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Question of the Week
How can I control Japanese beetle organically?
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Answer: First, I encourage you to visit ATTRA's Biorational Pest Management Database. Here's the link to the entry for Japanese beetle: https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals/search_results.php?pestType=&pestName=Japanese+Beetle&actingredients=&tradeName=&Submit+Search=Submit+Search. As you can see, there are 20 products registered for control of Japanese beetle.
As you probably already know, several of those products target the larval or grub stage in the soil, and there is a huge problem with that—the adults are quite mobile and regardless of how many grubs you kill in your soil, there can be adults flying in from as far away as five miles.
The traps are similar in that they might trap your local adult population, but new adults could still fly in. However, my experience has been that if you are diligent about cleaning out the traps every day or two, or whenever they get filled, you'll make a lot of progress in reducing beetle populations. The traps fail when they aren't cleaned out regularly.
There also are some homemade traps that work. I know that they work because they are my main method of control for both green June beetles and Japanese beetles. Here's a simple recipe found online:
Japanese Beetle Trap and Bait
The following bait and trap method is to be used during the height of the Japanese beetle season.
1 cup water
1/4 cup sugar
1 mashed banana
1 package yeast
Dissolve sugar and yeast in the water. Mix the well-mashed banana into the sugar water. Put all ingredients in a gallon milk jug. Place the jug (with the top off) in an area where Japanese Beetles gather. The fermentation and odor of the bait attracts the beetles, which get in but not out.
But my recipe is even simpler: put a few pieces of whatever overripe fruit you have in a five-gallon bucket, fill half-way with water, and place near the crop you're trying to protect. You can throw in a little wine, too. I scoop out the beetles with a slotted kitty litter shovel and stomp on them or throw them to the ducks and chickens. The chickens don't like the green June beetles, but the ducks do.
Finally, you will probably get the best results using a "push-pull" strategy. PUSH the beetles away from your crop with a pesticide or with the pest-repellent kaolin clay (Surround™) (again, see ATTRA's Biorational Pest Control Database for organic pesticides) and PULL them into your baited traps.
How can I propagate blackberries and figs?
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Answer: Blackberries are exceedingly easy to propagate from root cuttings. First, you have to get to the roots, so you can either come out from your mother plants 12 to 18 inches or so with a shovel or tractor-driven plow and turn up some roots. Or you can dig up whole plants, which is what I prefer to do. I usually do this in late winter or early spring.
Then, select some of the larger roots (pencil diameter or larger) and cut them into pieces roughly two-inches long. I store these in plastic bags in a walk-in cooler or refrigerator until I'm ready to line them out three to four inches apart in trenches about two inches deep and then cover them with soil. About the only thing that can go wrong is allowing the root pieces to dry out, so make sure the cuttings are just a tiny bit moist if you're storing them in plastic bags for very long, and be careful to not let the planted root pieces dry out in the field.
Figs are also quite easy to propagate. First, take pencil-diameter cuttings about three to six inches long. Make sure that the fig cuttings contain some of the wood from the previous year and are not all new wood for the best results.
Line the bottoms of trays or individual planters with newspaper. Add enough potting soil to the planters to allow the cuttings to stand upright (two to three inches). Place cuttings a few inches apart, making sure that the part of the cutting that was closest to the ground when you took the cutting goes down, and water the soil until moist.
Place the trays or planters in a bright, warm location that does not receive direct sunlight. The cuttings will root most effectively in temperatures above 70 degrees F. Water the cuttings only when the soil is completely dry.
When three to five leaves have emerged on each sprout, transplant the rooted fig cuttings directly into the ground or into larger pots. Fertilize to encourage growth.
You can learn more about blackberry production in the ATTRA publication Organic Culture of Bramble Fruits, available at
What can you tell me about growing tart cherries in the South?
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Answer: I'd say your chances for growing tart cherries successfully are good to very good. The tart cherry, Prunus cerasus, is much better adapted to the upper South than is the sweet cherry, P. avium. Note that sweets and tarts are separate and distinct species. The biggest banes of sweet cherries--brown rot and bacterial canker--are only minor problems on tart cherries.
Leaf spot and powdery mildew on the leaves will probably be your biggest problems. They usually don't appear until after harvest. They don't hurt the fruit but can weaken the tree if they get so bad that they defoliate, which, in the South, is not uncommon. Sulfur works on both and baking soda products, like Kaligreen™, are good for powdery mildew.
Regarding rootstocks, there are some newer ones that might do well for you, but the standard seedling rootstock Mahaleb will probably do fine in your sandy loam soils. If you have any doubt about the drainage at the site you choose, you might want to berm up the soil a little (just 12 to 18 inches higher than the surrounding ground should suffice). For more information on the newer rootstocks, consult the ATTRA publication Cherries: Organic Production at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=460. There is a chart summarizing their characteristics on page 5.
All soft fruits are perishable, and I'd say cherries are no better or worse as long as the stems remain on the fruits. The problem is that when picking, the stem often pulls off right where it joins with the fruit and leaves an open, juicy scar. So, first, try to pick so that the stems remain on the fruit (some will get away from you). Secondly, refrigerate as soon as possible after picking. And, lastly, have a marketing plan in place that will allow you to get them to your buyers as soon after harvest as possible.
I've fooled around with several tart cherry varieties over the years, and I have yet to find anything better than the old Montmorency. It's self-pollinating, so you don't have to get other varieties, but you'll probably want to just for fun!
How can I find a farming internship in the Northeast?
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Answer: A good place to start is ATTRA's internship database, one of the most utilized farm internship sites in the country. You can narrow a search by location or by enterprise. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/internships/.
It is also a good idea to check with each state's sustainable/organic farming organization. These organizations usually have listings online or in their classified newsletter sections.
Starting in Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania Association for Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) hosts a jobs/internship listing at www.pasafarming.org/classifieds/sections/jobs-interships.
Moving North, each individual state in New England (except Maine) has its own chapter for NOFA (Northeast Organic Farming Association). The main NOFA website is www.nofa.org and you can access each state's website from there. In addition, NOFA publishes a fantastic journal, The Natural Farmer, and you may want to get the latest issue to search through its classified ads for internships.
Maine has its own state organization, Maine Organic Farming & Gardening Association (MOFGA), which is another great resource. To learn more, visit www.mofga.org/.
Here are a few additional possibilities:
Northeast Sustainable Agriculture Working Group
Beginning Farmers
Rodale Institute
What can you tell me about saving seed and associated disease issues?
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Answer: Occasionally seed-borne diseases can be spread when saving seed. It is not very often that this occurs, however, and I wouldn't discourage you from seed saving because of this. Two diseases that are more commonly spread via seed are black rot and Tomato Mosaic virus. It is important when saving seed to harvest seed from your healthiest plants. If there is any sign of disease, do not harvest seed from it.
The exception in seed saving that you should be mindful of is "seed" or plants that are propagated vegetatively, such as potatoes and garlic. A host of diseases (and nematodes) are unfortunately carried in the tubers and can be transmitted once they are planted in the soil. Be sure to carefully inspect tubers and garlic bulbs to ensure that they do not have any blemishes or signs of disease in their production cycle and on the tubers themselves.
I would also recommend an invaluable resource for seed saving titled Seed to Seed, by Suzanne Ashworth, if you do not have it already. It lists most types of garden seeds with specific directions for each one. Some seed saving can be complicated if the plants are cross pollinated and require isolation and hand pollination to save seed. This book outlines the best methods in doing this. It is available at www.seedsavers.org/onlinestore/SSE-Books/Seed-To-Seed.html. It is also available at a variety of retail outlets, so you might check your local bookstore or library.
Can you help me understand the different types of hydroponic systems?
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Answer: In its most basic definition, hydroponic production is the production of plants in a nutrient solution rather than soil. Many variations on this theme exist, but most production occurs in greenhouses. The investment required for a hydroponic greenhouse is typically higher than in-ground greenhouse production, but you have more flexibility with the plants and can grow in higher density, as well as charge a premium, so the returns can be higher.
There are two basic hydroponic systems, non-recycled nutrient, where the nutrient solution is used once, and recycled nutrient systems. There are many variations within those two, but I will explain how they both work below.
Non-recycled Nutrient Solution
Perhaps the most simplified system for producing greenhouse vegetables is where the floor of the greenhouse is used as the media for growing plants. This system can be on the ground or in a bed or trough, but usually consists of sand, perlite, pine bark, or gravel approximately 10 to 12 inches deep, separated from the underlying soil by a plastic barrier. To provide adequate drainage, a drain line should be installed under each pair of rows. Drain lines should be approximately 1 ¼ inches deep for sand and 3 inches deep for bark, with a fall of 2 inches per 100 feet of row.
Irrigation water and nutrients are supplied by a drip system with enough emitters per plant to provide sufficient quantities of solution. Leachates should be monitored frequently for total dissolved solids. When levels exceed 3500 ppm, media should be leached with water until leachates are less than 1,000 ppm.
Many greenhouse vegetables can also be grown in containers using the same type of media discussed for bed and trough culture. Containers should be of sufficient size to provide good aeration and drainage. Three- to five-gallon containers appear to be best. Irrigation water and nutrient solutions are supplied by a drip-irrigation system.
Bag culture is similar to the use of containers with the only exception being that plants are grown in the bag that contains the growing media. In this growing system, plants are handled just as if they were in a container.
Recycled Nutrient Solution
This can be used with gravel as medium or in troughs and the nutrient solution is pumped through the plants no less than every 30 minutes. The tank that contains the bulk nutrient solution should be of a capacity to supply three gallons per plant. Beds are irrigated to about 1" below the surface of the gravel and the tank refilled with the premixed nutrient solution daily or at least once every third day. The nutrient solution should be monitored frequently for total solids and replaced when levels approach 3,500 ppm.
The Nutrient Film Technique was invented in Britain but is commonly used for smaller crops such as herbs and lettuce. The plants are placed in shallow plastic troughs and the nutrient solution is continually pumped over the roots without any medium to hold the plants. The troughs are on a slope, so the nutrient solution is constantly recirculating.
To learn more about hydroponics, consult the following resources:
Cornell University Controlled Environment Agriculture program
There are many manuals and resources for Controlled Environment Agriculture (hydroponics) on the program web page.
Resh, Howard. 2013. Hydroponic Food Production: A Definitive Guidebook for the Advanced Home Gardener and the Commercial Hydroponic Grower. Seventh Edition.
This is a comprehensive guide to soilless culture with extensively new and updated contents from the previous edition published in 2001.
Can I treat a cow with frostbitten teats without drying her up?
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Answer: Drying your cow up is probably the easiest and most reliable treatment. The action of the milking machine or hand milking will irritate the scab and delay its healing. However, if you do not want to dry her up, and I don't blame you, this is what I would do:
At the end of each milking, dip the teat with a non-iodine based teat dip. You need to use a teat dip that is nonirritating. Consult your dairy dealer. Take some gauze that is sized to cover the scabbed area on the teat. Put some honey on the gauze. It does not have to be a lot, just enough to cover the scabbed area. Next, get some ¾-inch cloth medical tape; cut it into two four- to five-inch pieces. Form the two pieces of tape into a "cross" and stick the gauze with honey onto the tape. Arrange this assembly on the teat so that the gauze and tape bandage covers the entire bottom of the teat and the scabbed area. Finish by cutting a six-inch piece of tape and wrapping it around the top of the teat so it secures the cross bandage to the teat. Honey is a very good antibacterial agent and also very healing. I used Vitamin E until I discovered honey.
The scabbed frostbite tissue must heal from the inside out. It will take about 60 days. So that is about 120 bandages per teat that you will have to make. Since your cow is not bred yet, I would be inclined to try this treatment. It costs a lot of money to feed a dry cow. In addition, dairy cows breed back easier if they are lactating.
Be aware that frostbit, scabbed teats make the cow very susceptible to Staphylococcus mastitis, which is a very bad condition. It remains in the cow's udder and often is incurable. That is the risk you take.
Of course, in hindsight, it is best to try and prevent frostbit teats. Check with your local dairy dealer. He will have a dip or powder that you can dip the teats in whenever it gets below 20 degrees F. They work very well. If for some reason you cannot find some frost dip, you can make some out of Vaseline and scarlet oil (get this from your vet). Put about 10 cc of scarlet oil in the small tub of Vaseline. Rub it into the Vaseline with your forefinger, incorporating only enough Vaseline to make a rose-colored mix. Apply this mix liberally to the teats after each milking. This scarlet oil/Vaseline mix is good to about 0 degrees F, including wind chill. It will soften the skin and provide a protective layer. The frost dips protect the teats to minus 30 degrees F or so.
You must be patient because healing your cow will be a long process. Strive to be very clean when you are working with the affected teats. Staphylococcus bacteria are all over the scab. When you wash with soap her before milking, get each teat very clean.
To learn more about topics related to livestock production, visit ATTRA's Livestock and Pasture section at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/.
What can you tell me about the use of Bradford pear as a rootstock?
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Answer: Bradford pear belongs to the "wild" species Pyrus calleryana. Bradford is simply a selection from that species, chosen for ornamental purposes. Bradford is actually budded or grafted onto seedlings of P. calleryana, which may or may not (due to the genetic variability of seedlings) closely resemble Bradford.
Callery, as the nurserymen call it, is a somewhat common rootstock for pears, especially for the southern U.S. where it is well adapted to the heat and challenging soil conditions. Bradford has fallen out of favor with horticulturists in large part because of the weed-like spread of seedlings from seeds distributed by birds. But the same thing that makes those seedlings "weed trees" makes it an excellent rootstock. You almost can't kill it!
I don't use Bradford, per se, as my pear rootstock, but I do use callery seedlings, which is almost the same. I buy the rootstocks from specialty nurseries in Oregon, but one could simply take some of the little pear fruits from the Bradford in the autumn and start plants from those. Also, if a person had a bunch of callery sprouts already on a piece of land, you could bud or graft them in place. Grafting to large Bradfords would also be possible but considerably more trouble.
To learn more about pear production, consult the ATTRA publication Pears: Organic Production. This introduction to commercial organic pear production covers pear diseases, disease-resistant cultivars, rootstocks, insect and mite pests, and their treatment, Asian pears, and marketing. Two profiles of organic pear growers are included. Electronic and print resources are provided for further research. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=7.
What should I look for when buying a used manure spreader?
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Answer: When you are purchasing a used manure spreader, look for these things:
1. General appearance. Is it beat up from misuse? Look at the sides. Are they rusted? Is the bottom made of wood with a poly cover? Avoid metal beds, even the Cor–Ten steel ones.
2. Is the frame twisted?
3. Rock the wheels. Is the bearing play correct? Not too loose?
4. Are the apron flats bent? Are they perpendicular to the box sides?
5. What type of apron chain links does the machine have? In my experience, the strongest are the square ones. Avoid the links that look like roller chain. How good of shape are the links? It is best to check and see if you can get replacement links. Confirm this by buying two to four. They are not very expensive and you may need them in the future. The same goes for the apron flats.
6. Check the lube level in the gearbox. Is it at the correct level? This can speak volumes for the care the spreader has been given.
7. Is the apron chain adjusted correctly? Are the two sides of the chain in equal tension? If they are not, it is possible for the looser chain links to skip a link as they goes over the drive cog, misaligning the accompanying apron flat and bending it as it goes over the spreader end.
8. Are the beaters all present? If one is missing, it will cause the beater cylinder to be out of balance, causing undue bearing stress.
9. Check the bearings and universal joints. Have they been greased regularly? A good way to check this is to note excess grease that has spun out. If there is no grease at all around the bearing housing, I would be wary.
10. Check PTO. Nearly all small spreaders are 540 RPM. Make sure it matches your tractor PTO RPM.
11. Slide the PTO shaft in and out. Make sure it slides easily. If the shaft has been dropped and a dimple is in the guard tube, the shaft will not slide easily. This is a real pain. Also check that the universal crosses have been greased. Does the PTO latching mechanism on the shaft work securely?
12. If there are any hydraulics, such as for an end gate, check the hoses. Are the hydraulic fittings compatible with your tractor's? They do make different tips, so it is best to check. These tips are easily changed out.
13. If the gear box needs work, most bearings and gears should be stock. A machine shop can rebuild the gearbox for you.
To learn more about topics related to compost and manure, check out the resources on ATTRA's Soils & Compost page at https://attra.ncat.org/soils.html.
Can I dig up fruit trees and pot them in very early spring to sell in the fall?
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Answer: You should be able to transplant the trees into pots anytime they're dormant and the ground isn't frozen. However, be aware that if temperatures plummet after they're in pots, the roots will be more subject to cold damage than if they had remained in the ground. In such a case, you might want to cluster the potted trees together and pile some sort of bulky mulch (straw or leaves should work) around and maybe even over the pots. If it were me, I'd wait a while longer to avoid having to worry about freezing, perhaps early March.
To learn more, check out the ATTRA publication Tree Fruits: Organic Production Overview. This publication provides an overview of issues relevant to commercial organic production of temperate-zone tree fruits and, to a lesser extent, tree nuts. It includes discussions of marketing and economics, orchard design, and cultural considerations, including crop varieties, site selection, site preparation, soil fertility, weed control, and pest management (insects, diseases, and vertebrates). It raises questions for the grower to consider in making decisions about orchard and enterprise design. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=2.
You might also be interested in the many resources on our Horticultural Crops webpage at https://attra.ncat.org/horticultural.html.
How do I know when my lambs are correctly finished?
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Answer: Harvesting your animals at exactly the right time is very important. Lambs that are over- or under-finished will produce meat that is less desirable to consumers. Mastering the ability to determine when your lambs are correctly finished at 0.20 to 0.25 inch of back fat can result in a superior product in the marketplace, one that surpasses your competitors and creates demand among consumers.
Even if you're just raising lambs for your own consumption, using this technique will create a premium meat and thus a superior dining experience. As an added bonus, you can also reduce unnecessary finishing costs.
Feeling for Twenty Hundreds
As a lamb matures, it builds muscle first and puts on fat later. The spinal and lumbar regions are two places where it is easy to gauge the amount of fat on the animal. These areas are also where the highest-quality cuts – the rack and the loin chops – are located.
During the final two months of finishing, fat is deposited along the sides and top of the spine (racks), filling in the sharp recesses. Simultaneously, fat is being deposited along the sides of the lumbar processes (loin chops) – the bony protuberances – smoothing out the ridges.
As luck would have it, we all have a convenient, built-in "gauge" for determining how much back fat is present on the animal—our hands. Make a tight fist with your right hand and then run your fingers over the set of knuckles that your fingers are attached to. It feels like the Rocky Mountains. That is what the backbone, or spine, of an unfinished lamb feels like. Now, extend the fingers of your right hand and feel across those same knuckles. Quite a difference. You have just simulated the top of a finished lamb. In a properly finished lamb, the spinal processes are covered with a layer of fat that is about 0.20 inch thick. That is a skinny quarter inch. As your finished lamb stands in the race (the chute that serves to restrain them) alongside of you, run your fingers up and down the backbone, visualizing in your mind that skinny quarter inch of fat. Does the lamb show it?
Does the Fat Slip?
When the lamb has 0.20 inch of back fat, you will also be able to feel the fat slide across the backbone in such a way that it seems to "slip" as you move your fingers over the backbone. This is characteristic of 0.20 inch of back fat. Fat covers of less than 0.20 inch will not slip, while covers of 0.30 inch or more will tend to "roll" over the spinal processes instead of slipping. Additionally, a 0.30 inch or greater thickness of back fat seems to move as one whole layer, producing a "jiggling" effect as your hand moves it rapidly.
Guard against over-finished lambs—process them before they become too fat. If you can consistently produce lamb that is properly finished, you will achieve one of your primary goals: a differentiated product. As such, your lamb will rise above others in the marketplace for its quality.
Want to see this technique in action? Check out the ATTRA video Putting a Hand on Them—How to Tell When Your Lamb is Finished, available at www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbBrR3UGvsY. Also see our fact sheet by the same name at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=459.
How can I thresh small grains by hand?
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Answer: Threshing—the act of physically breaking the grain kernel out of the plants seed head—is done by some form of beating. With small amounts of grain, it can be done by beating the grain heads against the inside of a clean container such as a bucket. As the grain kernels break free, they also bring with them smaller structures of the head, such as the awns, glumes, and small pieces of the stems, which are all described as chaff. With larger amounts of grain, you can use a clean concrete surface or a blanket or tarp and use a flail.
Once the grain has been separated from the head and you have collected the grain kernels, these need to be separated from the chaff. This is done by passing air over a downward-falling grain stream through a stream of wind. That wind can be outdoors or easily created using a household electrical fan.
There is an excellent YouTube video entitled Grain Thresher Design and Winnowing-How To, which illustrates several home-designed threshing devices using an electrical drill with some pieces of chain and a five-gallon bucket for threshing and using a household fan for winnowing. It is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDr8VF2QIPM.
To learn more about topics related to small grains, visit the Field Crops section of ATTRA's website at https://attra.ncat.org/field.html.
What can you tell me about starting an alpaca or llama farm?
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Answer: Llamas or alpacas can be a good addition to a farm or ranch—alpacas as an alternative livestock enterprise and llamas as guard animals or recreational animals. They fit well into a diversified farming operation. Marginal pastureland is suitable for raising llamas and alpacas, with some supplemental feeding under certain conditions.
There are currently more than 158,000 llamas and more than 170,000 registered alpacas in North America. Both llamas and alpacas are members of the Camelidae family. The llama and alpaca have been domesticated in South America for many centuries. There the llama is used as a beast of burden, as a fiber source, and as a meat source. The alpaca is used primarily for fiber production but is also as a meat source in South America.
Llamas and alpacas are quiet, intelligent, easily trained animals that can provide fleece and potentially a variety of services to the owner. They are adaptable to different climates and terrains. Alpacas and llamas offer a comparatively low-impact livestock alternative. Their padded feet do not have the same effect on the ground as hooves. In addition, they have efficient digestive systems and tend to consolidate feces, helping to control parasites and ease manure collection.
Before starting a llama or alpaca enterprise, it is advisable to visit as many existing llama or alpaca operations as possible, to pick up ideas and learn about options. Pay particular attention to regional farms because care and feeding may vary in different parts of the country due to climate, parasites, and terrain. Each llama or alpaca operation is unique. Gathering many ideas will help in creating an operation that suits a producer's particular situation.
Previously, when starting to raise either alpacas or llamas, the initial capital investment in breeding stock was fairly substantial. Though stock can still be expensive, since the mid-1990s the price of most llamas has been reasonable, and the price of alpacas has decreased as their numbers in the United States have grown. Raising llamas or alpacas is considered a high-risk enterprise by banks and other agencies and, consequently, a large owner investment is usually needed to obtain a loan.
As with any agricultural business, there are potential tax advantages associated with llama and alpaca production. If the animals are actively raised for profit by the owner, expenses such as food and veterinary care can be written off.
Alpacas are classed as livestock, which enables farmers to operate under agricultural business rules. According to the Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association, there may also be tax benefits for passive owners who invest in alpacas. It is important for llama and alpaca owners to stay current with tax law changes.
Before considering a camelid operation, find out whether any permits or licenses are required for raising llamas or alpacas in your state. The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service website links to states' and U.S. territories' import regulations for animals and contact information for state veterinarians. For more information, visit www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/animals/animal_import/animal_imports_states.shtml.
The property where llamas or alpacas will reside must be zoned for livestock. Check with your zoning authority before you purchase any animals. In addition, note that transporting llamas or alpacas across state lines can require considerable paperwork, testing, and vaccinations. Consult with your veterinarian or your state veterinary office for rules and requirements on interstate transport of llamas and alpacas.
To learn more, consult the ATTRA publication Llamas and Alpacas on the Farm, available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=406.
Where can I find funding for a sustainable agriculture project?
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Answer: There are many different funding sources, programs, and grants for agricultural production. Finding a program that matches your project will require that you spend some time exploring the many different options.
An excellent place to start is the USDA Small Farm Funding Resources, available online at www.nal.usda.gov/ric/ricpubs/small_farm_funding.htm. This guide contains information about funding sources for beginning farmers, training, technical assistance contacts, organizations with resources and programs for beginning and experienced farmers, and more.
USDA's Alternative Farming Systems Information Center has compiled a list of useful resources and contacts that you should explore. It is available at http://afsic.nal.usda.gov/where-can-i-find-agricultural-funding-resources.
Building Sustainable Farms, Ranches and Communities, available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=279, and NSAC's Grassroots Guide to Federal Farm and Food Programs, available at http://sustainableagriculture.net/publications/grassrootsguide/, both offer information on federal grants and programs. For most of the federal programs, women receive some priority in funding. These two guides can help you find programs that may fit your project. The FSA Microloan Program is a newer program that is typically easier to qualify for and access than some of the other grant and loan programs.
Also useful are the ATTRA publications Financing Your Farm: Guidance for Beginning Farmers, available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=381, and Federal Conservation Resources for Sustainable Farming and Ranching, available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=280.
Finally, ATTRA posts funding opportunities daily on its website at https://attra.ncat.org/calendar/funding.php.
Is feeding brewer's grain to steers beneficial? How much should I feed per head?
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Answer: I foresee no problems with substituting wet brewer's grains for one-third of the corn-oats-barley (COB) grain ration you are feeding your finishing steers. The University of Florida produced a useful publication titled Wet Brewers' Grains for Beef Cattle, available at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/an241. This publication includes a description of how to feed brewer's grains, as well as the nutrient composition.
You mentioned that you are presently feeding your 800-pound steers 20 pounds of hay and seven to eight pounds of COB. As they finish, you are feeding an 1,100-pound steer 10 pounds of COB and approximately 23 pounds of hay. This is well within the limits of a hay-grain finishing ration and it should not cause acidosis.
By substituting brewer's grains for one third of the COB ration, you would be replacing about one-third of eight pounds, or 2.6 pounds of the COB dry matter with brewer's grains. Since the brewer's grains are approximately 25% dry matter, you would feed 8 pounds X 1/3 X 90% / 25%= 9.4 pounds of actual brewer's grains for an 800-pound animal. For simplicity, you could round that up to 10 pounds. This reflects the fact that brewer's grains are approximately 25% dry matter as opposed to 90% dry matter for COB.
However, brewer's grains can vary in moisture content. It would be a good idea to have your brewer's grains tested by a lab to get the full nutrient analysis. Dry-matter percentage would be one of the test results. This would give you a more accurate adjustment from which to feed the brewer's grains. For example, if the dry matter percentage of brewer's grains came back at 30% dry matter, you would feed three pounds of brewer's grains to every one pound of COB (90%/30%=3.0) substituted. If this were the case, you would only feed 7.8 pounds of brewer's grains to the 800-pound steer. As you can see, the amount of moisture in the brewer's grains does make a difference in how much you feed.
I think that at this rate of substitution, you would not have problems with barley bloat. However, it would be a good idea to make the transition over a week or 10 days. Just add a little more brewer's grains to the grain mix every feeding, subtracting out the equivalent amount of COB as you go.
To learn more about a wide array of topics related to cattle production, visit ATTRA's Livestock and Pasture page at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/.
Without a spreader, could one adequately make compost by turning windrows of straw/manure, provided the C:N ratio and moisture levels are correct?
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Answer: Yes, you could make the compost without a spreader by layering one and a half to two parts of straw to one part of manure and building the pile up to at least five feet high. Higher would be better—the more mass, the more habitat. You have to be conscious of aeration, though. Big piles must be watched closely to make sure you don't stall out on oxygen. If you ever turn your pile or windrow and there is a white crust or flakes spread throughout a section, that means that part of the pile ran out of oxygen and went anaerobic on you. It's easily fixed by turning, but it does slow the finished process down in order to get a uniform product.
A spreader has the advantage of cutting the material into smaller size and mixing, speeding up things a little, and perhaps making a more uniform product faster. But there is no reason why you could not make the compost with a loader.
For more information on composting, check out ATTRA's Soils & Compost page, where you'll find links to a host of useful information. It's available at https://attra.ncat.org/soils.html. Also check out our new video, Composting! You Can Do It, available at https://attra.ncat.org/video/
How does soil salinity affect crop production?
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Answer: Increased soil salinity levels can greatly effect plant growth and production. Some soils are naturally high in salinity but most salinity problems on farms are increased by farm practices. In arid regions of the country, irrigation water can build salinity in soils. Adding fertilizers containing salts can also built up salinity levels if there is not enough rain to flush the soils, or in high tunnel production where soils are not exposed to the weather.
Electrical conductivity of soil or irrigation water is used as a means of testing levels of salinity. This is usually measured in deciSiemens per meter (dS/m) and the higher the number, the higher the salinity. You can buy an electrical conductivity meter for about $150.
In general, levels above 1 dS/m are getting high for vegetable crops, but specific thresholds for different crops can be found in the University of Vermont Center for Sustainable Agriculture publication titled High Tunnels. It is available at www.uvm.edu/sustainableagriculture/Documents/HighTunnels.pdf. Pages 56 and 57 of this publication talk about the causes of soil salinity, testing, salinity levels that effect different crops and possible solutions. The chart on page 56 lists the threshold salinity level for individual crops before production starts to drop. Salinity is talked about here in the context of high tunnel production in the east, but the thresholds are the same wherever you are growing crops.
Colorado extension also has an excellent fact sheet on soil salinity, titled Managing Saline Soils. It discusses the causes of soil salinity, its effect on plants, and how to manage soil salinity. You can access this fact sheet at www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/00503.html.
To learn more about healthy soil, check out the Soils & Compost section of the ATTRA website at https://attra.ncat.org/soils.html.
What can you tell me about getting started with aquaponics?
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Answer: In starting an aquaponic garden, one of the most important things to do is a fishless cycle with pure ammonia to build up the nitrifying bacteria. This step requires patience and should not be rushed. Some resources mention the use of feeder goldfish to start. However, unless you have a very reputable source, feeder goldfish are usually parasite-ridden, and you won't know it until six months into production when all the fish end up dead.
At the beginning, it is also recommended to create a way to take the fish out of the system in case they need to be treated for ich, fungus, etc. This is usually called a hospital tank, and should be appropriate for the size and number of fish in the system. For example, my colleague has a 300-gallon system and his hospital tank is a 50-gallon storage tote.
The ATTRA publication Aquaponics — Integration of Hydroponics with Aquaculture provides an introduction to aquaponics with brief profiles of working units around the country. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=56.
There are lots of other good resources available that discuss all aspects of aquaponics, including the following:
The Aquaponics Association
Promotes the benefits of aquaponics through education and outreach.
Stout, Meg. 2013. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Aquaponic Gardening. Indianapolis, IN. Alpha Books. Available at: http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00BR4SAK0/ref=oh_d__o09_details_o09__i00?ie=UTF8&psc=1.
A comprehensive guide to aquaponic gardening, from choosing a setup to selecting fish and vegetables. In addition to everything one needs to know to run a healthy aquaponics garden and care for both the vegetables and fish, there are step-by-step plans with photos for building different size systems. The author fully explains how to garden indoors and how to resize and move a garden inside or outside, depending on the season, to produce an abundant supply of edible, organically-raised vegetables and fish.
Bright Agrotech
Bright Agrotech's Vertical Food Blog has lots of free resources and its YouTube videos do a great job explaining everything from water to nutrients, although their content is a bit light on fish.
Backyard Aquaponic Systems
An online forum for discussing aquaponics.
Growing Power
A non-profit urban farm and training program in Milwaukee and Chicago. Much of its production focuses on aquaponics. Growing Power offers trainings on aquaponics at its farm locations as well as at regional training centers. Its website also contains resources on aquaponics.
What can you tell me about starting an organic orchard for hard cider production in Minnesota?
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Answer: Commercial organic apple production is possible in Minnesota, but it is complicated compared to conventional production and compared to organic production in drier parts of the nation, like Washington state. The ATTRA publication Apples: Organic Production includes a case study of Hoch Orchards and Gardens in LeCrescent, Minnesota. The fact that the Hoch family has successfully produced organic apples in Minnesota should be encouraging to you. Besides this useful case study, this publication includes a host of information that can help you with your decision-making process. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=4.
You've probably already found the "sudden" nationwide enthusiasm for hard cider encouraging. Of course, there is nothing sudden about it, if you know anything about American history, but there is certainly a resurgence of interest in hard cider production, and the apple industry cannot find enough good cider apples to fuel this interest.
But simply finding enough cider apples or enough cider-type apple trees is not the only problem with growing apples for cider. In a nutshell, these old cider varieties are mostly English and French cultivars, and their adaptability to U.S. conditions vary. Some are disease susceptible, most aren't heavy producers, and many may simply not be adapted to your harsh winters. Foxwhelp, Jamaica Black, Michelin, Bulmer's Norman, Hyslop Crab, and Chisel Jersey are the names of some of the apple cultivars with the bitterness that distinguish gourmet ciders.
At this point in the growth of the apple cider industry, and because of the popularity of artisanal beers, growers seem to be going for "gourmet quality" as established by producers/history in England, France, and New England, and this seems to tie them to these old cultivars. However, as in wine, the finished flavor has as much to do with the making of the cider as it does with the varieties going into that cider. You probably could never make a gourmet-quality cider with just Red Delicious or Gala, but with some experimentation you should be able to get an excellent cider from combining the juice of several good apples in the right proportions. And if some of those apples are old heirloom cultivars with proven adaptability to cold climates, like Fireside, Haralson, and Wolf River, you will be able to use this to your advantage in marketing your final product. These heirloom cultivars evoke romance and nostalgia, and you can definitely take advantage of those traits in marketing.
In my opinion, it is more important to get apple cultivars that are adapted to Minnesota, produce in abundance, and have complementary traits for blending into a good stock juice: high sugar content, aromatic, high acids, and some bitterness. You could conceivably get all the bitter component from a crab apple that is adapted to Minnesota. I think that getting varieties that are amenable to organic production in Minnesota (high level of disease resistance) is more important than getting these old cider varieties.
Additional Resources:
Managing apple scab on ornamental trees and shrub
Cider business flourishes
Cider demand outstrips supply
The hard trials of growing cider apples
Would woven black plastic work for suppressing weeds in an orchard?
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Answer: Weed control is a huge challenge for organic growers in any system, but perennial fruits are particularly problematic because it's difficult to use weed-control techniques like rotations and smother crops without some danger of damaging roots and trees. The use of fabric mulch in high-density orchards is not unusual anymore but it's widely understood that it's only effective for two to five years. However, those first few years of a fruit tree's growth are very important, and suppressing competing weeds during that period is highly desirable. Given the price of weed control, especially organic weed control, the economics of using fabric mulch is competitive. To learn more, consult Weed Barrier Fabric Mulch for Tree & Shrub Plantings from Kansas State University.
The reason fabric mulch becomes less effective over time is that blowing mower debris and seed settle on top of the mulch. Subsequently, the weed seed germinates on top of this layer of duff and plant roots eventually penetrate between the weave and weeds become established. Covering the fabric layer with wood chips greatly extends the effectiveness of the fabric mulch.
There are different grades of fabric mulch, some seeming more fabric-like and more easily torn, and some thinner or thicker. In my nursery, I've used different grades over the years and I've come to rely most on heavy, reusable grades like Pro-5, but I pull it up, move it, and re-use it every year or every other year because of the planting cycles of the nursery. In an orchard situation, you wouldn't have to do that; it would just stay in place.
My recommendation is to use a heavy-grade fabric mulch if you're not going to cover it with wood chips. If you are going to cover with chips, it would not be as important to get the heavy grades; you could go with something cheaper.
For more information on managing weeds, check out these ATTRA publications:
Sustainable Weed management for Small and Medium-Scale Farms
Principles of Sustainable Weed Management for Croplands
Is it better to use pelleted or loose chicken manure to fertilize Bermuda grass hay stands?
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Answer: There are two issues that should help you decide which source to use. The first issue deals with the type of spreader system you have available. The pellets offer an easier and more uniform product to spread on the hay ground and a simple cyclone spreader or a Gandy-type box spreader works well. With dry broiler-house manure, the challenge is often getting the box-type manure spreaders adjusted down to a low enough rate to get coverage that doesn't over-apply, especially with a higher nutrient analysis chicken house manure.
The second issue is cost. Are pellets or chicken-house manure cheaper? You can make an informed decision if you compare the analysis of pellets' nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium content per pound compared to that of the chicken-house manure. Our research in the northeastern United States shows nutrient ranges between 79-62-42 to 66-63-47 (per ton) based on the weight of the broilers. That makes for a simple comparison of the value per pound of plant nutrients. There would be little difference in the relative availability of the nitrogen since both sources have some type of wood/saw dust filler included either as the bedding in the chicken house or in the ground-up pellet formulation.
To learn more, check out the resources in the Livestock & Pasture section of the ATTRA website at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/.
How can I determine ripeness of an unknown pear on my property?
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Answer: There are several indicators of ripeness or impending ripeness, including the following:
1) The abscission "scar" on the stem breaks cleanly when you push up and away on the fruit. This is a spot on the stem that is bigger than the rest of the stem and usually shows a thin but clear line around the stem. This is where the fruit is attached to the spur on the limb, and when the fruit is "physiologically" ripe, it will break cleanly away from that spur right at the abscission scar, leaving a full stem with a little knob at the top. "Physiologically ripe" for pome fruit (pears, apples, quinces) means that the seeds are mature, and the fruit continue to ripen after it is picked. It does not mean that it will taste super ripe or sweet, just that the seeds are ripe and that the fruit will continue to ripen off the tree.
2) The seeds are brown and hard and difficult to cut with a knife.
3) The flesh will give just a little to thumb pressure near the stem.
4) There is no starchy flavor or astringency. You'll probably have to compare ripe and unripe fruits to see this, but there is actually a starch test. However, since this is an unknown variety, we can't say with too much accuracy how to interpret the test. Here is information on the starch test from the University of Kentucky:
"Starch-iodine Testing: As fruit mature, starch is converted to soluble sugars. Iodine turns starch black; therefore, an iodine solution can be used to determine the amount of starch remaining in the fruit. A solution of 10 grams of potassium iodide and 2.5 grams of iodine in 1 liter of water should be used. During mixing and use of this solution, make sure the area is well ventilated—iodine fumes are toxic. This solution should be stored in a plastic or glass container as it is corrosive to metals. Providing the container is well stoppered, the solution will keep for long periods of time. Fruit should be cut in half through the equator and the cut surface dipped or sprayed with the iodine solution from a plastic spray bottle. The starch patterns will develop in approximately 1 minute. As fruit mature, starch clears from the core first, followed by the cortex. These patterns will be slightly different for each variety. The starch index at which fruit should be harvested depends on the intended length of storage. As a guide, fruit destined for storage should be harvested at a starch-iodine index of 4 to 5, whereas fruit for immediate sale should be harvested at an index of 6 to 7. As with any indicator of fruit maturity, the starch-iodine index should be used in combination with other maturity tests."
5) Testing soluble solids with a refractometer. Again, since we don't know the variety, this test would be somewhat useless this year, but if you have a refractometer already, you could begin to take readings on sequential days and compare the readings to your own taste test, write it down somewhere in a record book and you will have begun to provide a guideline for future harvests.
6) Taste. This isn't quite as easy as it sounds with European-type pears because so many of them reach their highest sugars and flavors after being "cured" off the tree. In fact, some of the old varieties with grit cells, like Keiffer, can barely be eaten when they're ready to come off the tree but must be cured before the grit cells disappear.
7) Number of drops around the tree. Unless there's just been a big windstorm, you can guess that fruit is ripening just by the rate of dropped fruit around the base of the tree. Obvious, perhaps, but this is still useful because some fruits just don't look ripe or, like Keiffer, don't "feel" ripe because of the grit cells. So if you see a bunch of drops, but the fruit is still hard and gritty, don't be fooled. This fruit is likely ripe and just needs curing on your table top.
For more information on all aspects of pear production, consult the ATTRA publication Pears: Organic Production, available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=7.
How can we convert our pastures from toxic fescue to novel endophyte fescue without chemical burndown?
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Answer: Do you currently have reproductive problems, reduced weight gains, or other issues connected to grazing fescue? If not, and your animals have adapted and produce well on fescue, then it likely won't make much economic sense to spend lots of time and money trying to convert to novel fescue, although a novel fescue will likely increase your average daily gain. I'm assuming you have other forages and legumes in your pastures in order to finish beef. Is it important to you to finish your animals quicker? If so, then establishing novel fescue may be important.
A fescue researcher at the University of Arkansas suggested using a summer annual (like pearl millett) to shade out the fescue. You would need to graze it heavily/clip it to stress it and then try to shade it out. Obviously, this isn't an ideal method, but it might work. Novel fescue isn't as hardy as infected fescue, so it will be harder to get established, especially in less than perfect establishment conditions. If there is an area of your pasture that is tillable, where establishment is more feasible, then it may be worthwhile to convert that area to novel fescue. Some research in Arkansas showed that cows on 25% novel fescue had the same breeding/reproductive rates as cows on a pure stand of novel fescue. So just some dilution of the infected fescue helped tremendously in regards to reproduction. If your current stand of fescue is causing problems, diluting it with legumes and other forages will have a positive impact. If you are able to establish an area with novel fescue, you could put cows on it to get them bred, or use it with the classes of animals that usually have problems with infected fescue.
Converting all of your existing fescue to novel fescue will be a big expense and labor-intensive. It will take some time to get a good stand established and, despite best efforts, sometimes new establishments fail. You have to figure out if it makes sense, financially and labor-wise, to try to convert your pastures. I think if you have some areas that would be more easily converted, then try it there first. You should see some improvements in animal production even by having a portion of the stand in novel fescue.
You can learn more about all aspects of pasture by visiting ATTRA's Livestock and Pasture section at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/.
Are there software programs available for planning and designing small farms?
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Answer: While there are many programs available for garden and landscape design, there are only a handful of programs designed for the small farm. And those available tend to focus more on management practices, recordkeeping, and marketing. That said, many of these programs include or can incorporate mapping and crop-planning features.
Here are some software programs and apps that ATTRA is familiar with:
The Vegetable Garden Planner, by Mother Earth News
An interactive tool that can help figure out what, when, and where to plant.
AgSquared, by AgSquared LLC
Farm recordkeeping software that includes mapping features and crop planning.
COG Pro by Certified Organic Business Solutions
Specifically designed software for certified organic farms.
iPad and iPhone
Grow Planner App by Mother Earth News
When to Plant App by Mother Earth News:
Garden Compass by Garden Compass
Garden Plan Pro by growveg.com
In addition, the USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) is responsible for soil and water mapping and has created several maps, data, and mobile apps that can be downloaded and, in some cases, uploaded into other software programs. To learn more, visit www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/national/home/?cid=stelprdb1049255.
You might also check out Farm Hack, which is an open-source farm-sharing platform. Over the past several months, there have been quite a few posts on Farm Hack focusing on farm and crop-planning software programs that individual farmers have created. The Farm Hack website is http://farmhack.net/home/.
What are appropriate growing mediums for mushroom production?
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Answer: Mushroom production is completely different from growing green plants. Mushrooms do not contain chlorophyll and, therefore, depend on other plant material (the "substrate") for their food. The part of the organism that we see and call a mushroom is really just the fruiting body. Unseen is the mycelium—tiny threads that grow throughout the substrate and collect nutrients by breaking down the organic material. This is the main body of the mushroom. Generally, each mushroom species prefers a particular growing medium, although some species can grow on a wide range of materials.
Most shiitakes are grown on logs or in sawdust, while oyster mushrooms can grow in bulk substrate materials such as coco coir, compost or manure, straw, and wood. Depending on your markets, choosing a substrate plays a critical role in the enterprise budget and overall bottom line of a farm's profit/loss.
For more information, consult the ATTRA publication Mushroom Cultivation and Marketing, available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=77. This publication offers useful information on growing mushrooms, choosing a mushroom species, pest management, marketing mushrooms, and financial analysis. Note that this publication is currently undergoing revision, and an updated version will be available soon.
The following resources offer additional information:
Small-Scale Mushroom Cultivation
This book contains detailed information on how to grow oyster, shiitake, and wood ear mushrooms.
Best Management Practices for Log-Based Shiitake Mushroom Cultivation in the Northeastern United States.
This manual outlines best management practices for shiitake mushroom cultivation and sales.
What should I look for when choosing hogs that will be pastured?
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Answer: Desirable genetic traits for pastured hogs are very different than those for confinement operations. The large confinement operations have actually bred out a stress gene that was causing an average 14% mortality from crowding and shipping stresses. This is not an issue for pastured pigs that are properly managed, as the stress gene is managed with adequate space between sows and two of a pigs traits rooting and foraging.
Rooting is strong stress reducer among pigs, and they should be spending about 50 percent of their active time doing this. Deep bedding in the nests and winter housing helps maintain this behavior and putting hogs on hard pack areas and confined areas (concrete, etc.) denies them this activity and leads to increased stress. On the other hand, foraging – looking for food, eating grass/legumes/roots – is a social activity when the pastured area is big enough for all to get their share of a wide enough range of food.
Swine herds are matriarchal in nature. There is a strong hierarchical structure among the females and the lead, or "alpha" sow, is the gatekeeper and nests closest to the feeders and water trough. The lowest ranking female in the herd nests the furthest away. Having said that, some characteristics you need to look for in selection among the gilts include the following:
1. Hardiness to climate extremes cold and heat. The heat stressor is critical and can be augmented by the mother's ability to wallow, which is a heat reduction and external parasite coping trait.
2. Mothering attributes would be supported by your recordkeeping of the sows, including number of piglets born per litter, number of piglets successfully weaned (difference would be mortality figures from your records). Also consider the rate of gain, and weight per unit of feed.
3. Nesting and farrowing traits, which are strongly heritable. In Berkshire, Tamworth, Chester Whites, Hereford, and large blacks breeds, these traits are well established.
4. Physical confirmation and soundness traits. These include selecting from maternal and boar lines that have a low incidence of rhinitis and also good leg strength in sows for breeding and "lock-up" during standing heat.
Ideally, a bred female should be able to pick a nest site and build a nest away from the more dominant sows in under five hours. The time is critical in order for the sow to go into farrowing cycle with adequate rest and not be too stressed. This also means that there needs be adequate supply of nesting materials such as straw already on hand in the pasture. Inadequate nesting materials leads to stress, lower birth rates, and higher mortalities.
To learn more about raising hogs, check out the Livestock section of the ATTRA website at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/livestock.html.
What is the best time to add lime and manure to my soil?
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Answer: I would spread lime as soon as you can get onto the soil. However, do not spread the lime on wet soil, as going over the soil when it's wet will create compaction layers that will take a long time to get rid of. That being said, the longer the lime is in the soil, the longer it has to do its work of making Ca more available and increasing the pH of the soil.
I would recommend that you spread the lime, then disc to incorporate the lime into the soil. You could probably plant transplants or seeds pretty soon after discing in the lime, but the longer you wait, the more effect the lime will have on the soil (up to a point). I would suggest you get the lime on the soil before the main winter rains occur, as it will only interact with moist/wet soil. If you spread the lime and then there's no moisture, the lime won't have much effect until rain/irrigation allows the lime to interact with soil particles and microbiology.
Regarding spreading manure, there are several options. You could save on operating costs if you spread the lime, then spread the manure and disced them both at the same time. However, what kind of manure will you be using, how much, and how old is it? These are important questions to answer because the quality of the manure will affect how much N you end up putting on for the crop.
Timing is also important in applying any kind of N product. Fresh manures will lose substantial amounts of their N if they're not incorporated into the soil. I would recommend applying the manure in the spring. This can be problematic in that if there's a lot of rain, you don't want heavy equipment getting on the soil to compact it. But if you apply in the fall, and there are heavy rains, then a significant part of the N in the manure will be lost to water taking it below the root zone.
Another important thing to keep in mind is that only about half or so of the total N in the manure will be available to the plant during the growing season. The remainder is going to be released more slowly through the degradation of the organic matter matrix in which it is embedded, so that some small portion of it will be available to the plant in the 2016 growing season, and increasingly smaller amounts in the following growing seasons. So, make sure you have some idea about what the N percent of the manure is.
For more information, consult the ATTRA publication Manures for Organic Crop Production at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=182.
What should I vaccinate my sheep for?
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Answer: The two primary diseases that I would recommend vaccinating for are overeating and tetanus. Overeating disease is caused by Clostridium perfringens, types C and D. Vaccinating for tetanus is recommended if you are banding tails or testicles. The vaccine for this group of Clostridium is called Bar Vac CD-T.
If you would like to also cover Clostridium chauvoei, Cl. septicum, Cl. novyi Type B, Cl. Haemolyticum (known elsewhere as Cl. novyi Type D), and Cl. tetani, the vaccine Covexin is advised. Covexin is more expensive than Bar Vac CD-T, but is advisable if you live in an area where there is redwater and blackleg. Many veterinarians prefer the added protection of Covexin.
An additional class of infections in sheep is those that cause aborted fetuses. The two most common are vibrio and toxoplasmosis.
Vibrio is caused by Campylobacter bacteria and can be vaccinated for. An initial dose a few weeks before breeding and a booster dose 60 to 90 days later is advised. Annual boosts are essential. Vibrio is not a venereal disease. It is caused by high concentrations of sheep eating feces-contaminated hay during the winter. Ingestion of deer feces has also been implicated. In general, the fetus is aborted three to four weeks before term. There are many sheep producers who do not vaccinate for vibrio unless they experience problems with the disease. However, the symptoms can be quite devastating, with up to 60% of the flock affected.
Toxoplasmosis is caused by ingestion of cat feces that is present on hay and grain, causing ewes to abort in the last four weeks of gestation. It is quite common but can be eliminated by removing the source. Besides abortion, it can cause encephalitis and pneumonitis. There is no vaccination for toxoplasmosis, but it can be treated.
If you are experiencing problems with pneumonia in your lambs, Nasalgen is a very effective vaccine. It is not labeled for sheep and must be administered with the consent of a veterinarian. It is inexpensive and easy to give intra-nasally. However, remember that the number-one reason lambs get pneumonia is from a lack of nutrition, most notably from losing their mothers.
Soremouth is another sheep disease that can be vaccinated for. Sometimes the efficacy of the vaccine is in question. If you are experiencing excessive cases of soremouth, the vaccine is worth a try.
Again, eliminating the cause usually is better than vaccinating for the symptoms. Soremouth is often caused by unsanitary conditions, particularly lambing jugs. Disassemble, scrub, and set your jugs out in the sun after lambing. This will go a long way in preventing the problem.
A comprehensive discussion of vaccinating for sheep diseases can be found in the Small Ruminant Toolbox Flash Drive under Sheep Ruminant Health. The cost of the Toolbox is $8.00, including shipping. I would heartily recommend this inexpensive yet highly informative resource for your sheep library. More information is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=467.
How I can feed mineral to both cattle and sheep grazing in the same paddocks?
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Answer: Cattle mineral contains copper, which is extremely toxic to sheep. It builds up in the liver and is fatal. I have heard of cases where sheep have died as soon as one week after consuming cattle mineral. Although there are definite benefits to multi-species grazing, mineral feeding is a serious management consideration when grazing both sheep and cattle on the same pasture.
To alleviate any problems with the copper uptake of the sheep, there are three options you could consider:
1. Build a feeder that will not let the sheep eat the cow's mineral and vice versa. You could keep the cows out of the sheep feeder with the use of feeding bars placed too narrow for the cow to access the feeder. You might be able to keep the sheep from eating the cow's mineral by elevating the cow mineral feeder. I would build the feeder a minimum of 30 inches high and place the bowl back two feet from the front of the feeder, with solid sides surrounding the feeder. Be sure to eliminate any means by which the sheep could access the feeder by climbing.
2. Feed sheep mineral to both the cows and the sheep. Cattle require copper, especially during the last trimester of gestation. If your cows calf in the spring, you could separate them from the sheep during the last three or four months of gestation in the winter.
3. Utilize a cafeteria-style mineral feeder.
Nearly all of your parasite infection will be due to the Barber Pole Worm. It is widespread throughout the United States. There are three main grazing strategies that can be used to effectively control the Barber Pole parasite in the northern U.S.:
1. Use a 35-day pasture rest period. This will enable you to graze your paddocks at the low points of the Barber Pole Worm populations. In contrast, 20 to 22 days is when populations are peaking.
2. Exit the paddock with a minimum six-inch residual height of grass. The majority of infective worm larvae are located on the first two to three inches of the plant stems. By not grazing down this low, you effectively reduce ingestion. If you have a large land base with respect to your animal numbers, I would recommend grazing about 30% of any paddock and trampling 70%. You have plenty of grass, and this practice will build greatly increase your soil health. If you do add animals later, this increased soil heath will allow pasture production to accommodate them.
3. Maintain a paddock grazing period of less than four days. The Barber Pole Worm infective larvae takes four days to migrate from the manure pellet to its perch two to three inches up from the ground on the grass leaf.
The ATTRA publication Tools for Managing Internal Parasites in Small Ruminants: Pasture Management goes into this topic in more depth. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=415.
I also recommend the Small Ruminant Toolbox Flash Drive, a comprehensive reference for small ruminants. For more information on its contents and to order, see https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=467.
If you are interested in a concise tip sheet that discusses implementing an irrigated intensive grazing system, the ATTRA publication Irrigated Pastures: Setting Up an Intensive Grazing System That Works will be of interest to you. It is available at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=449.
How can I control downy mildew on sugar pumpkins?
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Answer:The good news is that only the leaves are infected. Unfortunately, this disease progresses quite rapidly, and can reduce crop yield. Because there is less leaf protection, sun scald on the pumpkin can become a problem. Symptoms appear four to 12 days after infection, so an apparently healthy crop can already be infected. The pathogen likes it cool and moist. Optimum conditions for sporulation are 59 degrees F with six to 12 hours of moisture present (usually in the form of morning dew). Copper sprays would likely be effective in halting the infestation.
Cultural Controls
Because this disease is carried to most fields on light winds, cultural practices like crop rotation and sanitation have a limited effect on the incidence of downy mildew. Still, there are several things that growers can do to suppress the disease. Growing vigorous plants, capable of withstanding or repelling disease onslaughts, is the first step. This involves careful irrigation and soil fertility management. ATTRA's publications on soil management and related matters include Sustainable Soil Management, Manures for Organic Crop Production, Alternative Soil Amendments, and Sources of Organic Fertilizers and Amendments.
Good soil fertility management can often be backed up with foliar fertilization, which some growers believe can assist in pest resistance. For additional information, see the ATTRA publication Foliar Fertilization.
Further cultural considerations include selecting growing sites with good air drainage, full sunlight, and low humidity. Using drip irrigation, or scheduling overhead irrigation to avoid excessive leaf wetness, will also reduce disease incidence. When detected early, disease spread might be slowed somewhat by removing and destroying infected plants, and by taking care not to transport the disease by hand or on infected tools and equipment.
Alternative Pesticides
Along with resistant varieties, fungicides are considered the principal means of downy mildew control in cucurbits. There are several alternatives to synthetic fungicides. Be certain to use all pesticides, synthetic or natural, according to label instructions. The listing below these descriptions was taken from ATTRA's Ecological Pest Management database, which can be found at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals/.
Copper-based fungicides have traditionally been recommended for suppressing downy mildew in organic production systems. Caution is advised, however, as copper can be phytotoxic to cucurbits. Crop damage appears to be most common during periods of cool, wet weather—precisely the conditions in which downy mildew thrives. As a result, it is suggested that the most dilute application recommended for each product be followed.
The use of copper fungicides in organic production is somewhat controversial. Copper is a regulated material in organic production. Though an essential plant nutrient in small amounts, fungicidal levels of copper are directly toxic to some beneficial organisms such as earthworms and several soil microbes such as blue-green algae—an important nitrogen-fixer in many soils. Excessive use can also result in the buildup to toxic (crop-damaging) levels in the soil—particularly in climates where little to no leaching occurs. Thus, growers who use these sprays frequently must monitor soil copper levels through regular soil testing.
Neem Oil
Neem oil is a botanical pesticide derived from the tree species Azadirachta indica. It is a multi-purpose insecticide, miticide, and fungicide labeled for control of both downy and powdery mildews on cucurbits.
Neem products, once considered largely benign to beneficial insects, have demonstrated some negative impacts. Washington State research has found neem to be toxic to ladybeetles, especially in their early larval stages. Being an oil formulation, neem can also harm bees and should be applied when they are not active in the field. Therefore, while neem oil is suitable for organic production, it should not be used without clear need and plenty of caution.
Serenade™, a relatively new fungicide based on the biocontrol agent Bacillus subtilis, is available in a wettable powder formulation that can be used for downy mildew control on vegetables. According to its manufacturer, Serenade turns on the plant's natural immune system. It is also said to: "...stop plant pathogen spores from germinating, disrupt the germ tubes and mycelial growth and inhibit attachment of the plant pathogen to the leaf by producing a zone of inhibition restricting the growth of...disease causing pathogens."
For sources of the product, consult ATTRA's Ecological Pest Management Database at https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals/.


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Russia coach Fabio Capello insists he has had no contact with Chelsea after being linked with a move to the Premier League club.Saturday, 23 March, 2013, 4:41am
It was the Ted and Tim show on a rain-swept pitch as Discovery Bay defeated the Yau Yee League Select veterans 3-0 at the HKFC Citibank International Soccer Sevens last night. But there was no doubt who was the star off the pitch.19 May 2012 - 12:00am
We know for sure England will have a new manager for Euro 2012. What we don't know is if he will select John Terry or opt to leave the former captain behind.11 Feb 2012 - 12:00am
Sentiment is often known to cloud good judgment. As England tune up for next year's European Championship with a couple of Wembley friendlies, Alex Ferguson is among the respected voices calling for the unlikely return of Michael Owen to the national set-up. It seems a little far-fetched to suggest the soon-to-be 32-year-old striker will be welcomed back with open arms ahead of Euro 2012.12 Nov 2011 - 12:00am
Underwear, mozzarella and being an Emirati ambassador - the start of Fabio Cannavaro's post-playing career means conversation topics waver beyond the once-familiar realms of defensive strategies and silverware.
Two months ago, Italy's 2006 World Cup-winning captain was forced to announce his retirement after just one season at UAE club Al-Ahli because of a knee injury.3 Sep 2011 - 12:00am
With most of the first round of soccer's autumn internationals completed last night, attention is already turning to Tuesday's Euro 2012 qualifiers where England's return match with Wales in group G is the main attraction.3 Sep 2011 - 12:00am
Let's face it, Americans are second rate when it comes to hate. They like to call the Yankees-Red Sox a rivalry but please. It's a media fascination and fabrication, a hype fest with all the hate of a couple of kids playing in a sandbox. Celtics-Lakers? Laker fans are softer than the US economy.26 Sep 2010 - 12:00am
For those countries that underperformed at the World Cup - notably England, Italy and France - last night's opening Euro 2012 qualifiers offered hope of a fresh start and they will be keen to press on in the second round of back-to-back matches on Tuesday.4 Sep 2010 - 12:00am
Whoever came up with the tag 'the Beautiful Game' won't be watching this World Cup. Never mind the dubious dives and play-acting to earn a penalty, what was so utterly opposite to 'beautiful' was the French fiasco when the Les Bleus squad walked out of a training session.27 Jun 2010 - 12:00am
If the circus that surrounds England's World Cup campaign is starting to mess with the mind of Fabio Capello, the England manager is certainly not letting on, not for a second.14 Mar 2010 - 12:00am
England are sitting pretty at the top of group six in European qualifying for the 2010 World Cup, having made an impressive start under Fabio Capello with four straight wins. European champions Spain and group nine leaders the Netherlands are the only other teams with a 100 per cent record, and England have built a five-point lead over Croatia and Ukraine.28 Mar 2009 - 12:00am
Fabio Capello has demanded Liverpool skipper Steven Gerrard report for England duty despite the Reds pulling him out of tomorrow's friendly in Germany. Liverpool had assumed Gerrard wouldn't be needed as they claimed he tore a groin muscle at Bolton last Saturday, even though he played the full 90 minutes. But Capello has still ordered that Gerrard be assessed by the FA's own medical staff.18 Nov 2008 - 12:00am
England fans get the chance this week to assess if progress is being made under new manager Fabio Capello, or whether the team will exhibit the same weaknesses that stopped them reaching the Euro 2008 finals.6 Sep 2008 - 12:00am
Tenacity and self-belief help Madrid overcome mid-season woes
Real Madrid snatched victory in the most exciting Spanish title race in over a decade thanks to a new-found team spirit, pragmatic style of play, steely determination and a dash of good fortune.19 Jun 2007 - 12:00am
AC MILAN finished their tour of Asia with their unbeaten win record intact as they coaxed themselves to an uninspiring 2-1 victory over South China at the Hong Kong Stadium yesterday.
The Italians won the BB Telecom Super Champions Cup despite struggling in the heat and humidity in a lacklustre match which drew a crowd of just 13,126 spectators.19 Jun 1995 - 12:00am


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Harry Potter And The Order Of The Phoenix
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Watch Harry Potter And The Order Of The Phoenix Online
Release:July 11, 2007
RunTime:2 hr 18 min
IMDB Rating:7.4/10 (258322 votes)
Director:David YatesActors:Daniel Radcliffe, Harry Melling, Jason Boyd, Richard Macklin, Kathryn Hunter(View All)
Description: Watch Harry Potter And The Order Of The Phoenix full movie online for free directed by David Yates produced in 2007. Genres are Adventure, Family, Fantasy, Mystery.
Fatal error: Allowed memory size of 33554432 bytes exhausted (tried to allocate 13403780 bytes) in /home/star10/public_html/cache-credits/Harry_Potter_And_The_Order_Of_The_Phoenix_2007.php on line 1


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No heat - no air cond.
Hi, I have an 02 Buick Lesabre that has no heat or air right now, unless I hit a pothole. Then the blower comes on.
But if I turn the ignition off the blower doesn't come back on til I hit a hole. A mechanic friend said it needs a "blower resister motor", which is around $150 at a junkyard. He was going to fix it for me but he is dragging his feet, so I am taking it to a garage next week. Do any of you agree that this is the problem? Thank you...
I am not familiar with the newer Buicks. The older ones used a resistor assembly to control the blower motor speed. This resistor is in series with the blower motor. It is mounted in the air plenum so that the blown air passes over it and cools it. It will over heat if its air flow is blocked.
In the older Buicks with your symptoms, there would ne at least 4 possiblities:
1. Failed resistor unit.
2. Bad blower motor, possibly brushes worn down.
3. blower speed control switch.
4. blower motor relay(s) if present.
The most common failure was the resistor unit. It fails by a burned out or broken reisistor or develops a bad connection.
I don't know anything about a "blower resistor motor".


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EUGENE, Oregon – Oregon head football coach MArk Helfrich and athletic Director Rob Mullens talk about the Ducks' upcoming PAC-12 Title Game against Arizona, and a rematch against the Wildcats. Oregon head football coach Mark Helfrich: Oregon athletic director Rob Mullens:
Beavers Beat Buffaloes, 36-31
Courtesy: Oregon State Sports Information BOULDER, Colo. – Senior tailback Terron Ward rushed for 102 yards and scored twice to spark a potent ground attack that powered Oregon State to a 36-31 win over Colorado at Folsom Field on Saturday. Ward scored OSU's opening touchdown on a 1-yard run in the first quarter and then … Continue reading »
Pac-12 Media Days: Duck & Beaver Wrap-up
Pac-12 Media Days: Beavers in Hollywood
Web Extra: Helfrich, Mariota, Washington
Web Extra: Helfrich, Mariota, Greatwood
SSE: One-on-One with Johnathan Loyd
Web Extra: Helfrich, Frost, Dunmore
Web Extra: Ducks on Addison Injury
Johnathan Loyd Joins Football Team
EUGENE, Ore. — Former Oregon point guard Johnathan Loyd's athletic career with the Ducks isn't done yet. Loyd will play football for the Ducks next fall, the University of Oregon confirmed Monday. Loyd suited up in pads for the Ducks' spring practice Monday and is "committed for the fall", according to GoDucks.com Editor Rob Moseley. … Continue reading »


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Prince George's home prices up due to investors
A flood of investors is fueling a housing rebound in Prince George's County, where home prices are up nearly 9 percent from a year ago.Comment
Metro surveillance cameras: Metro to add more than 4,000 cameras
Metro plans to add surveillance cameras to its rail cars for the first time and is spending millions of dollars to triple the number of surveillance cameras monitoring its stations and parking garages.Comment
Maryland pit bull measure headed for negotiations
Under the Maryland House approach, owners would need to prove by a preponderance of the evidence they had no prior knowledge their dog was prone to biting. The Senate position requires dog owners to prove it by clear and convincing evidence, a higher standard.Comment
Andre Christopher Rivers arrested for shooting BB gun at Md. officer
Police said Saturday that 16-year-old Andre Christopher Rivers of Laurel was arrested Friday evening.Comment
Md. House panels approve gun control bill
Maryland lawmakers on two panels voted Friday night to advance a gun-control measure that is a top priority of Gov. Martin O'Malley's legislative agenda, making some changes but leaving intact the most significant provisions.Comment
Samuel E. George shot, killed by Md. state troopers after he shoots brother
Maryland State Police say a man who was shot by troopers after he wounded his brother and fired at his father has died Friday. Two troopers fired at Samuel E. George with 12-gauge shotguns after he repeatedly refused to put down a .22-caliber revolver Thursday night.Comment
ICC speed limit increases to 60 mph
The speed limit on the Intercounty Connector (MD-200) will officially increase from 55 mph to 60 mph this weekend.Comment
Royal Caribbean death: Katherine Kennedy dies of natural causes
An autopsy shows that a Virginia woman found dead aboard a Royal Caribbean cruise ship died of natural causes.Comment
D.C. housing prices: D.C. area one of the least affordable
If you think you're paying too much to buy a house or rent an apartment in the D.C. area, two new studies backs that up. One report ranks the area second only behind Hawaii in terms of how much a worker needs to make per hour to afford the rent.Comment
Maryland State Police trooper injured in crash
Police say Detective Sgt. Kevin Beauchamp crashed with Gail Mills of Easton on Route 50 Monday. Troopers say Mills is in serious condition and Beauchamp is in fair condition.Comment
Three dead, one injured in Odenton crash
A Gambrills, Md. man is in life-threatening condition following a single-vehicle crash that killed three 22-year-old Odenton residents early Sunday morning. One of the deceased was in the US Air Force, and one was in the Navy.
One killed in Cheverly fire
Fire officials are working to determine what caused a fire that killed a woman in her 60s in Cheverly. Hoarding conditions inside the home made it difficult for firefighters to make entry, Fire Chief Marc Bashoor says.Comment
ICC tickets: About 7,000 drivers issued tickets on Intercounty Connector
Nearly 7,000 speeding tickets have been issued to drivers on the Intercounty Connector since it opened in November 2011.Comment
Gas tax approved by Maryland Senate
The Maryland Senate has given final approval to the state's first new gas tax in just over 20 years.Comment
Passion of Christ re-enactment in Takoma Park
It is a vivid and dramatic re-enactment. The Passion of Christ, complete with Pontius Pilate, roman soldiers, distraught women and children. It starts each year at Our Lady of Sorrows Church in Takoma Park.Comment
Frederick Fire and Rescue Services could see major cuts
Frederick County Fire and Rescue Services could see $4 million in budget cuts if the county commissioners vote to accept a plan proposed at Thursday's board meeting.Comment
Maryland housing income discrimination bill fails in Senate
A bill that would have disallowed Maryland landlords from discriminating against tenants based on their income level was narrowly defeated by the state's Senate earlier this week, the Annapolis Capital reports.Comment
Center for Science in the Public Interest says prepared foods bad for kids
They are convenient and can be inexpensive. But healthy food advocates are sounding the alarm about restaurant kids meals.Comment
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cool colored solar lights!!!
I was snooping around on the net for more craft ideas (I apparently don't have enough of them in my mental files!!) when I saw these. I love how she just hung them along her path but I know the smart junkers on here will come up with other ideas. I'm focusing on a chandelier hanging outside, of course, but I can't wait to see what you all come up with!!!
Here is a link that might be useful: modge podge solar lights
Cool, I was snooping last night too. I was looking for solar light ideas after Kirk's post about the chandelier. So thanks for this site. Love It. I LOVE SOLAR LIGHTS.
Interesting... I didn't know they made outdoor modpodge! I wonder how well the food coloring will hold up to UV rays. It seems like it would fade, but you never know. I haven't been able to find any reasonably priced blue mason jars for the chandelier that Kirkus posted. This may be a way to acheive a similar look with clear glass jars.
Pretty cool...I just bought a solar light today to try in a blue Mason jar...fun ideas! TFS! Jeanne S.


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I bought my 2010 cobalt from a Chevrolet dealer. Right from the begining I had problems. First I found a few things wrong covered under warranty. The problem is they ordered the wrong weatherstrip 4 times and the dealership is 45 minutes away. The same dealer also had printed its own window sticker that stated the car has traction control and ABS which I found out last winter it doesn't. Now the best part on May 13 2013 The Ignition Key is Stuck in the Run position. Took it to a different dealer since I could Not Shut Car Off. 220.00 dollars for a new Ign. lock cylinder. GM knows this is a common problem! I made a complant with GM. After jerking me around for three weeks they denied my claim
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Bought this car Brand new off the lot. 275 miles later the stereo volume control wouldn't work. buttons wouldn't work. They replaced with a new one, Parts guy stated there were several ordered because of this problem. Gas Mileage isn't as great as they tell you. Might be because its still breaking in, not sure. City I am getting around 19-21 MPG. I test drove the same model before I got this one ( it had 500 miles on it ) the A/C was not working.
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I recently rented a cobalt for a drive through the California desert. The A/C seemed to work efficiently, until we reached a particularly hot stretch at 75 MPH, then the A/C shut itself off for 10 minutes. It continued on this on off cycle until we left the hot part of the desert. When it shut off, there was a ping from the computer and the recirculate light started blinking. Stay away from deserts in your Cobalt.
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We have an 09 XFE with the 2.2 Ecotec. The engine rattles loudly at start up for about three seconds then quiets down nicely. This car only has about 2400 miles on it. Anyone else having this type of problem? I'm a little shy of this engine because of the noise.
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This car has been a very good car so far. It has 19000 miles on it and it is a 2008. Some of the editors review i totally agree with. The interior is a little on the cheap side but the seats are incredibly comfortable in the front even on long trips. I have the xfe and the gas mileage is superb. The braking mentioned by the editor has not been an issue but i don't drive on a race trac. The tires have done extremely well in the snow this winter. Over all really good car. Extremely comfortable and smooth on highway trips
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