources was predicted to increase according to popula- tion growth. Total population in Jakarta is expected to grow from approximately 9.5 million in 1998 to 11 million in 2005, and to 13 million in 2015. VEHICLE EMISSION LOAD ESTIMATION FOR 1998 In order to obtain the total emission load in a manner that distinguishes between different ve- hicle types, an estimation of emission load from vehicle sources is described here in more de- tail. The emission load from each vehicle fleet category (passenger cars, taxis, trucks, buses, and motorcycles) was estimated based on running kilometers multiplied by the emission fac- tors. Running kilometers of each vehicle category were calculated based on origin-destination (OD) matrices developed from the OD matrices in the IAQM study (JICA and Bapedal, 1997B). The expansion factor between 1995 and 1998 was calculated as the annual vehicle growth rate in Jakarta. For 1998, the vehicle population was comprised of 29% passenger cars, 10% trucks, 8% buses and 54% motorcycles. Based on the OD matrices, the on-road vehicle distri- bution was basically the same as the vehicle population, with the proportion of trucks relatively lower (approximately 2%) and the proportion of passenger cars and motorcycles slightly higher at 31% and 59% respectively. The annual vehicle fleet increase between 1990 and 2000 is shown in Figure 2.5. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 15 Figure 2.5 Vehicle population in Metro Jaya* (1990-2015) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Vehicle population in million 12 11.374 10 8.012 8 5.728 6 4.159 4 3.021 1.649 2 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year Passenger Cars Trucks Buses Motorcycles Total Note: * Metro Jaya includes Jakarta, Bekasi, Depok Source: State of Police, 1990 - 2000; Prediction 2001 - 2015. The vehicle emission loads without countermeasures are estimated using emission factors for uncontrolled technology vehicles. Emission factors for CO, THC, NOx and PM10 (in grams/kilometer) are modified based on Walsh (2002A) and the IAQM study. SO2 emission fac- tors are derived from fuel economy, with fuel sulfur content based on the equation provided in the IAQM study. The sulfur content in gasoline and automotive diesel oil (ADO) in 1998 was assumed to be the same as in the IAQM study, which was recorded as 0.015% and 0.396% respectively. Parameters that influence emission factors are engine type and vehicle utilization, and exhaust gas characteristics for motorcycles. Therefore, the vehicle fleet in Jakarta was fur- ther divided into seventeen categories, as tabulated in Table 2.4. Figure 2.6 presents each source category's contribution to the total emission load (of NOx, SO2, and PM10) in Jakarta in 1998. Figure 2.7 shows the share of emissions by vehicle type, for NOx, SO2, PM10, CO, and THC. Passenger cars emitted more than 30% of the entire measured emis- sion load. More than 20% of both PM10 and CO and 40% of THC were emitted by motorcy- cles. Trucks released approximately 30% of the NOx, SO2 and PM10 emission load, and buses emitted no more than 20% of all parameters measured. VEHICLE EMISSION LOAD PREDICTIONS FOR YEARS 2005 AND 2015 The annual expansion factor between 1995 and 2005 or 2015 was calculated as the annual vehicle growth rate in Jakarta from 1999 to 2000. This was chosen rather than the actual growth rates from 1995 to 2000, as this was considered an unusual period due to the eco- nomic recession during this period. The annual growth rates applied were 10%, 4%, and 5.8% for passenger cars, trucks, and motorcycles respectively, and a zero growth rate was as- sumed for the bus category. These are still low compared to historic annual vehicle growth rates. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 16 Vehicle emission loads were estimated using emission factors for uncontrolled technology vehi- cles. After leaded gasoline phase-out was initiated in July 2001, fuel sulfur content was set at 0.0083% for gasoline and 0.3203% for ADO (Purwanto, 2001). Figure 2.8 shows the pre- dicted total emission loads from various sources during 2005 and 2015 in Jakarta. Vehicle emissions contribute to approximately 73% NOx, 18% SO2 and 72% PM10 total emission loads in 2005. For 2015, total emission loads were 71% NOx, 15% SO2 and 70% PM10. Figure 2.6 Emission shares by source type in Jakarta in 1998 26% 21% 25% 7% 3% 4% 71% 72% 71% NOx (78,979) S O2 (27,494) P M 10 (8,671) Industry Dom estic V ehic le Note: The figures in the brackets are estimated total emission load in tons/year. All CO and THC emitted from vehi- cle as much as 942,840 and 187,545 tons/year, respectively. Figure 2.7 Emission load shares by vehicle category in Jakarta in 1998 100% 80% Emission load shares 60% 40% 20% 0% NOx SO2 PM10 CO THC Passenger Cars Trucks Buses Motorcycles INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 17 Figure 2.8 Prediction of total emission load in Jakarta for baseline case 4 Ratio to the 1998 total emission load 3.7 3.4 3.0 2.9 2.9 3 2 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.3 1 0 NOx SO2 PM CO THC 2015 2005 1998 Table 2.4 Vehicle Fleet Description and Engine Type Composition Vehicle Emission Vehicle Cate- Description Fuel Type Composition*** Type* Factor gory** Passenger car Private Gasoline LDGV PPG 0.6712 Private ADO LDDV PPD 0.1678 Taxi Gasoline LDGV PTG 0.1047 Taxi ADO LDDV PTD 0.0564 Truck Micro Gasoline LDGT2 TMG 0.2805 Micro ADO LDDT TMD 0.2805 Large ADO HDDV TLD 0.4390 Bus Micro Gasoline LDGT2 BMG 0.3850 Micro ADO LDDT BMD 0.3850 Large ADO HDDV BLD 0.2300 Motorcycle 2/4 Stroke, > 250 cc Gasoline MC1 MC1 0.0000 2-Stroke, 126 - 250 cc Gasoline MC2 MC2 0.1155 4-Stroke, 126 - 250 cc Gasoline MC3 MC3 0.1441 2-Stroke, 51 - 125 cc Gasoline MC4 MC4 0.1647 4-Stroke, 51 - 125 cc Gasoline MC5 MC5 0.2055 2-Stroke, < 50 cc Gasoline MC6 MC6 0.1647 4-Stroke, < 50 cc Gasoline MC7 MC7 0.2055 Note: * Vehicle type according to Ditlantas Polri' categories. ** Vehicle category for this study. *** Composition of each vehicle category in this study for each DitIantas Polri vehicle group. Source: JICA and Bapedal (1997A). INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 18 Air Pollution Control Targets According to the Jakarta Local Environment Balance Reports (NKLD-DKI) (BPLHD-DKI Jakarta, 2000), reducing vehicle emissions is a DKI Jakarta government policy to improve Jakarta's over- all ambient air quality. International experience demonstrates that an air quality management strategy (AQMS) should be carried out with a certain target and consistent evaluation. The dispersion model is an important tool in developing an AQMS due to its valuable function in predicting the spatial distribution of air pollutants, as well as evaluating the contribution of each source category. Although the dispersion model is available from previous studies (i.e. NILU and SURASH; World Bank, 1997; JICA and Bapedal, 1997A), it has not been utilized or modified as an AQMS tool for Jakarta specifically or Indonesia in general. Although BPLHD DKI has already evaluated the results of continuous ambient monitoring stations using statistical methods on a regular basis, the absence of air dispersion modeling has hindered the effective evaluation of implemented air pollution abatement. The main impediments to running a model and obtaining reliable simulation results are the availability of emissions inventory data and supporting data. In addi- tion, most of the previous studies were performed by various international counterparts and the sources are not available to Indonesian counterparts. This in turn has made it unclear to what extent the models may be modified (i.e. due to copyright restrictions) to keep up with changes. In this section, the level of control for targeted pollutants from vehicle sources was estimated by considering the carrying capacity of Jakarta's air. The estimation was based on the predic- tion of ambient air quality without countermeasures, which was obtained using the Multi Box Model (MBM) and the target of improving ambient air quality. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY SIMULATION WITHOUT COUNTERMEASURES The MBM is a simple box model that functions as a tool to simulate the ambient air pollution level in various parts of Jakarta, and evaluates the contribution of each emission source cate- gory to the ambient air quality. For this study, the Jakarta area was divided into 23 grids based on the city's administrative boundaries (districts or kecamatan) as depicted in Figure 2.9. For a baseline case without countermeasure, the ambient air quality was simulated for 1998 and subsequently for 2015. The emission loads for 1998 and 2015 served as input data for the MBM. The MBM was verified with the Pluit and Pulogadung II ambient air quality monitoring results for 1998 prior to simulation. As air pollutant dispersions are influenced by meteorological conditions, this was considered in the model. The annual average wind speed in Jakarta is very weak; it is often calm (wind speed lower than 0.4 m/s) with around 20.3% of wind incidents. The highest annual average wind speed is around 1.6 m/s, and most wind blows from the south and west directions. The mixing height is approximated by the cloud height, and assumed uniform at around 200 m for all grids. Table 2.5 presents the number of grids exceeding the AAQS in 1998 and 2015 for parameters NOx, SO2, PM10 and THC. Table 2.5 also presents the simulation results with the background concentration set to meet the AAQS. The following example clarifies how to read the table. For parameter NOx in 1998, the results show that 22 out of 23 grids exceeded the annual DKI AAQS due to the pollutants being emitted in the area surrounding Jakarta and from vehicle sources. Thirteen grids exceeded the annual DKI AAQS for NOx due only to the pollutant being emitted in the area surrounding Jakarta. In spite of this fact, had the NOx background been set to meet the annual DKI AAQS, 20 grids would still exceed the annual DKI AAQS due to this pollutant being emitted by vehicle sources in 1998. In addition, no grids would exceed the an- nual DKI AAQS due only to the industrial and domestic emission loads. However, the cumula- tive emission loads from vehicle, industrial and domestic sources would cause one more grid to INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 19 exceed the annual DKI AAQS. Therefore, in 1998 a total of 21 grids would exceed the annual DKI AAQS due to the pollutants emitted by all sources. These findings suggest that in 1998, vehicle sources had already created a serious problem in a wide area of Jakarta for parameter NOx. The estimation results reveal that SO2 was not a problem in 1998 (Table 2.5). It is also interest- ing to observe that in addition to the serious PM10 pollution problem caused by vehicle emis- sions in a wide area of Jakarta, the findings suggest that the PM10 contribution from industrial and domestic sources was also significant. There are no DKI AAQS's, National AAQS's, US-EPA AAQS's or WHO air quality guidelines available for annual concentrations of CO and THC, therefore no comparisons were made be- tween the 1998 simulation results and annual AAQS. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the simulation results for parameter THC exceeded the DKI AAQS for the 3-hour average measurement in 21 grids. Figure 2.9 Grid System INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 21 The prediction result (Table 2.5) shows that in 2015, all grids exceeded the annual DKI and US- EPA AAQS for parameters NOx and PM10. Twenty-one grids would exceed the AAQS in 2015 due to these pollutants being emitted by vehicle sources. Thus, if no countermeasures are ap- plied to present conditions, NOx and PM10 will pollute heavily all area of Jakarta by 2015. For parameter SO2, twelve grids in total exceeded the annual DKI AAQS in 2015. The findings sug- gest that the industrial sources are the main contributor of SO2, however vehicle source contri- butions cannot be dismissed since 50% of the total grids exceeding the annual DKI AAQS is due to the cumulative contribution from other sources. Figure 2.10 presents the ratio of ambient air quality in 2015 and 1998 for parameters CO and THC due only to mobile source emissions in Jakarta and the surrounding area. It shows that the CO and THC concentrations are double the 1998 concentrations in more than 60% and 95% of the total grid respectively. Table 2.5 Number of Grids Exceeding DKI AAQS in Jakarta in 1998 NOx SO2 PM10* THC** NOx SO2 PM10* THC** DKI AAQS for annual 60 60 50 160 60 60 50 160 average 1998 Background 13 0 22 0 0 0 0 0 Vehicle 22 0 22 21 20 0 15 21 Industry + Domestic 17 0 22 0 0 0 1 0 Total 22 0 22 21 21 0 19 21 2015 Background 19 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 Vehicle 23 0 23 23 23 0 21 23 Industry + Domestic 23 6 23 2 22 6 1 0 Total 23 12 23 23 23 12 22 23 Note: * US-EPA AAQS for annual average. ** DKI AAQS for 3-hour average. The figures in italics represent the simulation results with the background concentration set to meet the AAQS. Figure 2.10 Ambient air quality in 2015 to 1998 ratio for parameter CO and THC in Jakarta Ratio to the 1998 3 concentration ambient 2 1 0 11 12 13 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 31 32 33 34 35 36 41 42 43 44 51 52 53 Grid CO THC INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 22 CONTROL TARGETS FOR VEHICULAR EMISSIONS If Jakarta plans to meet the annual DKI AAQS it will need to reduce NOx emissions by up to 50% of the 1998 emission load. For the case of PM10 (in which no annual DKI or National AAQS is available), assuming that Jakarta plans to meet the annual US-EPA AAQS, the city will also need to reduce PM10 emissions by up to 50% of the 1998 emission load. The air quality monitoring results clearly indicate that CO significantly exceeded the DKI AAQS for shorter-time averages (Sub-section A.4). If Jakarta plans to improve conditions for shorter- time averages it will need to reduce the annual CO concentration. If a concentration of 2500 µg/m3 is set for CO, Jakarta will need to reduce CO emissions by more than 50% of the 1998 emission load. Assuming that the THC concentration should meet the DKI AAQS for 3-hour average, Jakarta will need to reduce THC emissions by more than 50% of the 1998 emission load. It is important to note that with a higher quality source inventory, precise meteorological data and sufficient background concentration data from the area surrounding Jakarta, the level of control suggested will become more accurate. It is also critical to note that the measures will only be effective in achieving this target if the area surrounding Jakarta also meets the DKI AAQS, and the emission loads from industrial and domestic sources do not extend beyond the assumptions set for this study. Lastly, given this knowledge of the air pollution level in Jakarta, it is crucial for Jakarta's provin- cial government to formally set a quantitative target and time frame to reduce mobile source air pollution based on reliable baseline case assessments. This target should function as a guideline in formulating the vehicle emissions reduction strategy. Health and Economic Impacts This section describes the health impacts of air pollution in Jakarta. It (i) outlines the basic methodology used to calculate the health impacts of air pollution and their economic values, (ii) presents the estimated health impacts of air pollution in Jakarta, and (iii) discusses how the economic value of these health problems associated with air pollution is calculated. Lastly, it estimates the economic value of health impacts caused by air pollution. HEALTH IMPACT This work employs the same methodology as Ostro's (1994) to estimate the health impacts of air pollutants by using dose-response functions. A dose-response function is a formula to cal- culate the number of people, in a certain area, that contract a certain health problem since they are exposed to an air pollutant concentration above the air quality standard. The air qual- ity standard is a threshold level for a certain air pollutant, below which no health problem re- lated to this pollutant is expected to occur. The general form of these dose-response functions is: dHi = bi · POPi · dA (2.1) where: dHi is the number of people that contract health effect i, or number of cases for health problem i. bi is the slope of the dose-response function. POPi is the population within the polluted area under consideration, i.e. the population at risk for health effect i. dA is the ambient level of a certain air pollutant in the area under consideration above an air pol- lution standard. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 23 It is important to note the slope of the dose-response function. The slope indicates the addi- tional health problems caused by a unit increase of a certain air pollutant, above an air pollu- tion standard. Dose-response functions collected by Ostro (1994) are derived from epidemiological studies in United States cities, and are listed in Table 2.5. These functions were used in this work, as none are yet available from studies under tropical conditions. In applying these dose-response functions, Jakarta was divided into several grids or areas. In each grid, information on ambient levels of air pollutants and population was collected or estimated. The number of air pollution health problems was then estimated for each grid or area. Table 2.6 Available Dose-response Functions Number of cases NO2 TSP Pb Premature Mortality 1,400 158 IQ Decrement (in points) 2,073,205 Restricted Activity Days 7,595,000 Respiratory Symptoms 1,770,000 37,331,000 Lower Respiratory Illness 125,100 Asthma Symptoms 558,000 Chronic Bronchitis 12,300 Hypertension 135,660 Non-fatal Heart Attack 190 Respiratory Hospital Admission 2,500 Emergency Room Visit 48,800 Among the pollutants for which dose-response functions are available, team members for the RETA 5937 were able to provide information on ambient levels of PM10, NO2 and SO2 per ke- camatan for 1998 and 2015.3 WHO air quality guidelines were utilized (Table 2.2). If was there was no WHO guideline for a certain pollutant, the US-EPA or Indonesian standard was adopted. Table 2.7 and Figure 2.11 present the estimated health problems associated with NO2 and PM10 in 1998 and 2015. An explanation of Table 2.7 follows here. The column "Health Effect" in- dicates the health problems associated with a certain air pollutant. The table shows that PM10 is predicted to cause cases of premature mortality, restricted activity days, hospital admissions, emergency room visits, asthma attacks, lower respiratory tract illnesses among children, respi- ratory symptoms, and chronic bronchitis. In each row, the table presents the estimated health problems occurring in each area of Jakarta in 1998 and 2015. For example, row "PM10 Prema- ture Mortality" shows that approximately 1,018 cases of premature mortality due to PM10 occured in South Jakarta in 1998. The number of cases of this health problem becomes approximately 2,027 case in 2015; i.e. it becomes almost twice the 1998 number, or increases by 199.06 %. 3 In Jakarta there are 43 kecamatan. Table 2.7 Estimated Health Problems Associated with PM10, NO2 and SO2. South Jkt East Jkt Central Jkt West Jkt North Jkt Total Jakarta Health Effect 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 PM10 Premature Mortality 1,018 2,027 881 2,230 263 288 903 2,568 242 780 3,307 7,893 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Restricted Activity Days 5,601,704 11,150,476 4,844,416 12,270,293 1,447,572 1,585,433 4,967,790 14,129,950 1,333,339 4,290,463 18,194,822 43,426,615 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Hospital Admission 1,818 3,619 1,572 3,983 470 515 1,612 4,586 433 1,393 5,905 14,095 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Emergency Room Visits 35,665 70,994 30,844 78,124 9,217 10,094 31,629 89,964 8,489 27,317 115,845 276,493 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Asthma Attacks 407,486 811,122 352,399 892,581 105,301 115,330 361,373 1,027,859 96,991 312,102 1,323,551 3,158,993 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Lower Resp.Illnesses a/g Children 91,411 181,957 79,053 200,231 23,622 25,872 81,066 230,577 21,758 70,013 296,909 708,650 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Respiratory Symp- toms 27,726,335 55,190,674 23,978,042 60,733,344 7,164,939 7,847,297 24,588,698 69,937,952 6,599,528 21,236,182 90,057,542214,945,450 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Chronic Bronchitis 9,272 18,457 8,019 20,311 2,396 2,624 8,223 23,389 2,207 7,102 30,118 71,883 199.06% 253.29% 109.52% 284.43% 321.78% 238.68% Respiratory Symp- NO2 toms 1,051,763 2,710,968 722,571 2,709,801 412,891 680,297 1,071,202 3,703,257 248,108 1,350,636 3,506,535 11,154,959 257.75% 375.02% 164.76% 345.71% 544.38% 318.12% SO2 Premature Mortality - 53 - 123 - 89 - 86 - 91 - 441 Respiratory Symp- toms a/g Children - 101 - 236 - 170 - 166 - 175 - 849 Chest Discomfort a/g Adult - 100,799 - 235,048 - 169,454 - 165,157 - 174,295 - 844,753 Note: Percentages show the increase in cases between 1998 and 2015. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 25 Figure 2.11 A Comparison of Health Impact of NOx and PM10 in Various Parts of Jakarta in 1998 and 2015 6 Normalized health impact 5 4 3 2 1 0 North East South West Central Total North East South West Central Total 2015 1998 Figure 2.11 shows a more comprehensive comparison between the air pollution health prob- lems associated with PM10 and NO2 in 1998 and 2015. The number of health problems associ- ated with PM10 for the whole of Jakarta in 2015 is approximately 2.4 times the number in 1998. The increase is not equal throughout Jakarta, however: in North Jakarta, the number of PM10 -associated health problems in 2015 is estimated at more than three times that in 1998, while in Central Jakarta the number remains approximately the same. In the case of NO2, the number of health problems associated with the whole of Jakarta in 2015 is approximately three times the number in 1998. In North Jakarta, the number of cases is more than five times that of 1998. SO2 is an interesting parameter (see Table 2.7), as it had no health-associated problems in 1998, but in 2015 it is also predicted to cause health problems in Jakarta. ECONOMIC IMPACT In this work, the economic impact of air pollution is defined as the economic value of health problems associated with air pollutants, or the cost of air pollution health problems. The eco- nomic value of health problems associated with air pollutants is calculated with a general for- mula as follows: The health cost of pollutants under consideration are: TCi = Vi · dHi (2.2) where: TCi is the total economic value of health problem i. Vi is the value of health problem i (per unit/case). In general, this will be the treatment cost, per case, of health effect i, or the value of human life in the case of mortality. dHi is the number of cases for health problem i. Methods to calculate the value of each health problem follow. Premature Mortality. The value of a premature mortality case, also known as the value of statistical life (VSL), is estimated as the discounted value of expected future income at average age. In this work, the VSL is calculated as: w VSL = ∑ (2.3) t (1 + d ) t INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 26 where: w is the annual minimum wage in Jakarta for 2001 (IDR. 5,115,000 per annum). d is the discount rate (approximately 5%). t is the average individual's working period. This work will assume that t s 38,since the average age of population in Jakarta is 26 and the life expec- tancy at birth is 65. If w is assumed to equal the annual minimum wage standard set for Jakarta, which is ap- proximately IDR 5.1 million per year, the VSL is equal to approximately IDR 91 million. Restricted Activity Days (RAD). The value of a RAD case is assumed to be equal to the aver- age daily individual income in Jakarta. If the average of daily individual income is assumed to be equal to the daily minimum wage, then the value of a RAD case is equal to approximately IDR 17,000. Illnesses. For all illnesses caused by air pollution the value per case of illness is estimated as the average cost of medical treatment per case of the illness. This cost covers medical doctor ser- vices and medicines. In the cases of emergency room visits and respiratory hospital admissions, patients need to stay in hospital for one and two days, respectively. A survey of health costs has been conducted at the Cipto hospital (representing public hospitals), Universitas Kristen Indonesia hospital (representing private hospitals) and several independent medical practices. The estimated economic value per unit of health problem associated with air pollution can be seen in Table 2.8. Note that in the final calculation, it is assumed that 90% of patients seek medical treatment at public hospitals, seven percent at private hospitals, and three percent consult at independent medical doctor practices. To be comparable with previous studies, val- ues per unit of air pollution health problem from previous studies are also presented in Table 2.8. Applying the formula in equation (2) above for the case of PM10, NO2 and SO2 for Jakarta in 1998 and 2015 gives the economic impact of health problems associated with these pollut- ants. The results can be seen in Table 2.9 and Figure 2.12. Table 2.9 shows that the total economic value (cost) of health problems associated with PM10, NO2 and SO2 for the whole of Jakarta in 1998 is approximately IDR 1,786,803 million, or approximately USD 181 million.4 While this is approximately only one percent of Jakarta's GDP, it is as much as 100% of the Jakarta Gov- ernment's total revenue for 1998. Meanwhile, the total health cost associated with air pollu- tion in 2015 is estimated to be as high as IDR 4,348,558 million, or approximately USD 403 million.5 Figure 2.12 shows that the health cost associated with air pollution in 2015 will be approximately 2.4 times the cost in 1998. Figure 2.12 also tells us that the increase in health cost is not the same throughout Jakarta: North Jakarta will experience the highest increase compared to other areas of the city. 4 For 1998, this work uses USD-IDR conversion rate as USD = IDR 9,850. 5 Using a conversion rate 1 USD = IDR 10,800. Table 2.8 Economic Value per Unit Air Pollution Health Problem. Previous Studies (in IDR for 1990) Current Estimates (in IDR 2001) WB Re- Resosu- port URBAIR darmo Own Calc. Cipto Hosp. UKI Hosp. Private MD Number Used Indonesian US-derived (IDR) (USD) Health Effect PM10 Premature Mortality 23,450,000 650,000,000 92,157,163 92,157,163 8,533.07 Restricted Activity Days 4,466 12,400 17,050 17,050 1.58 Hospital Admissions 547,300 335,000 6,000,000 1,500,000 805,000 985,500 n/a 823,050 76.21 Emergency Room Visits 11,165 55,300 15,000 75,000 676,700 n/a 135,170 12.52 Asthma Attacks 5,263 11,165 21,400 5,000 21,000 57,500 n/a 24,650 2.28 Lower Resp.Illnesses a/g Children 10,000 20,000 50,000 11,900 1.10 Respiratory Symptoms 842 4,466 3,200 850 10,000 20,000 50,000 11,900 1.10 Chronic Bronchitis 33,680 22,330 70,000 17,500 55,000 68,000 100,000 57,260 5.30 NO2 Respiratory Symptoms 4,466 12,400 850 10,000 20,000 50,000 11,900 1.10 SO2 Premature Mortality 92,157,163 92,157,163 8,533.07 Respiratory Symptoms a/g Chil- dren 10,000 20,000 50,000 11,900 1.10 Chest Discomfort a/g Adult 10,000 20,000 50,000 11,900 1.10 Note: For the USD-IDR conversion in 2001, this table use USD 1 = IDR 10,800. Table 2.9 Estimated Economic Value of Health Problems Associated with PM10, NO2 and SO2 (in IDR millions) South Jkt East Jkt Central Jkt West Jkt North Jkt Total Jakarta Health Effect 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 1998 2015 PM10 Premature Mortality 93,830 186,773 81,145 205,530 24,247 26,556 83,211 236,679 22,334 71,866 304,767 727,404 Restricted Activity Days 95,509 190,116 82,597 209,208 24,681 27,032 84,701 240,916 22,733 73,152 310,222 740,424 Hospital Admissions 1,496 2,979 1,294 3,278 387 424 1,327 3,775 356 1,146 4,860 11,601 Emergency Room Visits 4,821 9,596 4,169 10,560 1,246 1,364 4,275 12,160 1,147 3,692 15,659 37,374 Asthma Attacks 10,045 19,994 8,687 22,002 2,596 2,843 8,908 25,337 2,391 7,693 32,626 77,869 Lower Resp.Illnesses a/g Children 1,088 2,165 941 2,383 281 308 965 2,744 259 833 3,533 8,433 Respiratory Symp- toms 329,943 656,769 285,339 722,727 85,263 93,383 292,606 832,262 78,534 252,711 1,071,685 2,557,851 Chronic Bronchitis 531 1,057 459 1,163 137 150 471 1,339 126 407 1,725 4,116 Subtotal for PM10 539,261 1,071,463 466,629 1,178,866 140,835 154,075 478,462 1,357,226 129,879 413,516 1,747,073 4,167,086 Respiratory Symp- NO2 toms 12,516 32,261 8,599 32,247 4,913 8,096 12,747 44,069 2,952 16,073 41,728 132,744 SO2 Premature Mortality - 4,854 - 11,319 - 8,160 - 7,953 - 8,393 - 40,681 Respiratory Symp- toms a/g Children - 1 - 3 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 10 Chest Discomfort a/g Adult - 1,200 - 2,797 - 2,017 - 1,965 - 2,074 - 10,053 Subtotal for SO2 - 6,055 - 14,119 - 10,179 - 9,921 - 10,470 - 50,743 TOTAL 549,779 1,107,764 473,229 1,223,216 143,751 170,334 489,211 1,409,201 130,834 438,043 1,786,803 4,348,558 201.49% 258.48% 118.49% 288.06% 334.81% 243.37% INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 29 Figure 2.12 A Comparison of Total Economic Cost in Various Parts of Jakarta in 1998 and 2015 4 Normalized economic cost 3 2 1 0 North East South West Central Total 2015 1998 CHAPTER 3 Air Quality Management Governance Air quality management consists of five components: legislation, regulation or licensing, en- forcement, monitoring and awareness-raising. When addressed in an integrated manner, all these components are expected to change the behavior of polluters. This chapter provides in- formation on the legislation and regulation of air quality management in a broad sense, in that it also includes the management of vehicle emission sources and the roles and responsibilities of multi-stakeholders in creating good air quality governance. The problems and constraints to addressing air quality governance in an integrated manner are also defined in this chapter. Existing Legislation and Regulations for Management Legislation and regulation are Indonesia's basic tools for the implementation of air quality management. The government has passed several laws with regard to managing mobile sources as presented in Table 3.1. Roles and Responsibilities in the Regional Autonomy Era Various sectors and agencies are involved in the management of mobile sources, such as na- tional and local governments, the private sector, and civil society. Their roles are briefly de- scribed in this sub-section by taking into account Act No. 22 (1999) on Regional Autonomy and Government Regulation No. 25 (2000) on Government Authority and Provincial Authority as a Regional Autonomy, which entered into effect on January 1, 2001. Both regulations changed how air quality management is shared, especially between the national and local governments. THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT The national government plays a vital role in establishing legislation, regulations and guide- lines, and human resources development. The several important sectors involved at this level are as follows (for a complete list see Table 3.2): Ministry of Environment (MoE) Based on Presidential Decree No. 2 (2002) the MoE has a duty to assist the President in formu- lation and coordination in the field of environment management and control. Through this decree, Bapedal was dissolved and its mission incorporated into the MoE. The MoE is responsi- ble for the establishment of national vehicle emissions standards which conform to interna- tional standards. These standards in turn determine the requirements for fuel quality and vehi- cle models permitted in Indonesia. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (MoE&MR) The Directorate General of Oil and Gas (Ditjen Migas) under the MoE & MR mandates accept- able fuel specifications. The Directorate of Indonesia National Petroleum Research and Development (Lemigas) under the MoE & MR conducts research related to fuel quality. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 31 Ministry of Industry and Trade (MoI&T) Under the MoI&T, the Directorate General of Industry of Metal, Machine, Electronic, and Divers (Ditjen ILMEA) prescribes the vehicle models and technology requirements for vehicle produc- tion and importation, issues industrial permits, and provides accreditation and certification to private garages for vehicle inspection and maintenance. Ministry of Communication (MoC) The Directorate General of Road Transportation (Ditjen Hubdat) provides guidelines for type approval tests, and vehicle inspection and maintenance. State Police The State police are responsible for enforcing legislation and regulations stipulated by other institutions. LOCAL GOVERNMENT Government Regulation No. 25 (2000) states that environmental management is to be exe- cuted by local government. Sectors that take responsibility at local level are as follows (see Table 3.2 for a complete list): Local Environmental Management Board DKI Jakarta (BPLHD DKI) BPLHD DKI is responsible for monitoring ambient air quality. This includes roadside monitoring, establishing vehicle emissions standards, and coordinating sectors and agencies on various en- vironmental issues. BPLHD DKI has gone through several major structural changes. Local Communication Office (Dishub) The Traffic and Road Transport Division (LLAJ) under Dishub has the mandate to implement periodic vehicle tests and to manage traffic and transport. Local Development Planning Board (Bapeda) Bapeda is responsible for planning the region's transport system, integrated with land use plan- ning. THE PRIVATE SECTOR The role of the private sector is to comply with government policies and regulations on fuel supply, motor vehicle production, the development of technology, infrastructure provision, and the implementation of vehicle inspection and maintenance. Several state-owned enterprises have been mandated with special duty by the GoI, such as the state-owned mining and oil company's (Pertamina) control of oil and gas business prior to Act No. 22 (2001), and the state-owned gas company (PGN) overseeing the supply and distribution of gas. All agencies involved are listed in Table 3.2. CIVIL SOCIETY The role of civil society is to raise the public's awareness about its involvement in vehicle emis- sions reduction programs, and to stimulate government to act. The specific role of universities is to conduct research and studies in support of vehicle emissions reduction strategies. Involved agencies are listed in Table 3.2. Problems and Constraints ABSENCE OF FORMAL COORDINATION At present, the management of mobile emission sources is sub-optimal due mainly to a lack of coordination among relevant sectors and agencies. Although the MoE has the mandate to INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 32 coordinate ministries and agencies on all kinds of environmental issues, it does not have the authority to enforce concerned ministries to implement. Consequently, activities in different ministries and government agencies sometimes overlap, but integrated efforts rarely occur. The local government believes it has the authority to independently implement environmental management, including mobile source air pollution control. On the other hand, national and provincial governments are responsible for enhancing and supervising the implementation of environmental management executed by local government. Coordination and cooperation on tackling mobile source air pollution control is required so that effective implementation can be accomplished by the three parties. For that reason, a coordination mechanism is required which is acceptable to all of them. National and provincial government may influence the local government, rather than control it as the case used to be. National government plays an im- portant role in assisting the acquisition of financial resources for implementation, while provin- cial government supports local government in developing methods and techniques to imple- ment mobile source air pollution control. This condition can be expanded for other concerned sectors and agencies in mobile source air pollution control. In order to address these long-standing constraints, all sectors and agencies -- including local and national governments -- should be housed under an umbrella organization in which the decision-making process is conducted by all parties. In 2001, a MEB forum (as described in Chapter 1 Sub Section C.3) was established. The forum provides an opportunity to build con- sensus and to coordinate amongst sectors and agencies, and the forum's coordinator and co- ordination mechanism is decided by the MEB. However, the MEB Forum is still in the process of being formally institutionalized as an independent organization. As most of the government representatives in the MEB Forum do not function as decision-makers in their agencies, sup- port must be garnered with those in authority in order to implement the action plan. Coordi- nation among government sectors is necessary via a special Decree in order to compel them to take responsibility for implementation of the action plan. LACK OF HARMONIZATION OF CURRENT REGULATIONS Another factor responsible for the above condition is the lack of harmonization of regulations among sectors. For example, Government Regulation No. 41(1999) on air pollution control charges the MoE with responsibility for supervising emissions tests, while Government Regula- tion No. 44 (1993) on transport and motorists states that the implementation and supervision of vehicle road-worthiness (in which emissions testing is a part of roadworthiness) is to be con- ducted by the MoC. As there is no coordination between these two ministries, emission tests have never been controlled by the MoE. LACK OF HUMAN CAPACITY AND FUNDING LIMITATIONS The lack of human capacity, both in number and skill, is another constraint on mobile source pollution management. The number of staff available does not match the wide range of re- sponsibilities needed to address such pollution control, and a lack of knowledge and technical skills have affected the implementation of air quality management activities. Funding limita- tions have also resulted in a lack of awareness of serious air pollution problems and public health impacts. These two factors – the absence of an integrated approach and constraints on human re- sources -- impact the ability of sectors to address mobile source air pollution. The result is that air pollution control is not yet a priority among Indonesia's environmental management pro- grams. The implementation of Government Regulation No 25 (2000) will effect how local gov- ernments execute air quality management, and therefore central government must prepare legislation and regulations on air pollution control which will be adopted by local governments. Table 3.1 Legislation and Regulations Related to Air Quality Management No Legislation/ Regulations Year Component Level A National N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 1 Act No. 22 (1999) on regional autonomy 1999 Regional v 2 Government Regulation No. 25 (2000) on government authority and provincial authority 2000 Regional v as a regional autonomy 3 Act No. 23 (1997) on environmental management 1997 AQ v 4 State Minister for Environment Decree No. 45 (1997) on air pollutant standard index 1997 AQ v 5 Head of Bapedal Decree No. 107 (1997) concerning technical guidelines on calculation, 1997 AQ v reporting and information related to air pollutant standard index 6 Government Regulation No. 41 (1999) on air pollution control 1999 AQ v 7 General Directorate of Oil and Gas Decree No. 112 (1995) on Super TT specification 1995 F 8 General Directorate of Oil and Gas Decree No. 108 (1997) on Premium specification 1997 F 9 General Directorate of Oil and Gas Decree No. 112 (1997) on Premix specification 1997 F 10 Presidential Decree No. 31 (1997) on the development and operation of oil and gas re- 1997 F v fineries by private business ventures 11 General Directorate of Oil and Gas Decree No. 2 (1998) on BBK 2L specification 1998 F 12 Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources Decree No. 1585 (1999) on criteria for mar- 1999 F v keting gasoline and diesel in Indonesia, which specified the date for completion of lead phase-out as January 1st, 2003 13 General Directorate of Oil and Gas Decree No. 113 (1999) on ADO specification 1999 F 14 General Directorate of Oil and Gas Decree No. 73 (2001) on fuel specifications, particu- 2001 F v larly gasoline premix 15 Act No. 22 (2001) on oil and gas 2001 F v 16 State Minister for Environment Decree No. 35 (1993) on motor vehicle emissions stan- 1993 ES v dards 17 Act No. 14 (1992) on road traffic and transport 1992 I/M v 18 Government Regulation No. 42 (1993) concerning vehicle inspection on the road 1993 I/M v 19 Government Regulation No. 43 (1993) concerning vehicles and transport 1993 I/M v 20 Government Regulation No. 44 (1993) on transport and motorists 1993 I/M v 21 Joint Ministerial Decree No. 581 and 79A (1999) on developing automotive workshops 1999 I/M v for regular inspections 22 Ministerial Decree No. 551 (1999) concerning accreditation of workshops and their as- 1999 I/M v signment as vehicle inspection centers No Legislation/ Regulations Year Component Level B Local L1 L2 1 Governor of DKI Jakarta Decree No. 551 (2001) on ambient air quality standards for 2001 AQ v DKI Jakarta 2 Governor of DKI Jakarta Decree No. 1041 (2000) on motor vehicle emissions standards 2000 ES v for DKI Jakarta 3 Governor of DKI Jakarta Decree No. 95 (2000) on inspection and maintenance of private 2000 I/M v cars in DKI Jakarta 4 Local Government Regulation No. 6 (1999) concerning regional masterplan for DKI Ja- 1999 TP v karta Notes: AQ Air quality governance F Fuels ES Emissions standard I/M Inspection and maintenance TP Transport planning and management N1 Act level N2 Government level N3 Presidential level N4 Ministerial level N5 Others L1 Local government level L2 Governor level INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 35 Table 3.2 Multi-stakeholders and Emission Control Component Matrix No Institutions MEB Components Description Member AQ F ES I/M TP A National 1 DPR v National Parliament 2 Bappenas Yes v National Development Plan- ning Board 3 MoE Yes v v v v v Ministry of Environment 4 Ditjen Migas Yes v Directorate General of Oil and Gas 5 Lemigas Yes v Directorate of Indonesia Na- tional Petroleum Research and Development 6 Ditjen Hubdat Yes v Directorate General of Road Transportation 7 Ditjen ILMEA Yes v v Directorate General of Indus- try of Metal, Machine, Elec- tronic, and Divers 8 MoH Yes v Ministry of Health 9 MoHA&RA v Ministry of Home Affairs and Regional Autonomy 10 State Police Yes v v 11 Puslitbang Jalan Raya v 12 BPPT Yes v v v Agency for Assessment and Implementation Technology 13 BTMP Yes v Thermodynamic and Motor Propulsion Laboratory of BPPT B Local 1 DPRD v Local Parliament 2 Bapeda v Local Development Planning Board 3 BPLHD DKI Yes v v v v BPLHD DKI Jakarta 4 LLAJ Yes v Traffic and Road Transport Division 5 Dinas Industri v 6 Dinas Pertamanan v 7 Dinas PU v 8 Dinas Tata Kota v 9 Diskes v v C Private 1 AISI Yes v v Association of Motorcycle Assemblers and Manufactur- ers 2 Asbekindo v Association of Automotive Workshops 3 Gaikindo Yes v v Association of Indonesian Automotive Industries 4 IAF Yes v v v Indonesian Automotive Fed- eration 5 IATO Yes v v v Society of Automotive Engi- neers 6 IPA Yes v Indonesia Petroleum Asso- ciation INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 36 7 Organda v v Association of Public Trans- port Operators 8 OTOGAS. v Gas Company 9 Pertamina v State-own Mining and Oil Company 10 PGN v State-own Gas Company 11 PT. ELNUSA v 12 PT. KAI v Railway Company 13 PT. SAWU v Surveillance Company 14 PT. SUAR Yes v Biodiesel Company 15 taxi company v No Institutions MEB Components Descriptions Member AQ F ES I/M TP D Civil Society 1 ICLEI v 2 KPBB Yes v The lead phase-out commit- tee 3 MTI v 4 Pelangi Yes v v 5 Swisscontact Yes v 6 Walhi v 7 YLKI v 8 ITB Yes v v v v v Institute Technology of Bandung 9 Trisakti Yes v 10 UGM v University of Gajahmada 11 UI Yes v v University of Indonesia 12 Unika v University of Atmajaya Note: AQ Air quality governance F Fuels ES Emissions standard I/M Inspection and maintenance TP Transport planning and management CHAPTER 4 Fuels This chapter gives an overview of oil and gas policy in Indonesia, and information on the cur- rent status of domestic consumption and pricing policy. It also describes quality improvements to gasoline and automotive diesel oil (ADO) which constitute the major fuels consumed in In- donesia. The use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in In- donesia is also described in this chapter, along with the future uptake of several environmental friendly fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Overview of Oil and Gas Policy Natural oil and gas are strategic and non-renewable national assets controlled by the State. The Government of Indonesia (GoI) is obliged to ensure the availability and smooth distribution of oil fuel throughout the Indonesian territory. The GoI's control of the oil and gas business includes both upstream activities i.e. exploration and exploitation, and downstream activities i.e. processing, transportation, storage, and trading, which have been controlled by Pertamina for more than thirty years. The liberalization of Indonesia's oil and gas sector was under discussion for several years. On October 23, 2001, the Indonesian Parliament passed an oil and gas bill into Act No. 22 (2001) to address this issue. This Act also mandated that Pertamina's monopoly on the upstream sec- tor would be removed within two years and its downstream monopoly within four years. According to this Act, negotiations between Pertamina and other parties in the framework of Exploration and Exploitation Cooperation will be transferred to the Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources. The GoI (as the holder of Mining Authority) will establish an Implementing Body as the executor of the Mining Right for upstream business activities and a Regulatory Body as the executor for downstream business activities. This is to occur within one year of the effective date of the law. Pertamina will then become a state-owned limited liability company (Persero) via a government regulation. This latter change is to occur within two years of the effective date of the law. Furthermore, upstream and downstream business activities can be carried out by state-owned business entities, regional government-owned business entities, cooperatives, small companies and private business entities. However, the Permanent Establishment -- a business entity estab- lished according to foreign country law -- can only carry out upstream business activities. A business entity carrying out downstream business activities may not also engage in upstream business activities. Current Conditions of the Oil Business CRUDE OIL Indonesia remained a net exporter of crude oil and products in 2000, however industry ana- lysts predict that -- barring any new major discoveries of oil -- Indonesia will become a net im- porter early this century. Although the gross output of Indonesia's refineries is greater than domestic consumption, crude oil for blending and refined fuel products (of which there is a production shortfall in Indonesia) must still be imported. While the largest import product category was ADO, the importation of industrial diesel oil (IDO), fuel oil, and high octane mogas component (HOMC) rose significantly in 2000. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 38 REFINING CAPACITY Indonesia has eight oil refineries (UP) with a combined installed capacity of 1.0555 million B/D and a combined operating rate of 99.9% as presented in Table 4.1. They produce a mix of oil fuels (diesel, fuel oil and kerosene), liquefied natural gas, secondary fuels (such as naphtha) and non-fuels (such as asphalt and lubricants). Most of the petroleum products refined in In- donesia are destined for domestic consumption. Table 4.1 Oil Refineries in Indonesia Capacity (thousand No Location Owner Remarks B/D) 1 Pangkalan Brandan GoI 5.0 2 Dumai/Sungai Pakning GoI 170.0 3 Musi GoI 133.7 4 Cilacap GoI 348.0 5 Balikpapan GoI 260.0 6 Balongan Per- 125.0 currently produce tamina unleaded gasoline 7 Kasim Per- 10.0 tamina 8 Cepu GoI 3.8 Source: Pengembangan Usaha Hilir Pertamina, 2001. Prior to the economic crisis, Pertamina estimated that Indonesia would need to double its oil refining capacity to 2.0 million B/D by 2003 to keep pace with growing domestic demand. In the early 1990's, the GoI determined that Pertamina did not have the funds to build additional refining capacity and undertook a series of measures to attract private investment in the refin- ing sector. Until the issuance of Presidential Decree No. 31(1997) on the development and op- eration of oil and gas refineries by private business ventures, the major stumbling block to pri- vate investment in refining was Pertamina's inability to guarantee a crude oil supply, or to commit to purchasing the fuel produced by the refineries. Under Decree No. 31, the GoI loos- ened Pertamina's hold on refining by allowing private refineries to market their products do- mestically through Pertamina (American Embassy, 2001). The new oil and gas law, if implemented well, will further advance the reforms begun with Decree No. 31. In 2000, the Dirjen Migas recommended that the Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) issue foreign investment approvals to five oil refinery projects with a total in- vestment of US $10 billion. The GoI expects the 1.1 million B/D capacity to help meet the in- creasing domestic demand for petroleum-based fuel. A concern for Indonesia that will affect fuel quality in future is the declining supply of low-sulfur domestic crude, and thus the need to rely increasingly on imported crude. The proportion of imported crude processed at refineries will increase, and this will pose an additional challenge for sulfur control. TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND TRADING Pertamina's Downstream Directorate is responsible for the distribution of fuel products to end- users from 166 storage depots throughout Indonesia. The Directorate has established eight regional representative offices (UPPDN) to market its products. Fuel products are transported via an elaborate pipeline network and by tank truck, rail tank wagon, tank vessels and barges. Pertamina controls the sale of gasoline and ADO by direct ownership and franchise of close to 3,000 gasoline stations nationwide. Pertamina currently markets six types of gasoline and one ADO in Indonesia. Gasoline is mar- keted as leaded Premium, unleaded Premium (Premium TT), Premix, unleaded Premix (Premix INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 39 TT), Super TT and unleaded 2-stroke motorcycle gasoline (BBK 2L). Premium TT and Premix TT are currently only available in the greater Jakarta area. Domestic Consumption Figure 4.1 presents domestic sales of Premium and ADO compared to total domestic sales of fuel products that include avtgas, avtur, premium, kerosene, diesel and fuel oil. Total domestic sales of fuel products reached 52 million KL during the period 1999/2000, which was almost double the consumption during the period of 1989/1990. The shares of Premium and ADO during the period 1999/2000 were 23% and 22% respectively. Pricing Policy Starting on January 17, 2002, the GoI applied a new fuel-pricing scheme for the domestic market, based on Presidential Decree No. 9 (2002). However, the selling price of fuel oil on the domestic market is still determined by the GoI, which applies a uniform tariff for each fuel type in Indonesia as pricing remains a matter of great sensitivity throughout the country. According to Presidential Decree No. 9 (2002), the price of kerosene for household and small industry is fixed. Premium gasoline prices are set at world market prices while kerosene for heavy industry, ADO, IDO and fuel oil are set at 75% of the market price. The market prices refer to the Mid Oil Platt Singapore (MOPS) basket of wholesale fuel prices and are converted at the average exchange rate. These prices are adjusted monthly at the beginning of the month by the Director of Pertamina, and the GoI also sets floor and ceiling prices to prevent extreme or sharp fluctuations in domestic fuel prices. For Premium gasoline, the floor is set at IDR 1,450 per liter and the ceiling at IDR 1,750, while ADO is IDR 900 and IDR is 1,650. Increases in the price of Premium gasoline and ADO since February 1999 are depicted in Figure 4.2. Since then, the GoI has instituted four across-the-board price hikes for the domestic mar- ket (October 1, 2000; June 16, 2001; January 17, 2002; and April 1, 2002). The Premium prices were still substantially below world prices before the January 2002 price hike. With the fluctuating exchange rate of the IDR to USD, Premium prices have increased in USD terms by only 10% and ADO by 56% since the October 2000 price hike. Current Fuel Quality According to Law No. 22 (2001) Article 28, all domestic fuel products are required to meet the fuel specifications mandated by the GoI (i.e. Dirjen Migas) as detailed in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. The specifications for Premium TT and Premix TT are the same as Premium and Premix respec- tively, except that the lead content should be no greater than 0.013 gr Pb/L. As shown in Table 4.2, benzene, aromatic and olefin content in gasoline have not been specified in any of these regulations. None of the gasoline and ADO products contain additive, anti-oxidant, or deter- gent. The results of fuel quality monitoring in Jakarta and Indonesia in 2001 are presented in Table 4.4 (Bapedal and Lemigas, 2001), and reveal that the RON for Premium was slightly below the specified standard. The lead content in Premium marketed in Jakarta already complied with the standard, however Premix slightly exceeded the specified standard. The sulfur content in both gasoline and ADO meet the specified standard, in fact the sulfur content in gasoline meets category 2 of World-Wide Fuel Charter (WWFC) and requirement for EURO 3. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 40 Table 4.2 Gasoline Specifications in Indonesia Premium Premix Super TT BBK 2L Method No Properties Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max ASTM 1 Research Octane 88.0 - 94.0 - 95.0 - 80.0 85.0 D 2699 Number (RON) 2 TEL content, gr/lt - 0.30 - 0.30 - 0.005 - 0.013 D 3341/ D 5059b) or D 3237c) 3 Distillation, °C D 86 • 10% vol, evapo- 88 74 88 74 88 74 88 74 rated • 50% vol, evapo- 125 125 125 125 rated • 90% vol, evapo- 180 180 180 180 rated • Final boiling point 205 205 205 205 • Residue, % vol 2 2 2 2 4 Reid Vapor Pressure, 62 62 62 62 D 323 at 37.8 °C psi 5 Existent gum, 4 4 4 4 D 381 mg/100ml 6 Induction period, Min- 240 240 240 240 D 525 utes 7 Sulphur content, %wt 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 D 1266 8 Copper corrosion Class Class Class Class D 130 merit, 1 1 1 1 3 hour/50°C 9 Doctor test or Nega- Nega- Nega- Nega- IP 30 tive tive tive tive Mercaptan sulfur, % 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 D 3227 m/m 10 Color Yellow Red Clear & Approved Visual Bright by Dirjen Migas 11 Colouring content, 0.13 0.13 - - gr/100L 12 Odour a) a) a) a) Note: Director General of Oil and Gas Decree No. 108 (1997) on Premium specification. Director General of Oil and Gas Decree No. 112 (1997) on Premix specification. Director General of Oil and Gas Decree No. 112 (1995) on Super TT specification. Director General of Oil and Gas Decree No. 2 (1998) on BBK 2L specification. a) within consumer tolerance b) for Premium and Premix for Super TT and BBK 2L Source: Bapedal and Lemigas, 2001. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 41 Table 4.3 ADO Specifications in Indonesia No Properties Min Max Method ASTM 1 Density at 15°C 815 870 D 1298 2 Cetane number or 45 D 613 Cetane index 48 D 976 3 Cinematic viscosity at 37.8°C, 1.6 5.8 D 445 mm2/s 4 Pour point, °C 18 D 97 5 Flash point, °C 60 D 93 6 Distillation volume at 300°C, % vol 40 D 86 7 Sulfur content, % wt 0.5 D 1552 8 Copper corrosion merit, class ASTM Class 1 D 130 9 Conradson carbon residue, % wt or 0.1 D 189 Micro carbon residue, % wt (10% vol 0.1 D 4530 residue) 10 Ash content, % wt 0.01 D 482 11 Water content, % vol 0.05 D 95 12 Sediment content, % wt 0.01 D 473 13 Strong acid number, mg KOH/g 0 D 664 14 Total acid number, mg KOH/g 0.6 D 664 15 Color, class ASTM Class 3 D 1500 Note: Director General of Oil and Gas Decree No. 113 (1999) on ADO specification. Source: Bapedal and Lemigas, 2001 Table 4.4 Gasoline and ADO Quality in Indonesia in 2001 Premium Premix Super TT ADO No Properties JKT OUT JKT OUT JKT OUT JKT OUT 1 Research Octane 86.7 87.5 94.1 94.9 98.3 98.6 Number (RON) 2 TEL content, gr/lt 0.012 0.126 0.016 0.096 0.003 0.005 3 Distillation, °C • 10% vol, evapo- 56 61 59 56 70 71 rated • 50% vol, evapo- 94 101 93 93 96 96 rated • 90% vol, evapo- 171 148 166 168 136 133 rated • Final boiling 206 192 199 199 195 193 point • Residual, % vol 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 Reid Vapor Pres- 44 41 38 35 36 31 sure, at 37.8 °C psi 5 Sulfur content, %wt 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.23 0.32 6 Benzene content, 3 3 9 11 14 13 %v 7 Aromatics content, 28 27 26 24 30 25 23 22 %v 8 Olefin content, %v 3 4 11 14 8 4 9 Cetane index 53.6 51.4 Source: Bapedal and Lemigas, 2001 INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 42 Fuel Quality Improvements To cope with more stringent vehicle emissions standards, the world's automobile manufactures have published a World Wide Fuel Charter (WWFC) that specifies the fuel quality needs of dif- ferent motor vehicle technologies (Table 4.5). Indonesia has proposed new emissions standard for type approval in line with EURO 1 (STEP 2) and 2 (STEP 3) in 2004 and 2007 respectively. Indonesia's current quality of gasoline and ADO will need to be improved prior to implementa- tion of the new standards. The following section analyzes the conditions related to Indonesia's fuel improvement process so that it can meet the future requirements for lead and sulfur pa- rameters. Further description of the new emissions standards in Indonesia is presented in Chapter 5, Section B.3. Table 4.5 WWFC Fuel Quality Specification No Properties WWFC Category A Gasoline 1 2 3 4 1 Lead content Max., %wt 0.013 nd nd nd 2 Sulfur content Max., %wt 0.100 0.020 0.003 sulfur free*) 3 Aromatics content Max., %v/v 50 40 35 35 4 Benzene content Max., %v/v 5 2.5 1 1 5 Olefins content Max., %v/v 20 10 10 B ADO 1 Cetane number min. 48 53 55 55 2 Cetane index min. 45 50 52 52 3 Sulfur content Max., %wt 0.500 0.030 0.003 sulfur free*) 4 PAHs content Max., %v/v 5 2 2 Note: Category 1 Markets with no or minimal requirement for emission control Category 2 Markets with stringent requirements for emission control (i.e. EURO 1 and 2) Category 3 Markets with advanced demand for emission control (i.e. EURO 3 and EURO 4) Category 4 Markets with further advanced demand for emission control (i.e. EURO 4 in conjunction with increased fuel efficiency constraints) *) 0.0005 - 0.001 %wt maximum based on available data on advanced technology vehicles. As more data becomes available, a more specific maximum will be defined. nd at or below detection limit of test method used. No intentional addition Source: WWFC, 2000. LEAD PHASE-OUT Indonesia's first step towards improving fuel quality is the elimination of lead from gasoline. The primary reason for eliminating lead from gasoline is health effects associated with the use of lead additives, but in addition, unleaded gasoline is a requirement for improved vehicle emissions control technology such as catalytic converters. As vehicle catalyst efficiencies are increased, tolerance to lead contamination becomes very low, such that even slight lead con- tamination can destroy a modern catalyst. Unless unleaded gasoline is available country-wide, therefore, vehicle owners will uninstall catalytic converters built into new vehicles. In October 1999, a ministerial decree was signed that stipulated lead elimination from gasoline by 1st January 2003. To meet this requirement, the GoI developed a lead phase-out schedule through its "Blue Sky" program. This program was designed to tighten fuel specifications, re- duce harmful emissions, and improve urban air quality. Although implementation was delayed from a proposed 1999 start-up, Pertamina and the GoI initiated the first sales of unleaded gasoline sales in the greater Jakarta and Cirebon areas in July 2001. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 43 To complete a countrywide lead phase-out program, the GoI will need to increase unleaded gasoline production capacity; to accomplish this, Pertamina must revamp its refineries to pro- duce the new unleaded fuel. Pertamina requires approximately USD 250 million to construct a proposed isomerization and reformer unit needed to produce HOMC to replace lead in its fuel products. The funds for completing the refinery revamp have not yet been identified, but the GoI has instructed Pertamina to cover the costs as part of its investment program. In the mean- time, Pertamina has adopted a transitional arrangement, increasing imports of HOMC to sub- stitute for the tetraethyl lead currently used as a gasoline octane booster. Indonesia is sched- uled to complete its lead phase-out program by 2003, however this is dependent on the isom- erization and reformer unit being finished. It is very unlikely that this timeline will be met. A more realistic projection is 2005, by which time it is estimated that at least 80% of the country will be supplied with unleaded gasoline. SULFUR REDUCTION Sulfur occurs naturally in crude oil. If not removed during the refining process, it will contami- nate vehicle fuel and significantly impact vehicle emissions by reducing catalyst efficiency. Pro- vided Indonesia's current gasoline sulfur content (which already meets WWFC Category 2) can be maintained, no further reductions in sulfur content will be required to implement EURO 2 and 3. ADO sulfur contributes significantly to PM10 emissions through the formation of sulfates, both in the exhaust stream and subsequent reactions in the atmosphere. Sulfur can also lead to cor- rosion and wear of engine systems. Furthermore, the efficiency of some exhaust after- treatment systems is reduced as sulfur content increases while others are rendered perma- nently ineffective through sulfur poisoning. The sulfur content in Indonesia's ADO currently meets only the specification for EURO 1, therefore, ADO sulfur content must be reduced to 0.03% before 2004, and as low as 0.003% before 2007. Alternative Fuels CNG AND LPG Indonesia is the world's leading exporter of LNG, with about 26.1% of the world's market share and 34.5% of the Asia and Pacific markets. In 2000, 55% of Indonesia's marketable natural gas was converted into CNG while the remainder was used in the production of LPG. Indonesia's LPG is used as fuel for electric power generation, as fuel and feedstock for the pet- rochemical and fertilizer industries, and is also consumed or flared in connection with oil pro- duction. The GoI has promoted both CNG and LPG as alternative fuels since 1987 and 1995 respec- tively. Although some taxi companies utilize CNG, the increase in uptake has been extremely low and most current users complain about the limited number of fueling stations. In addition, the 1997 economic crisis caused a significant increase in the price of converter kits, which pre- vented potential users from converting to natural gas fuelled vehicles. There is also widespread public misconception about the safety of gas, with many people fearful of its alleged explosive capacity and wary of riding in vehicles containing gas cylinders. On the supply side, the retail price of natural gas has been uncompetitive with gasoline and ADO prices, which were subsidized. The total elimination of gasoline subsidy and large reduc- tion in ADO subsidy should become a positive precedent in order for natural gas suppliers to promote the use of their product. Regardless of the above-mentioned setbacks to gas promotion, both CNG and LPG use have advantages and disadvantages. In terms of air pollution, however, both emit less CO and THC than either gasoline or ADO. A full assessment is needed prior to further development of either INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 44 choice of gas, since an effective gas promotion program will require heavy investments, espe- cially to develop a countrywide network of fueling stations. Figure 4.1: Domestic Sales of Fuel Products 1989-2000 Source: Direktorat Pembekalan and Pemasaran Dalam Negeri Pertamina, 2000 60 51.9 52.2 47.5 48.4 50 Domestic sales in million KL 43.4 41.4 41.3 38.9 40 36.0 34.0 29.8 30 20 10 0 89/80 90/91 91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 Period Gasoline ADO Total Fuel Products Figure 4.2: Domestic Fuel Prices Since 1999 Source: Presidential Decree No. 10 (1999), 135 (2000), 45 (2001), 73 (2001), and 9 (2002); and Director of Pertamina Decree No. 42 (2002) 1,800 1,600 1,600 1,550 1,450 1,400 Price in IDR 1,250 1,200 1,150 1,150 1,150 1,000 1,000 900 800 600 600 600 550 400 Jan-99 Jul-99 Jan-00 Jul-00 Jan-01 Jul-01 Jan-02 Jul-02 Premium ADO Time Other Alternative Fuels Ethanol has also been introduced into Indonesia, but to date there is no data available on its uptake. Biodiesel (CPO) has been tested and introduced as an additive to ADO, as B5 and B20 (5% and 20% CPO volume respectively). The target for its commercial availability is 2003. CHAPTER 5 Vehicle Emissions Standards and Vehicle Technology This chapter provides information on Indonesia's current vehicle exhaust emissions standards and proposed emissions standards for type approval. Implementation of the new exhaust emis- sions standards will require cleaner fuel, improved vehicle technology, infrastructure develop- ment, and the preparedness of relevant agencies and motor vehicle manufacturers to imple- ment the new standards. Therefore, these supporting instruments are also broadly addressed in this chapter. Overview of Responsibility for Standards Setting Indonesia's Act No. 14 (1992) on Road Traffic and Transport states that to prevent air and noise pollution, every motor vehicle must meet emission and noise standards. Emission tests are in- tegrated into the roadworthiness test under Government Regulation No. 44 (1993) on Trans- port and Motorists. There are two types of roadworthiness tests for vehicles in Indonesia: type approval tests for new type vehicles, and regular inspections for in-use vehicles that have passed the type approval test (Ditjen Hubdat, 2001). Vehicle emissions testing is further de- scribed in Chapter 6. Based on Government Regulations No. 44 (1993) on Transport and Motorists and No. 41 (1991) on Air Pollution Control, Bapedal is the agency mandated to issue vehicle emissions standards for all vehicles (type approval and regular inspection tests). However, Bapedal was dissolved in 2002 and its mission subsequently absorbed by the MoE, which now has an ex- panded role in regulating motor vehicle emissions. Additionally, Government Regulation No. 41 (1991) also allows local governments to apply their own standards, provided they are at least as stringent as the national standards. Current Vehicle Emissions Standards CURRENT NATIONAL STANDARDS In 1993, the State Minister for Environment promulgated Decree No.35 on motor vehicle ex- haust emissions standards. The legislation stipulates the permissible limits for CO and HC for gasoline-fuelled motorcycles and automobiles and black smoke for diesel-fuelled automobiles (as shown in Table 5.1). The CO and HC are measured at idle condition and smoke is measured at free acceleration. This standard is applied for both type approval and regular inspection throughout Indonesia. Current Jakarta Standards The DKI Jakarta province applied tighter emissions standards for automobiles in 2001 based on the Governor of DKI Jakarta Decree No. 1041 (2001). This regulation was promulgated in or- der to support the development of an inspection and maintenance system for private passen- ger vehicles in Jakarta. Similar to the State Minister for Environment Decree No.35, this legisla- tion states the permissible limits for CO and HC for gasoline-fuelled automobiles and black smoke for diesel-fuelled automobiles as key parameters in motor vehicle emissions standards. The CO and HC are also measured at idle condition and smoke is measured at free accelera- INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 46 tion. However, unlike the national vehicle emissions standards, the local legislation specifies the emissions standard based on the production year and vehicle technology. Table 5.1 National Motor Vehicle Exhaust Emissions Standard Description Parameter Gasoline RON ≥ 87 CO (%) HC (ppm) • Motorcycle 2-stroke 4.5 3,000 • Motorcycle 4-stroke 4.5 2,400 • Automobile 4.5 1,200 Diesel RCN ≥ 45 Smoke • Automobile 50% Bosch with diameter 102 mm or 25% opacity Table 5.2 Jakarta Emissions Standard for In-use Motor Vehicles Production Year Description <1985 1986-1995 >1996 Parameter Gasoline RON ≥ CO HC (ppm) CO HC CO (%) HC 87 (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm) • Carburetors 4.0 1,000 3.5 800 3.0 700 • Injection - - 3.0 600 2.5 500 Diesel RCN ≥ 45 Smoke (% opacity based on Hatridge Standard Unit) 50 45 40 Proposed National Standard for Type Approval Beginning in 1995, Bapedal worked to prepare emissions standards for type approval to re- place existing emissions standards. These new standards have a more sophisticated running mode testing and are based on several considerations, which include: (1) rising public concern for cleaner air and better living conditions will extend to motor vehicles as a pollution source; (2) recent improvements in motor vehicle engine technology; (3) the potential for increased air pollution due to the addition of more vehicles and the entry of foreign in-use vehicles; and (4) the current emissions standards (which rely on idle testing) do not reflect the real emission load introduced into the air. Given the move towards international harmonization of automotive technical regulations and the mutual recognition of standards and approvals, Bapedal made plans to harmonize Indone- sia's standards with United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN ECE) regulations on vehicle emissions. The proposed standards will be strengthened in the following three phases as shown in Table 5.3: STEP 1, 2001 – 2003; STEP 2, 2004 – 2006; and STEP 3, beyond 2007. STEP II (2004) of the new emissions standard for gasoline motor vehicles is in line with EURO 1, while STEP III (2007) would be the target date for EURO 2 standards. A new vehicle emissions standard for Indonesia was proposed through the coordination of related sector departments, automotive associations and concerned non-governmental agen- cies. In spite of the fact that Bapedal had also obtained consensus on more stringent vehicle emissions standards for the country, STEP 1 has not yet been implemented to date. The MoE still needs to work to resolve the related issues of institutional authorization to perform testing and certification, and time scheduling of standards implementation in cooperation with the MoC. Table 5.3 Proposed National Emissions Standards for New Type Motor Vehicles STEP 1 STEP 2 Stage 3 No Category Parameter Year 2001-2003 Year 2004-2006 Year 2007 I. Gasoline fuelled vehicles A. 1. 2-wheeled motorcycles 1. a. < 50 cc Method ECE R-47 ECE R-47 ECE R-47 CO 12.00 gram/km 8.00 gram/km 5.00 gram/km HC + NOx 10.00 gram/km 5.00 gram/km 3.00 gram/km b. ≥ 50 cc Method ECE R-40 ECE R-40 ECE R-40 CO 16.00 gram/km 13.00 gram/km 4.50 gram/km HC + NOx 12.00 gram/km 5.00 gram/km 3.00 gram/km A. 2. 3-wheeled motorcycles 1. a. < 50 cc Method ECE R-47 ECE R-47 ECE R-47 CO 20.00 gram/km 15.00 gram/km 8.00 gram/km HC + NOx 15.00 gram/km 10.00 gram/km 5.00 gram/km B. Automobiles 1. Passenger cars and buses a. (M1), GVW < 2.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km Evaporation N/A N/A 2.00 gram/shed b. (M2), 2.5 ton ≤ GVW < 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.00 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km Evaporation N/A N/A 2.00 gram/shed 2. Special duty vehicles and trucks a. (O1), GVW < 0.75 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km Evaporation N/A N/A 2.00 gram/shed b. (O2), 0.75 ton ≤ GVW < 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km Evaporation N/A N/A 2.00 gram/shed STEP 1 STEP 2 Stage 3 No Category Parameter Year 2001-2003 Year 2004-2006 Year 2007 3. Cargo vehicles a. (N1), GVW ≤ 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km Evaporation N/A N/A 2.00 gram/shed II. Diesel fuelled vehicles 1. Passenger cars and buses a. (M1), GVW < 2.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 1.00 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.70 gram/km Particle N/A 0.18 gram/km 0.08 gram/km b.i. (M2), 2.5 ton ≤ GVW < 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 1.00 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.70 gram/km Particle N/A 0.18 gram/km 0.08 gram/km b.ii. (M2), 3.5 ton ≤ GVW < 5.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh Particle 0.4 ( > 85 kW) gram/kWh 0.15 gram/kWh 0.68 ( ≤ 85 kW) gram/kWh c (M3), GVW ≥ 5.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh Particle 0.4 ( > 85 kW) gram/kWh 0.15 gram/kWh 0.68 ( ≤ 85 kW) gram/kWh 2. Special duty vehicles and trucks a. (O1), GVW < 0.75 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 1.00 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.70 gram/km Particle N/A 0.18 gram/km 0.08 gram/km STEP 1 STEP 2 Stage 3 No Category Parameter Year 2001-2003 Year 2004-2006 Year 2007 b. (O2), 0.75 ton ≤ GVW < 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 1.00 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.70 gram/km Particle N/A 0.18 gram/km 0.08 gram/km c. (O3), 3.5 ton ≤ GVW < 10.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh Particle 0.4 ( > 85 kW) gram/kWh 0.15 gram/kWh 0.68 ( ≤ 85 kW) gram/kWh 3. Cargo vehicles a. (N1), GVW ≤ 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 1.00 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.70 gram/km Evaporation N/A N/A 0.08 gram/shed b. (N2), 3.5 ton ≤ GVW < 12.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh Particle 0.4 ( > 85 kW) gram/kWh 0.15 gram/kWh 0.68 ( ≤ 85 kW) gram/kWh c. (N3), GVW ≥ 12.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh Particle 0.4 ( > 85 kW) gram/kWh 0.15 gram/kWh 0.68 ( ≤ 85 kW) gram/kWh III. Gas fuelled vehicles 1. Passenger cars and buss a. (M1), GVW < 2.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.2 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.5 gram/km b.i. (M2), 2.5 ton ≤ GVW < 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.2 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.5 gram/km STEP 1 STEP 2 Stage 3 No Category Parameter Year 2001-2003 Year 2004-2006 Year 2007 b.ii. (M2), 3.5 ton ≤ GVW < 5.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh c (M3), GVW ≥ 5.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh 2. Special duty vehicles and trucks a. (O1), GVW < 0.75 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km b. (O2), 0.75 ton ≤ GVW < 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km c. (O3), 3.5 ton ≤ GVW < 10.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh d. (O3), GVW ≥ 10.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh 3. Cargo vehicles a. (N1), GVW ≤ 3.5 ton Method ECE 15-04 ECE 83-01 ECE 83-03 CO 70-132 gram/test 3.16 gram/km 2.20 gram/km HC + NOx 23.8-35 gram/test 1.13 gram/km 0.50 gram/km b. (N2), 3.5 ton ≤ GVW < 12.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh c. (N3), GVW ≥ 12.0 ton Method ECE R-49 ECE R-49 CO 4.90 gram/kWh 4.00 gram/kWh HC 1.23 gram/kWh 1.10 gram/kWh NOx 9.00 gram/kWh 7.00 gram/kWh INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 51 Implementation of the new exhaust emissions standards will require cleaner fuel, improved vehicle technology, infrastructure development, and the preparedness of relevant agencies and motor vehicle manufacturers to implement the new standards. CLEANER FUEL Cleaner fuel related to lead and sulfur content has been addressed in Chapter 4 Section F. It is important to note that the complete removal of leaded gasoline will most likely be delayed until 2005, and consequently the implementation of STEP 2 will also be delayed. In addition, the ADO sulfur content meets only the specification for implementation of STEP 1. Therefore, measures should be taken to reduce sulfur content in ADO to 0.03% before 2004 and as low as 0.003% before 2007. VEHICLE EMISSIONS CONTROL TECHNOLOGY Vehicle emissions control technologies include oxidation-reduction catalytic converters, ad- vanced catalytic converters, and lean-burn combustion (with advanced NOx catalysts) for gaso- line fuelled vehicles, and diesel oxidation catalysts, particle traps and exhaust NOx control for diesel fuelled vehicles. Another advancement is the development of new combustion system designs for the vehicle engine chamber. For example, the gasoline direct injection (GDI) system is up to 35% more efficient than the conventional system and can reduce CO2 by up to 75%. Many automotive companies in foreign countries have launched environmentally friendly vehi- cles such as hybrid, electric, hybrid-electric and solar cell vehicles. The introduction of these new vehicle types into Indonesia will require time, and strong collaboration between various sectors. Implementation of a new-type vehicle emissions standard can be expected to be very effective in reducing NOx, SO2, PM10, CO and THC over the long term. Each step of the new standard corresponds to the adoption of some new vehicle technologies. The effect of these standards will be shown gradually, reflecting the rate of replacement of existing vehicles. The implemen- tation of new emissions standards, therefore, should be started immediately. Starting with the implementation of STEP 3, a gasoline-fuelled vehicle will be required to have a catalytic converter. The type of catalytic converter will influence the rate of emissions reduc- tion. The oxidation-reduction catalytic converters reduce by up to 50% the CO and THC that heavily pollute Jakarta (Walsh, 2000B). In addition, three-way catalytic converters can reduce the NOx that is also amongst the air pollution control targets for Jakarta. TYPE APPROVAL FACILITY Certain facilities would be required to support the implementation of new emissions standards for type approval. In October 1999, the GoI established the Thermodynamic and Motor Pro- pulsion Laboratory (BTMP) under the Agency for Assessment and Application for Technology, which is equipped with chassis dynamometer and engine test bench facilities. However, the facility can only perform emission testing for passenger and commercial type vehicles with a GVW less than 3.5 tons, and does not have the capacity to conduct mode emission testing for motorcycles. CHAPTER 6 Inspection and Maintenance There are two types of roadworthiness tests for vehicles in Indonesia: type approval for new type vehicles and regular inspection for in-use vehicles that have passed the type approval test (Ditjen Hubdat, 2001). This chapter elaborates on type approval testing and regular inspections for both commercial vehicles and private passenger vehicles in Jakarta. Regular inspection and maintenance (I/M) are closely inter-linked, and there should be an emphasis on regular mainte- nance given its effectiveness in reducing vehicle emissions. For this reason, regular inspection and maintenance are addressed together in this chapter. Type Approval Before entering the Indonesian market, every category and type of new vehicle must pass the type approval test. Items tested include the main brake and parking brake systems, tire system, headlights, turning radius, horn level, noise level, exhaust emissions, speedometer, vehicle weight, vehicle dimensions, and vehicle construction. The exhaust emission test currently used is the idle CO and HC emissions test for gasoline vehicles, and the free acceleration smoke test for diesel vehicle. The results must meet with national emissions standards as stated in the State Minister for Environment Decree No.35 (1993). The test is under the authority of the MoC and performed by roadworthiness and certification centers (BPLJSKB). The results are valid throughout Indonesia. Commercial Vehicle Inspection Based on Government Regulation No. 44 (1993), the regular roadworthiness test for commer- cial vehicles (that includes all items as in the type approval test) must be conducted biannually. The inspection uses a centralized system that requires the test to be conducted at an inspec- tion center (PKB). Maintenance is conducted separately in a workshop prior to the test at the PKB. There are currently 115 PKB's in Indonesia. Five are located in Jakarta, and two of these are privately owned. The official tariff for each inspection is IDR 40,000. In addition, random road- side testing is conducted at bus terminals by inspectors from the Police Department and Road Traffic Authority (DLLAJ) in order to minimize passenger inconvenience. With the initiation of Indonesia's new regional autonomy laws and regulations in 1999, the inspection authority should lie with the municipal or regency level as of 2001. During the cur- rent transition period, however, the inspection is still conducted under the auspices of the pro- vincial government, and the provincial authority has resisted the change in authority. The real- ity is that implementation will be little changed in the short to medium term if any transfer of authority is made: the same testing staff and equipment will be used, as the transfer will be simply an administrative one. Therefore, all key stakeholders must be part of the development process for a new inspection system. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 53 The PKB should get accreditation and certification from the national government for its organi- zation, management, human resources, test facilities and equipment, and systems and proce- dures. PERFORMANCE Commercial vehicles continue to emit noxious smoke fumes as random roadside checks are not implemented effectively, and there is a high incidence of bribery. It is virtually unheard of for a vehicle to fail the regular roadworthiness test on emission grounds, and rare that any ve- hicle fails the test on any grounds. This runs counter to the common sense observation that many of the heaviest polluting vehicles are commercial vehicles. Record keeping is poor as the testing stations do not have databases and test results are simply filed in paper stacks. The test measurements and performance of the test facilities have been ineffective due to (i) defective and poorly maintained test equipment; (ii) test mechanics with limited or no knowl- edge of test equipment operation, and (iii) the complete absence of vehicles to be tested. PILOT PROJECT TO IMPROVE I/M EFFECTIVENESS Swisscontact's Clean Air Project (CAP) initiated the Clean Bus Program in 1998 with the coop- eration of bus operators. Up to the year 2001, nine bus operators had joined the CAP, and the total number of buses involved in the program is 5,517. The program's objective is to reduce the bus fleet's fuel consumption and exhaust emissions through improvements in internal in- spection, bus maintenance, and bus driver habits. To reach this objective, four activities have been implemented, namely: Improvements in the internal I/M system by measuring emissions before and after vehicle ser- vicing. If emissions exceed the standards before maintenance, step-by-step corrective measures are taken starting with the easiest no-cost measures (i.e. air filter cleaning) up to more costly me- dium or advanced measures (i.e. revision of injection pumps). The average opacity before ser- vice started in 1998 was around 40–56%, and this was reduced to around 27–44 % after ser- vice. By implementing the cost step corrective measures mentioned above, only 7–15% of ser- vices performed required out-of-pocket expenses for spare parts, including servicing that could not be done internally. By maintaining the correct emissions standard, economic benefits can be achieved. In 1998, bus operators were requested to record bus fuel consumption; according to their data, a reduction of 5-10% in fuel consumption was achieved during the period 1998 to 2001. Improvements in mechanics' technical skills for emissions maintenance through training. The ability to execute an effective I/M system will play an important role in Jakarta's emissions reduction efforts. The CAP found that many mechanics are not accustomed to working effi- ciently and systematically; therefore, the mechanics' training program stressed these qualities. So far, 300 mechanics have been trained and the CAP funded half the training cost. Additional progress has been made in improved workshop conditions (tidiness, neatness, etc) and techni- cians' motivation. Improvements in operator driving skills. The focus on emissions and fuel consumption reduction was made not only in workshops, but also on road during bus operation. Workshop technicians are responsible for the provision of INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 54 low emission buses, while drivers are responsible for fuel consumption on the road. Good driv- ing habits can reduce fuel consumption between 5% and 15%; based on this fact, special training was given to drivers to achieve such fuel consumption reductions. The CAP has con- ducted training in good and economic driving habits since 1998. The bus operators conduct the internal training themselves, with CAP supervision. By the end of 2001, 1629 drivers had been trained internally in fleet owner's workshops, with potential fuel savings of approximately 12.9%. Support for bus operators through the provision of emissions test equipment and fuel con- sumption meters. Inspection and Maintenance for Jakarta's Private Passenger Vehicles In Jakarta, private vehicles emit a high proportion of the city's total traffic emissions: approxi- mately 35% of its carbon monoxide, 25% hydrocarbons, 30% nitrogen oxides, 20% sulfur oxide and 20% particulate matter (JICA and Bapedal, 1997A). There are approximately 1,200,000 private passenger cars in Jakarta owned by approximately 10% of the citizens; peo- ple whom are generally better educated and wealthier than elsewhere in Indonesia, but these vehicles are not tested at all. However, all citizens -- and predominantly the poor who live and work closest to roads -- must bear the impact. A 1995 survey (JICA and Bapedal, 1997A) re- vealed that approximately 50% and 30% of gasoline vehicles tested exceeded the CO and HC levels specified in the national emissions standard (Table 5.1). Furthermore, approximately 20% of the diesel vehicles exceeded the black smoke standard, with buses and passenger cars hav- ing relatively higher levels compared to trucks. More than 85% of Jakarta's passenger vehicles are so-called "unstable emission cars" which normally use old technology, such as carburetors. For direct results in emissions reduction, in- spection must be followed by adjustment or maintenance. Such maintenance of carburetor cars is much less expensive than a complete roadworthiness test, and not an unreasonable demand of vehicle owners. In fact, as part of proper engine adjustment, more than 200 car workshops in the city conduct the emission test using equipment that consists of a 4-gas ana- lyzer for gasoline vehicles and a smoke-meter for diesel vehicles. Based on the above-mentioned condition, and since to date no central government I/M regula- tions or guidelines for private vehicles have been passed, the DKI Jakarta government has taken the initiative to implement a decentralized I/M system. The DKI Jakarta Governor passed Regulation No. 95 (2000) on establishing an I/M system for private passenger cars, and in fact a pilot I/M system was set up in 1997 for Jakarta's private passenger vehicles. Additional local governments (municipal levels) have also taken the same initiative, i.e. Bandung, Surabaya and Banjarmasin. It is important to note that Bandung and Banjarmasin will run decentralized I/M systems, with procedures similar to Jakarta's system. SYSTEM OVERVIEW The DKI Jakarta Governor's Decree No. 95 (2000) regulates that inspection will be followed by maintenance under a decentralized I/M system. The I/M system intervenes directly at the source of pollution and enhances private sector involvement, whilst limiting the local government's role to that of a facilitator. In turn this should be linked to a yearly vehicle tax payment and on- road control for law enforcement. With facilities already partially existing, low investment re- quirements should result in a positive impact. This I/M system, consistent with the Polluter Pays Principle, targets polluters and does not penalize non-polluters. An annual I/M system with car emissions adjusted in registered private workshops is based on programs elsewhere. These have demonstrated clearly that private passenger cars (with tech- nology similar to Jakarta's) require at least annual maintenance, otherwise emission levels in- INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 55 crease rapidly. Cars that satisfy the level specified in Jakarta's emissions standard (Table 5.2) will be issued with a sticker and recommendation letter to allow the owner to operate the vehicle and extend its annual registration. Cars that exceed the emissions standard must be repaired to meet it. The connection between annual emissions test results and annual car registration will become a law enforcement responsibility. Random roadside testing that includes penalties will be implemented based on several regula- tions, including Jakarta Governor's Decree No. 95 (2000) for control of program implementa- tion, PP. No. 42 (1993) for legal aspects, and PP No. 41 (1999) regarding inter-departmental coordination. Random roadside tests (conducted by the police) will check the validity of rec- ommendation letters and test emissions. If emissions measured during road control are above the levels specified in Jakarta's standard (Table 5.2), the car owner must renew his recommen- dation letter. In addition, an information network will be used as a control device. Emissions test data and vehicle registration will be sent electronically to the main computer at DKI Provincial Govern- ment, where the main computer will analyze the data and transfer it to the Tax Office in order to verify a vehicle's pass certificate. The data analyzed by the main computer shall be accessible to the public in an effort to guarantee transparency, and the data will be further analyzed to monitor the system and produce an impact analysis. Jakarta's decentralized I/M system is divided into four levels as follows: Public and Stakeholder Supervision and Regulatory Level, consisting of: a supervisory committee composed of relevant government institutions, consumer organiza- tions, experts and other stakeholders to oversee the whole I/M system, and an I/M task force, composed of relevant government institutions (i.e. BPLHD DKI, DLLAJ, Dinas Industri, Biro Hu- kum, Bapeda, KPTI, Biro ASP and Biro Perekonomian) to oversee I/M implementation, including the development of regulations to support I/M implementation. The main responsibility for I/M implementation lies with the BPLHD DKI, in which the MoE's function is to support and pro- vide general guidelines. Other agencies such as the DLLAJ are responsible for on-road testing; Dinas Industri will issue workshop licenses and supervise the workshop operations; Biro Hu- kum is responsible for the issuing regulations. Supervision & Services Levels (Private Sector): A surveillance system will classify the workshops and automatically monitor and evaluate their performance. The skills and abilities of I/M technicians to test emissions and analyze engine conditions (based on emissions test results) will be assessed by an assigned training center, which will also evalu- ate and monitor I/M technician performance. Software for data assessment and transfer will be developed and maintained by an internet technology company. Emissions test equipment must be maintained and calibrated regularly. Equipment suppliers will conduct regular maintenance and a certified company will perform calibrations. Implementation Level (Private Sector): To lower emissions, cars will be tested and maintained in the implementing workshops. Minis- terial Decrees No. 551 and 581 (1999) are the two decrees which relate to the accreditation of workshops and their assignment as vehicle inspection centers. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 56 Consumer Level The system will treat the car owner as a client; i.e. he shall receive valuable, quality service and therefore a private firm shall supervise the testing procedures and the service quality. TIME FRAME FOR IMPLEMENTATION The timeframe for implementation of the I/M system in Jakarta is as follows: Completion of I/M rules and regulations (Governor's Decrees for "Task Force" and "Technical and Implementation Guidance"); the former was completed in 2000 (Governor Decree No. 95) while the latter is still in preparation. During 2002: Complete the I/M foundation (certification of operators and workshops, development of initial software, certificates and stickers, and on-road control system); Initiate the I/M system on a voluntary testing basis; Evaluate the system simultaneously to prepare for further establishment of mandatory testing; Complete local regulations to legalize the mandatory I/M system. Mandatory I/M will start in 2003 and be evaluated within two years of initial implemen- tation. Inspection for Motorcycles Jakarta's two million motorcycles belong to a less wealthy segment of the society. To date there has been no mandatory emissions testing for these vehicles, as motorcycle repair workshops lack the necessary exhaust emissions testing equipment. CHAPTER 7 Transport Planning and Management Improvements in fuel specifications, vehicle standards, and inspection and maintenance sys- tems may greatly reduce vehicle emissions in Jakarta. However, a high vehicle fleet growth rate may offset much of the emissions control progress with the overall net result being a modest reduction in mobile source emissions. Thus, the key to substantially reducing emissions over the long term will be an effective transport planning and management system -- the most complicated component to deal with. This chapter begins with an overview of responsibilities related to Jakarta's transport planning and management, followed by characterization of the city's current transport planning and management. Each problem and constraint related to public transport, congestion impacts, transport funding, nonmotorized transport, and the lack of integrated transport planning and land-use planning is discussed in separate sub-sections. Overview of Responsibility In Jakarta, transport planning and management is the responsibility of the Dishub. This institu- tion is responsible for making changes related to transport and traffic in Jakarta, such as one way routes, public transport provision, public transport and taxi tariffs. However, all final deci- sions are made only after consultation with the Provincial Government of Jakarta, i.e. after consideration by the Local Development Planning Board of Jakarta (Bapeda) and a hearing with the Local Parliament (DPRD) – Commission D in this case. Public participation is rarely in- cluded in this process. On the other hand, as Jakarta is the capital of the Republic of Indonesia, the central govern- ment also has a main role in Jakarta's transport related decision-making process (i.e. MoC). This makes decisions for Jakarta's transport planning and management relatively complex com- pared to other areas of the country. The Dishub is charged with the main responsibilities, however the private sector is also involved and shares implementation responsibilities to some extent. The association of public transport operators (Organda) is responsible for public transport provision in Jakarta. Route permits are issued by the Dishub, and do not expire. Characterization of Current Transport Planning and Management Even though there is provision in the Regional Masterplan6 regarding Jakarta's transport plan- ning, it is unclear in terms of implementation time frame and the scale of each plan.7 In gen- eral, there is no appropriate transport planning for Jakarta, even though many studies and plans have been undertaken and implemented with very limited results. As a consequence, emergency action is frequently implemented to resolve a problem. 6 Local Regulation No. 6 (1999) Article 68. 7 Jakarta 2010, Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah DKI Jakarta. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 58 Transport Demand Management (TDM) has been in effect since the early 1990's. This has fo- cused on restricted areas for private cars with a minimum of three passengers during morning peak hours (6.30 – 10.00 am). This effort has only been implemented in about eight kilome- ters of Jakarta's north-south corridor (Jl. Jend. Sudirman – Jl. Medan Merdeka Barat) and about five kilometers of the city's east-west corridor (Jl. Jend. Gatot Subroto). Both corridors are the main and busiest streets in the Jakarta business area. The implementation of this rule has been ineffective in rectifying both transport and social problems, and has in fact aggravated the situation. Instead of reducing congestion, the "three-in-one" has generated more congestion on parallel streets, and prolonged the duration of congestion. On the other hand, the imple- mentation of this rule has provided new income for some people, who are paid to join a vehi- cle and boost its number of passengers to the obligatory three. The incidence of these 'jockeys' entering and leaving vehicles has, however, increased road accidents in TDM areas. In sum, the implementation of three-in-one has not been as effective as expected. Another TDM that was implemented at almost the same time in the same corridors is bus ways. However, as Indonesia uses left-side traffic and the bus ways are in the left-most side of the street, there are many disturbances by private cars entering and exiting offices along the street. This effort should be considered a failure, and yet there is no other mechanism to priori- tize bus use along the main corridor. An impressive idea to establish a so-called "Jakarta Transportation Council" (an independent institution to give advice and input to transport planning and management in Jakarta) has, a year after proposition, still not been activated. Such a council would provide a voice for con- sumers, and it is obvious that the establishment of the council is urgently needed. Status of Public Transport Public transport plays a major role in enabling people's mobility in Jakarta. Approximately 71.2% of Jakarta's citizens use motorized transport, and almost 55% rely on public transport services. The number of people being transported by this means is much higher (approximately 11.3 million persons per day) than the number of people being transported in private vehicles (6.4 millions by car, 2.9 millions by motorcycle), even though the number of public vehicles is much lower than private ones. Of 5,411 buses registered in Jakarta, almost 90% are operated with a 129.1% load factor on average (SITRAMP, 2001).8 Jakarta's public transport system is inadequate in terms of both fleet size and service quality. Public transport in the city is catered to mainly by the private sector, and only one of the city's 22 operators is owned by central government (MoC). The current situation in Jakarta is that all public transport services are operated under the obligation to carry passengers (Wajib Angkut Penumpang) system, whereby a driver hires a vehicle from a company on a daily basis. The driver has to pay a fixed rate that does not include fuel or vehicle operating and maintenance costs (SITRAMP, 2001). This system has resulted in reckless drivers who compete to carry as many passengers as possible without concern for their safety. Another public transport means in Jakarta is rail based. Commuter trains come to Jakarta from four different suburbs: Tangerang in the west, Serpong in the southwest, Depok in the south and Bekasi in the east. The quality of the service is even worse than the bus service: the load factor for commuter trains averages 250% (Rahmah et. al., 2001), with passengers resorting to train rooftops during peak travel hours. Such poor public transport conditions drive people towards private vehicle ownership, and the increase in the vehicle fleet is adding to Jakarta's air pollution problem. 8 Study on Integrated Transportation Master Plan for Jabotabek Phase 1, Pacific Consultants International & ALMEC Corporation, January 2001. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 59 Impact of Congestion on Air Pollution and Energy Consumption The high density of motorized vehicles in Jakarta affects people's mobility. Instead of increasing their mobility and reducing travel times, the higher vehicle population has had the opposite effect. As previously mentioned, most motorized vehicles in Jakarta are private, used for trans- porting five people maximum but with the average being less than two. The proportion of public to private transport has resulted in dispersed congestion in Jakarta, which has made energy consumption (in this case fuel) very high. On average, a vehicle con- sumes 0.5 liters more fuel per day than its fuel economy specification9. The combination of motorized vehicles using low-quality fuel has resulted in high quantity, low quality gas exhaust. There are no continuous roadside monitoring facilities in Jakarta so it is difficult to analyze pre- cisely the direct impact of congestion on air pollution. However, by referring to fuel specifica- tions, the pollutant most relevant as a transport activity indicator is lead (Pb) as this component is produced mainly by transport activity. Under-funding of the Transport Sector Jakarta's development budget for fiscal year 2000-2001 was IDR 2.5 trillion, with less than 13% (IDR 312 billion) budgeted for the transport sector. Of this, almost 75% was allocated for infrastructure such as road building, with approximately 25% for transport management. This was related mostly to traffic signing, and a very limited amount was allocated to promote non- motorized transport. Nonmotorized Transport Based on SITRAMP (2001), almost 29% of Jakarta's population used non-motorized transport in the year 2000. Nonmotorized transport in this case includes pedestrians, bicycles and other types of nonmotorized vehicles. Until recently, three-wheeler pedicabs (becaks) played an im- portant role in nonmotorized transport, but this was changed in September 2001 when they were banned even from residential areas. Pedestrian facilities are very limited in terms of both quantity and quality. Zebra-crossings are largely non-functioning due to the behavior of drivers who ignore the presence of pedestrians. To overcome this, pedestrian bridges have been built for people to cross streets. These facilities are also seldom used however, as they require more effort from pedestrians and also increase their travel distance. It is very common to see pedestrians cross the road under a bridge instead of on it, a condition that has increased the number of road accidents. Even greater problems are experienced by disabled persons due to a lack of appropriate facili- ties for them. These persons have very limited mobility in Jakarta as most transport infrastruc- ture is not disabled-friendly. While it has been suggested that the number of disabled is insig- nificant and thus it is too expensive to invest in facilities that cater to them, the argument is weak as limited facilities prevent the disabled from being active outside their homes, so that they are rarely seen in public. Lack of Integrated Transport Planning and Land-use Planning Even though the Jakarta master plan includes a transport sector, there is no integration be- tween transport planning and land-use planning. One example is residential areas, whereby 9 Mr. P. Hatmodjo, Pers. Comm., Head of Transportation Division, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 60 instead of providing comfortable and convenient pedestrian facilities, one-lane-per-direction roads were built and serviced by large buses. The result has been congestion inside residential areas and more accidents. In other places, accidents occur due to reckless bus drivers. The development of Jakarta since early 1970s has been towards expanded residential areas in the suburbs while business activities have remained central. The city is not compact, and as a consequence, people commute on average more than ten kilometers daily. The situation has worsened as public transport facilities to transfer people from their homes to work are very limited, with the result that they must either drive their private vehicles or use public transport in congested traffic. On average, Jakartans spend more than two hours daily on the road. There is an urgent need to have an integrated transport planning and land-use planning sys- tem for Jakarta. It does not mean that the existing development needs to be demolished, but its functions need to change. Transport facilities need to be developed which convey people effectively and efficiently, so that the negative impact of transport activities on air quality is minimized. CHAPTER 8 Principles for Action Plan Design The action plan has been designed based on the following institutional and technical princi- ples: Institutional Aspects MULTI-SECTORAL APPROACH Multiple groups of stakeholders should be responsible for the implementation of activities aimed at vehicle emissions reduction, consequently they have been represented in the formula- tion of the action plan. These stakeholders consist of government, the private sector, and civil society, whose roles are as follows: Government's main function is to regulate, monitor and enforce policies. The private sector's role is to comply with regulations and standards. Civil society's role is to stimulate government action and to enable polluters to comply with standards. A strong coordinating mechanism (the MEB Forum) was required to bring together all stake- holders to participate in producing the Action Plan. COORDINATION AND COOPERATION A range of interests from various sectors and agencies were accommodated in the formulation of the action plan. As various sectors and agencies are inter-related to one another, integration is a main principle in coordination and cooperation in order to prevent overlap in activities. Other principles are shared perceptions of objectives, and understanding of the functions and roles in accordance with each agency's role. In addition, agencies or sectors require clear tech- nical or procedural guidelines on how to proceed with implementation. The coordination and cooperation mechanism should be institutionalized so that concerned sectors and agencies agree on implementation activities CAPACITY BUILDING EFFORTS The proposed Action Plan must be matched by human resources capacity, and existing staff should be upgraded in order to take responsibility for Action Plan formulation and implemen- tation. Training is an important component of human resources development, and institutions must be strengthened to successfully implement a vehicle emissions reduction strategy. There- fore, capacity-building efforts should be considered a critical component of the action plan and funding should be allocated to support this. PUBLIC AWARENESS Public awareness of the severity of air pollution and its deleterious effect on public health will encourage people to reduce vehicle emissions. Public awareness should be built up via both formal and informal education channels through information and experience sharing, and should be initiated at the stage of Action Plan formulation. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 62 POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE The Government should not be expected to shoulder all the costs associated with the imple- mentation of a vehicle emissions reduction strategy, and so cost recovery is important. This should be via the effective use of the Polluter Pays Principle, which has been considered in the formulation and for implementation of the Action Plan. Clear regulations should be established by Government to support this principle, and law enforcement should be strengthened to en- force relevant legislation. PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE In developing fuel specifications as part of an integrated emissions reduction strategy, an effort must be made to adhere to the Precautionary Principle. When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if the cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically. The process of applying the Precautionary Principle must be open and informed, and must include potentially affected par- ties. It must also involve an examination of the full range of alternatives, including no action. Technical Aspects The following technical issues warrant special attention in the development of an emissions reduction strategy: CLEANER FUEL DEVELOPMENT New vehicle emissions standards are established in a series of upgrades to incrementally tighten the vehicle emissions controls (i.e. EURO 1 and 2 etc). Each step of a new vehicle emis- sions standard corresponds to implementation of some cleaner technology, and cleaner vehicle fuel (i.e. unleaded gasoline and low sulfur ADO) is a pre-requisite to adopting such technology. Vehicles fueled with CNG or LPG emit very low levels of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, and their fuel economy is high. If retrofitting is applied, it is better directed at vehicles that have limited travel scales (i.e. city buses) due to the limited fuel support system (location of fuel stations) in Jakarta CLEANER VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY Vehicle I/M programs significantly reduce emissions for in-use vehicles, and will have a strong impact in the short term. Gasoline lead phase-out in Jakarta also opens an opportunity to ret- rofit emissions control equipment for in-use vehicle, especially privately owned gasoline vehi- cles. Furthermore, the government should tighten emissions standards for new type vehicles. TRANSPORTATION DEMAND MANAGEMENT In the case of Jakarta, efforts to introduce cleaner fuels and vehicle technology may greatly reduce vehicle emissions. On the other hand, the number of vehicles in the city is growing rap- idly, and this in turn will offset much of the emissions control progress. The net result will be a low to modest reduction in mobile source pollution, and therefore it is vital that travel demand management is instituted in order to control the number of vehicles on the road. CHAPTER 9 Action Plan Component: Air Quality Management Governance Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 1 Strengthen air quality a Conduct inventory on motor vehicles by car type, fuel type, Jun-02 BPLHD DKI Dishub, Diskes, Universities monitoring. and production year. BMG, MoE, GAIKINDO, Police b Integrate existing air quality monitoring systems. Aug-02 BPLHD DKI MoE, Diskes, BMG c Develop air quality database. Jan-03 BPLHD DKI MoE, Diskes, BMG, Universities d Develop roadside monitoring system. Jun-02 BPLHD DKI Puslitbang Jalan Raya, MoE, Universities e Implement roadside monitoring system. Aug-02 BPLHD DKI Puslitbang Jalan Raya, MoE f Develop technical guidelines for other cities. Sept MoE BPLHD, BMG, MoH g Develop dispersion model for DKI Jakarta and vicinity. Jan-03 BPLHD DKI Dishub, Bapeda DKI, MoE , MoE&MR, MoC h Assess carrying capacity of Jakarta's air shed. Jun-03 BPLHD DKI 2 Develop legislation on mobile a Review existing acts and regulations. Jul-02 MoE, MoC MoI&T, Local source air pollution control. government b Conduct consultations between sector agencies & parliament Oct-02 MoE, MoC MoI&T DPR b c Conduct public hearings. Nov-02 MoE, MoC MoI&T, Local government, NGOs, Private sector, Universities d Establish new legislation. Jun-03 MoE, MoC Timing Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 3 Develop regulation on mobile a Review existing government regulations to determine clear Jun-02 MoE, MoC MoI&T, State source air pollution control. mandate and supervision of emission testing, monitoring, etc. secretary b Conduct consultations among sector agencies. Oct-02 MoE, MoC MoI&T c Conduct public hearing. Nov-02 MoE, MoC MoI&T, Local government, NGOs, Private sector, Universities (S) d Establish new regulation Jun-03 MoE, MoC 4 Establish sound enforcement. a Assess road spot checks Jan-03 Dishub, Police MoC MoE b Conduct fuel quality tests Jan-03 Migas, Pertamina Lemigas, NGOs, YLKI c Develop evaluation and reporting procedures Jun-03 MoE 5 Conduct awareness raising a Strengthen MEB Mar-02 MoE BPLHD DKI, program. NGOs, Private sectors, Universities b Develop institutional relations and public awareness strategy Apr-02 MoE, MoH NGOs c Implement public campaign, use mass media and seminars Jul-02 Pelangi, Walhi, MoE, MoH, MoC, Swisscontact MoE&MR d Evaluate public campaign effectiveness Jul-03 MoE, MoH MoC, Local government e Develop air quality information system for DKI Jakarta Mar-03 BPLHD DKI Dishub, Diskes, Universities BMG, MoE 6 Develop institutional capacity. a Empower local government institutions responsible for air Jan-03 MoE, MoC BPLHD DKI, quality and roadside monitoring Dishub b Empower national and local legislators Aug-02 MoE MoC, MoH, MoE&MR, NGOs Component: Fuel Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 1 Support implementation of a Promote coordination among government bodies and Apr-02 Migas MoE, Pertamina MoF, Bappenas lead phase-out program. continued implementation of the minister's decree on lead phase-ou.t b Identify funds for isomerization & reformation unit. Jun-02 Migas, Pertamina MoF, Bappenas, - MoE c Conduct feasibility study for appropriate additive & HOMC. Jun-02 Migas, Pertamina Lemigas, - Universities 2 Reduce sulfur in fuel. a Establish coordination mechanism among sectors and Jun-02 Migas MoE, Pertamina, agencies. GAIKINDO, IATO, Universities b Encourage private investor to produce WWFC standard fuel. Sep-02 Migas, investor Pertamina, NGOs c Launch PRIMA T/T. Jan-03 Pertamina Migas, Universities 3 Promote CNG & LPG. a Promote benefits of natural gas to public. Apr-02 MoE MoH, Otogas, Elnusa, Pertamina, Migas, GAIKINDO, Taxi , b Identify gas fuel (LPG or CNG) most suitable for mass public May-02 MoE MoH, Otogas, transport. Elnusa, Pertamina, Migas, GAIKINDO, Taxi , c Coordinate the design of infrastructure for gas filling stations. Aug-02 Pertamina NGO d Reduce import duty for conversion kits. Jan-03 MoF Migas, MoI&T Private investor e Develop incentives for investment in gas filling stations (i.e. Jun-02 MoF Pertamina, MoE, MPrivate investor VAT reduction, electricity). Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 4 Introduce biodiesel as an a Promote benefits of biodiesel and ethanol. Aug-02 Suar (biodiesel), MoA, ITB, Ngo, alternative fuel. Sumber Daya MoE Hijau (ethanol) b Test biodiesel & ethanol performance and their environmental On going Lemigas BTMP, Suar, impacts. Private investor c Negotiate with palm oil plantations for raw material supply for Jun-02 Suar, Private Palm oil companiesMoA biodiesel production. investor d Begin mass production of biodiesel. Jan-03 Suar (biodiesel) MoA 5 Establish sound fuel pricing a Conduct public awareness through seminars, interactive talk May-02 NGOs MoE&MR, method & subsidy. shows, etc. Pertamina b Internalize environmental cost in fuel subsidy policy. Sep-02 MoF MoE&MR c Coordinate government to develop fuel subsidy policy. Jan-03 MoF MoE&MR, Pertamina 6 Explore options for a Conduct feasibility study on RFG production. Jan-03 Migas Pertamina Laboratory reformulated gasoline (RFG). b Promote pros & cons of RFG to public. Jan-03 Migas Pertamina, Universities International oil co, MoE c Conduct public awareness of RFG through meetings and Apr-03 MoE & MR NGOs, IATO, Universities mass media. Pertamina d Determine RFG production and use options. Jul-03 Migas MoE, MoI&T, NGOs Pertamina, MoC, MoH Component: Vehicle Standard and Vehicle Technology Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 1 Develop type approval a Review final draft. Mar-02 MoE MoC, MoI&T GAIKINDO, AISI, emissions standard. NGOs, Universities b Process final decree. Jun-02 MoE c Submit decree for state MoE signature. Jul-02 MoE d Formal announcement of new decree. Aug-02 MoE Mass Media 2 Develop in-use emissions a Conduct internal review. May-02 MoE standard. b Conduct awareness-raising through seminars, media. Apr-02 MoE c Conduct interdepartmental meetings to determine emission Jul-02 MoE MoC, MoE&MR, AISI, GAIKINDO, standard. MoI&T, Local NGOs Government d Review draft decree. Oct-02 MoE MoC e Submit decree for signature. Nov-02 MoE f Formal announcement of new decree. Dec-02 MoE 3 Conduct public awareness on a Prepare materials. May-02 MoE vehicle standards and vehicle b Conduct public awareness raising through seminars, media. Nov-02 MoE technology. c Consult with and disseminate information to local Dec-02 MoE MoC, Local governments. Governments 4 Develop infrastructure a Inventory & assess infrastructure preparedness for type Jun-02 MoE MoC, Local development. approval and periodic testing of motor vehicles. Governments b Conduct comparative study within ASEAN region for Aug-02 MoE MoC, MoI&T, harmonization of standards. Local Governments, c Develop a mutual recognition agreement among parties. Nov-02 Relevant parties 5 Develop the use of catalytic a Introduce catalytic converters to Jakarta taxis. Aug-02 BPLHD DKI MoE, Migas, converters. Pertamina, Jakarta taxi b Identify local manufacturer for catalytic converters. Mar-03 Canning i industries, Automotive support industries Component: Inspection and Maintenance Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 1 Develop new government a Review existing government laws & regulations. Jun-02 MoE MoC, MoI&T DPR, GAIKINDO, regulation on air pollution AISI, NGOs, control. Universities, b Prepare new draft. Aug-02 MoE MoC, MoI&T DPR, GAIKINDO, AISI, NGOs, Universities, c Conduct public hearings on draft through seminars, media. Oct-02 Universities, MoE, MoC, BPPT MoI&T, GAIKINDO, AISI, d Review draft decree. Feb-03 MoE MoC, MoI&T DPR, GAIKINDO, AISI, NGOs, Universities, BPPT e Submit draft for signature, and make formal announcement. Apr-03 MoE 2 Develop I/M program for a Introduce I/M system options (centralized, decentralized and Aug-02 MoE MoC, MoI&T, Universities, Civil private vehicles at national hybrid) to local government. MoHA& RA, Local society level. Governments b Conduct public campaign to promote I/M. Nov-02 NGOs c Develop I/M standard operating procedure for each alternative. Dec-02 MoE MoC, Local Universities, Civil Government society d Introduce I/M infrastructure system to local governments. Jul-03 MoE MoC, State MoE, Universities, Civil MoC society 3 Strengthen I/M a Establish an I/M task force. Mar-02 BPLHD DKI DLLAJ, Biro implementation in Jakarta. Hukum, Bapeda DKI, Dinas Industri KPTI, Biro ASP, Biro Perekonomian b Develop local regulation for I/M. Jul-02 BPLHD DKI DLLAJ, Biro NGOs, AISI, Hukum, Bapeda GAIKINDO, DKI, Dinas Asbekindo, Industri KPTI, Biro Universities ASP, Biro Perekonomian Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation c Finalize I/M technical and implementation guidelines. Aug-02 Task force GAIKINDO, Civil Society Asbekindo d Establish supervisory committee. Aug-02 BPLHD NGOs, Universities, Private sector e Certify mechanics and workshops. Sep-02 Task force Surveillance Companies f Set up electronic information system. Nov-02 Task force Private sector g Implement I/M. Nov-02 Task force Workshops h Monitor from Oct 2002 and evaluate the I/M system. Mar-03 Supervisory Task force NGOs, Private Committee sector 4 Enhance existing I/M test for a Evaluate existing performance. Dishub BPLHD, Police, public vehicles. MoE b Coordinate efforts and improve performance. Dishub BPLHD, Police, MoE 5 Develop new inspection a Introduce new inspection technology. Aug-03 Local NGOs, Civil technology. Government, Society DPRD, Private b Conduct feasibility study on new inspection technology. May-04 MoE MoC, Local Universities, Civil governments, society Private c Conduct comparative study. Mar-04 MoC Dishub, MoE, , BPLHD DKI d Design system for new inspection technology. Jan-05 Local Government DPRD, Private NGOs, Civil Society e Develop necessary infrastructure. Jul-05 Dishub MoE, MoC, BPLHD DKI Component: Transport Planning Timing of Responsible Organizations Intervention Proposed Action Proposed Action Lead Support Consultation 1 Review and refine transport a Evaluate existing transport master plan. Aug-02 Bapeda DKI, Dinas PU, Dinas DPRD, Civil master plan. Dishub Pertamanan, Society, MoE Dinas Tata Kota, BPLHD DKI b Develop a detailed, integrated transport and land use planning Jan-03 Bapeda DKI, Dinas PU, Dinas DPRD, Civil system. Dishub Pertamanan, Society, MoE Dinas Tata Kota, BPLHD DKI 2 Develop improvements to a Develop new route licensing mechanism. On going Dishub Organda, Private Civil society, public transport. sector, Police DPRD Department b Develop public transport marketing and promotion strategy. Aug-02 Dishub Organda, Private Civil society, sector, Police DPRD c Improve rail-based public transport, i.e. maintenance and Jan-03 MoC, Dishub, PT. Organda, Private Civil society, services. KAI sector, Police DPRD d Implement new route licensing mechanism. Jan-03 Dishub e Implement bus rapid transit (BRT) demonstration project. Sep-02 Dishub Bapeda DKI, Civil society, Dinas PU, Dinas DPRD Pertamanan, Private sector, Police f Promote public transport utilization. Aug-03 Dishub Organda, private Civil society, sector, Police DPRD, MoE 3 Establish good governance in a Establish transportation forum and hotline. Jul-02 Civil society, Dishub, Private Transport transportation. NGOs, DPRD sector associations b Develop traffic & transport education program for the public. Aug-02 Dishub, Police, Educational Inst., MoEd Civil Society 4 Encourage use of non- a Formulate policies for NMT, i.e. develop minimum standards. Nov-02 MoC Universities, Civil motorized transport (NMT). society b Design NMT facilities along the BRT (bus rapid transit) route. Dec-02 Dishub, Dinas PU Dinas DPRD, Civil Pertamanan, Society Dinas Tata Kota c Promote NMT utilization. Jun-03 NGOs Dishub Universities, MoE CHAPTER 10 Impacts of the Proposed Action Plan This chapter presents information about measures to reduce vehicle emissions in order to re- duce air pollution. The list of measures was derived from information presented by the MEB Forum. Characteristics of abatement measures are described in terms of effectiveness in emis- sions reduction in both the short-medium term (year 2005) and long term (year 2015), as well as the health and economic impacts. Direct Interventions to Reduce Vehicle Emissions Interventions from the proposed action plan are categorized into actions that have a direct impact or an enabling impact on reducing Jakarta's air pollution problem; the former and their effectiveness are discussed here, and include: A reduction in fuel sulfur content; A switch in fuel type, i.e. from gasoline or diesel to CNG, LPG, and bio-diesel; Implementation of emissions standard for new-type vehicles; Introduction of catalytic converters for taxis; Improved performance of I/M program for commercial vehicles; Implementation of an I/M program for passenger cars; Development of public transport, i.e. improved rail-based transport and implementation of bus rapid transit. Figure 10.1 presents the predicted reduction in vehicle emissions load caused by implementa- tion of the proposed action plan compared to the baseline case for year 2005 and 2015. REDUCE FUEL SULFUR CONTENT (A1) Reducing the fuel sulfur content leads to a proportional decline in SO2 emissions. PM10 emis- sions also decrease because a portion of the particulate matter comes from sulfur in fuel. In addition, a reduction in sulfur content also enables the implementation of advanced vehicle technology. In order to quantify the effectiveness of this measure, the fuel specification target and time frame still need to be detailed by the MEB forum. FUEL SWITCH (A2) Switching from gasoline and diesel to CNG, LPG, or bio-diesel is a very effective means to re- duce all transport-related pollutants (NOx, SO2, PM CO, THC,). In order to quantify the effec- tiveness of this intervention, the target vehicle groups and time frame for fuel switches still need to be specified by the MEB forum. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 72 Figure 10.1 Vehicle Emission Load Reduction in 2005 and 2015 for the Proposed Action Plan NOx S O2 P M 10 CO THC A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 R eduction from the res pective year bas eline cas e 0% 3% 2% 4% 4% 5% 6% 7% 6% 7% 6% 20% 18% 26% 27% 40% 37% 34% 41% 45% 51% 60% 53% 54% 80% 100% 2005 2015 IMPLEMENT NEW-TYPE VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARD (A3) Implementation of a new-type vehicle emissions standard will be very effective in reducing all pollutants (NOx, SO2, PM10, CO, THC) over the long-term. Introducing such a new standard will require the infrastructure for producing and distributing unleaded and low sulfur fuel. According to the draft on new-type vehicle emissions standard, new vehicles in Indonesia will harmonize with EURO 1 and EURO 2 standards with effect from 2004 and 2007 respectively. If the entire vehicle fleet complies with the standard, emissions would ultimately be reduced to at least 30% of the 2015 emission load predicted for the base case (Chapter 2). The effect of these standards will be shown gradually, reflecting the rate of replacement of existing vehicles. INTRODUCE CATALYTIC CONVERTERS FOR JAKARTA'S TAXIS (A4) Unleaded fuel has been available throughout Jakarta since July 2001 only. Therefore, catalytic converters will be introduced only to Jakarta's taxis that have their own fueling stations. The type of catalytic converter will influence the rate of emissions reduction. Assuming all Jakarta's taxis will be modified by the oxidation catalyst eventually (which reduces CO and THC), the 2005 predicted emission load will be reduced by only 2-3% of the 2005 emission load pre- dicted for the base case. If Jakarta's taxis are modified with catalytic converters by June 2002, the effectiveness will be observed immediately. In the longer term, vehicles modified with catalytic converters will be replaced by more advanced technology vehicles. IMPROVE PERFORMANCE OF I/M PROGRAM FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLES (A5) Jakarta's I/M program for commercial vehicles is currently conducted using an idle test that measures CO and THC for gasoline vehicles and smoke for diesel vehicles in PKB. Enhancing the performance of this emission control testing will greatly reduce emissions, namely for CO, THC, and PM10 over the short-term period. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 73 The effectiveness of an I/M program depends on the testing method being applied. According to Walsh (2002C), an effective I/M Program using the idle test is predicted to reduce CO and THC emissions by 18% and 5%, respectively. The simulation results reveal that the I/M pro- gram for public vehicle cars will not have a significant impact in reducing the CO and THC emission load (approximately 1% and 0.5% of the emission load predicted for CO and THC in the base case). In addition, there is no literature available that relates the effectiveness of the smoke test with an emission load reduction for PM10, unless the emission test was performed using more ad- vanced tests. For this reason, this study was not able to quantify the impact of PM10 reduction for this specific action. IMPLEMENT I/M FOR PASSENGER CARS (A6) Maladjusted carburetors and fuel injection systems increase vehicle fuel consumption and con- tribute to high emissions. The effectiveness of an I/M program depends on the testing method being applied. As Jakarta will implement an I/M program using the idle test, the CO and THC emissions are predicted to decreased by 18% and 5%, respectively (Walsh, 2002C). In other words, the I/M program for passenger cars will be effective in reducing approximately 2% and 12% of the emission load predicted for the baseline case. An I/M program for passenger cars will start in October 2002, and its effectiveness can be ex- pected immediately. In the longer term, more advanced technology vehicles will replace vehi- cles modified with catalytic converters. However, the rate of replacement of passenger cars will be much lower than the taxi replacement rate. DEVELOP PUBLIC TRANSPORT (A7) Public transport may solve environmental problems caused by the growing need for transpor- tation, as well as reduce traffic congestion. The target has not been addressed in a specific manner in the proposed action plan. However, a decent public transport system may be able to lower the passenger car and motorcycle annual growth rate during the periods 2000 to 2005 and 2006 to 2015, by 0.8 times and 0.5 of the 1999-2000 growth rate. This will result in for CO and THC emissions reductions of 35%, and a 25% reduction in NOx and PM10 from the 2015 emission load predicted for base case. Building a good public transport system is a long-term process. Due to the high growth of the city's vehicle population, advanced vehicle technology alone will not solve the air pollution problem faced by Jakarta. Therefore, the effectiveness of public transport is key to making a substantial reduction in vehicle emissions over the long-term. IMPACTS OF THE COUNTERMEASURES ON AIR POLLUTION LEVELS Efforts by multi-stakeholders to formulate the action plan should subsequently be followed by implementation of air pollution abatement measures in order to lower vehicle emissions. In spite of the fact that some of the measures lead to a significant emissions reduction compared to the 2015 emission load predicted for base case, the 2015 emissions load predicted with countermeasures is not less than the load in 1998. Consequently, the control target discussed in Chapter 2 Section C.2 will not be fully attainable. Based on the MBM simulation, a relatively modest improvement in air quality for parameters NOx, PM10 and CO can be expected in 2015. For Jakarta, the following considerations should be taken into account in order to achieve the control target in improving air quality: It is important that stakeholders realize that an air pollution improvement program is a long- term process. The type of abatement measures proposed in the action plan will affect the time INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 74 required to achieve the target. Some of the most effective measure -- such as a stringent emis- sions standard and a good public transportation system -- will show results over a long period. A strong commitment to support this process is very important. The measures will only be effective in achieving the control target if the area surrounding Ja- karta also meets the DKI AAQS. Therefore, Greater Jakarta's multiple stakeholders must col- laborate closely to formulate an integrated vehicle emissions reduction action plan. The stake- holders from Greater Jakarta such as Bogor, Tangerang, and Bekasi were not involved during formulation of the current action plan, and there is a strong need to include them in formulat- ing an action plan that extended to their administrations. The emission loads from industrial and domestic sources (especially for parameters NOx and SO2) should also be strictly controlled to the level below the assumption set for this impact analysis. The effect of implementing new emissions standards will be shown gradually, reflecting the rate of replacement of existing vehicles. As an alternative, applying a vehicle scrapping pro- gram will enhance the effectiveness of implementing the new emissions standard. If this is not adopted, the control target will inevitably extent beyond 2015. The impact analysis clearly indicated that advanced vehicle technology alone will not solve Ja- karta's air pollution problem, due to the high growth rate of passenger cars and motorcycles. An effective public transport system must be in place to cope with the transportation demand. All commercial vehicles should be equipped with more advanced vehicle technologies that nec- essarily go beyond EURO 2. A more stringent emissions standard should be set for motorcycles, especially to address THC. Health and Economic Impacts of the Counter Measures The previous section explained the air pollution abatement measures proposed for Jakarta. Among these measures, this study so far is only able to estimate the impact of ambient PM10, NO2 and SO2 in 2015 for the following three policies: (i) implementation of new-type vehicle emissions standard (A3), (ii) introduction of catalytic converters for Jakarta's taxis (A4), and (iii) development of public transportation management (A7). Hence, the health and economic im- pacts discussed here relate to these three policies only. Figure 10.2 presents the changes in health impacts caused by the three policies. The following example clarifies the way to read the table: The new vehicle emissions standard will prevent approximately 5.5% of South Jakarta's health problems associated with PM10 that may occur in 2015. As a result, the new vehicle emissions standard policy is more effective than introducing catalytic converters for taxis and public transportation management policies in reducing the health impacts associated with PM10, NO2 and SO2. It is interesting to observe that, in term of percentages, the reduction in health problems is not the same for all regions of Jakarta (Figure 10.2). Take the example of implementation of the new vehicle emissions standard. Central Jakarta has the greatest health benefit from a reduc- tion in PM10, while it is NO2 in North Jakarta and SO2 in West Jakarta. However, in terms of the number of cases, Figure 10.3 indicates that the largest reduction in health problems associated with PM10, NO2 and SO2 occurs in West Jakarta. Figure 10.4 shows the reduction in health costs associated with implementation of the three abatement policies. The percentage numbers are the percentage reduction of health cost caused by the implementation of an abatement policy compared to the base condition, i.e. no abatement policy. This demonstrates that the new vehicle emissions standard policy is more effective than installing catalytic converters in taxis and public transportation management INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 75 policies in reducing the health costs associated with PM10, NO2 and SO2. Most health cost re- ductions occur in West Jakarta. However, in term of percentage health cost reductions, Central Jakarta benefits the most from the implementation of these policies. The total health cost reduction that can be achieved in 2015 by implementing all three policies is approximately 429 billion rupiah. This reduction is equal to approximately 13% of Jakarta government's total revenue in 2000. Figure 10.2 Changes of 2015 Health Impacts Caused by the Proposed Action Plan in Various Parts of Jakarta A3 A4 A7 A3 A4 A7 A3 A4 A7 0% 20% Change of health effects 40% 60% 80% 100% North East South West Central Figure 10.3 Changes in the Incidence of 2015 Respiratory Symptom Cases by the Proposed Action Plan in Various Parts of Jakarta NO2 S O2 P M 10 Change in num ber of res piratory s y m ptom s c as es A3 A4 A7 A3 A4 A7 A3 A4 A7 0 1 in m illion 2 3 4 5 North E as t S outh W es t Central INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 76 Figure 10.4 Reduction in 2015 Health Costs Caused by the Proposed Action Plan in Various Parts of Jakarta A3 A4 A7 A3 A4 A7 0 0% Reduc tion in health c os t in in billion rupiah 20 20% Norm aliz ed reduc tion in health c os t 40 40% 60 60% 80 80% 100 100% North E as t S outh W es t Central CHAPTER 11 Implementation Arrangements and Follow Up The proposed Action Plan should enter the implementation phase in 2002, and will require targets for short, medium and long-term interventions. Prior to implementation of the plan, the current momentum should be maintained by developing short and medium term bridging arrangements for the interim period. Specific activities, which can be initiated, include: Strengthen the MEB MEB has played a key role in the formulation of the action plan and should continue its coor- dinating role. There are many activities to be carried out by several sectors and agencies that will benefit from MEB's aim to integrate efforts. MEB is still a new forum, and needs to be strengthened to continue to work effectively. This will require: ESTABLISHING A FORMAL WORKING MECHANISM FOR MEB MEB should be developed as a professional organization in order to have legitimacy to work on the implementation arrangements of the action plan. As a recognized organization, the working system and procedures of MEB will need to be refined. The organizational structure of MEB should be clear in order to identify who takes responsibil- ity for the progress of activities. A steering committee is the suggested form, which consists of representatives from central and local government, the private sector and civil society. The main responsibility of this committee should be to direct and monitor MEB's activities, includ- ing the action plan implementation process. This will also require a MEB coordinator with the mandate to organize all of MEB's activities, supported by the steering committee. PROVIDING FUNDS FOR THE CONTINUATION OF MEB MEB activities are currently funded by ADB's RETA 5937 project, which will be terminated by March 2002. The continuation of MEB is vital to assist implementation arrangements such as dissemination of the action plan to decision-makers, preparing document proposals, etc., and these kinds of activities will require funds and resources. ESTABLISH COORDINATION WORK AMONG SECTORS AND AGENCIES Some activities have linkages, and influences among sectors and agencies will involve them in action plan implementation. In order to integrate efforts, a coordinator will be required to rep- resent those sectors and agencies in organizing such activities. The coordinator will be deter- mined by the main issue to be dealt with in the implementation stage. DEVELOP MEB LINKAGES WITH SIMILAR ACTIVITIES MEB activities are part of some local and national programs on reducing air pollution, such as Clean Energy Use and the Blue Skies Program. MEB can play a role in facilitating linkages to INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 78 other similar programs, in order to exchange information and experiences. MEB should also be involved with local, national and international networking in order to enhance its capabilities Determine the Sequence and Timing of Implementation The sequence and timing of the implementation of activities is dependent upon internal and external factors. Internal factors consist of dependent and independent activities. Dependent activities are those that are linked to other activities in the action plan, and whose timing must be sequenced, i.e. one activity cannot be implemented unless another activity has been per- formed. Such dependent activities need to be categorized and their implementation se- quenced during the preparation phase. The first activity to be implemented becomes a critical determining factor for others. Independent activities are those that can be conducted without considering other activities on such a linked level, but they might influence or be influenced by others after dependent activi- ties have been carried out. External factors that must also be considered in preparing for implementation are government and donor policies. When the action plan is implemented, it must be carried out in a manner consistent with these policies in order that they support and harmonize with each other, and also to minimize constraints. In addition, as policies are changed, the implementation should be adjustable according to the needs or demands of the shift. In addition, the implementation schedule must involve all concerned sectors and agencies in order to determine and facilitate coordination among them. Assist in Preparing Proposal Documents Many activities have been identified in the action plan that will require funds and resources for their implementation. The budget proposed will be dependent on the scope of the work activi- ties. The bridge between the present time and action plan implementation is an ideal time to prepare official funding proposals for the plan's activities. Technical assistance might be re- quired to assist in such preparation. Financing for Action Plan Implementation The government is mainly responsible for organizing financial sources or allocating from the state budget or international institutions. Investment for air quality monitoring is basically allocated from environmental management budgets. Expenditure for urban transport improvements is allocated from the budget for localities 'pub- lic services' within the capital's urban public transport. Costs for studies and research on standards, pollution impact assessment, measurement and testing, alternative fuel consumption, the application of catalysts, etc. will be allocated mainly from both research and technology and environmental management budgets. The mobiliza- tion of international assistance, especially from ADB, World Bank, JICA, US AEP, can also con- tribute to finances for such study and researches. INTEGRATED VEHICLE EMISSION REDUCTION STRATEGY 79 REFERENCES _____. 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