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If you're interested in purchasing professional prints of Mitchell Brown's photography, please visit his website at www.mitchellbrown.ca. He's recently reduced prices for his 12x18" archival paper prints to just $25 or $80 for 16x24" prints (plus shipping). Readers of Advanced Aquarist know we rarely promote commercial sales, but Mitchell's work is special and he's been kind enough to allow us to use his photography as free Advanced Aquarist wallpapers, with more to come!
Direct links:
Here are two new wallpapers from Mitchell Brown's Digital Art Series.
(1920x1080 pixels) Click on the preview below to view the full resolution wallpaper. Right-click the wallpaper and "set as desktop background." Photo by Mitchell Brown (www.mitchellbrown.ca)
Parotocinclus variola is described from the Amazon River, Brazil. As far as loricarrids go, Parotocinclus are one of the smallest genera, and P.variola in particularly appears to be very small, with no collected specimen exceeding one inch (30mm) in length.
At the time I wrote Giant Clams in the Sea and the Aquarium (2006), Tridacna crocea, T. maxima, T. squamosa, T. derasa, T. gigas, Hippopus hippopus, and H. porcellanus had been imported for the US reef aquarium hobby. It's time for some updating though, as another species, T. mbalavuana (tevoroa) has now been imported here, and three new species have been described. Of these three, T. squamosina (costata) was the first new one, so I'll give you some information on T. mbalavuana and this species, and cover the other new species in a follow-up article.
While doing surveys of giant clam populations in Fiji in 1985, a few unusual giant clams were found, which got the attention of researchers. The clams were similar to T. derasa, but distinguishable, and after more were collected and studied it was suggested that they might represent a new species. Of course, the locals had already noticed this clam and had named it the devil clam, which is tevoro in Fijian. So, at first it was just called the tevoro clam, and subsequently named Tridacna tevoroa.1,2,3 However, it was later found that this clam had been previously described and named T. mbalavuana in 1934, albeit based only on shells/fossil specimens.4 So, T. tevoroa became a junior synonym of T. mbalavuana.
Further searching eventually led to the discovery of this clam in various areas in the eastern Lau Islands of Fiji and the northern Vava'u and Ha'apai islands of Tonga.3 However, there have apparently been some unverified reports of it living on the outer fringes of the Great Barrier Reef, too.5 So, its known range may be greatly extended in the future if these reports can be verified. If not, then this species has a very small range relative to most other species, and it's relatively rare within its range, as well. In fact, only one was found for every fifty T. derasa around Vatoa, Fiji.1
It's also important to note that this species typically lives in deeper waters than the rest, and holds the depth of occurrence record. Most are found at depths of 20 to 30m, but the deepest-living one reported in the literature was found at 33m (almost 110 feet).3,6 Conversely, all other species of giant clam are found in significantly shallower water, with T. derasa being in second place at 25m.7
As far as looks go, the shell is grayish-white, and often bears unusual red patches/bands near the bottom. H. hippopus also bears red markings on its shell, but these are often obscured by the growth of coralline algae, sponge, etc. on the shells of both species.
The shell also typically has 6 to 7 low and wide folds, which are often almost non-existent. Some do have stronger, more convex folds though, and many look very much like the shell of T. derasa. The upper margin of the shell typically has 5 rounded projections on each half, which undulate slightly, and the upper edge is also very sharp. When small in size, the shell also bears petal-like scutes, but these are apparently worn away with age and larger specimens lack them. It lacks a significant byssal opening on its underside, too. The only other thing to note here is that this species is also a big one. In fact, the record length is 55cm (almost 22 inches).3
The fleshy upper mantle tissue comes in a variety of looks. It's often rather dull gray to brownish-gray without colorful or fancy markings, but some are quite attractive, as you can see below. There are three things that are particularly unusual about its mantle, though. It always has a rugose texture, being very knobby/lumpy looking, and it extends very little past the edge of the shell, or not all. Instead of extending it further, the shell gapes open widely and thus exposes a relatively large amount of the mantle anyway.
Two other giant clams, H. hippopus and H. porcellanus, don't extend their mantle past the edge of the shell either, but the rest of the giant clams can and typically do. The mantle also lacks eyes, like H. hippopus and H. porcellanus, while all the other species have them. Interesting, indeed. Lastly, its inhalent siphon, which is the large opening in the mantle, is always ringed by prominent tentacles, which are usually white.3
When it comes to this species and the reef aquarium hobby, as I said above, there has been at least one specimen imported into the US . In February of 2015, Ecological Reef Farms Tonga collected the specimen on the above right and shipped it to a dealer here. Apparently it has an expected retail price tag of $2,000. 8 That's a lot of money for a clam, of course, but I've seen a large blue T. squamosa sell for more than twice that.
This species was also successfully aquacultured at the Tonga Fisheries hatchery in the early 1990's, although it was problematic and not many clams were produced.9 Still, with a price (and profit) like that, and a proven ability to farm them, regardless of problems, I think there's a good chance that more will become available in the future. Considering their paucity on the reefs, and relatively small geographic range, I certainly do not think any significant quantities of them will be collected from the wild, though.
In the event that more are imported, I'll offer some care advice. Considering that this species is typically found in relatively deep water, it is important to give any specimen time to acclimate to intense reef aquarium lighting.
The mantles of giant clams contain structures called iridophores that are made of small groups of cells called iridocytes, which contain stacks of tiny reflective platelets. These can serve multiple functions, but one of them is to help block damaging ultraviolet light. Mycosporine-like amino acids ( MAAs) are also found in the mantle and serve the same purpose, along with some non-photosynthetic pigments.
There is little need to produce these when living at depth, and it has been found that T. mbalavuana has few such iridocytes.3 Thus, it can be rather intolerant of strong illumination. In fact, several specimens died when collected and moved into much shallower waters during initial collections, and was reported to have shown "great sensitivity to sunlight" when moved to the surface.1 Fortunately, more specimens were collected and kept in protective cages at a greater depth of approximately 14m for study and breeding activities.3
Still, in the case with other giant clams, specimens from dimmer waters can typically be slowly acclimated to brighter light over a period of a few weeks, giving them time to produce various materials for dealing with the increase in illumination/UV. Of course, it remains to be seen if this can be accomplished with this species, though. I hope whoever buys/bought the one from Tonga reads this, or has already done their homework!
In 2005, a doctoral student described a unique giant clam found only in the Gulf of Aqaba, which is one of the little fingers at the northern end of the Red Sea. It's appearance was similar to T. maxima and T. squamosa, which are also found in the Gulf of Aqaba and Red Sea proper, but not the same as either. Genetic testing and its reproductive timing, which is not the same as the others, verified that it was different, too.10 It was subsequently named Tridacna costata, and further searching eventually led to the discovery of this clam in other parts of the Gulf of Aqaba, and off the Egyptian coast in the northern part of the Red Sea proper.11
However, as was the case above, it turns out that this species had already been discovered and named many years earlier. During an exploratory expedition in late 1800's, several specimens of the same clam had been collected in the Gulf of Aqaba and one from the Southern Red Sea off Yemen . These were named Tridacna elongata var. squamosina.12
The specimens had been in the collections of the Natural History Museum in Vienna, Austria , and were re-evaluated just a few years ago. This analysis indicated that the specimens were indeed the same clam as the ones that had been named T. costata. So, after some taxonomic re-working, T. costata became a junior synonym of T. squamosina.13
The geographic range of the species (at least in the recent past) was then known to cover the Gulf of Aqaba and much of the Red Sea proper at that point, as one specimen had been collected much further south, off Yemen. However, it is now known that its range extends well down the west coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean, and is abundant around the Bazaruto Archipelago off the coast of Mozambique.14 This is almost as far south as the southern end of Madagascar. Whether its range extends even further south, and how far it extends to the east, is unknown at this time, though.
While it's now known to be abundant in some areas in the Indian Ocean, it is indeed a rarity in the Red Sea. Surveys indicated that it made up less than 1% of current giant clams stocks there, being found at a ratio of approximately one T. squamosina to every 167 T. maxima and T. squamosa.11 Thus, it was initially suggested that it should be considered "critically endangered" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It's interesting to note that, to the contrary, over 80% of fossil tridacnid shells found in the same region are T. squamosina, leading to the idea that this species has been heavily overfished going back as far as the early human occupation of the area roughly 100,000 years ago.11
With the history covered, let's get to appearances. The shell is white, is elongated, and has 5 to 7 deep folds in it, with relatively large, rather pointed tooth-like projections emerging from the upper part of each half. The two halves do not close tightly when pulled together, and there are significant gaps between the tooth-like projections when it is closed as much as it can be. The shell also bears numerous shelf-like scutes, which tend to be well-spaced closer to the bottom of the shell and relatively crowded on the upper part. There's a moderately-sized byssal opening in the bottom of the shell, as well. Thus, it does look similar to, but obviously not identical to, typical shells of T. maxima. Lastly, it also has the same maximum length as T. maxima, at 40cm (almost 16 inches).15,16
As is common for giant clams, the mantle tissue is quite variable in appearance, and bears a wide range of colors and patterns. It's also papillose, meaning it's covered with little knob-like protrusions. These structures, which are properly called papillae, cover the mantle and are more pronounced and numerous on larger specimens, while the mantles of T. maxima and T. squamosa tend to be relatively smooth. However, some T. maxima and T. squamosa, do bear papillae, although they are fewer in number. The inhalent siphon is ringed with tentacles, like T. maxima and T. squamosa, as well.
Another thing of note is that it's typically attached to the substrate, and is found only in relatively shallow water.10 Those found off the coast of Mozambique were in approximately 2 to 9m of water.14 However, all specimens found in the Gulf of Aqaba and northern Red Sea were living at depths less than 2m.11 If this species does not live any deeper than 9m, then it has the smallest vertical distribution of all clams in the genus Tridacna, with the exception of T. crocea, which typically lives within 6m of the surface.
To finish up on this species, I'll again point out that, to the best of my knowledge, it has not been imported into the US . After communicating with several people in the trade, it apparently has not been aquacultured, either. Thus, it is highly unlikely that any will become available in the near future. However, while searching the internet, I did find a photograph at reeflex.net (http://dk.reeflex.net/tiere/2628_Tridacna_squamosina.htm) of a juvenile in an aquarium with T. squamosa. So, somebody, somewhere has had one in a reef aquarium. This site has several photographs of this species if you want to see more.
While reading up on these two species, I found that researchers had done genetic testing on numerous clams in the Red Sea and in 2006 proposed that there were actually two new species related to T. maxima there, as well as one new species related to T. squamosa.17 So, we may find out that there are others there, too. Likewise, as mentioned above, there are two other new species of giant clam found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and have already been offered in the hobby. Again, those will be the subject of another article, though.
Gall crabs are cryptochirid crabs that burrow and live their entire lives within cavities they create in stony corals. While many of us have probably introduced corals with gall crabs in them, few of us may have noticed them because these crustaceans are tiny and cryptic (hence their name, Cryptochiridae). If your reef tank is stocked with stony corals (LPS and SPS alike), there's a good possibility that you have gall crabs. If you see any strange cavities or bumps on a stony coral, take a closer look. If you see a little tick-like critter inside, you've got yourself a gall crab. These little guys are fairly harmless hitchhikers.
Fizesereneia panda (pictured above) is the newest described species of gall crabs. It is only one of two known cryptochirids from the Red Sea, and it was named for its "panda face" pattern on its head. F.panda is only currently known to burrow in Lobophyllia cf.hemprichii, L.cf.corymbosa, and Symphyllia recta brain corals.
Interesting factoid: Some faster growing corals can completely grow over the openings gall crabs create ... permanently entombing the crab inside!
The following article was written by Luca Galarraga for AquaA3 (click to read the original Portuguese version) and republished in partnership with AquaA3. Luca Galarraga is an award-winning aquascaper, respected judge at aquascaping competitions, and co-owner of Aquabase. Translation credit: Victor Mykulak
Lisboa's Oceanarium
Live image of the tank by Filipe Oliveira.
On April 22, 2015, the Lisboa's Oceanarium will inaugurate its newest exposition, "Underwater Forests" by Takashi Amano.
The genius Takashi Amano, creator of Nature Aquarium, surprised the world of aquascaping once again when he accepted the challenge to create the biggest planted aquarium in the world for the Lisboa's Oceanarium in Portugal.
[ADA Newsletter] Oceanário de Lisboa Vol.6: "They state this exhibition as offering an "experience of contemplation, relaxatio, and "simplicity." The gigantic tank is 40 meters long containing 160,000L of fresh water, presenting the world of tropical forests and the water systems. In front of the enormous and stunning Nature Aquarium, you can feel the magnificence of ecosystems as if you are part of the balance of Nature."
The project of this mega planted tank had been planned since 2013, when the Oceanarium's Director Mr. João Falcato, a fan of Mr. Amano's work, signed the contract to exhibit the first planted tank in the Oceanarium, a authentic Nature Aquarium.
Lisbon Oceanarium aquascapers: Yago Alonso, Adam Paszczela and Giménez Jonan
The numbers are very impressive: 40 meters long (in a "U" shape), 2.5 meters width, and 1.5 meters high, with the capacity to hold approximately 160,000 liters of water (about 42,267 US gallons). An important design detail is that the exhibit is positioned 70 cm above the ground, which makes the aquarium sit at the perfect position for the public viewing. This is the biggest "nature aquarium" in the world, created by Takashi Amano, and the first of its type at Lisboa's Oceanarium with the Amano's signature.
Here is a time-lapse of the largest planted aquarium in the world:
In this project, we used approximately:
In the layout, the volcanic rocks were used to hold up the elevated plateaus, where the completed substrate system was set up (layers of rocks, pumice, ADA Power Sand Special and ADA Aquasoil Amazonia), separating the planted areas from the sand areas. The driftwood were the main stars, forming impressive groups, most of the time covered by moss or other plants.
The international team of ADA with Albert Caceres, Yago AGiménez, Ezekiel P. Salguero, Rui Alves and Jonan Villanueva.
The lighting system is composed of seventy (70) HQI 800W lights with a mix of color temperatures from 6,000ºK and 10,000ºK. Four massive filters with mechanical and biological media will be used. The circulation devices have not been revealed yet. More details about the tank such as its CO2 system, fertilization, and maintenance will be revealed over time.
Part of the ADA team responsible for the construction of the tank in Lisboa
The layout was started on January 28th and was finalized on February 2nd. Several European aquascapers took part in the project along with a huge team of Takashi Amano's employees. According to aquascaper Filipe Oliveira, there were three groups - Portugal, ADA Japan, and ADA International - that merged into one big team.
The Lisboa's Oceanarium expects that the grand-opening of what is so far the most ambitious project of its history in April, 2015. Portugal is now part of the most-go-list places for every aquascaper and nature lover!
Real Image of the tank already setup
From the University of Cambridge:
This is the first time that an animal has been found to be able to morph between different guises in order to deceive different species, making the dottyback a pretty crafty little fish
A new study has shown that the dottyback, a small predatory reef fish, can change the colour of its body to imitate a variety of other reef fish species, allowing the dottyback to sneak up undetected and eat their young.
The dottyback also uses its colour-changing abilities to hide from larger predators by colour-matching to the background of its habitat - disappearing into the scenery.
The research, published today in the journal Current Biology, reveals a sophisticated new example of 'mimicry': disguising as a different species to gain evolutionary advantage.
While using mimicry to hunt or hide from other species is commonplace in nature - from cuckoos to butterflies - scientists point out that if the same physical deception is encountered too frequently, species on the receiving end become more vigilant and develop tactics to mitigate the mimics.
The dottyback, however, is able to colour-morph depending on the particular colour of the surrounding species it is currently hunting: different types of damselfish being a popular target.
Scientists say that this flexibility of physical mimicry makes it much harder for the dottyback's prey to develop detection strategies and avoid getting eaten.
"By changing colour to imitate local damselfish communities, dottybacks are able to overcome the predator avoidance behaviour in the juvenile fish they hunt," said Dr William Feeney, co-author of the study from the University of Cambridge's Department of Zoology.
"The dottyback behaviour is comparable to the 'wolf in sheep's clothing' scenario from Aesop's Fables, where distinguishing the predator from the harmless 'flock' becomes increasingly difficult when they look alike - allowing the dottyback to creep up on unsuspecting juvenile damselfish," Feeney said.
Inset image (right): Dottyback eyeing up damselfish prey. Photo credit: Christopher E Mirbach
Dottybacks are generally solitary and highly territorial predators of around eight centimetres in length, commonly found in Indo-Pacific coral reefs.
While dottybacks can vary their colouration from pink to grey, the researchers focused on two colour 'morphs' - yellow and brown - that both occur on the reefs surrounding Lizard Island, off the coast of north-east Australia. This is because the area has populations of both yellow and brown damselfish, and habitat consisting of live coral and dead coral 'rubble'.
The scientists built their own simulated reef outcrops comprising both live coral and rubble, and stocked them with either yellow or brown damselfish. When released into reefs with damselfish of the opposite colour, scientists found the dottybacks would change from yellow to brown or vice versa over the course of approximately two weeks.
Anatomical study of dottyback skin cells revealed that while the level of 'chromatophores' - pigment-containing cells that reflect light - remain constant, the ratio of yellow pigment cells to black pigment cells shifts to move the dottyback from yellow to brown or back again.
The team conducted lab experiments with adult and juvenile damselfish to test whether this colour change affects dottyback hunting success. They found that once the dottyback matched the colour of the damselfish, they were up to three times more successful at capturing juvenile damselfish.
The scientists also found that the dottyback use their colour-morphing powers to blend into the coral of their habitats to hide from their own predators, such as the coral trout - a predator they share with damselfish, who have also adapted to match the colour of their environment.
The scientists measured the strike rates of coral trout when exposed to images of different colours of dottyback against different habitats. The coral trout had trouble picking out the fish when the colour matched the habitat.
"While the dottybacks change colour to aggressively mimic damselfish, they may also gain a secondary benefit: a reduced risk of being eaten themselves. Damselfish have evolved to blend into their environment, so, by imitating the damselfish, they also colour-match the habitat - making it harder for coral trout to see them," said Feeney.
"This is the first time that an animal has been found to be able to morph between different guises in order to deceive different species, making the dottyback a pretty crafty little fish"
Brown dottyback on coral rubble. Credit: Christopher E Mirbach
To borrow Leonard Nimoy's (RIP) final tweet: "A life aquarium is like a garden. Perfect moments can be had, but not preserved, except in memory." We often try to impose our vision on everything we touch (in aquariums and life), but often relinquishing control to nature and simply enjoying the moment can reveal the greatest satisfactions.
Here is a lovely aquarium where the plants are growing unkempt amidst a messy pile of rock and driftwood. The "finished" product is wonderfully natural. The stunning Apistogramma cichlids certainly don't hurt either. Granted, a considerable amount of planning probably went into the original layout of the aquascape, but it's clear this aquarist took a more hands-off approach as the aquarium matured ... with spectacular results.
Pacific East Aquaculture has listed a single 3-inch (max size) specimen for $3,000 USD, the first time we've ever seen this species offered for sale. Two specimens were collected in Polynesia; one was donated to Long Island Aquarium (New York). Labropsis polynesica is a species with limited geographic distribution within the Eastern Central Pacific, consequently never having found its way into our hobby (again, to the best of knowledge).
Pacific East Aquaculture states that the specimen for sale is eating prepared foods (including pellets and a "wide variety of frozen foods"). However, prospective buyers should be aware that Labropsis wrasses are generally corallivores who, like Harlequin Filefish, naturally consume SPS polyps. The genus also has a poor track record in captivity. No specific information about the diet and behavior of L.polynesica is available because it's such a rare fish, but we would anticipate that this is not a "reef safe" species like its congenors - at least not anymore so than Harlequin Filefish, which a few reefkeepers have successfully kept in fully stocked reef aquariums. In any event, L.polynesica should be regarded as an "expert only" fish.
From BioMed Central:
A rare and threatened Caribbean coral species has for the first time been successfully bred and raised in the lab, according to research published in the open access journal BMC Ecology.
The study provides the first photos and documentation of juveniles of this species, and could provide information to help bolster local coral reef conservation. The team also plans to 'out-plant' these lab-grown juveniles in the wild which could help populations become more resilient to climate change.
The findings will be presented in a talk at the annual TED Conference in Vancouver on Monday 16th March.
The Caribbean Pillar Coral Dendrogyra cylindrus is rare and understudied, and small juveniles of this species have never been seen in over 30 years of surveys in the Caribbean. The species is one of very few corals in the Caribbean that forms large branches, which can provide shelter for important fish species and reduce the energy of storm surge as it approaches shore.
Lead author and TED Senior Fellow Kristen Marhaver from the CARMABI Foundation on the Caribbean island of Curaçao said: "Strangely enough, pillar corals happen to spawn just half an hour before another threatened coral that is far better studied -- the elkhorn corals. So the reason why for so many years we've never witnessed spawning pillar corals is that, while they were spawning, virtually all coral spawning researchers and photographers in the Caribbean were on their boats doing final preparations on their dive gear for elkhorn coral spawning. It was literally right under our noses for years."
Pillar Corals form a unique 'smoke stack' shape like no other coral species, and they display unusual mating behaviour compared to most spawning coral species. Most spawning corals are hermaphrodites that release large bundles of eggs and sperm. Pillar corals, which only spawn on a few specific nights of the year, build colonies that are either all-male or all-female. The males first release sperm into the seawater, shortly followed by the females releasing their individual eggs. This makes collection and breeding research extremely difficult.
Kristen Marhaver, who began this work while she was a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California at Merced, USA, said: "Now that we've successfully reared juvenile Pillar Corals in the lab, not only can we study them in more detail to find out what factors could be threatening their survival in the wild, but it also means that we can try to out-plant a small number back to the reef. We don't know if this will work and it is certainly not a cure-all for the reef. But especially in such a rare coral species, a tiny boost of a few new individuals could make a big difference in their genetic diversity, allowing their populations to adapt and become more resilient to the changing environment in the oceans."
After studying the sunset times and lunar cycles taken from other spawning observations, the research team timed their egg and sperm collection around the most likely annual spawning times -- exactly three nights after the August full moon and around 100 minutes after sunset. At depths of 6-7 meters on a Curaçaoan coral reef with a large population of Pillar Corals, the team arranged nets and funnels over the female colonies to automatically collect eggs, and used syringes near the male colonies to manually collect sperm from spawn clouds as they appeared.
The team then attempted to fertilize the eggs by mixing the collected eggs and sperm underwater and on shore. In the lab, the team carefully adjusted several factors related to fertilization times and seawater type and nurtured the eggs to develop into larvae. They managed to successfully grow the embryos to the swimming larvae stage -- the first time this have ever been seen -- and settled them onto ceramic tripods in water tanks. The settled juveniles then survived for over seven months.
Now that they have determined how best to grow these coral in the lab, work can begin on studying how different factors affect their survival. By testing in the lab the effect of water type, contaminants, or the presence of different species of animals and bacteria, they may be able to translate these findings to the wild, and explain why juvenile pillar corals are missing in certain areas, helping to support local coastal protection.
Populations of branching coral colonies are often genetically identical, making them extremely susceptible to threats such as disease and temperature shock. The team therefore plans to return a few lab-reared juveniles to the reef to see if they will grow and help jumpstart the population's genetic diversity. This could help the species adapt and become more resilient to threats such as climate change.
There is also growing evidence that juvenile corals can in some places better adjust to changing environments than adult corals. The introduction of new juveniles to the reef could therefore help buffer these ecosystems against global threats that affect all corals.
Kristen Marhaver said: "Given how rare the juveniles are in nature, it was a bit of a question whether the species was still reproducing at all. Corals can also reproduce by fragmentation, so a huge field of pillar corals could in fact be from one single parent colony and might not be able to reproduce. Now that we have some of the first solid evidence that they are still able to reproduce, it means we can be cautiously optimistic about the future of this threatened species."
Fish often exhibit incredible pigments and dramatic behavior when courting the opposite sex. The most recognized example in marine fish is flasher and fairy wrasses, whose males change into colors so remarkably different than their regular state that they look like entirely different species. For this reason, marine aquarists often keep wrasses in male/female pairs (or harems).
We don't look at blennies the same way, but our friends at blennywatcher.com shows us why we should. Ned and Anna DeLoach document the courtship of Midas blenny. The male blennies put on incredible shows to attract females into their nesting lairs. Read more about them at blennywatcher.com.
MSRP is as follows:
Buyers can choose between a 80 degree or 110 degree glass lens. An optional tank-mount bracket is also available.
The HALO Marine LED Aquarium Light Fixtures feature:
Click here to view more information about the HALO including many more photos and manufacturer-supplied PAR distribution plots.
Aquatic Life supplied Advanced Aquarist with the press release below:
Developed with one of the leading designers of aquarium lighting control in the world, Aquatic Life, announces the launch of two HALO LED reef fixtures; . Simulating the ocean blue light spectrum often found in marine environments, the pendants make it easy for hobbyist to dial in the light above the aquarium.
Like many of Aquatic Life's products, the HALO LED reef pendant is a feature-rich product that was created using next-generation UV LED technology to advance the art of reef aquarium lighting. The HALO LED pendants feature two channels of LEDs and a high-performance glass lens that allow hobbyists to have complete control over the light intensity and spectrum output with well-defined emission angles.
"There have been significant improvements in aquarium LED technology over the last few years, specifically as it relates to coral color and growth. While researching options to expand our current line of LED products, we were presented with opportunity to partner with Tiaojiou Limited out of Taiwan," said Michael Elliot, Aquatic Life co-owner. "Tiaojiou is well known in Asia for their quality and innovative products. Together we helped them in the development of the HALO LED reef pendants and now are the exclusive distributor for HALO in North America."
The HALO is available in two units: deluxe and basic. The deluxe unit includes a built-in programmable timer and dimmer, where as the basic unit can be connected and controlled by the deluxe unit or any other controllable light unit with a zero to 10-volt output to replicate the control settings through simple connection of a plug/play control cable.
Both units include 25 LEDs, an 80-degree lens, and power supply and require the use of mounting arms. Through Aquatic Life, Tiaojiou offers HALO mounting arms that accommodate 18-inch and 24-inch wide aquariums and conceal the power cords.
Currently, large numbers of fish, corals and other invertebrates are exported annually for the American, European and Asian markets. It is paramount that this trade is sustainable, for coral reefs as well as for local tropical communities. This poses a significant challenge, as coral reefs are under great pressure from pollution, overfishing, coastal development, global warming and ocean acidification.
A sustainable trade involves coral mariculture by local communities, but also aquaculture in destination countries. Culturing corals in captivity could become increasingly important in the future, not only to meet market demand, but also to conserve corals that may go extinct in the wild. A good example of a conservation initiative is Amphibian Ark (amphibianark.org), a project which aims to prevent the extinction of endangered amphibians by breeding them in laboratories.
The culture of countless marine species will have to be upscaled significantly over the following years, due to increased demand. Quotas of wild-caught specimens, be it corals or fish, will possibly be reduced in the future. This change towards a more sustainable trade is already ongoing, and aquarium hobbyists play an important role in this process. Species such as clownfish and sea horses are bred regularly by specialists, who devote a great deal of time to their hobby. Many corals are being fragmented and traded on internet fora and events, and this has led to commonly available species in the trade. A serious limitation of coral propagation however, be it mariculture or aquaculture, is that it is mostly done via asexual reproduction. Below, I will explain why this could become a future problem.
A marine aquarium which runs optimally quickly becomes a "victim" of its own success. Some corals grow out to impressive proportions, after which the colonies are subject to enthusiastic pruning. Fragmenting and selling so-called ramets or "frags" is an effective way to recuperate some of the investments made, and also allows for expansion of a captive coral population.
In the wild, corals are also fragmented constantly; animals and storms continuously break off fragile colonies. Corals also release parts of their colonies via a process called autotomy (from the Greek auto, or self, and tome, or severing). This can occur during periods of stress, and it is observed frequently in aquaria. Autotomy can be a last resort for a colony to survive, in the form of a released fragment which often completely regenerates. It is also a very useful way for a healthy colony to spread its genes.
Biologically speaking, coral fragmentation is a form of vegetative, or asexual reproduction. Corals use many different strategies of asexual reproduction, including intratentacular budding, extratentacular budding, "dripping", polyp bailout and the formation of anthocauli displayed by members of the Fungiidae family.
Although fragmentation is a useful way to propagate corals, a major disadvantage is that it does not results in genetic diversity. A coral fragment is an exact genetic copy of its parent colony, and is thus considered a clone. Clones behave exactly the same under equal conditions, which means they are equally strong, but also equally weak as their parent colonies. Imagine a coral colony sensitive to salinity fluctuations being fragmented into many small colonies. When these fragments are aquacultured, this latent weakness will present itself sooner or later. A population of 1,000 Acropora formosa clones can be completely eradicated by a faulty water top-off system. Another example is the well-known pink/purple Stylophora pistillata, which has been fragmented and traded for many years in Europe. This clonal line is known to be hardy, and tolerates a wide range of salinities, light intensities and nutrient levels. However, I personally have lost a few kilograms of this clone within a weak, possibly due to a bacterial infection. A colleague of mine had the same problem with this genotype, and lost about half his population a few months later. Only strong UV filtration of the water seemed to stop the spreading of the disease. These problems occur when latent weaknesses suddenly become apparent.
"A coral fragment is an exact genetic copy of its parent colony, and is thus considered a clone. Clones behave exactly the same under equal conditions."
If the coral trade becomes highly dependent on aquacultured corals in the future, due to changes in legislation, it is paramount that genetic diversity within each species is maintained. This could prevent major losses of coral species within the trade, for example due to bacterial or parasitic infections. A genetically diverse coral population, with therefore different resistive qualities, will have a higher chance of survival in the long run. This is because after each disturbance, it is likely that some individuals will survive as they have an innate resistance to it. There is only one natural way of generating genetic diversity, and that is through sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction involves the fusing of gametes, or ova (eggs) and sperm, which together generate a new individual. Eggs and sperm are produced via a process known as meiosis, during which the DNA in chromosomes is "blended", resulting in new combinations of genes. Each gene is a small section of DNA, which encodes a specific RNA molecule and/or protein with essential functions inside or outside a living cell. Genes and their encoded RNA/proteins have a major impact on the growth rate, colouration, size or any other attribute of an organism. The overall genetic composition of an individual therefore determines its characteristics. Every time an ovum and sperm fuse, they generate a new combination of genes, thereby creating a completely unique individual. On a large scale, this process results in a genetically diverse population, with individuals able to respond to a wide array of disturbances. The starting population should of course be sufficiently large, to prevent too much "recycling", or inbreeding, of the same genes. Corals produce gametes as well, and when starting out with several hundreds of colonies, a gene pool may be maintained which is reasonably diverse. Collecting "fresh" specimens from the wild every now and then may serve to enrich such a gene pool.
Of course, sexual reproduction sometimes yields weak individuals, when genetic defects or weaknesses are passed on. This is especially true if weaknesses are transferred by both parent colonies to one individual, such as sensitivity to bleaching and salinity fluctuations. In nature, these individuals may not last very long, which may be equally true in the aquarium. The survival of favorable genes which yield better-adapted individuals is often called "survival of the fittest", a sentence which was first coined by Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) in his book Principles of Biology (1864). Similarly, Charles Darwin, father of the evolution theory, called the selection of stronger individuals over weaker ones "natural selection". In the end, sexual reproduction will yield a diverse population in which the stronger, or better-adapted individuals will survive. In terms of coral aquaculture, we might lose a portion of our offspring colonies, which is acceptable and even paramount to obtaining strong populations. Maintaining genetically diverse captive populations seems the most ideal scenario for the future of coral aquaculture. This holds especially true if such colonies are to be reintroduced to the wild, as part of reef restoration programmes.
Next to maintaining genetic diversity, ageing may be a second major incentive to commence large-scale sexual coral reproduction. It is known that many organisms age, which may be defined as a decreased functional state in genetic makeup, physiology, morphology and reproduction. There is some evidence which supports the idea that cnidarians age, including corals. On the other hand, they have been found to produce telomerase, an enzyme which inhibits ageing by repairing chromosome ends. This enzyme is also active in tumour cells, which makes these cells immortal. Corals also have effective DNA repair mechanisms, which would also reduce ageing caused by DNA damage. Although it is not yet clear if and which cnidarians truly age, sexual reproduction would "reset the clock" for each coral generation, preventing ageing from having negative effects.
Corals have developed an array of strategies for effective reproduction. In addition to the diverse methods of asexual reproduction, different means of sexual reproduction exist. These can be categorized based on coral sexuality, and the way gametes are released and fertilized.
A number of coral families harbors species which are gonochoric, which means males and females exist as separate individuals. This phenomenon is displayed by many animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish. The Dendrophylliidae family contains several genera which utilize this reproductive strategy, such as Turbinaria, Tubastrea, Leptopsammia, Heteropsammia, Rhizopsammia, possibly Duncanopsammia, Dendrophyllia and Balanophyllia. These gonochoric animals mainly brood their eggs, which exceptions such as the genus Turbinaria, containing species which release gametes into the water (see broadcasting).
The majority of stony coral species, such as Acropora spp., is hermaphroditic or bisexual. Polyps of such colonies display both active male and female gonads, called testes and ovaries, respectively. These species often release egg/sperm bundles during summer periods, after which the sperm cells detach from the bundles and fertilize the eggs (see broadcasting). Some species also display self-fertilization, or selfing. This feature seems to occur amongst some brooding corals. This may happen within the same polyp, or between polyps of the same colony.
In addition, several species display a unique form of sexuality which involves a transition from one sex to the other, called sequential hermaphroditism. This transition can occur from male to female, called protandry, or from female to male, called protogyny. This phenomenon is often found amongst marine fishes, including anemone fish (Amphiprion and Premnas spp.). The Fungiid corals Fungia repanda and Ctenactis echinata also demonstrate this ability, with the latter species being able to switch back and forth. At any given time, sequential hermaphrodites only have one active gonad type, whereas the other lies dormant and does not produce gametes. For example, a female mushroom coral may have active ovaries and produce oocytes, and have dormant testes at the same time which may become active the following year. Whereas corals may switch sex every season, fish such as pygmy angels can undergo sex change within eight weeks.
(Sequential) hermaphroditism may have evolved because it is an effective strategy to sexually reproduce, as any two individuals from the same species may be able to fertilize one another. This circumvents the problem of an incidental lack of either males or females in a given population. Second, sequential hermaphroditism allows an individual to produce sperm instead of eggs during times of stress, which is more economical as sperm require less energy to produce. Eggs have to be loaded with protein and fats, which is undesirable for any organism during times of physiological stress. It has been found that the coral Ctenactis echinata reproduces as a male when it is small or stressed by sedimentation or bleaching.
Parthenogenesis (from the Greek parthenos, or virgin, and genesis, or birth) occurs when egg cells undergo cellular mitosis and start embryonic development without prior fertilization. This yields an individual which is similar to its parent, as no genetic contributions have been made by a male partner (it is not cloning, as genetic recombination still yields a genetically dissimilar animal). The advantage of this strategy is that female organisms are still able to reproduce in the absence of males. The major downside is that the genetic variation of a given population decreases as a result. This decreases the overall fitness of the population, which means it is less able to adapt to changing conditions. Hereditary defects may also become more apparent. Parthenogenesis seems to be quite uncommon amongst corals, and has been reported for Pocillopora damicornis and Porites sp.
Many coral species expel their gametes into the water column annually, during a process called broadcast spawning. This reproductive strategy is common amongst species from the Faviidae, Euphyllidae and Acroporiidae families. Members from the Faviidae and Acroporiidae families, such as Favia, Favites, Acropora and Montipora spp. are usually hermaphroditic, and release egg/sperm bundles into the water through the oral pores of their polyps. Members of the Euphyliidae are predominantly gonochoric, such as Euphyllia ancora and E. divisa. E. glabrescens, the Torch Coral, is an exception and has been found to be a hermaphroditic brooder.
Broadcasting species usually produce impressive amounts of gametes, of which only a small fraction yields offspring. The fecundity of these corals is therefore very high under ideal circumstances. Their offspring, in the shape of planula larvae, are an important part of the plankton present in the ocean and are consumed by many organisms such as crustaceans and whales. Eventually, a small portion (possibly less than 1%) settles onto a reef which may be hundreds of kilometers away from its location of origin.
"Many coral species expel their gametes into the water column annually, a process called broadcast spawning. This reproductive strategy is common amongst species from the Faviidae, Euphyllidae and Acroporiidae families."
After external fertilization of eggs in the water column, which often display positive buoyancy, planula larvae develop after 24 to 48 hours. These are usually significantly smaller (75 - 500 micrometer) compared to larvae which are released by brooding species. For this reason, these larvae have developed ways of feeding themselves during this delicate stage.
Larvae which develop from average-sized eggs (around 0.5 mm) mainly feed on egg yolk, and are called lecithotrophic. Smaller larvae, which develop from smaller eggs depend on external nutritive sources and photosynthesis. In that case, the larvae are considered planktotrophic.
Coral larvae swim around actively by means of cilia; these are tiny hairs which protrude from the epidermal cells of the larvae. Some species produce larvae which develop oral pores during their planktonic stage, such as several Fungia and Acropora spp. This allows these larvae to ingest plankton and detritus from the water, which provides them with energy. Zooxanthellae, which are symbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium, are also ingested in this way. Other species produce larvae which do not develop a mouth until after metamorphosis into a primary polyp, which occurs immediately after larval settlement. An example is the threatened Elkhorn coral from the Caribbean, or Acropora palmata.
A young Trachyphyllia geoffroyi polyp which died several weeks after settlement. The larvae settled within a groove of a ceramic tile, which is a preferable location for many species. Reproduction of this species has been unsuccessful until now, and larvae of this species possibly require infection with zooxanthellae during this stage (photograph: Rachel Jones, London Zoo).
Planula larvae of broadcasting species may spend from several days to several weeks as plankton. This has major consequences for the distribution of species and the recovery of damaged reefs, which may be reseeded as a result of planula dispersion. This long so-called larval competency period allows for large distribution of many coral species.
Brooding species expel sperm cells just like broadcasting species, however fertilization of ova occurs internally. Male or hermaphrodite colonies release sperm cells, of which a small proportion finds its way to female or other hermaphrodite specimens of the same species, after which fertilization takes place. Next, the eggs develop into relatively large larvae which are released through the oral pores at sizes between 500 - 2,000 m (0.5 - 2 mm). In contrast to broadcasters, brooding species produce little eggs and large, well-developed larvae. This strategy is thus based on the principle of "quality instead of quantity". The large larvae are often negatively buoyant, and usually settle within 1 or 2 days. This poses great advantages for the aquaculture of such species, as offspring has far less chances of being skimmed off or being removed by protein skimmers. Examples of brooding species are Pocillopora damicornis, Favia fragum and Tubastraea coccinea.
Many coral species have formed a mutualistic relationship with dinoflagellates from the genus Symbiodinium, which provide their host with important nutrients. These dinoflagellates are colloquially known as zooxanthellae. When reproducing, many coral species transfer their zooxanthellae to their offspring via ova. This is very common amongst brooding species, in contrast to broadcasters, which often produce aposymbiotic eggs (i.e. devoid of zooxanthellae). In nature, exceptions to any rule exist, and this holds true for corals as well. Many species from the genera Montipora are broadcast spawners which transfer zooxanthellae through released eggs. This also goes for Pocillopora meandrina, P. eydouxi and P. verrucosa.
Transfer of zooxanthellae to offspring through ova is called vertical transmission, as this occurs from one generation to the next. This process is typical amongst brooding corals, and has been found for about 15% of all photosynthetic coral species. When aposymbiotic larvae take up zooxanthellae from the water, this is called horizontal transmission; each generation of offspring therefore has to take up new dinoflagellates. Both strategies have their (dis)advantages. Vertical transmission of zooxanthellae may result in higher survival rates of coral larvae, as they receive vital nutrients from photosynthesis. This only goes for situations where water temperatures do not exceed ~30°C (~86°F), as higher temperatures cause many zooxanthellae to disintegrate and release toxic oxygen radicals into the larval tissue. This leads to larvae mortality, and this phenomenon may be the reason why many species do not transfer zooxanthellae to their offspring, circumventing the useful but sometimes precarious symbiosis at early coral life. Another downside of vertical transmission is low flexibility, as the larvae do not get to obtain other zooxanthellae "species", or clades, which may be better adapted to high temperatures. This is especially true if larvae end up at new locations where water temperatures are higher, which may render them more sensitive to bleaching episodes. Horizontal transmission has the advantage of being more flexible, which could be highly beneficial if larvae drift to warmer areas. Here, they may take up clade D zooxanthellae, which can be thermally tolerant up to 32°C (90°F). Of course, the major downside here is that these larvae have to rely on other nutrient sources until they acquire zooxanthellae. By feeding on their egg yolk initially, and by consuming plankton and taking up dissolved nutrients they can survive without zooxanthellae.
"Transfer of zooxanthellae to offspring via eggs is known as vertical transmission. Uptake of zooxanthellae from the water column is referred to as horizontal transmission."
The reproductive biology of corals has major consequences for the success of sexual reproduction in captivity, as especially broadcasting species are highly difficult to reproduce in a closed aquarium. Below, I will discuss some of the challenges, possible solutions and future perspectives of coral reproduction in aquaculture. These challenges involve simulation of environmental cues which stimulate reproduction, providing sufficient nutrition and the use of specialized filtration systems.
Many organisms have adapted to the erratic seasons on the planet, which are especially contrasting at latitudes outside of the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Temperature, photoperiod, irradiance, precipitation and water current are important abiotic factors which fluctuate dramatically over the course of a year. Making use of the optimal season for reproduction is key to the survival of many species.
Many reef animals are dependent on seasonal reproductive cues. When these environmental cues are absent, organisms such as corals will not spawn. This phenomenon has been found to apply to many coral species, especially broadcasting species. The main cues, or triggers for coral reproduction seem to be fluctuations in water temperature, sun- and moonlight, and possibly water movement. The involvement of hormones has also been proposed by scientists, although this remains to be determined.
"The reason why many corals reproduce during the summer months may be because concentrations of plankton are highest, increasing chances of offspring survival."
The average temperature on coral reefs fluctuates annually between roughly 22°C (72°F) and 30°C (86°F), with summer maxima sometimes peaking around 35°C (95°F). This forms a striking contrast with home aquaria, which are usually kept at a constant temperature with aquarium heaters and thermostats. In these aquaria it is basically always "spring", and therefore a major reproductive trigger is absent. For several species it has been found that gametogenesis, the production of eggs and sperm, accelerates during spring. During the summer, eggs will have matured and become poised to be fertilized. This cycle is displayed by a staggering amount of plant and animal species. Temperature may well be the most critical cue for reproduction. It is of course vital not to let water temperatures exceed the 30°C (86°F) threshold, which would induce thermal bleaching and promote bacterial infections (e.g. Vibrio). The reason why many corals reproduce during the summer months may be because concentrations of plankton are highest during this time, which allows larvae and primary polyps to ingest ample nutrients. This could promote their survival.
Light is a factor which has been recognised by aquarists as an important cue for years, especially for fish. Light computers and dimmable fixtures nowadays are able to mimic natural photoperiods, and LED lights simulate moonlight. Unfortunately, moonlight is often applied at a constant irradiance level, which means the aquarium is always subjected to a "full moon". This may not be sufficient to stimulate corals and fish to display their natural reproductive behavior (see water current). It is the fluctuation which makes all the difference, and this should vary between a PAR value of 0.01 mol/m2/s at full moon, and 0 mol/m2/s at new moon. Compare these levels with an average aquarium irradiance of 200-400 E/m2/s, and it becomes clear how dim this light should be. Without a light intensity meter (PAR meter), it is difficult to mimic these exact levels, however. Where temperature should fluctuate over a course of a year, moonlight should follow a cycle of four weeks. In practical terms, this means the moonlights should increase in irradiance level for two weeks, after which they should decrease in strength for another two weeks.
Due to the daily rhythm of an aquarist, the aquarium is mostly viewed during the day or evening. At night, however, there is also much to be seen; corals expand their tentacles to capture particles, and release their gametes or larvae (save for exceptions such as Pocillopora meandrina in Hawaii). The reason why corals do this could be to reduce predation on their offspring, as less predators are active at night. This poses yet another difficulty for aquarists, as gametes and larvae are readily trapped by filtration systems. In addition, it is often desirable to rear offspring in separate aquaria. This problem may be solved by placing plankton nets or filtration mesh over suspected gravid colonies. This can be done in the aquarium as well as in situ, such as in the Gulf of Eilat where researchers place plankton nets over gravid Stylophora pistillata colonies. Collection beakers are harvested the following morning, which often contain released larvae of this brooding species. S. pistillata is known to release larvae mainly during springtime (from April to May), but other species such as the Caribbean Favia fragum may release larvae all year round.
"The release of gametes or larvae usually takes place during the night. Corals possibly do this to reduce predation on offspring."
Another possibility is reversing the photocycle of the aquarium, allowing for gamete collection during the day. It may take a while before corals acclimatize to a new photocycle, however there is anecdotal evidence which suggests corals are able to depart from their natural rhythm. As an example, aquarists regularly see corals expanding their tentacles during the day as a response to food addition.
Light intensity and photoperiod also fluctuate over the course of a year, especially on reefs which are located outside of the tropics. With an advanced light computer, diurnal cycles, and changes in photoperiod and irradiance throughout the year can be simulated. Some data indicate that these factors may also affect coral spawning.
Closely linked to moonlight are the tides, which strongly influence water current velocity. In the aquarium, water current cycles should follow a two-week cycle, i.e. half the cycle length of the moon. This is because on the reef, water currents are strongest during both new and full moon. This means that flow controllers should ideally increase water flow rate over a one-week period, followed by another week of decreasing current. It is important that moonlight and water current are properly synchronized, in such a way that water flow rate peaks at full moon as well as new moon, and is lowest in between new and full moon. But why are moonlight and water current so important to corals, in terms of sexual reproduction?
For years, it has been known that many broadcasting species reproduce about a week after full moon, during the evening or night. This is possibly because in this period, water currents are lowest. A week after full moon, during the last quarter, the sun and moon partially cancel out each other's force of gravity, thereby decreasing tidal forces. During this moment, known as neap tide, chances of egg fertilization by sperm may be highest as less dilution of gametes occurs. In 2007, scientists discovered that corals are able to detect blue light, which triggers the production of so-called cryptochromes in coral cells. These proteins are light sensitive, and are known to regulate Circadian rhythms (24 hour rhythms). Due to increased production of these proteins by coral tissue, changes in the reproductive state of coral polyps may occur, such as the onset of final gamete and larvae maturation, and subsequent release into the water.
When fluctuations in water temperature, (moon)light and water current are applied to home aquaria, the natural reproductive cycles of marine organisms may be maintained. This will, in a number of cases, lead to the reproduction of fishes, corals and other invertebrates.
Coral nutrition has received much attention by aquarists over the last few years; the view that only the fish require feeding, and that corals simply need strong lighting is losing ground. Scientific studies show that in order to grow well, corals need to obtain nutrients from plankton and dissolved compounds to complement photosynthesis. The same may be true for sexual reproduction, which could be hampered by a lack of external nutrient sources.
As described above, small or weakened Fungiid corals have been found to have active male gonads only, possibly because they have too little energy reserves to produce eggs. Local or aquarium populations suffering from male dominance cannot reproduce properly, as both gamete types are required simultaneously for fertilization. Parthenogenic and simultaneous hermaphroditic corals may also have difficulty with maintaining oogenesis (egg production) during times of physiological stress.
In the aquarium, plankton can be dosed on a daily basis to provide corals with sufficient food to maintain fertility. Artemia nauplii, rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis), copepods (e.g. Tigriopus californicus, Parvocalanus crassirostris, Acartia tonsa) and phytoplankton products (e.g. Phyto Feast) are suitable food sources for many corals.
Next to providing reproductive cues and sufficient food, a third important factor is the type of filtration used. Aquarium filters can be a major hurdle for captive sexual reproduction, as they are usually not particularly plankton-friendly. The most well-known filtration device for marine aquaria is the protein skimmer, or foam fractionator. This device allows aquarists to maintain an aquarium with relative ease. By mixing seawater and air, organic molecules and fine particles are removed from the water. This reduces microbial breakdown of food and animal wastes, thereby inhibiting the accumulation of nitrate, phosphate and various organic compounds. The major disadvantage of this method is that plankton, which includes the gametes and larvae of many animals, is removed as well. Biofilters and sand filters also trap eggs and larvae. Aquarium pumps also have a destructive effect on planktonic life, although no real alternatives for the home market are currently available. This problem is so fundamental that active removal or separation of gametes and larvae is required for most species. This can be done with plankton nets or kreisels.
Plankton-friendly alternatives for protein skimmers and biofilters are available, which include denitrification systems. These systems use sand beds, in which bacteria break down various forms of inorganic nitrogen, via (de)nitrification. In the hypoxic lower zone of the sand bed, heterotrophic bacteria use nitrate (NO3-) as an oxidator instead of oxygen (O2) to oxidate carbon sources. Phosphates are converted into bacterial biomass, and precipitated as apatite when calcium carbonate is used as a substrate. Denitrification systems were more common in the 1980's, before protein skimmers became popular. These systems are no longer widely used, as they can be unpredictable. A problem which can present itself after several years is congestion of the sand bed. This results in patches which are completely anoxic. Under these conditions, bacteria reduce sulfate (SO42-) instead of nitrate as this is energetically favorable. This leads to the production of toxic hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S), with sometimes dire consequences for aquarium life.
A system which is similar to the DSB has existed for many years, and was developed by Prof. Jean Jaubert. This system uses a plenum, which is a layer of stagnant water situated under a screen which supports the substrate. Ideally, the system is stocked with cirratulid worms, which consume detrital matter precipitating on top of the sand bed. After ingestion, they transfer fecal matter to the hypoxic layer. Here, bacteria can use the carbon present in the worm's feces to reduce nitrate. Jaubert has obtained impressive results with his system at the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.
Another type of denitrification system is DyMiCo, short for Dynamic Mineral Control. This is a computer-controlled filtration system, which makes use of several important innovations. With a pump, active communication between the water column and the sand bed is established. This allows for a more efficient breakdown of nitrate, as the system is no longer dependent on diffusion processes. A carbon source is also injected into the substrate, ensuring nitrate reduction is not carbon-limited. Finally, redox and pH probes in the sand bed allow for careful monitoring of the system. Redox values between -300 and -100 mV are important for high rates of denitrification, and this value can be manipulated by controlling the amount of injected carbon and flow through the sand bed. When the pH level of the sand bed is kept at 6.5 - 7 with carbon dioxide (CO2), it also functions as a powerful calcium reactor.
Whatever filtration methods are used, the essence is that these should be plankton-friendly if sexual coral reproduction of many species is to be successful without intervention, such as with plankton nets. It is clear that sexual coral reproduction is not an easy task, as it requires detailed knowledge, dedication and time.
In the aquarium trade, people often speak about "parent colonies", and "frags". The parent colony usually has become too large for the home aquarium, after which it is pruned. Often, these colonies are nowhere near their natural maximum sizes. For example, Acropora, Montipora and Euphyllia colonies can grow up to several meters in diameter. When colonies are maintained too small, they will not invest energy into reproduction. Only at a specific minimum size, they will start producing eggs and sperm. This principle applies to many plants and animals, which first invest energy into growth before reproducing. For example, an apple tree will first grow up to a specific size before initiating fruiting. In biology, these two phases are called the vegetative and generative phases, respectively.
This phenomenon may prevent small colonies from spawning in the aquarium, as they are juveniles that still invest most energy into growth. For Acropora formosa, for example, it has been found that branches of fertile colonies stop sexually reproducing when removed at a size of 5 cm (2 inch) in length. When 20 cm (8 inch) fragments are removed, they continue egg development. Such experiments suggest that breeding colonies should be allowed to grow to larger sizes, to allow them to maintain egg and sperm production.
Exceptions exist, such as the species Pocillopora damicornis, Favia fragum and Tubastrea coccinea. These species already reproduce at very small colony sizes. These are brooding corals, which in addition makes it less difficult to sexually reproduce them.
Many gonochoric coral species exist, with separate male and female individuals. This applies to roughly 25% of all coral species, and this poses a challenge for aquarists. For example, species from the genera Turbinaria and Dendrophyllia (family Dendrophylliidae) will have to be maintained as both sexes. For broadcasters such as Turbinaria sp., gametes will also have to be released in concert.
If inducing coral spawning and gamete/larvae collection have been successful, the next challenge is to have the offspring attach, or settle, onto a substrate. If this occurs in the aquarium, which is common for brooding species, this process can be left to nature. In some cases however, it is desirable to collect gametes or larvae, which is especially true for broadcasters. The eggs can be fertilized by mixing them with sperm, with an incubation time of thirty minutes being sufficient for at least some Acropora species. Next, the eggs can be transferred to small aquaria which are gently aerated with air tubes.
Kreisel systems are also ideal, which allows for gentle stirring of larvae. Excess sperm cells will have to be removed within several hours after fertilization, as these will negatively affect water quality and oxygen levels. Depending on species and temperature, embryos will develop into larvae within one to four days. As soon as the swimming stage has been reached, the larvae will settle within several days to weeks. Brooding species release large larvae with short competency periods, allowing them to settle within a day. Larvae which develop from eggs externally often have long competency periods, allowing them to settle even after several weeks, in some cases. To survive for this long, these larvae develop mouths during their planktonic stage, allowing them to feed on particles and ingest zooxanthellae.
For larval settlement, suitable substrates are required, such as ceramic tiles. These are first conditioned in the aquarium, during which a biofilm of bacteria and calcareous algae develops over the tiles. Without this vital step, the larvae will not settle. The biofilm may provide necessary settling cues for the larvae, such as signal molecules released by bacteria or algae. Bacteria are known to be part of the coral holobiont, the complete assemblage of the coral and its symbiotic organisms including zooxanthellae and bacteria, and may provide the coral with immune defense against other harmful microorganisms. An example of such harmful organisms are bacteria from the Vibrio genus, which have been linked to coral diseases such as white band syndrome and yellow blotch.
As described above, about 15% of all coral species receives zooxanthellae from the parent colony, a process known as vertical transmission. The majority of all species, however, has to acquire these symbiotic dinoflagellates early in life each generation. This uptake occurs during the larval stage, or after metamorphosis at the primary polyp stage. Several species are not yet competent to take up zooxanthellae until after metamorphosis into a primary polyp, as their larvae do not develop an oral pore during the planktonic stage. This is true for the Caribbean Elkhorn coral, Acropora palmata, a species which is critically endangered. Primary polyps of this species can be inoculated by adding concentrated zooxanthellae cultures to the aquarium water, which have been previously isolated from coral tissue. They may also be able to take up zooxanthellae which have been expelled by other corals in mucus, a process which may occur in the wild. Knowledge of the onset of the coral-zooxanthellae symbiosis for each species is important to promote survival chances for larvae or primary polyps.
Rearing young colonies can be a difficult task, as they are quite sensitive to overgrowth by algae and other organisms. Offspring should therefore be kept clean, by introducing snails, hermit crabs and herbivorous fishes, and by regular cleaning of the tiles.
Although sexual coral reproduction is not an easy task, several degrees of difficulty exist. This mostly depends on coral sexuality (parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism or gonochorism) and the mode in which ova are fertilized (broadcasting or brooding). The easiest species are parthenogenic and hermaphroditic brooders. For these species, only one colony is required, as in many cases selfing may occur. Egg cells are also internally fertilized and developed, which circumvents the problems of removal by mechanical filtration. Furthermore, larvae released by brooding species often display negative buoyancy and short competency periods, which again reduces filtration-related losses. When plankton nets are placed over brooding colonies, larvae can often be collected the following morning for rearing in separate aquaria.
"The development of a closed system aimed at large-scale sexual coral reproduction would be a major step in the field of marine aquaculture."
The most difficult species are hermaphroditic and gonochoric broadcast spawners. These corals require environmental stimuli such as strong fluctuations in water temperature, (moon)light and possibly water movement. For gonochoric species, colonies of both sexes are also required. Finally, released gametes will have to be collected before they are trapped by filtration systems, at least when conventional aquarium systems are utilized. Table 1 provides an overview of the various categories and their degrees of difficulty.
Table 1: Coral species categorized in degrees of sexual reproduction difficulty. Only several species per group are presented (based on Riddle, 2008 and Fadlallah, 1983).
1: classification from A: easy to G: highly difficult
2: sufficient nutrition and light required for maintaining oogenesis
3: usage of plankton nets required if protein skimmers and biofilters are applied, to prevent mechanical removal of gametes and larvae
4: environmental cues such as fluctuations in water temperature, (moon)light and water current required
5: a minimum of two colonies required
6: two sexes required
The field of coral aquaculture has made significant advances over the last decades, with the advent of protein skimmers, calcium reactors, powerful pumps, high quality synthetic sea salts and a thorough knowledge of water chemistry. The husbandry of exotic species always seems to follow three distinct phases; long-term survival, growth and finally sexual reproduction, and the same may be true for corals. The first two phases have been successfully achieved for many reef species, save for azooxanthellate corals such as Dendronephthya sp., feather stars, tunicates, many bivalves and sponges. However, when the final phase is considered, sexual reproduction, it becomes clear that coral aquaculture is still faced with important challenges.
Sexual reproduction of corals is a time-consuming endeavor which is not within reach of most aquarists. Nevertheless, for the average hobbyist, there still is room for much improvement. Providing environmental reproductive cues and using plankton-friendly filtration systems may yield new results. Zoos, public aquaria, universities and research institutes have made important contributions to sexual coral reproduction, with projects such as SECORE (www.secore.org) and CORALZOO (www.coralzoo.org). In Japan, much has been done in this field as well. For example, coral spawnings at the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium occur regularly. Coral larvae have also been used around Okinawa to restore reef sections, by isolating large numbers within plankton nets placed over damaged parts of the reef.
Although impressive and pioneering, these efforts all depend on field work or open aquarium systems. The development of a closed system aimed at large-scale sexual reproduction would be a major step forward in the field of coral aquaculture. As science and technology continue to evolve, it is quite possible that sexual coral reproduction will become a standard practice in the future.
For a comprehensive list of stony corals and their reproduction methods, the reader is referred to the Coral Reproduction series by Dana Riddle in Advanced Aquarist (2008).
The author wishes to thank Dana Riddle for critically evaluating and improving the manuscript.
The four newly described Trimma species is published in Journal of the Ocean Science Foundation (open access paper). Note: There are no live/underwater photographs of Trimma abyssum so no photographs of this new species is presented in this post.
If it seems like scientists are describing a not of new goby species in recent years, it's because they are!
Trimma nauagium , underwater photographs, approximately 20 mm SL, Waga Waga, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. Photographs by G.R. Allen.
Trimma chledophilum, underwater photographs, approximately 20 mm SL, Alotau, Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. Photographs by G.R. Allen.
The following two species are not newly described, although both are fairly new, having only been described in 2011. They're included in this post (and in G.R. Allen's paper) as a comparative reference ... and also because they're too beautiful not to share!
Not a new species, but a beautiful Trimma erdmanni , underwater photograph, approximately 20 mm SL, near Fakfak, West Papua, Indonesia. Photograph by G.R. Allen
Trimma xanthochrum , underwater photograph, approximately 22 mm SL, Triton Bay, West Papua, Indonesia. Photograph by G.R. Allen.


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Runner of Porcelain or Ceramic within Wood floor???
jean61April 29, 2012
Has anyone cut out an area of their hardwood floors to put like a runner of porcelain/ceramic tile within the kitchen floors. Was thinking this would help with the any water damage in the high traffic (work zone) of the stove and kitchen sink. If you have pictures I would love to see it. Or if you have any thoughts of how this would look!???
got this from the houzz website....this is what I was talking about? :
traditional kitchen design by new york architect Crisp Architects


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Our new devotional "If God Loves Me, Why Did I Lose My Job?" explores the struggle of unemployment. Sign up here.
In this section Paul expands on his earlier definition of sound doctrine in 2:11-14. We are saved and justified by God (vv. 3-7). As a result, we are to be devoted to doing good (v. 8) and are warned to avoid the unprofitable (vv. 9-11).


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The Best Ways to Show Your Support for Marriage Equality on Facebook
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To show their support for the LGBT community, people have been changing their profile pictures on Facebook. It started as big blocks of solid red. Then changed to a red block with a pink equal sign, which is symbol of the Human Rights Campaign. Now things have gotten a little out of control and some more creative options have popped up. Here are our favorites.
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|Oct 21, 2013, 10:56 AM
Wing type name?
I am doing a reverse engineering project for my university and I chose the Parkzone Mini Vapor for the project. I am having trouble remembering what the wing is called that has self leveling tendencies. If you could tell me what the name for that is, it would be much apreciated
|Oct 21, 2013, 12:18 PM
West of California Speedway, East of LaLa, North of Disneyland
Joined May 2001
2,363 Posts
The Mini Vapor follows the practice of many years of small, light, slow fliers.
The relative angle(s) of the wing and horizontal tail is called "incidence", which may be what you're referring to.
The wing has positive incidence when the angle of the wing is positive with respect to the tail - meaning the leading edge of the wing is higher than the leading edge of the tail. Incidence creates lift, but also creates drag. At a certain forward speed, the angle provides a balance between speed, lift and drag.
On the Mini Vapor, one can experiment with the battery position to achieve a CG point that will result in a certain speed vs angle of attack. Usually, a greater AOA creates increasing drag, resulting in slower speed, but requires more power, resulting in shorter battery duration.
Everything in physics is a tradeoff!!
But remember: "Reverse Engineering" is using a finished product that you did not produce in an analytical way to produce the same, or similar product - NOT merely making a copy!!
|Oct 21, 2013, 12:25 PM
Joined Dec 2009
266 Posts
Any wing with ditheral or low cg has self leveling tendencies.
|Oct 21, 2013, 01:43 PM
I believe he is referring to the roll axis and dihedral is the correct answer.
|Oct 21, 2013, 03:17 PM
Germany, SN, Leipzig
Joined Nov 2012
338 Posts
I think thats called a rogallo wing, defines itself by forming an airfoil through the air itself...... but not 100% shure
|Oct 21, 2013, 03:37 PM
West of California Speedway, East of LaLa, North of Disneyland
Joined May 2001
2,363 Posts
|Oct 21, 2013, 08:09 PM
Shouldn't be too difficult to swap the mini Vapour wing for a Rogallo along the lines of the Gymetto, only smaller.
|Oct 22, 2013, 05:57 PM
Beijing, China
Joined Nov 2006
1,223 Posts
Your question, at first, made me think you wanted to know what a "reflexed" airfoil is. However, it's not used on a Vapor, but on flying wings.
|Oct 23, 2013, 03:03 PM
The Vapor wings (all variations of them) are close to elliptical, which is considered the most efficient planform. They are really more ovoid but close to the elliptical ideal.
Stability comes from two things, the dihedral, (Vee shape) of the wing and washout, which is the twist of the wing from root to tip. If the airfoil points down at the tip relative to the root it's called washout and increases stability by enabling the tip to stall later than the root.
If you accidentally put washin (the opposite twist) in a wing it will usually become a tip stalling monster and be very difficult to fly slowly.
Naturally both wings should have almost the same twist except that sometimes a small difference in twist is used to compensate for torque.
|Oct 23, 2013, 06:38 PM
West of California Speedway, East of LaLa, North of Disneyland
Joined May 2001
2,363 Posts
...............don't you get the idea that we're shining flashlights on an invisible object, here...............................
Just wondering.............
|Oct 23, 2013, 08:40 PM
Joined Nov 2000
7,575 Posts
IMO the Mini Vapor flies like erm.. Crap. Not surprising as it was intended for Children.
A few do like it though.. go figure.
Frankly your uni project seems a wee bit lame, especially so if genuine.
|Oct 23, 2013, 10:19 PM
West of California Speedway, East of LaLa, North of Disneyland
Joined May 2001
2,363 Posts
Outside in 5+ MPH winds, attempts to fly 3D manuevers, whatever, manuevers the plane was never design for, then I might concede. But that is not what the plane was meant for.
In my indoor group of about 10 - 12 fliers, 5 of us have them and love 'em. But then, we're all well-experienced, long time fliers.
I gave one to my brother-in-law after his open heart surgery as a means to occupy his idle time before he was cleared to go back to work, he learned to fly it in no time. And, you know what? He had never flown any RC plane before!!
I'd like to know what your definition of crap is!! C'mon, I can take it!!!
|Oct 24, 2013, 10:25 AM
Blacksburg, VA 24060 USA
Joined Feb 2000
3,261 Posts
I like both Vapors and also the Gymallo, the bigger brother to the Micro Gymetto. They were not designed for aerobatics, though they can be forced into a loop, if there is enough power. But not pretty.
Jim R.
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