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zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ Journal of Persotutlityand Social Psychology ColYyrisht 1990 by the American Ps3r.lmtoocal Asmciatiot%Inc. 1990, Vol. 58, No. 2, 342-353 0022-3514/90/$00.75 The Duchenne Smile: Emotional Expression and Brain Physiology II Paul Ekman R i c h a r d J. D a v i d s o n Human Interaction Laboratory University of Wisconsin--Madison University of California, San Francisco Wallace V. Friesen University o f California, San Francisco Facial expression, EEG, and self-report of subjective emotional experience were recorded while sub- jects individually watched both pleasant and unpleasant films. Smiling in which the muscle that orbits the eye is active in addition to the muscle that pulls the lip comers up (the Duchenne smile) was compared with other smiling in which the muscle orbiting the eye was not active. As predicted, the Duchenne smile was related to enjoyment in terms of occurring more often during the pleasant than the unpleasant films, in measures of cerebral asymmetry, and in relation to subjective reports of positive emotions, and other smiling was not. In the introduction to his book The Expression of the Emo- Until very recently, scientists studying facial expression ig- tions in Man and Animals (1872/1955), Darwin described his nored Duchenne's advice about how to distinguish voluntary, indebtedness to the French anatomist Duchenne de Boulogne, false, or deceitful smiling from involuntary smiles of enjoy- who had published his Mecanisme de ia Physionomie Humaine ment. This failure to distinguish among smiles may account for 10 years earlier, in 1862. Darwin explained how Duehenne much of the confusion over the last 60 years about what smiles signify and when they occur. analyses by means of electricity, and illustratesby magnificent pho- tographs, the movements of the facial muscles. . . . No one has The appearance of smiling in unpleasant circumstances was more carefully studied the contraction of each separate muscle, often cited by cultural anthropologists as proof that facial ex- and the consequent furrows produced on the skin. He has also, pressions of emotion are not universal but specific to each cul- and this is a very important service, shown which muscles are least ture. LaBarre quoted a description of Africans: " . . . laughter under the control of the will. (1872/1955, p. 5) is used by the Negro to express surprise, wonder, embarras.~ Observing differences in the appearance of spontaneous smil- ment and even discomforture; it is not necessarily or even often ing (Figure 1) and a smile resulting from electrical stimulation a sign o f amusement" (Gorer, 1935, cited in LaBarre, 1947, p. o f the zygomatic major muscle (Figure 2), Duchenne wrote: 52). LaBarre commented, "Thus it is that even ifthe physiologi- cal behavior be present, its [the smile or laugh] cultural and The emotion of frank joy is expressed on the face by the combined emotional functions may differ" (LaBarre, 1947, p. 52). Bird- contraction of the zygomaticusmajor muscle and the orbieularis whistell described how, early in his research, he was preoccu- oeuli. The first obeys the will but the second is only put in play by the sweet emotions of the soul; t h e . . , fake joy, the deceitful laugh, pied " . . . with human universals, [and] I attempted to study cannot provoke the contraction of this latter muscle . . . . The mus- the human smile . . . . Not only did I find that a number of my cle around the eye does not obey the will; it is only brought into subjects 'smiled' when they were subjected to what seemed to play by a true feeling, by an agreeable emotion. Its inertia, in smil- be a positive environment but some 'smiled' in an aversive one. ing, unmasks a false friend. (I 862/in press) t • . ." (1970, pp. 29-30). "This search for universals was culture Ekman (1989) has suggested that this form of smiling---distin- bound . . . . There are probably no universal symbols o f emo- guished by the combination o f both the zygomatic and orbicu- tional state . . . . We can expect them [emotional expressions] laris oculi muscles---which is hypothesized to occur with spon- to be learned and patterned according to the particular struc- taneously occurring enjoyment, be called the Duchenne smile. tures of particular societies" (Birdwhistell, 1963, p. 126). Within experimental psychology, the conclusion that facial expressions do not provide much accurate information about emotion--the position taken in Hunt's (1941), Brunet and Ta- This research was supported by Research Scientist Award MH 06092 giuri's (1954), and Tagiuri's (1968) influential literature re- from the National Institute of Mental Health to Paul Ekman and by zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ by observations that subjects often smile views---was buttressed grants to Richard Davidson from the National Institute of Mental in unpleasant circumstances. Landis's (1924) classic experi- Health (MH 40747 and MH 43454) and the Graduate School of the ment on spontaneous facial expression was given considerable University of Wisconsin. weight by these reviewers. Landis had photographed his stu- We wish to thank Linda Kinney and Andrea Straus for assistance with the data analysis. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Paul Duchenne's book has been out of print for decades. Our quote is Ekman, Human Interaction Laboratory, University of California, 401 from the first English translation (Duchenne, in press), which should Parnassus, San Francisco, California 94143. appear next year. 342 zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ DUCHENNE SMILE 343 dents when they listened to music, looked at pornographic pic- tures, smelled ammonia, were shocked, observed him decapi- tate a live rat, and so forth. Observers who then looked at these photographs were unable to determine accurately the situations in which the expressions occurred. In particular, Landis made much of his finding that smiles were frequent in all of his situa- tions, thus showing that the smile is a meaningless expression. More recently, Ekman, Friesen, and O'Sullivan (1988) sug- gested that the failure to distinguish among smiles may account for contradictory findings in studies of interpersonal deception. They reviewed 12 studies conducted over the last 10 years that found that subjects smiled equally often when they were telling the truth or telling a lie. As reported below, that did not happen in their study, in which the Duchenne smile was distinguished from other smiles. In all of this work--anthropological observations and experi- mental studies of emotion and of deception--smiles were treated as a single class of behavior. No distinctions were made among types of smiles. Little recognition was given to the obvi- ous fact that smiles, like many other facial expressions, can be performed voluntarily or may appear involuntarily. No one took note of Duchenne's more specific hypothesis about how to distinguish a smile of enjoyment, which typically occurs invol- untarily, from other types of smiling. (An exception are the few ethologists [Blurton Jones, 1972; Brannigan & Humphries, 1972; Grant, 1969] who did distinguish among types of smiling, Figure 2. The zygomatic major muscle stimulated to produce a smile (Duchenne, 1862/in press). but they did not separate the Duchenne smile from other smil- ing activity.) Ekman and Friesen (1982) expanded on Duchenne's obser- vations in proposing how to distinguish enjoyment smiles 2 from a number of other types of smiling. Enjoyment smiles, they said, can be distinguished from other smiles not only on the basis of the muscles that produce the smile (i.e., the Duchenne smile), but also on the basis of the timing of the smile and the coincidence of the smile with speech and other motor behavior. Recognizing that enjoyment may come about in many ways, including earning praise, accomplishment, relief, amusement, or pleasure from visual, auditory, gustatory, kinesthetic, or tac- tile sources, Ekman and Friesen nevertheless claimed that smiles in all these enjoyable circumstances would be distin- guishable from other types of smiling in which there is no enjoy- ment. Ekman and Friesen described the appearance of "false smiles," which are made deliberately to convince another that enjoyment is occurring when it is not; "masking smiles," which are made deliberately to conceal the experience of negative emotions; and "miserable smiles," which acknowledge a will- ingness to endure an unpleasant circumstance. Ekman (1985) also described 14 other types of smiles. zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ this formulation, Ekman et al. (1988) ex- In their first test of amined the incidence of the Duchenne smile and masking z They originally called these "felt smiles," but because that phrase Figure 1. Spontaneous smile of enjoyment according to Duchenne could imply that the crucial issue is whether the person actually is aware ( 1862/in press). (Compare the cheeks and the skin gathered in around of the smile itself, Ekman (1989) proposed that this class of behavior be the eyes in this figure with Figure 2.) called instead "enjoyment smiles." zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ 344 P. EKMAN, R. DAVIDSON, AND W. FRIESEN smiles when people were truthfully describing positive emo- periencing positive or negative emotions, a variety of smiles tions and when they feigned enjoyment to conceal strong nega- may occur, but the Duchenne smile, we predict, will occur dur- tive feelings. As predicted, the Duchenne smile occurred more ing solitary enjoyment. We have compared these smiles with a often when people were actually enjoying themselves, whereas variety of "other smiles." When watching positive films, two masking smiles occurred more often when people were feigning other kinds of smiles may occur: anticipatory smiles, when enjoyment but experiencing negative emotions. someone anticipates the likelihood of soon experiencing enjoy- A number of other investigators, using Ekman and Friesen's ment; and positive-negative blends, when the film evokes a distinctions among smiles, have found evidence suggesting that memory that blends enjoyment with some negative emotion. the Duchenne smile is a sign of enjoyment. Matsumoto (1986) When watching the negative films, there should be few Du- found that depressed patients showed more Duchenne smiling chenne smiles, although they might not be totally absent. They in a discharge interview as compared to an admission interview, may appear, for example, if a subject becomes amused about with no difference in the amount of other smiling. Steiner suffering the impact of the negative films. Miserable smiles, in (1986) found that Duchenne smiling, but not other types of which the subject acknowledges being in a miserable situation, smiles, increased over the course of psychotherapy in patients and masking smiles may also occur. Finally, anticipatory smiles who were judged to have improved. Krause, Steimer, Sanger- may occur if the subject is anticipating the relief that may be Alt, and Wagner (1989) found that during interviews schizo- experienced when the film ends. phrenics showed fewer Duchenne smiles than normal individu- Our experiment differed from prior studies of smiling, not als, but there was no difference between the groups in other only in examining people who were experiencing emotion when smiling. Ruch (1987) found that Duchenne smiles were sensi- alone, but in other ways as well. It is the first study to determine tive to the amount of humor felt by adults when responding to how different forms of smiling relate to the subjective experi- jokes. ence of emotion. It is also the first to determine whether the In all of these studies the subjects were engaged in face-to- Duchenne smile could not only distinguish positive from nega- face communication. It could be argued that perhaps only when tive emotions, but which of two positive experiences was most people are so focused on communicating that a difference enjoyable. Finally, it is the first to examine the relationship be- would be found between the Duchenne and other types of smil- twe~n types of smiling and cerebral hemisphere activity in ing. Our experiment addressed this matter by studying subjects adults. Fox and Davidson (1988) examined this relationship in who were not trying deliberately to communicate. They experi- infants and found that Duchenne smiling was associated with enced emotions while they sat alone, with no one present, more left-sided frontal activation compared with other smiles, watching a series of short motion picture films. Because it was whereas other smiles were associated with right-sided frontal important to reduce the possibility that subjects might imagine activation compared with Duchenne smiling. that another person was observing them if they knew we were A growing literature that has established differences between recording their expressions, they were not told about the video- the two hemispheres of the brain in their involvement in certain tape recording until after the experiment was over. The camera positive and negative emotions suggests that there would be was hidden and not discovered by any of the subjects. They be- different physiological activity associated with the Duchenne lieved our sole interest was in the physiological recordings that smile as compared to other kinds of smiling (see Davidson, were made while they watched the films. 1984, 1987; Silberman & Weingartner, 1986; and Tucker & Some investigators (Andrew, 1963; Kraut, 1978; Smith, Frederick, 1989, for reviews). The evidence on hemispheric ac- 1985) have taken the position that facial expressions should not tivity and emotion comes from a diversity of sources, including be conceptualized in terms of emotions, but only as social inter- studies of the emotional consequences of unilateral brain dam- active signals. In a solitary, private situation they expect that age (e.g., Robinson, Kubos, Start, Rao, & Price, 1984), of uni- facial expressions will not occur or, if they do, they will not be lateral injections of sodium amytal in patients prior to neuro- related to subjective emotional experience or physiological surgery (e.g., Lee, Loring, Meador, & Flanigin, 1988; Rossi & changes. We believe that this view that facial expressions occur Rosadini, 1967), and of asymmetries in regional brain activa- only during social interaction is incorrect. Granting that emo- tion in normals using measures based on both brain electrical tions are often brought forth by interactive events, Ekman and activity and regional cerebral blood flow (eg., Davidson, 1984, Friesen (1969, 1975; Ekman, 1977, 1989) maintain that emo- 1987). tions are elicited also by nonsocial events (e.g., fear aroused by a The asymmetries associated with the production of emotion loss of support, a variety of emotions aroused by entertainment have been most consistently observed in the frontal and anterior media, and positive emotions aroused by seeing a beautiful sun- temporal regions. Subjects show relative left-sided activation set). Although the social context often occasions and amplifies during certain positive emotions compared with negative emo- zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ right-sided activation during certain an expression of emotion, it may also dampen or inhibit an tions and more relative emotional expression. Ekman and Friesen (1969) coined the negative emotions compared with positive emotions. It is im- phrase "display rules" to describe such attempts to manage fa- portant to note that the findings are always described as relative cial expression, in terms of who can show what emotion to differences between two or more conditions. Predictions in whom and when. (See Malatesta and Kalnok, 1984, for recent terms of absolute asymmetry are not offered, at least with small evidence on display rules.) sample sizes, because there are large and stable individual Emotional experience and expression would not, from our differences in absolute asymmetry, upon which phasic effects vantage point, be absent when an individual is alone. When ex- are superimposed. Thus, in a subject with extreme right frontal zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ DUCHENNE SMILE 345 activation, happiness may not produce absolute left frontal acti- subjects to the procedure. The next two were intended to evoke positive vation. Rather, compared with disgust, one would expect more emotions, and the last two were designed to evoke negative emotions. left frontal activation during happiness. Prior research with these films (Ekman & Friesen, 1974; Ekman, Frie- In our experiment, subjects watched positive and negative sen, & Ancoli, 1980) had found that subjects reported strong feelings of happiness and showed smiling expressions during the positive films. emotional film clips while they were unobtrusively videotaped. Feelings of fear, sadness, disgust, and pain and a variety of negative emo- In addition, brain electrical activity was measured. We tested tional expressions occurred in response to the negative films. the following specific hypotheses: All the films were silent and in color. One of the positive films showed Hypothesis 1: There will be more D u c h e n n e smiling when a puppy playing with flowers. The second showed monkeys playing and subjects watch positive films than when they watch negative gorillas taking a bath in the zoo. The order in which the puppy versus films, whereas other smiles will not distinguish whether subjects primate film clip was presented was counterbalanced across subjects. watch positive or negative films. The two negative films clips always followed the positive clips. The Hypothesis 2: The D u c h e n n e smile b u t not other smiling will rationale for this was based on previous work by Ekman et al. (1980, correlate with the subjective experience of positive emotions. 1988) and by our own pilot work, which indicated that the negative Hypothesis 3: The D u c h e n n e smile but not other smiles will affect elicited by the negative films tended to persist longer than the posi- tive affect elicited by the positive films. If we had counterbalanced the predict during which of two positive emotion films a subject order of positive and negative films, the persisting negative affect would reported feeling most amused and most happy. have interfered with the intended effect of the positive films. The nega- Hypothesis 4a: The D u c h e n n e smile will be accompanied by tive film clips were taken from training movies used in the teaching of greater left anterior (i.e., frontal and anterior temporal regions) nurses. One clip depicted a leg amputation and the other was the scene activation compared with other smiles, whereas other smiles of a third-degree burn victim. Both were quite gruesome. will be associated with more right-sided anterior activation compared with the D u c h e n n e smiles. O u r prediction regarding Subjective Ratings of Emotion other smiles is based on three facts. First, we previously found that in infants, other smiles were associated with more right- After each of the baseline and film trials, subjects rated the emotions sided frontal activation compared with D u c h e n n e smiles (Fox they had felt during the preceding trial on a series of unipolar scales. & Davidson, 1988). Second, the situation that elicited predomi- Separate scales were included for interest, happiness, amusement, con- nantly other smiles in the infant study (i.e., stranger approach) tentment, excitement, fear, sadness, anger, disgust, pain, and arousal. The instructions told the subject that zero represented no emotion and also produced behavioral signs of withdrawal (gaze aversions), 8 the most intense feeling of that emotion. These rating scales were pro- which Davidson (1984) has argued should be accompanied by jected one at a time on the rear projection screen. The subjects entered relative right-sided anterior activation. Finally, the facial behav- their rating by pressing a number on their key pad. ior that accompanies the production of other smiles often in- cludes action units that are present during negative affect. As will be noted below, this also occurred in the present study. Video Recordings Hypothesis 4b: W h e n compared with baseline, D u c h e n n e During each of the film clips, subjects were videotaped unobtrusively smiling will be associated with relative left-sided anterior activa- through a wire mesh screen that served as the border of the rear projec- tion, whereas other smiling will be associated with relative tion screen. The camera was absolutely invisibleto the subject, and not right-sided anterior activation. one subject suspected that she was being videotaped. After the experi- ment was completed, subjects were thoroughly debriefed, and written Method consent was requested to use their videotapes for scientific purposes. The subject was told that if she did not wish for the tape to be used, it Subjects would be erased. No subject declined our request to use her tape. A total of 37 right-handed (assessed with the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory; Oldfield, 1971) women between the ages of 17 and 41 years EEG Recording Procedure were tested. The sample was restricted to right-handed subjects because asymmetry measures were being obtained. Of these 37 subjects, 34 The EEG was recorded from the left and right frontal, central, ante- completed all of the ratings of subjective experience of emotion, and 3 I rior temporal, and parietal regions (F3, F4, C3, C4, T3, T4, P3, P4) all had some usable electroencephalogram (EEG) data during at least one referred to vertex (Cz) using a lycra stretchable cap (Electro-Cap). For of the conditions. more information about these recordings, as well as more details about the procedure, emotion-arousing stimuli, and video recordings, see the Procedure accompanying article (Davidson, Ekman, Saron, Senulis, & Friesen, 1990). That article also describes in the introduction eight methodologi- Subjects were tested individually. Prior to the experiment they were cal desiderata for psychophysiological research on emotion that are rele- told that their subjective and physiological reactions to films designed want to this study as well. zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ to elicit both positive and negative emotions would be studied. The ex- periment began with baseline recordings of physiology, after which the film clips were presented. Following the presentation of the film clips, Data Analysis another set of baseline trials was presented. Scoringfacial behavior. All of the observable facial activity shown by each subject during the positive and negative films was measured with Emotion-Arousing Stimuli Ekman and Friesen's (1976, 1978) Facial Action Coding System There were five film trials, each comprising a different short film of (FACS). FACS distinguishes 44 action units. These are the minimal approximately 90 s in duration. The first film clip was used to acclimate units that are anatomically separate and visually distinctive. Any facial zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ 346 P. EKMAN, R. DAVIDSON, AND W. FRIESEN movement can be described in terms of the particular action unit that, computer along with the times during which artifact was not present. singly or in combination with other units, produced it. The scorer iden- The computer then extracted those portions of the EEG record that tifies the action units, such as the one that pulls the lip comers up or were 1.02 s or longer in duration for analysis that corresponded to the that lowers the brow, rather than making inferences about underlying overlap of these two criteria. We chose to extract the EEG during each emotional states such as happiness or ange~ or using descriptions that of these two smile types in response to the positive film clips only, be- mix inference and description such as smile, scowl, or frown. In addi- cause the D-smiles occurred with far more frequency during the posi- tion to specifying which action units produced each observed expres- tive compared with the negative clips. If we were to have used all in- sion, the beginningand end of each expression was determined. stances of D-smiles and O-smiles, the comparison would have con- lntercoder reliability has been estabfished for this scoring procedure founded different smile types with different film clips in response to in a number of laboratories (cf. Ekman & Friesen, 1976; Ekman et al., which they were elicited. 1980; Ekman, Friesen, & Simon& 1985; Ekman et al., 1988; Fox & For analyses of the baseline periods, we used only the eyes-open trials Davidson, 1988; Krause et al., 1989; Ruth, 1987; Steiner, 1986). In our because they were considered to be the most appropriate comparisons study two coders who did not know the hypotheses each scored about for the film conditions during which subjects' eyes were also open. All halfofthe videotapes. Each ofthese coders had more than I year's expe- artifact-free periods of EEG from the pre- and postfilm baseline trials rience using FACS, and their reliability had been established both that were 2.05 s or more in duration were used in the analysis. Chunks against a standard criterion (Ekman and Friesen's own scoring) and of EEG (l.02-s periods for the facial expressions and 2.05-s periods for against each other. the baseline) were extracted using a Hamming window and were over- FACS scoring can provide either frequency or duration data on each lapped by 75%. A Fast Fourier Transform was applied to each chunk of facial action. The duration of facial actions is probably a more accurate EEG. Power values from successive chunks within a condition (i.e., index of emotion because duration is sensitive to very long expressions, smile type or baseline) were averaged. The dependent measures that which may be given tittle weight if only frequency is considered. How- were extracted from this analysis were power density (in ~V2/Hz) in the ever, frequency is less costly to obtain because the precise onset and alpha (8-13 Hz) and beta (l 3-20 Hz) bands. Power in the alpha band is offset of each action is not required as it is to determine duration, and inversely related to activation, so that lower values denote more activa- therefore most investigators have reported frequency data. In this exper- tion (Lindsiey & Wicke, 1974). Beta power was also examined. However, iment the onset and offset of each facial action had to be determined to on the basis of our previous data and comparisons among bands in EEG coordinate the facial actions with the EEG record. All of the results asymmetry in response to carefully matched tasks, we hypothesized were computed separately with frequency and duration scores. There that the major effects would occur in the alpha band (see the accompa- were no differences in the significance levels obtained. We report only nying report for additional details on the EEG analysis methods; David- the duration data because we believe they represent the more accurate son, Chapman, Chapman, & Henriques, in press). scores. Although the FACS scoring revealed that many different facial actions Results occurred apart from smiling behaviors, our hypotheses focused only on two groups of smiles. The Duchenne smile (D-smile) was composed of Did the Type o f Smile Vary With the all instances in which the smile was produced by the zygomatic major Experimental Condition? muscle and the lifting of the cheeks and gathering of the skin around the eye were produced by the orbicularis oculi muscle. We deviated from Hypothesis 1 predicted that there would be more D-smiles Duchenne in excluding smiles in which the activity around the eyes was when subjects watch positive films than when they watch nega- due to the inner strands of the orbicularis oculi muscle (pars palpe- tive films, whereas O-smiles would n o t distinguish whether sub- bralis), not the outer strands (pars lateralis). We made this decision on jects were watching positive or negative films. To test this hy- the basis of Ekman, Roper, and Hager's (1980) finding that fewer people pothesis, four s u m m a r y scores were computed for each subject: can voluntarily contract the outer as compared to the inner strands of the duration of D-smiles and O-smiles s u m m e d over the two this muscle. This suggested that there would he greater certainty that positive films and s u m m e d over the two negative films. These the expression was involuntary if only instances in which the outer por- four scores were entered into a 2 X 2 Film Type (positive-nega- tion of the orbicularis oculi muscle were included in the category of tive) X Smile Type (D-smile-O-smile) repeated measures anal- D-smiles. Other smiles (O-smiles) were composed of all other instances in ysis of variance (ANOVA). which the smile was produced by the zygomatic major muscle but the A significant main effect for film type, F(1, 36) = 40.22, p < orbicularis oculi, pars lateralis was absent. These included instances in .001, indicated that there were differences in the a m o u n t o f which the smile was produced by only the zygomatic major muscle, as overall smiling between the positive and negative films. The well as expressions in which this muscle was joined by a variety of other m a i n effect for smile type was not significant, F ( l , 36) = .5 l, facial muscles, including facial actions associated with negative emo- p < .48, indicating that when type o f film was not considered tions. For each subject the total duration during which either type of there was no difference in the a m o u n t o f D-smiles as compared smile occurred was computed for each of the two positive and two nega- to O-smiles. The significant interaction between film type and tive films. smile type, F ( l , 36) = 5.08, p < .03, showed that different types Artifact editing of EEG. All EEG recordszycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ the positive and negative films. As pre- were visually scored for of smiling occurred in artifact. All eye movement and muscle artifacts were removed from the dicted by Hypothesis l, there were more D-smiles during the data prior to analysis. If artifact was present on any channel, data from positive films than during the negative films (t = 2.48, p = .005, allchannels were removed so that the EEG data were always taken from coincident points in time. one-tailed test); O-smiling during the positive and negative EEG analysis. The main EEG data in this experiment were derived films did not differ (t = 1.06, p = .l 5, two-tailed test). Figure 3 from the positive film clips during those periods when the Duchenne shows the mean duration for each type o f smile during the posi- smile and other smiles were present and no artifact was present. The tive and negative films. The figure also shows that the ratio of onset and offset times of these facial expressions were entered into the D-smiles during the positive as compared to the negativefilms zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ DUCHENNE SMILE 347 25 occur interspersed with amusement and happiness. Thus, if D- smiles are correlated with reports of interest and excitement, it would be due to the association of those feelings with amuse- ment and happiness. We consider happiness and enjoyment as general terms that cover a variety of different positive emotional experiences such 20 as sensory pleasure, relief, satisfaction with accomplishment, Duration amusement, and contentment. Although we expect that each of of Smiles these positive emotions is experienced differently, with different (sec) sensations and physiology, we (Ekman & Friesen, 1982) have hypothesized that all of these positive states share the same ex- \ 15 pressive signal--the Duchenne smile. Because the positive films shown to the subjects were de- signed to be amusing, we predicted that D-smiles but not O- smiles would be correlated with reports of either the more spe- cific term amusement or the more general report of happiness. 10 We did not expect a substantial correlation between D-smiles and contentment because these films were not likely to elicit much contentment. Table l reports the correlations between the duration of Du- Other Smiles chenne and other smiling with each oftbe emotion self-reports. Hypothesis 2 was supported. Only D-smiles, as predicted, were correlated with reports of amusement and happiness. D-smiles were also positively correlated with excitement and interest, al- Duchenne Smiles though these relationships were not as strong as the correlations between D-smiles and amusement or happiness. The correla- tion between D-smiles and amusement was significantly greater than the correlation between D-smiles and either excitement Positive Negative (t = 2.49, p < .0 l) or interest (t = 2.22, p < .05, one-tailed tests). Film Film The correlation between D-smiles and happy was significantly Figure3. Mean duration (in seconds) of each type of Duehenne's smile greater than the correlation between D-smiles and excitement and other smiles in response to the positive and negative film clips. (t = 1.69,p < .05). Partial correlations showed that the relationships between D- smiles and either interest or excitement were, as we predicted, was 10:1, and the ratio of O-smiles during positive as compared enormously reduced when the variance associated with amuse- to negative films was 2:45 to I. ment was removed. Table 2 shows that when the self-reports of happiness or amusement were partialled out, the correlations Did the Type of Smile Relate to the Subjective between D-smiles and either interest or excitement disap- peared. The converse was not so; when the influence of either Experience of Emotion? interest or excitement was partialled out, the correlations be- Hypothesis 2 predicted that D-smiles but not O-smiling tween D-smiles and either amusement or happiness survived. would be correlated with the subjective experience of positive Because amusement and happiness ratings were highly corre- emotions. Whereas researchers studying the self-report of lated (.79 l), we computed partial correlations with D-smiles mood (Clark & Watson, 1988; Diener & Emmons, 1984; Stone, and these two ratings. Table 2 shows that when the influence of 1981) have argued against distinguishing among types of posi- happiness ratings was controlled, the partial correlation be- tive moods, we (Ekman, 1977; Ekman & Friesen, 1975) have tween D-smiles and amusement was still substantial. However, argued for making such distinctions among emotions. We agree when the influence of amusement ratings was controlled, the with Tomkins (1962) that interest and excitement refer to a partial correlation between D-smiles and happiness was enor- different state than happiness or enjoyment. As Woodworth mously reduced. (1938, p. 411) said, "The fact is that there are many kinds of Table l shows two other findings that were not predicted by zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ were negatively correlated with reports pleasant feeling, and of unpleasant. Some of the words do not Hypothesis 2. D-smiles indicate whether the feeling is pleasant or unpleasant; excite- of feeling anger and sadness, and O-smiles were positively corre- ment may be happy excitement or unhappy excitement, and lated with the report of disgust. this is true of expectancy and surprise." Hypothesis 3 predicted that D-smiles but not O-smiles would Although the D-smile may occur with interest and excite- predict during which of the two positive films a subject had re- ment, it will only do so in circumstances in which those emo- ported feeling most amused and most happy. This is a difficult tions blend with or occur in sequence with amusement or hap- discrimination because both the puppy and the primate films piness. In our experiment interest and excitement, if felt, would had evoked ratings that were at or very close to the median on zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ 348 a. EKMAN, R. DAVIDSON, AND W. FRIESEN Table 1 Correlations Between Type of Smile and Self-Reported Emotions (N = 34) Type Amusement Happy Excitement Interest Contentment Anger Disgust Fear Pain Sad Duchenne smile .703* .594* .387*** .401"** .199 -.381"** -.322 -.299 -.218 -.439** Other smiles .135 .180 .080 .189 .104 .283 .340** .079 .259 .263 * p < .001, one-tailed test. ** p < .01, two-tailed test. ***p < .05, two-tailed test. amusement and on happiness. In this idiographic analysis, a and O-smile periods that were extracted for analysis were 20.9 subject was considered correctly classified if the duration of and 21.6 s, respectively. smiling shown during the two films coincided with the positive Our strategy for analysis was to first compare the D-smiles, emotion ratings on the two films. Thus, a "hit" could occur in O-smiles, and baseline conditions by computing separate 3 x 2 one of three ways: The puppy film was rated more positively ANOVASwith condition (D-smile-O-smile-baseline) and hemi- than the primate film and there was more smiling during the sphere (left-fight) as repeated factors on EEG power from each puppy film than during the primate film; the two films were of the four regions. These overall analyses used the Huynh- rated the same and there was no difference in the amount of Feldt correction to correct for departures from homogeneity of smiling; or the ratings on the puppy film were less positive than variance given a repeated factor with more than two levels. Two- for the primate film and there was less smiling during the puppy way ANOVASon each pair of conditions were then computed film. The six possibilities in which the ratings and amount of to decompose the interaction. The major findings were derived smiling disagreed were considered to he "misses:' from analyses of alpha power, as we had predicted. After pre- One-way chi-square analyses were computed using the senting the data on alpha power, we also present the results of amusement and happiness ratings on the two films. The ex- analyses on heta power. pected hit rate was set at .33 because there was a total of nine combinations of ratings and smiles, three of which were hits and six of which were misses. Table 3 shows that predictions of Alpha Power which film was most amusing or evoked most happiness was accurate when made on the basis of the amount of D-smiles but Anterior regions. The ANOVAon the frontal data revealed a not on the basis of O-smiles. Two by two chi-square analyses significant Condition (D-smile-O-smile--baseline) x Hemi- were also computed on the hit-miss rate by type of smiling. The sphere interaction, F(2, 24) = 3.3 l,p = .054, with Huynh-Feldt difference in the hit rate between D-smiles and O-smiles was correction, and no significant main effects. This interaction was significant for the happiness ratings (x 2 = 3.31, p < .05, one- decomposed by performing separate Condition x Hemisphere tailed) and marginal for the amusement ratings (x 2 = 2.13, p = ANOVAs for each pairwise condition combination. The Condi- .08, one-tailed test). tion X Hemisphere interaction for the comparison between D- smiles and O-smiles was not significant, F(I, 12) = 2.06, failing Were the Types of Smile Associated With Differences to support Hypothesis 4a for the frontal data. In comparing D- smiles with baseline, the Condition × Hemisphere interaction in Brain Asymmetry? was also not significant, F(I, 12) = 1.55. However, the Condi- The EEG during D-smiles and O-smiles was extracted from tion × Hemisphere interaction was significant for the O-smile the two positive films. We included in this analysis only those versus baseline comparison, F(I, 12) -- 5.53, p = .04, support- subjects who had both D-smile and O-smile periods so that the ing one component of Hypothesis 4b (Figure 4). This interac- design could he completely within subjects. A total of 13 sub- tion is a function of a significant decrease in fight frontal alpha jects had at least one instance of D-smiling and O-smiling power (i.e., more activation) during O-smiles compared with within the positive film clips that coincided with artifact-free baseline (p < .01). Left-hemisphere alpha power did not differ EEG. Of these 13 subjects, 7 had facial signs of negative affect significantly between baseline and the O-smiles. During O- present during other smiles. The mean durations of D-smile smiles, absolute fight frontal activation was found, with signifi. Table 2 zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ Partial Correlations Between D-Smiles and Self-Reported Emotions D-smile and D-smile and D-smile and D-smile and Partialing on excitement interest amusement happiness Amusement -.013 -.077 .089 Happiness -.026 .189 .474 Excitement .637 .489 Interest .633 .506 zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ DUCHENNE SMILE 349 Table 3 Discrimination Between Which of the Two Positive Films Was Rated as Most Happy or Most Amusing on the Basis of D-Smiles and O-Smiles % of hits Chi-square p Happiness ratings Duchenne smiles 73 25.25 .0001 Other smiles 41 ! .027 ns Amusement ratings Duchenne smiles 65 15.45 .0001 Other smiles 44 1.899 ns cantly less right-hemisphere compared with left-hemisphere al- Figure 5. Mean alpha power in the left and right anterior temporal re- pha power (p < .0 l). gions (T3 and T4, respectively) for the baseline condition and during The overall ANOVAon the anterior temporal EEG revealed a Duchenne's smiles and other smiles. Condition (D-smile-O-smile-baseline) × Hemisphere interac- tion that fell just short of significance, F(2, 24) = 3.23, p < .06, with Huynh-Feldt correction. As we observed for the other 4.84, p < .05. Again, no main effects were obtained in this anal- brain regions, no significant main effects were obtained. The ysis. Compared with baseline, O-smiles were associated with Condition x Hemisphere interaction for the direct comparison less alpha power (i.e., greater activation) in the right anterior of the D-smile and O-smile periods also fell short of signifi- temporal region (p < .01). No significant difference in left ante- cance, F(l, 12) = 3.79, p < .08. Because this interaction was rior temporal alpha power was found between baseline and O- predicted by Hypothesis 4a, we computed the simple effects. As smiles. Figure 5 indicates, D-smiles were associated with significantly Parietal and central regions. We did not have any specific more left anterior activation (i.e., less alpha power) compared a priori hypotheses concerning the parietal data. In previous with O-smiles (p < .05). No difference between smile types was studies, we have found more consistent asymmetry differences found in the right anterior temporal region. Alpha power in the between emotion conditions that differ on valence in the ante- left and right anterior regions did not differ during D-smiles. rior regions than in the parietal region, although in one study However, during O-smiles, we found significantly more (p < we did find parietal asymmetry to differentiate between positive .05) right compared with left anterior temporal activation (i.e., and negative emotion conditions in the same direction as fron- less alpha power). tal asymmetry (Fox & Davidson, 1986). When each expression type was compared with baseline, we The overall Condition (D-smile-O-smile-baseline) X Hemi- found the same pattern as was described for the other brain re- sphere interaction on the parietal data was significant, F(2, gions--a significant Condition x Hemisphere interaction only 24) = 3.46, p < .05, with Huynh-Feldt correction. No signifi- for the comparison between baseline and O-smiles, F(l, 12) = cant main effects were obtained (see Figure 6). When we de- zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ Figure 4. Mean alpha power (in #V2/Hz) in the left and right mid-fron- Figure 6. Mean alpha power in the left and right parietal regions (P3 tal regions (F3 and F4, respectively) for the baseline condition and dur- and P4, respectively) for the baseline condition and during Duchenne's ing other smiles. (The less the alpha power, the greater the activation.) smiles and other smiles. zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ 350 P. EKMAN, R. DAVIDSON, AND W. FRIESEN composed this interaction, we found that for this region, smiling rather than treating smiles as a single class of behavior. the Condition (D-smile-O-smile) × Hemisphere interaction Specifically, the Duchenne smile was found, as predicted, to be for the direct comparison between smile types was significant, related to enjoyment--in terms of when it occurs and how it F(I, 12) = 5.72, p = .03, and no main effects were obtained. As relates both to subjective experience and distinctive physiologi- Figure 6 indicates, the D-smiles were associated with more left cal changes--and other smiling was not. Clearly the Ducbenne parietal activation compared with the O-smiles (p < .01). No smile, in which the orbicularis oculi, pars lateralis muscle that significant difference between smile types was obtained in the orbits the eye is contracted in addition to the zygomatic major right hemisphere. During D-smiles, the left and right parietal muscle's pull on the lip corners, is a better sign of enjoyment regions did not differ from one another. Howev~ during O- than other kinds of smiles. A number of other investigators fol- smiles, the right parietal region was significantly (p < .01) more lowing Ekman and Friesen's suggestion have also found evi- active than the left (i.e., showing less alpha power). dence that the Duchenne smile is associated with enjoyment When comparisons between each of the smile types and base- in psychiatric patients (Kxause et al., 1989; Matsumoto, 1986; line were made, a Condition × Hemisphere interaction was Steiner, 1986), in infants (Fox & Davidson, 1988), in children found only for the O-smile versus baseline comparison, F(I, (yon Salisch, 1989), and in normal adults (Ruch, 1987). 12) = 7.23, p = .02. Again, no significant main effects were ob- Ekman and Friesen (1982) predicted that Duchenne smiles tained in this analysis. Compared to baseline, O-smiles were are the signal for any of the positive emotions, such as amuse- associated with a significant decrease in right parietal alpha ac- ment, relief, contentment, satisfaction with achievement, or tivity (p < .001). sensory pleasure, as well as the more general positive emotion We did not have any specific a priori predictions regarding terms such as enjoyment or happiness. The stimulus films we differences between smile types in central asymmetry. However, used to arouse positive emotions showed amusing events, not we examined asymmetry in this region because of its relation other types of positive emotions, and as expected, Duchenne with motor production. If the differences in asymmetry be- smiles correlated with the report of amusement rather than tween smile types were a function of differences in motor asym- contentment. Although Duchenne smiles also were correlated metry between them, we would expect to find central asymme- with reports of the more general term happiness, partial corre- try to differentiate between D-smiles and O-smiles. The overall lations showed that this was due to the correlation between hap- ANOVA on the central data revealed no significant differences piness and amusement ratings. If other situations were exam- in asymmetry among the three conditions. ined in which the subjects experienced relief, contentment, or sensory pleasure rather than amusement, we would expect D- Beta Power smiles to correlate with the subjective experience of those emo- tions, not amusement, but this remains to be demonstrated. Some researchers have suggested that alpha and beta activity Although Watson and Tellegen (1985) included interest and may reflect different components or types of activation (e.g., excitement in their positive mood scale, we and other emotion Ray & Cole, 1985). In previous work, we have found that when theorists (Tomkins, 1962; Woodworth, 1938)consider interest carefully matched tasks are compared on measures of EEG and excitement as separate states that may or may not be ac- asymmetry, power is attenuated in the hemisphere putatively companied by positive emotions. Our finding that Duchenne most activated by the task in all frequency bands. However, smiles were unrelated to reports of interest or excitement when power reduction in the specialized hemisphere is most consis- the influence of amusement or happiness ratings was partialled tently found in the alpha band (Davidson et al., in press). To out provides some support for our position. This finding does address this issue in the present study, we recomputed all of the not necessarily contradict Watson and Tellegen, however, be- major analyses with beta (13-20 Hz) power as the dependent cause they examined self-reports of moods, and we examined measure. The Condition (baseline-D-smile-O-smile) × Hemi- the relationship between momentary expression and momen- sphere interaction was not significant for frontal, F(2, 24) -- .44; tary reports of emotion. anterior temporal, F(2, 24) = 1.61; or central,/7(2, 24) = .79, The question might be raised as to why other smiles occurred region activity. Nor were any main effects significant in these at all during the positive film if these are not enjoyment smiles. three regions. The Condition × Hemisphere interaction was sig- Our measurements did not distinguish among but instead com- nificant for the parietal region, F(2, 24) -- 4.01, p < .04, with bined the various kinds of other smiles (Ekman, 1985, has de- Huynh-Feldt correction. Follow-up analyses indicated that this scribed 17 types of other smiles that are said to differ from each effect was a function of a significant Condition X Hemisphere other in appearance). We expected that a particular type of interaction for the baseline versus other smile comparison, F(I, other smile would occur when watching the puppy and primates 12) = 6.82,p < .03. Paired comparisons revealed that this inter- films. These are what we have described as "anticipatory zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ person is anticipating but not yet experi- action was a function of other smiles eliciting less beta activity smiles;' in which the compared with baseline in the right hemisphere (p < .05). No encing enjoyment. It is also possible that other smiles may be a difference between conditions was found in the left hemisphere. sign of less intense enjoyment. We also expected that some of the other smiles would include facial actions associated with Discussion negative emotions. In fact, a majority of subjects included in the EEG analyses had facial action units associated with nega- We have found consistent evidence supporting Ekman and tive affect in their other smiles. Such expressions may have been Friesen's (1982) proposal for distinguishing among types of shown by those subjects who reported, in postexperiment inter- zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ DUCHENNE SMILE 351 views, negative emotional reactions to what they interpreted as smiles, we found that the majority did contain facial actions teasing of the puppy or the confinement of apes in a zoo. The denoting negative emotion. EEG data during other smiles certainly support the possibility Contrary to prediction, Duchenne smiles did not differ sig- that at least when they occur when watching the positive films, nifieantly from baseline. This is the same pattern as was found the other smiles are actually a sign of negative affect. Other re- for happy facial expressions in the accompanying article (Da- search in which the subjective report of emotion is obtained vidson et al., 1990). Davidson (1984) has reasoned that positive immediately after the appearance of the smile, and in which emotion is associated with left-sided anterior activation relative more samples of different kinds of other smiles are examined to a baseline only when the positive emotion is accompanied by in relation to the measures of cerebral asymmetry, is needed to approach behavior. As we noted in the accompanying article further explore these possibilities. (Davidson et al., 1990), not all forms of positive affect include The amount of Duchenne smiling also was related to differ- an approach component. The Duchenne smile marks a number ences among positive affect experiences, not just the grosset dis- of rather different positive affective states, not all of which in- tinction between positive and negative affect. Making such a volve approach. For example, contentment may not involve ei- subtle distinction as to which of two positive experiences is the ther approach or withdrawal. Amusement may involve ap- most positive was not possible based on other smiling. proach (when it develops in response to a comedian unfolding It is worth noting that the subjects were alone when they were a funny joke), or it may not, as we believe happened when sub- watching the films and did not know they were being video- jects were amused watching our films of a dog, monkeys, and taped or observed. As predicted, facial expressions did occur in gorillas playing. The reason for our failure to find a difference this solitary situation. These expressions were not random, but in anterior asymmetry between Duchenne smiles and baseline instead were related to the type of film viewed, the subjective may be that in this context, the Duchenne smile marked a form report, and physiology. In this respect these data are consistent of positive affect with little or no approach component. In stud- with earlier reports that facial expressions of emotion do occur ies where unambiguous indices of approach behavior accompa- when people are alone (Ekman, 1972; Ekman et al., 1980) and nied positive affect (i.e., an infant reaching toward its mother contradict the theoretical proposals of those who view expres- and smiling), significant left anterior activation was observed sions solely as social signals. This is not to suggest that our find- relative to a preceding comparison condition (Fox & Davidson, ings mean that emotional experience or expression has nothing 1987, 1988). In the accompanying article, we offer several sug- to do with social interaction. It is only that emotions can occur gestions for how to measure "approach" happiness so that this when one is alone as well as when one is with others. Obviously, form of positive affect can be compared with other nonap- it is the actions ofotbers that most often bring forth an emotion. proach forms of positive affect, such as the type of amusement More specifically, the presence of others who are also experienc- elicited in this study. We also make clear that our idea that the ing enjoyment typically will increase enjoyment expressions, amusement aroused in our experiment did not involve ap- even when the source of the enjoyment is not a conversation proach is admittedly ad hoc. We offer other alternative interpre- but an activity such as watching a film. tations of our data, and explain why we believe they are less The cerebral asymmetry findings indicate that, as predicted, tenable. the two types of smiling differ in the pattern of regional brain The analysis of beta power activity revealed little. As ex- activity with which each is associated. Duchenne smiles are as- pected, the majority of the significant effects were in the alpha sociated with more left-sided anterior temporal and parietal ac- band. The only finding to reach significance for beta power was tivation compared with other smiles. Although the left-sided an- the difference in asymmetry between baseline and other smiles terior temporal activation was predicted to accompany positive in the parietal region. The direction of this difference was iden- affect, it is not clear what activation of the left parietal region tical to that found in alpha power--more power suppression in might reflect in this study. Other EEG asymmetry studies have the right hemisphere during other smiles compared with base- found that verbal cognitive activity reliably increases left pari- line. The fact that alpha and beta power change in the same etal activation (e.g., Davidson et al., in press; Ehrlichman & direction is consistent with other findings from our laboratory Wiener, 1979). It is therefore possible that in the present con- on EEG asymmetries in these bands in response to well- text, the Duchenne smiles were accompanied by more verbal matched cognitive tasks (Davidson et al., in press). thinking compared with other smiles. In future studies it would Quite apart from what we have learned about the Duchenne be useful to assess cognitive activity in addition to experienced smile as an index of enjoyment, our study also showed the feasi- emotion, in order to evaluate this suggestion. The lack of any bility and value of obtaining multiple measures in the study difference in central EEG activity between the Duchenne smiles of emotion. Measures of facial expression were related to self- and other smiles suggests that the differences in asymmetry be- report and to different patterns of concomitant brain activity. tween these smile types that were seen inzycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/ other regions are not In another report (Davidson et al., 1990) we extend our focus a function of differences in motor asymmetry, because central beyond smiles, considering negative facial expressions as well EEG asymmetries are very sensitive to motor differences be- as positive ones, and again show the value of combining expres- tween the two sides of the body (e.g., Coles, Gratton, Bashore, sive and physiological measures in the study of emotion. Eriksen, & Donchin, 1985; Kutas & Donchin, 1974). Other smiles show a pattern of activation asymmetry similar References to what has been reported for withdrawal-related negative affect Andrew, R. J. (1963). Evolution of facial expression. Science, 141, (see Davidson et al., 1990). 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London: Wiley. mor laughter. Paper presented at the third meeting of the Interna- yon Salisch, M. (1989). Kinderstreit-kinderleid, ausdruck und kommu- tional Society for the Study of Individual Differences, Toronto. nikation yon gefuheln wahrend eines konfliktes unter befreundeten Silberman, E. K., & Weingartner, H. (1986). Hemispheric lateralization kindern. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Freie Universitat Berlin. of functions related to emotion. Brain and Cognition, 5, 322-353. Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of Smith, W. J. (1985). Consistency and change in communication. In G. mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219-235. Zivin (Ed.), The development of expressive behavior (pp. 51-75). Or- Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Henry lando, FL: Academic Press. Holt. Steiner, E (1986). Differentiating smiles. In E. Branniger-Huber & E Steiner (Eds.), FACS in psychotherapy research (pp. 139-148). Zu- Received June 29, 1988 rich: Department of Clinical Psychology, Universitat Zurich. Revision received May 25, 1989 Stone, A. A. ( 1981). The association between perceptions of daily expe- Accepted July 17, 1989 • zycnzj.com/http://www.zycnzj.com/
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Special "Winners' Circle" class for previous year's winners:
|Vehicle Show Pre-Entry: $30.00
(Or $40.00 day of event for each vehicle)
Dash plaques to first 225 vehicles
Great new goodie bags
|Swap Meet Space:
Private Parties - $15.00 Pre-entry
Or $20 day of the event
Business vendors - $30.00
Food vendors - $30.00
Swap meet includes new & used parts
|Everyone will enjoy:
Food and drinks on site
A variety of vehicle club displays
Every entry includes a free raffle ticket.
FREE admission to the public
Commemorative Shirts
with double-sided art featuring the show logo, are available through pre-orders until May 1st.
A limited number will be available the day of the show. Please indicate size, color and quantity on this registration form.
Shirt price is not included with entry fee. Shirts not picked up the day of the event become property of the UBSCC.
Click HERE to see a list of the shirt types and a sample of the shirt designs and colors.
Vendors and participants set up at 7:00 AM. Gates open to the public at 8:00 AM.
Final registration: 10:00 AM. Awards presentation: 1:30 PM.
British motorcycles are now welcome!
Show held rain or shine
No awnings, tents or trailers in the show area
From Sacramento:
Take I-80 West to exit 66A to merge onto CA-113 South toward Dixon/Currey Rd. Stay on 113 South (which becomes First Street) for 2 miles and enter at the marked gate on the left.
From the Bay Area:
Take I-80 East toward Sacramento and take exit 63 - Dixon Ave. and go east on West A Street for 2.2 miles.Go right on North First Street for 2 miles and enter at the marked gate on the left.
Free visitor parking is available across the street from the event.
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Humorist's Ohio Home On National Register Of Historic Places
The suburban ranch-style home in Ohio where humor writer Erma Bombeck launched her nationally syndicated column has been added to the National Register of Historic Places.
It's a sound that marks the holiday season: The Salvation Army bell, held by a friendly person standing next to a red kettle. We go behind-the-scenes to look at what it takes to manage the effort.
The Ohio House has approved a bill shielding the source of the state's lethal injection drugs for a minimum of 20 years.
Same-sex couples seeking the right to marry are asking the Supreme Court to settle the issue of gay marriage nationwide.
A federal judge has ruled that a small Urbana company doesn't have to offer birth control coverage as part of its employees' health insurance plan.
The U.S. Supreme Court has rejected the appeal of a Mount Vernon public school science teacher who was fired three years ago for promoting the theory of creationism and refusing to remove religious materials from his classroom.
There is a place on the southside of Columbus where high school dropouts can go when and if they decide to finish their degrees.
A Cincinnati charity says it has applied for a federal grant aimed at bringing to Ohio some of the immigrant children who have flooded across the U.S. border recently.
New census data show working-class whites now make up less than half of Ohio's eligible voters, a demographic change that has both parties expanding their efforts to reach other voters.
A Roman Catholic priest convicted of killing a nun in an Ohio hospital chapel 34 years ago has died. The Rev. Gerald Robinson was 76.
The democratic candidate for governor is facing sharp criticism from the camp of incumbent Republican Governor John Kasich. Candidate Ed FitzGerald appeared on WOSU's All Sides with Ann Fisher Wednesday.


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The Polymerase Incomplete Primer Extension (PIPE) Method Applied to High-Throughput Cloning and Site-Directed Mutagenesis
- Heath E. Klock,
- Scott A. Lesley
- … show all 2 hide
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Significant innovations in molecular biology methods have vastly improved the speed and efficiency of traditional restriction site and ligase-based cloning strategies. "Enzyme-free" methods eliminate the need to incorporate constrained sequences or modify Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)-generated DNA fragment ends. The Polymerase Incomplete Primer Extension (PIPE) method further condenses cloning and mutagenesis to a very simple two-step protocol with complete design flexibility not possible using related strategies. With this protocol, all major cloning operations are achieved by transforming competent cells with PCR products immediately following amplification. Normal PCRs generate mixtures of incomplete extension products. Using simple primer design rules and PCR, short, overlapping sequences are introduced at the ends of these incomplete extension mixtures which allow complementary strands to anneal and produce hybrid vector/insert combinations. These hybrids are directly transformed into recipient cells without any post-PCR enzymatic manipulations. We have found this method to be very easy and fast as compared to other available methods while retaining high efficiencies. Using this approach, we have cloned thousands of genes in parallel using a minimum of effort. The method is robust and amenable to automation as only a few, simple processing steps are needed.
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- Scharf, S.J., Horn, G.T., Erlich, H.A. (1986) Direct cloning and sequence analysis of enzymatically amplified genomic sequences. Science 233: pp. 1076-1078 CrossRef
- Costa, G.L., Grafsky, A., Weiner, M.P. (1994) Cloning and analysis of PCR-gener-ated DNA fragments. PCR Methods Appl. 6: pp. 338-345
- Aslanidis, C., Jong, P.J. (1990) Ligation-independent cloning of PCR products (LIC-PCR). Nucleic Acids Res. 18: pp. 6069-6074 CrossRef
- Hsiao, K. (1993) Exonuclease III induced ligase-free directional subcloning of PCR products. Nucleic Acids Res. 21: pp. 5528-5529 CrossRef
- Boyd, A.C. (1993) Turbo cloning: a fast, efficient method for cloning PCR products and other blunt-ended DNA fragments into plasmids. Nucleic Acids Res. 21: pp. 817-821 CrossRef
- Bubeck, P., Winkler, M., Bautsch, W. (1993) Rapid cloning by homologous recombination in vivo. Nucleic Acids Res. 21: pp. 3601-3602 CrossRef
- Liu, Q., Li, M.Z., Leibham, D., Cortez, D., Elledge, S.J. (1998) The univector plasmid-fusion system, a method for rapid construction of recombinant DNA without restriction enzymes. Curr Biol. 8: pp. 1300-1309 CrossRef
- Oliner, J.D., Kinzler, K.W., Vogelstein, B. (1993) In vivo cloning of PCR products in. E. coli. Nucleic Acids Res. 21: pp. 5192-5197 CrossRef
- Hartley, J.L., Temple, G.F., Brasch, M.A. (2000) DNA cloning using in vitro site-specific recombination. Genome Res. 10: pp. 1788-1795 CrossRef
- Tillett, D., Neilan, B.A. (1999) Enzyme-free cloning: a rapid method to clone PCR products independent of vector restriction enzyme sites. Nucleic Acids Res. 27: pp. e26 CrossRef
- Chiu, J., March, P.E., Lee, R., Tillett, D. (2004) Site-directed, ligase-independent mutagenesis (SLIM): a single-tube methodology approaching 100% efficiency in 4 h. Nucleic Acids Res. 32: pp. e174 CrossRef
- Kirsch, R.D., Joly, E. (1998) An improved PCR-mutagenesis strategy for two-site muta-genesis or sequence swapping between related genes. Nucleic Acids Res. 26: pp. 1848-1850 CrossRef
- Sawano, A., Miyawaki, A. (2000) Directed evolution of green fluorescent protein by a new versatile PCR strategy for site-directed and semi-random mutagenesis. Nucleic Acids Res. 28: pp. e78 CrossRef
- Hanke, M., Wink, M. (1995) Direct DNA sequencing of PCR-amplified vector inserts following enzymatic degradation of primer and dNTPs.. Biotechniques 18: pp. 636
- Olsen, D.B., Eckstein, F. (1989) Incomplete primer extension during in vitro DNA amplification catalyzed by Ta q polymerase; exploitation for DNA sequencing. Nucleic Acids Res. 23: pp. 9613-9620 CrossRef
- Title
- The Polymerase Incomplete Primer Extension (PIPE) Method Applied to High-Throughput Cloning and Site-Directed Mutagenesis
- Book Title
- High Throughput Protein Expression and Purification
- Book Subtitle
- Methods and Protocols
- Pages
- pp 91-103
- Copyright
- 2009
- 10.1007/978-1-59745-196-3_6
- Print ISBN
- 978-1-58829-879-9
- Online ISBN
- 978-1-59745-196-3
- Series Title
- Methods in Molecular Biology
- Series Volume
- 498
- Series ISSN
- 1064-3745
- Publisher
- Humana Press
- Copyright Holder
- Humana Press
- Additional Links
- Topics
- Keywords
- Cloning
- Ligase independent
- Enzyme free
- Site-directed mutagenesis
- Incomplete primer extension
- Editors
- Sharon A. Doyle (2)
- Editor Affiliations
- 2. Glaxo Smith Kline
- Authors
- Heath E. Klock (3)
- Scott A. Lesley (3)
- Author Affiliations
- 3. The Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation, San Diego, CA, USA
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This is a Commentary on Walker et al. (J Bone Miner Res. 2011;26:1392–1398. DOI:10.1002/jbmr.352).
Bone structure and fracture risk: Do they go arm in arm?†
Article first published online: 21 JUN 2011
DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.442
Copyright © 2011 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research
Volume 26, Issue 7, pages 1389–1391, July 2011
Additional Information
How to Cite
Bouxsein, M. L. (2011), Bone structure and fracture risk: Do they go arm in arm?. J Bone Miner Res, 26: 1389–1391. doi: 10.1002/jbmr.442
- †
Publication History
- Issue published online: 21 JUN 2011
- Article first published online: 21 JUN 2011
- Abstract
- Article
- References
- Cited By
Fracture incidence varies markedly among racial and ethnic groups.1–5 Hip and nonvertebral fractures are consistently highest among whites, lowest among those of African descent and intermediate among Asians.1–3 Specifically, age-adjusted hip fracture incidence ranges from a low of 1 per 100,000 person-years in black women in Nigeria to a high of 421 per 100,000 person-years in white women in Norway, respectively.6 Variation in vertebral fracture incidence by ethnicity is less well established,1 although the incidence of clinical vertebral fractures is at least as high in Asians as whites.5 An improved understanding of the mechanisms underlying these variations in fracture rates may provide insight for identifying those at greatest risk for fracture and potentially identify novel targets for intervention.
Some of the ethnic-related variation in fracture rates is explained by differences in bone mineral density (BMD).2, 7 However, even after accounting for differences in BMD by ethnicity, fracture rates differ. For example, at every level of BMD, black women have a lower risk of nonvertebral fracture than white women.3 Furthermore, despite having the lowest BMD values, postmenopausal Asian Americans have a lower risk of nonvertebral fracture than white, Hispanic, black, and Native American women.2 All together, these observations suggest that mechanisms other than differences in BMD are responsible for differences in fracture rates. This may be so because BMD measurements do not quantify some of the factors that contribute to bone strength, such as bone tissue properties, morphology, and microarchitecture.8 Indeed, relatively little is known about race- and ethnicity-related differences in these characteristics because until recently, there were no tools to assess bone structure adequately in vivo.9, 10
In this month's JBMR, Walker and colleagues use high-resolution peripheral computed tomography (HR-pQCT) to compare bone microarchitecture at the distal radius and tibia in postmenopausal Chinese-American and white women.11 These results extend previous work showing that premenopausal Chinese women have smaller bone cross-sectional area but increased cortical and trabecular thickness and greater cortical density at both the distal radius and the distal tibia.12, 13 In the current study, 29 Chinese-American and 68 white postmenopausal women were evaluated. Areal bone mineral density (aBMD) at the spine, hip, and radius was measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and bone microstructure at the distal radius and tibia was assessed using HR-pQCT. As expected, the Chinese-American women were shorter and weighed less than the white women. Surprisingly, however, aBMD was similar between the two groups at all skeletal sites. Postmenopausal Chinese-American women had approximately 10% smaller bone cross-sectional area but 5% to 6% higher cortical density and 16% to 18% higher cortical thickness than whites. Chinese-American women also had fewer trabeculae at the distal radius and fewer but thicker trabeculae at the distal tibia compared with whites. Differences in bone cross-sectional area were attenuated somewhat after adjusting for the shorter stature and lower weight of the Chinese-American women, whereas differences in cortical and trabecular thickness were largely unaffected. The net result of these differences in bone morphology, evaluated by finite-element analysis (FEA), showed similar compressive stiffness in the two groups, suggesting that the smaller cross-sectional area in Chinese-American women was compensated for by their increased cortical and trabecular thicknesses.
The study provides novel insights into differences in bone structure by ethnicity, yet several issues should be considered when interpreting the results, including (1) the modest sample size, (2) the limitations of HR-pQCT measurements and assumptions used for derivation of some microarchitecture features, and (3) lack of information on tissue material properties. The authors examined a relatively small convenience sample of only 29 Chinese-American subjects who were, on average, 2 years younger and tended to be closer to the menopause than the white women. After adjusting the analyses for age and body mass index (BMI), the strength of some of the ethnicity-related differences was attenuated, although most of the differences remained significant. Considering the HR-pQCT measurements, it is important to note that whereas trabecular density and trabecular number are measured directly, trabecular thickness and separation are derived using histomorphometric methods assuming a platelike architecture.14 Although the same algorithm is applied to both groups, it is not known whether trabecular architecture is represented with similar accuracy by a platelike architecture in Chinese-American versus white women. In addition, the cortical thickness was assessed using the manufacturer's standard algorithm, which does not measure cortical thickness directly but rather calculates it by dividing the mean cortical volume by the periosteal surface. Given the smaller periosteal perimeter in the Chinese-American women, cortical thickness may have been overestimated using this approach. Newer algorithms for assessing cortical thickness and porosity15–17 may provide better estimates of race- and ethnicity-related differences in the cortical compartment. Further, given the resolution of the HR-pQCT images (82-µm3 isotropic voxel size), it is difficult to know whether the increased cortical density in the Chinese-American women was due to increased cortical tissue mineral density and/or reduced intracortical porosity.
In addition to bone size, morphology, and microarchitecture, variations in bone tissue material properties also may contribute to differences in fracture risk by ethnicity. However, relatively little is known about variations in the mechanical properties of bone tissue with age, ethnicity, or disease largely owing to the challenge of measuring these properties in vivo. The introduction of novel methods for in vivo assessment of bone tissue properties18 may provide additional insights in this area.
These limitations aside, a critical question is whether the observed differences in skeletal morphology account for the lower rates of wrist and hip fractures in Asian versus white women.1–3, 19 Fractures occur when the forces applied to a bone exceed its strength. Thus factors related both to bone strength and to skeletal loading theoretically could influence ethnicity-related differences in fracture incidence. Although this study did not study subjects with and without fractures, several cross-sectional studies have shown that deteriorated bone architecture and/or reduced FEA-estimated bone strength at the distal radius or tibia is associated with a history of fragility fracture.20–28 In particular, individuals with a history of fracture have decreased trabecular bone density and cortical thickness,21, 22, 24–28 providing evidence that the increased cortical thickness seen in Chinese-American women could contribute to their lower fracture rates. In this study, Chinese-American and white postmenopausal women had similar FEA-estimated bone strength values. Yet, despite the same bone strength, the Chinese-American women likely still would have lower forearm fracture risk than the white women because a lower force would be applied to their wrists following a fall owing to their smaller stature and lower body weight. Moreover, it is possible that decreased fall incidence in Asians compared with whites29, 30 also contributes to their lower fracture rates. In sum, the differences in bone morphology reported by Walker and colleagues11 are consistent with the lower risk of wrist fractures reported in Asian women, but the contribution of nonskeletal factors to ethnicity-related differences in fracture also may play an important role. Furthermore, this study focused exclusively on the appendicular skeletal, leaving open the question of whether the pattern of increased cortical density and thickness seen in Chinese-American women at the distal radius is also present at the proximal femur, possibly contributing to their lower risk of hip fracture.
Fracture risk increases with age; thus an important factor in understanding differences in fracture rates is whether ethnicity-related differences in bone morphology seen in premenopausal women12, 13 are maintained after the menopause. Heterogeneity of bone loss at the menopause is widely accepted, with "fast" and "slow" losers observed.31 However, the factors that contribute to variation in rates of bone loss and structural deterioration during the menopause are poorly understood. The Study of Women Across the Nation (SWAN) reported that Japanese and Chinese women had greater declines in spine BMD than white or African-American women during the menopause.32 Do changes in bone microstructure follow the same ethnicity-related patterns as BMD? Taken together with their previous report in premenopausal women,12 Walker and colleagues' current findings11 provide preliminary insight into this question. They report that premenopausal Chinese-American women have higher trabecular density than white women, whereas postmenopausal Chinese-American women tend to have lower trabecular density than white women. In contrast, the increased cortical thickness seen in Chinese-American premenopausal women is preserved in postmenopausal women. These findings suggest that there may be preferential loss of trabecular bone and relative preservation of cortical bone in Chinese-American women. These observations are far from definitive given that they were drawn from two small cross-sectional studies, but they do raise important questions about possible contributions of race or ethnicity to compartment-specific patterns of bone loss following the menopause.
What are the physiologic mechanisms underlying the observed ethnicity-related differences in skeletal structure? How do possible differences in the rates of bone modeling and remodeling contribute to the observed differences in bone size and structure? In SWAN, serum osteocalcin and urinary cross-linked N-telopeptide of type 1 collagen (NTX) were highest in white and black and lowest in Asian premenopausal and early perimenopausal women.33 The lower bone turnover rate in pre- and perimenopausal Asian women is consistent with less endocortical resorption leading to the greater cortical thickness and density seen in Chinese-American women12, 13 but is counter to the increased rate of bone loss seen at the menopause. Clearly, further studies are needed to better delineate the factors that contribute to acquisition and maintenance of trabecular and cortical bone structure among all ethnicities.
In the United States, population growth is fastest among those who self-identify as nonwhite.34 Moreover, given the predictions of increased fractures among societies worldwide,35 further study of the material and structural determinants of fracture risk in multiethnic populations is urgently needed. The article by Walker and colleagues11 adds to our knowledge in this area and raises a number of key questions that will guide future research directions. Prospective fracture studies with bone morphology and structure measurements are needed to translate these observations to better management of patients. Improved understanding of skeletal fragility in all ethnicities will improve identification of those at greatest risk and motivate novel interventions for prevention of fractures based on specific structural deficits.
- 1Epidemiology and outcomes of osteoporotic fractures. Lancet. 2002; 359: 1761–1767., .
- 2Osteoporosis and fracture risk in women of different ethnic groups. J Bone Miner Res. 2005; 20: 185–194., , , et al.
- 3Bone mineral density and the risk of incident nonspinal fractures in black and white women. JAMA. 2005; 293: 2102–2108., , , et al.
- 4Epidemiology of hip fracture: worldwide geographic variation. Indian J Orthop. 2011; 45: 15–22., , , .
- 5Ethnic difference of clinical vertebral fracture risk. Osteoporos Int. [E-pub ahead of print April 2, 2011.], , , et al.
- 6Epidemiology of fractures. In Riggs BL, Melton LJ III, eds. Osteoporosis: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Management, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1995: 225–247.
- 7Contributions of vertebral fractures to stature loss among elderly Japanese-American women in Hawaii. J Bone Miner Res. 1996; 11: 408–411., , , , .
- 8Technology insight: noninvasive assessment of bone strength in osteoporosis. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol. 2008; 4: 310–318..
- 9Quantifying the material and structural determinants of bone strength. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2009; 23: 741–753., .
- 10High-resolution imaging techniques for the assessment of osteoporosis. Radiol Clin North Am. 2010; 48: 601–621., , , .
- 11Differences in bone microarchitecture between postmenopausal Chinese-American and white women. J Bone Miner Res. 2011; 26: 1392–1398., , , , et al.
- 12Application of high-resolution skeletal imaging to measurements of volumetric BMD and skeletal microarchitecture in Chinese-American and white women: explanation of a paradox. J Bone Miner Res. 2009; 24: 1953–1959., , , , .
- 13Differences in macro- and microarchitecture of the appendicular skeleton in young Chinese and white women. J Bone Miner Res. 2009; 24: 1946–1952., , , et al.
- 14Bone histomorphometry: standardization of nomenclature, symbols, and units: report of the ASBMR Histomorphometry Nomenclature Committee. J Bone Miner Res. 1987; 2: 595–610., , , et al.
- 15Reproducibility of direct quantitative measures of cortical bone microarchitecture of the distal radius and tibia by HR-pQCT. Bone. 2010; 47: 519–528., , , , .
- 16Age- and gender-related differences in the geometric properties and biomechanical significance of intracortical porosity in the distal radius and tibia. J Bone Miner Res. 2010; 25: 983–993., , , , .
- 17Age-related patterns of trabecular and cortical bone loss differ between sexes and skeletal sites: a population-based HR-pQCT study. J Bone Miner Res. 2011; 26: 50–62., , , , .
- 18Microindentation for in vivo measurement of bone tissue mechanical properties in humans. J Bone Miner Res. 2010; 25: 1877–1885., , , et al.
- 19Epidemiology of distal forearm fractures in Oslo, Norway. Osteoporos Int. 2008; 19: 781–786., , , , , .
- 20In vivo assessment of trabecular bone microarchitecture by high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005; 90: 6508–6515., , , .
- 21Alterations of cortical and trabecular architecture are associated with fractures in postmenopausal women, partially independent of decreased BMD measured by DXA: the OFELY study. J Bone Miner Res. 2007; 22: 425–433., , , .
- 22Finite-element analysis based on in vivo HR-pQCT images of the distal radius is associated with wrist fracture in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res. 2008; 23: 392–399., , , , , .
- 23High-resolution pQCT analysis at the distal radius and tibia discriminates patients with recent wrist and femoral neck fractures. J Bone Miner Res. 2008; 23: 1741–1750., , , et al.
- 24Severity of vertebral fractures is associated with alterations of cortical architecture in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res. 2009; 24: 737–743., , , , .
- 25Abnormal microarchitecture and reduced stiffness at the radius and tibia in postmenopausal women with fractures. J Bone Miner Res. 2010; 25: 2572–2581., , , et al.
- 26Finite-element analysis performed on radius and tibia HR-pQCT images and fragility fractures at all sites in postmenopausal women. Bone. 2010; 46: 1030–1037., , , et al.
- 27Finite-element analysis performed on radius and tibia HR-pQCT images and fragility fractures at all sites in men. J Bone Miner Res. 2011; 26: 965–973., , , et al.
- 28Assessing forearm fracture risk in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int. 2010; 21: 1161–1169., , , et al.
- 29Falls among community-dwelling elderly in Japan. J Bone Miner Res. 1998; 13: 1468–1474., , , , , .
- 30
- 31Bone loss across the menopausal transition. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2010; 1192: 66–71..
- 32Bone mineral density changes during the menopause transition in a multiethnic cohort of women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008; 93: 861–868., , , et al.
- 33Ethnic variation in bone turnover in pre- and early perimenopausal women: effects of anthropometric and lifestyle factors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002; 87: 3051–3056., , , et al.
- 34U.S. Census Bureau. www.census.gov/popest/estimates.html.
- 35Secular trends in the incidence of hip and other osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int. 2011; 22: 1277–1288., , , et al.


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A Wyoming man was arrested late last month for burglarizing an apartment and sexually assaulting a woman who lives there with a child. Matthew Alan Meyer, 23, charged with first degree burglary of an occupied residence and criminal sexual conduct in the third degree, made his first appearance Oct. 2...Read More
A 34-year-old woman was allegedly raped by a Nebraska man at a Wyoming apartment complex April 14. The man, Steven Rayfiel Scott, 22, is facing two charges related to the incident, which carry a maximum penalty of more than 15 years in jail and $31,000 in fines. According to a criminal complaint: Ar...Read More
Six-year-old special education student was the alleged victim North Branch Area Public Schools is facing a $500,000 lawsuit lodged by the lawyers of a woman who says her then-6-year-old son was sexually assaulted by a middle school student on a district school bus in April of last year. According to...Read More


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For age over 50years ok
Maybe come back in 20 years iam too young now for a quite hotel suite like this. Pool nothing special. Russian area like everywhere but no russians in this hotel. Maybe too expensive
After almost 5 years living in Pattaya, I and my family (2 adults and 3 small children) stayed for 1 month at this suites. It was a 2 bedroom, 2 bathroom with kitchen, big varanda and 3 tvs. Staff freindly, including receptionists, maids, attendants at restaurant, guys that help on bags, maintenance - everybody!
Service with quality and food provided...
I stayed here during my last visit to Pattaya Beach back in September of 2008. They had good restaurant on site that served typical Thai dishes and alcoholic beverages. The room was very comfortable with a King-size bed, WiFI internet, and patio. They also had a relaxing pool area where many would sunbath. At the time it seemed like the...
Spent 11 nights at the hotel in a party of 8 people, brothers, sisters, friends etc. it's called the woodlands for a reason, it's full of trees, there are so many that the sun can't even get through them making sunbathing quite difficult, there were a few members of staff were friendly but the vast majority looked miserable and gave...
Best end of the beach, we had a pool apartment and breakfast at Grappa's was way better than breakfast on the other side. Breakfast was amazing! The suites are suited for couples or bussiness. Will never return to Pattaya but highly recommend this hotel (suites) The staff were great.
Stayed here for 8 nights in the low season.
Location: Was very peaceful around the pool and in the room, never got disturbed by any noise. Just off the Dolphin roundabout and pretty much on the Baht bus route for very easy access to anywhere along beach road (incl. Walking Street) for just 10bht. Also a nice easy ride home...
Our last night of 11 and we are sad to be leaving. The location is great, near enough to Pattaya for the action, but incredibly quiet in the actual development. There are also loads of local bars & restaurants just opposite the Woodlands Hotel. We have an Executive pool room, which has direct access into the pool (I thought this...
Lovely hotel, with nicely appointed rooms. Great central garden surrounding the pool area. Also has a very good patisserie attached to the hotel, with fabulous coffees and cakes. Great location in Pattaya.
A big disappointment. Stayed with the family in August 2012. The service has deteriorated significantly since the first stay in 2011. Some staff was rude, unprofessional and incompetent. Lack of attention to their regular customers. Not value for money. Never back again!!!
Best suite Hotel in Pattaya
Great Staff and super nice rooms, we have stays in a large suite which was modern and very nicely made.
I love to stay here and will be back again.
Not far from the Dolphin circle and therefor fast in the city limits.


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Cheery Flowers Stock PhotoCherry Blossom,Studio Shot,White Background,Petal,No People,Bud,Flower,Close-up,Color Image,Fragility,Freshness,Photography,Pink Color,Stem,USA,Vertical,YpsilantiPhotographer Created by Tafari K. Stevenson-HowardCollection: Moment © 2008 Tafari K. Stevenson-HowardBright pink weeping cheery flowers against bright sprint time sky.