text:
A system and methods are shown for handling multiple target memory requests. Memory read requests generated by a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) client are received by a PCI bus controller. The PCI bus controller passes the memory request to a memory controller used to access main memory. The memory controller passes the memory request to a bus interface unit used to access cache memory and a processor. The bus interface unit determines if cache memory can be used to provide the data associated with the PCI client's memory request. While the bus interface unit determines if cache memory may be used, the memory controller continues to process the memory request to main memory. If cache memory can be used, the bus interface unit provides the data to the PCI client and sends a notification to the memory controller. The memory controller identifies the memory request, or returned data associated with the request, and discards it to ensure no data is returned to the bus controller from the memory controller. Once the data is received from the bus interface unit, the bus controller is free to send new memory read requests to the memory controller.
1. A system comprising:
a data processor having:
an input/output buffer; and
cache memory to store data associated with a memory device;
a bus interface unit having a first input/output buffer coupled to the input/output buffer of the data processor, a second input/output buffer and a third input/output buffer, said bus interface unit to:
determine a validity of data in said cache memory during a cache access; and
provide a notification indicating data in said cache memory is valid, wherein said notification identifies a first request;
said memory device having an input/output buffer coupled, to said memory device to provide data associated with a first request;
a bus controller having a first input/output buffer coupled to the input/output buffer of the data processor, a second input/output buffer coupled to the second input/output buffer of the bus interface unit and a third input/output buffer, said bus controller to:
receive said first request to access data in said memory device, wherein said first request is received from a bus client;
provide said first request to the memory controller;
receive said data associated with said first request from said bus interface unit;
the memory controller having a first input/output buffer coupled to the third input/output buffer of the bus controller, a second input/output buffer coupled to the third input/output buffer of the bus interface unit and a third input/output buffer coupled to the input/output buffer of the memory device, said memory controller to:
provide access to said memory device;
receive said first request from said bus controller;
prepare said first request to access data from said memory device;
provide a second request to said bus interface unit, wherein said second request is to access data associated with said first request from said cache memory;
receive said notification from said bus interface unit;
generate a second identifier using said notification;
store said second identifier as part of a kill list, wherein said kill list identifies requests to be terminated: and
terminate the first request based on the kill list.
2. The system as in
3. The system as in
4. The system as in
5. The system as in
6. The system as in
7. The system as in
assign a first identifier to said first request; and
identify said first request from a plurality of pending requests using said first identifier.
8. The system as in
The present invention relates generally to memory and more particularly to handling memory requests.
In current computer architectures, several levels of memory may be implemented. A hard drive, random access memory (RAM), and cache memory, all represent memory sources that may be used to write and read data. RAM is often used as a computer's main memory. Data consistently being accessed may be read from a hard drive and stored in RAM for faster access. However, RAM is still unable to be accessed in time to meet the high speeds of most new computer processors. While used as the main memory in a computer, RAM accessing may present latency to the computer. A single RAM device can only process a select number of memory requests at one time. Therefore, most processors within an information handling system use cache memory for handling some memory requests. Cache memory is memory local to a processor.
It is possible for a memory client to request to read data from main memory, but receive data from another memory source, such as cache memory. When dealing with memory intensive clients, such as graphics clients, main memory may introduce latencies due to other memory requests, which are pending in a memory controller for processing in main memory. To reduce these latencies encountered when accessing data from main memory, cache memory is used to provide data requested from main memory. Cache memory may store copies of data stored in main memory. However, the cache memory must maintain coherency with the main memory for the data to be valid. Cache coherency is a synchronization of data between cache memory and main memory so that a particular set of data in cache memory is the current version of that data currently stored in main memory.
In order to decrease the response time to requests for information stored in memory, some conventional systems will attempt to fill those requests using information stored in a processor's cache memory. One problem with this scheme, however, is that the data in cache memory does not always represent a current version of the data in main memory. Conventional systems deal with this problem by first determining if cache memory is coherent with main memory; if so the memory controller obtains the data from the cache memory. However, if the cache memory is not coherent with the main memory, then the memory controller fetches the data from main memory.
In the case where the cache memory is not coherent with the main memory, the memory controller must wait until after it has determined that the cache memory is current before it processes the request to fetch the data from main memory, because the memory controller stalls the current memory request and sends a signal to the processor to determine if cache memory is current. While such a method allows data to be accessed from cache memory, it also introduces latency as the memory controller stalls the request to determine the coherency of cache memory. From the above discussion, it is apparent that an improved method for accessing data within a system with multiple memory sources is needed.
Specific embodiments of the present invention are shown and described in the drawings presented herein. Various objects, advantages, features and characteristics of the present invention, as well as methods, operations and functions of related elements of structure, and the combination of parts and economies of manufacture, will become apparent upon consideration of the following description and claims with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form apart of this specification, and wherein:
At least one embodiment of the present invention provides for a method of handling memory requests, known as multiple target memory requests, in systems with multiple memory devices. The method includes receiving a first request to access data from a first memory device. The first request includes a memory request generated by a client and processed through a bus controller. In one embodiment, the client includes a graphics client which generates many memory requests. The method also includes preparing the first request for access through a first memory device. In one embodiment, the first memory device includes main memory, such as random access memory. The method also includes providing a second request to access the data from a second memory device. In one embodiment the second memory device includes cache memory, such as a microprocessor cache, associated with main memory. The method further includes receiving a first notification that the data associated with the first request is available from the second memory device and terminating the first request, in response to the first notification, at a particular location. The particular location is dependent on how quickly the first notification is received after receiving the first request. If the first notification is received before the first request is sent to the first memory device, the first request is terminated. If the first notification is received after the first request is queued, the data received from the first memory device, in response to the first request, is terminated.
Referring now to
System 100 is an information handling system that provides processing for various clients, such as device 110. A microprocessor 150 provides control and performs processes governed by components of system 100, such as device 110, bus controller 130, bus interface unit 140, and memory controller 160. Microprocessor 150 also includes local memory, such as cache memory 155. In one embodiment, microprocessor 150 represents a general-purpose system processor, such as a central processing unit (CPU), of system 100. Microprocessor 150 may also include an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). In one embodiment, microprocessor 150 includes a graphics processing ASIC, such as graphics processor 180. Device 110 may include software or hardware clients used to handle specific processes. For example, in one embodiment, device 110 is a graphics client used to process video graphics commands for system 100. Device 110 places the memory requests on a system bus, such as peripheral component interconnect (PCI) bus 120. It should be noted that other buses may also be used, such as an industries standard architecture (ISA) bus, or an extended ISA (EISA) bus. The commands may include a memory address from which to read data as well as the amount of data requested. Bus controller 130 receives the memory request and provides the request to memory controller 160. In one embodiment, bus controller 130 processes the memory request by addressing the memory request to memory controller 160. In one embodiment, bus controller 130 addresses a particular port of memory controller 160 where memory controller 160 will receive and process the memory request. Memory device 170 may include system memory, such as random access memory (RAM), of system 100. Memory device 170 may also include video memory, such as a frame buffer, used for video and graphics processing.
In one embodiment, graphics processor 180 generates requests for access of memory device 170, through memory controller 160. Graphics processor 180 receives processing requests through an accelerated graphics port (AGP) 125. Graphics processor 180 generates requests to write to and read from memory device 170. In one embodiment, graphics processor 180 is integrated into system 100 and includes a direct connection to a port of memory controller 160. Memory controller 160 receives memory requests directly from graphics processor 180 and processes them along with memory requests from other memory clients, such as device 110, received through bus controller 130. Alternatively, graphics processor 180 may not be integrated directly with memory controller 160 and memory controller 160 may receive memory requests from graphics processor 180 through bus controller 130.
In one embodiment, device 110 is a memory intensive client, generating a high volume of memory requests. A maximum number of requests, which may be processed by memory controller 160 at a time, determines a maximum bandwidth of requests that may be provided by memory controller 160. In one embodiment, to reduce the number of requests being processed by memory controller 160, cache memory 155 handles the requests. However, it is not always known if cache memory 155 contains a current version of data stored in memory device 170. Memory controller 160 begins to process the received request from bus controller 130 and sends a copy of the request for processing by cache memory 155, through bus interface unit 140. Memory requests that are capable of being processed using both memory device 170 and cache memory 155 are known as multiple target memory requests.
Bus interface unit 140 provides access between a processor, such as microprocessor 150, and other components of system 100, such as bus controller 130 and memory controller 160. Bus interface unit 140 also provides access to cache memory 155. Bus interface unit 140 receives memory requests from memory controller 160. Before providing data in cache memory 155, bus interface unit 140 determines if cache memory 155 is coherent, indicating the data being requested by the memory requests are current with memory device 170. Several methods exist for determining the coherency of cache memory 155 with memory device 170. In one embodiment, it is determined whether any processor other than microprocessor 150, such as graphics processor 180, or components of system 100 have written to memory device 170 since the last time cache memory 155 was synchronized with memory device 170. If other components have written to memory device 170 during that time, cache memory 155 is not considered coherent and must first be synchronized with memory device 170 before providing data. Memory synchronization is a process of copying at least a portion of the data in memory device 170 to cache memory 155. It should be appreciated that other methods of determining cache memory coherency may be used without departing from the scope of the present invention.
Determining the coherency of cache memory 155 and synchronizing cache memory 155 may take some time. In conventional systems, a memory controller coupled to a memory device waits until the coherency is determined before processing the request to main memory. To reduce latency, memory controller 160 of system 100 continues to process the memory request while coherency is determined. If cache memory 155 is not coherent with memory device 170, memory controller 160 will rely on the memory request to be processed by memory device 170. In such a case, memory controller 160 passes data returned by memory device 170 to bus controller 130, and the data is then provided to device 110. Alternatively, if cache memory 155 is coherent, bus interface unit 140 passes the data returned by cache memory 155 to bus controller 130, and bus controller 130 passes the data to device 110, over PCI bus 120.
Bus controller does not wait for a response from memory controller 160 before issuing anew request, when data is provided from cache memory 155. If cache memory 155 processes the memory request, memory controller 160 must make sure no data is returned back to bus controller 130 in response to the same request. If data associated with a first request is returned to bus controller 130 after a new memory request has been generated, the data associated with the first request could contaminate data associated with the new memory request. To prevent this, memory controller 160 ensures that any data from the memory device 170 is not returned to bus controller 130, after bus controller 130 has received data from cache memory 155, through bus interface unit 140.
Bus interface 140 provides a notification to memory controller 160 that cache memory 155 is coherent, and being used to provide the requested data to bus controller 130. In one embodiment, the notification includes a kill signal to notify memory controller 160 to terminate the pending request for data from memory device 170, since the data has already been provided. In one embodiment, all the memory requests received by memory controller 160 are provided a unique identifier. The kill signal indicates which request is to be terminated. Memory controller 160 generates a new identifier associated with the indicated request and searches through the pending requests to determine which one to remove. In one embodiment, if the kill signal is provided before the identified request is sent to memory, the request is removed from a collection of pending requests tracked by memory controller 160. Alternatively, if the identified request has already been delivered to memory device 170, memory controller 160 discards the data returned from memory device 170 associated with the identified request. In one embodiment, memory controller 160 blocks a generation of output protocols used to provide the returned data to bus controller 130, as described further in reference to
In conventional systems, bus controller 130 must wait for a response from memory controller 160 before submitting new requests to memory controller 160, regardless of whether or not the data was provided through bus interface unit 140. By terminating the identified request, memory controller 160 may ensure that bus controller 130 does not receive the data associated with the identified request. In system 100, bus controller 130 is free to submit new memory requests without having to receive a response from memory controller 160.
Referring now to
In step 210, the PCI controller receives a request to access memory. The request includes a read request directed to a portion of the memory device. The request is generated through a PCI bus client. In one embodiment, the PCI bus client includes a graphics client. In step 215, the request is sent to the memory controller. As previously discussed, the memory controller provides access to the memory device, such as system memory or video memory. Due to commands by the PCI bus client, the memory controller may become overwhelmed with memory requests to be processed. Handling all the memory requests from the PCI bus client may hinder an ability of the memory controller to handle other memory requests. To reduce the number of commands that must be processed by the memory controller, the memory controller provides the memory request to a bus interface unit.
The bus interface unit determines if the request can be handled through cache memory. Cache memory may include a copy of the data from the memory device. However, the cache memory may not be valid, such as in the case in which cache memory has not been updated since the last write command to the memory device. The host bus interface must determine the validity, or coherence, of cache memory. While the request has been sent to the bus interface unit, the memory controller continues to process the request to the memory device. If the cache memory is not valid, the PCI bus controller relies on the memory controller to provide the data from the memory device.
In step 220, the PCI bus controller waits for a response in relation to the sent read request before submitting a new memory read request. When a response is received, the PCI bus controller transitions to step 230, where the PCI bus controller determines where the response came from. Since the response is being processed in both the memory controller and the bus interface unit, the response may come from either the memory controller or the bus interface unit. In step 230, if the response came from the memory controller, the PCI bus controller transitions to step 235 where the PCI bus controller receives the data associated with the sent memory request from the memory device. In step 237, once the data has been received, the PCI bus controller determines whether a response has been received from the bus interface unit. In one embodiment, to insure that a response from the bus interface unit is not confused with a response to a future memory request, the PCI bus controller waits for the response from the bus interface. In one embodiment, if the bus interface unit returns data, the PCI bus discards the data since it has already received the data from the memory controller. In step 280, the received data is provided to the requesting client.
If the response in step 230 was from the bus interface unit, the PCI bus controller determines the nature of the response. In step 240, if the response indicates that the cache memory is not valid, indicating the data in cache memory is not current with the data in the memory device, the PCI bus controller returns to step 220, to wait for a response from the memory controller. However, if the response received from the bus interface unit indicates the cache memory is valid, the PCI bus controller receives the data requested from the cache memory in step 270. During step 270, the bus interface unit also delivers a signal notifying the memory controller of the valid data in cache memory. The memory controller terminates the memory request being processed through the memory controller. The request may be terminated before it is sent to the memory device, reducing data bandwidth to the memory device. Alternatively, the memory controller may discard the data returned from the memory device associated with the request, ensuring that data from the memory device does not reach the PCI bus controller.
By terminating the memory request or data associated with the memory request in the memory controller, the PCI bus controller does not have to wait to receive a response from the memory controller before submitting a new memory read request. In step 280, the received data is provided to the requesting client. Once the data is submitted to the client, the PCI bus controller may continue to receive and process new memory read requests.
Referring now to
PCI controller 310 receives memory requests from clients connected through a system bus, such as a PCI bus. The clients may include hardware systems, such as graphics hardware, which generate memory requests to read data and write data in SDRAM 370. In one embodiment, PCI controller 310 receives a memory read request from one of the clients. PCI controller 310 provides the memory request to memory controller 380. Memory controller 380 generates a unique identifier, first unique identifier 314 to track the memory request. Identifier generator 311 includes a collection of components to generate the identifier. In one embodiment, an identifier provided by the PCI controller 310, PCI identifier 312, is converted into first unique identifier 314. PCI identifier 312 may include three bits to identify a port of memory controller 380 and five bits to identify a type of memory transaction or memory request being performed.
In one embodiment, an exclusive-or operator 316 is used to combine the values of the bits in PCI identifier 312 with the values of bus counters 317. Bus counters 317 include a first counter to track a number of requests originating from clients over the PCI bus and a second counter to track the number of requests originating from clients over an advanced graphics port (AGP, not shown). The result of the exclusive or operation is an eight-bit identifier, first unique identifier 314. Identifier generator 311 should be capable of providing an identifier to uniquely track the memory request among other requests in memory controller 380, for the duration the memory request is pending in memory controller 380. It should be appreciated that other methods of providing a unique identifier may be used without departing from the scope of the present invention.
A memory request organizer (MRO) 320 within memory controller 380 receives and performs initial operations on the memory request. In one embodiment, MRO 320 is responsible for scheduling read and write requests to SDRAM 370. The read and write requests may come from the bus interface unit 340, PCI controller 310, an AGP port, or any additional system buses and/or clients. MRO 320 evaluates any dependencies a particular read or write memory request may have. For example, a particular read request may necessarily follow a particular write request. The write request would have to be processed before the read request. MRO 320 waits for any dependencies to be resolved, and routes data and memory requests accordingly. In one embodiment, the MRO 320 sends a probe signal 322 to bus interface unit 340. Probe signal 322 includes the memory request provided through PCI controller 310.
Bus interface unit 340 receives probe signal 322 and determines if a cache memory associated with bus interface unit 340 is capable of providing the data to satisfy the memory request. The cache memory includes a copy of the data in SDRAM 370. The cache memory is occasionally synchronized, or updated, to match SDRAM 370. If no other processor, such as in a multi-processor system, or system component or device, such as through PCI controller 310 has written to SDRAM 370 since the cache memory was updated, the cache memory may be considered valid. If the cache memory is valid, the bus interface unit 340 provides the requested data from the memory read request to PCI controller 310. The bus interface unit also provides a kill signal 342 to memory controller 380. Kill signal 342 is used to notify memory controller 311 of the request which bus interface unit 340 has handled, allowing memory controller 380 to identify and terminate the particular memory request.
While the bus interface unit 340 validates cache memory and processes the memory request, the memory controller 380 continues to process the memory request. A memory request arbiter (MRA) 330 receives the requests in an order generated through MRO 320. MRA 330 arbitrates received requests among the different memory requesters, such as different PCI clients, AGP clients, bus interface unit 340, or memory controller 380. In one embodiment, MRA 330 selects requests from each of the requesters in a round robin manner, selecting one request from each in a defined order. MRA 330 may also perform translations from a physical address provided by PCI controller 310 to a bank, row, and column address specific to SDRAM 370.
If MRA 330 receives kill signal 342 before MRA 330 has passed the particular memory request, specified by kill signal 342, MRA 330 discards the particular memory request. In one embodiment, a second unique identifier 354 is generated from the request identified kill signal 342. Second unique identifier 354 should be generated in a manner similar to first unique identifier 314. A second exclusive-or operator 356 is used to generate second unique identifier 354 from an identifier of kill signal 342 and bus counters 317. For the same memory request, first unique identifier 314 should match second unique identifier 354.
In one embodiment, unique identifier 354 is used to set a memory request to be terminated, as part of a kill list 355. In one embodiment, three bits of the second unique identifier 354, as determined through bus counters 317, are used to mark one of eight possible memory requests for termination in kill list 355. In one embodiment, MRA 330 attempts to match first unique identifier 314 of a received memory request to second unique identifier 354. If a match is detected, MRA 330 discards the memory request. Alternatively, if the memory request has already passed through MRA 330 before the receipt of kill signal 342 or the first and second unique identifiers 314 and 354 do not match, the memory request is received by request scheduler 350.
Request scheduler 350 stores memory requests received from MRA 330. In one embodiment, the memory requests are placed on a queue for output to main memory, such as SDRAM 370. Memory requests may simply be placed on the queue in a first-in-first-out configuration, wherein a newly received memory request is placed on top of the latest memory request in the queue. In one embodiment, page hit requests form an exception, in which page hit requests are placed ahead of any page-miss requests, but behind older page-hit requests. In one embodiment, memory requests stored by request scheduler 350 include an address of SDRAM 370 to access, a data size requested, and any other information, such as dependency flags used to mark unresolved dependency issues. The memory requests that are at the bottom of the queue in request scheduler 350 are passed to SDRAM 370 for processing. It should be noted that request scheduler 350 is only capable of processing a particular number of requests for SDRAM 370 in a particular amount of time. If a memory request is terminated by kill signal 342 prior to entry in request scheduler 350, the termination frees up space in the queue of request scheduler 350, allowing it to handle another memory request in place of the terminated memory request.
Memory requests from request scheduler 350 are received and processed through SDRAM 370. SDRAM 370 stores any data associated with write requests and returns data associated with read requests. A north-bridge read buffer (NRB) 375 receives and processes the returned data. NRB 375 is responsible for generating protocol to provide the returned data to a requesting client, such as a PCI client coupled through PCI controller 310. In one embodiment, NRB 375 attempts to match the first unique identifier 314 associated with returned data from SDRAM 370 to a second unique identifier 354 from kill list 355. If a match is found, NRB 375 insures that no protocols are generated from the particular returned data. In one embodiment, NRB 375 disables any protocol output for a number of data bits specified through a data size associated with the particular returned data. In another embodiment, generated protocols being output are combined with bits of an output mask. To cancel an output of generated protocols, the mask is zeroed out, forcing the output bits to zeroes. Alternatively, if no match was found, the protocol for the returned data is allowed to be output to PCI controller 310 for passage back to a requesting PCI client. It should be appreciated that other forms of RAM may be used in place of SDRAM 370, such as other forms of static RAM, or dynamic RAM, as well as volatile, or non-volatile memory. In one embodiment SDRAM 370 includes video memory used for processing requests associated with a graphics processor. Furthermore, memory requests from other system components or system busses may be handled through memory controller 380 and bus interface unit 340, in place of or in addition to PCI controller 310. It should be noted that other methods may be employed to effectively discard returned data without departing from the scope of the present invention.
Referring now to
In step 410, the memory controller receives the memory request. As previously discussed, the memory request originates from a PCI bus client. In one embodiment, the PCI bus client is a graphics client. The request is initially received by a PCI bus controller, which generates appropriate protocol to provide the memory request to the memory controller. In one embodiment, the PCI bus controller generates commands to assign the memory request to a particular port of the memory controller. The memory controller receives the request and begins to prepare the request for processing in the memory device.
In step 420 the memory controller assigns a first identifier to the memory request. The identifier is to allow the memory controller to track the memory request and any returned data associated with the request. Since the memory controller may be processing other memory requests, the identifier should be unique to the particular memory request for the duration of the memory request and the duration of any data associated with the memory request. In one embodiment, an identifier associated with the memory request, generated by the PCI controller, is exclusive-or'ed with values from counters used to track a number of system bus requests to generate a unique identifier.
In step 430, the memory controller places the memory request on a queue. The queue is used to store the memory request until memory device is ready to process the memory request. In one embodiment, all received memory requests are organized and arbitrated to identify any priorities or dependencies that govern the memory requests. Accordingly, the memory controller would assign placements for individual memory requests on the queue. In step 435, after memory device has read the memory request from the queue, the memory controller receives data in response to the memory request.
In step 440, the memory controller provides the memory request to a bus interface unit. The bus interface unit is coupled to a processor and cache memory. The host bus interface unit is provided the memory request to attempt to retrieve any requested data from cache memory. The bus interface unit is allowed to process the memory request simultaneously with the processing performed by the memory controller in steps 420�435. If the cache memory is valid, the bus interface unit provides the data to the requesting client, through the PCI bus controller. The bus interface unit also provides a kill signal to the memory controller, indicating it is providing the data associated with the memory request.
In step 445, the memory controller receives the kill signal generated by the bus interface unit. The kill signal identifies the memory request being processed using cache memory. To ensure the requesting client does not receive two sets of data, the memory controller must discard the memory request it is currently processing, or any data associated with the memory request. In step 450, the memory controller generates a second identifier. The second identifier is based on a memory request identified by the kill signal, allowing the memory controller to uniquely identify the memory request to be discarded. The second identifier should be generated using the same procedure as used in generating the first identifier. If generated from the same memory request, the first and second identifiers should be the same.
In step 460, the first identifier is compared to the second identifier. If the memory request associated with the first identifier has already been processed by the memory device, the first identifier is associated with the data returned by the memory device. If the first identifier does not match the second identifier, the data is output to the PCI controller, where it can be routed to the requesting client, as in step 480. In one output, protocols are generated to allow the output data to be properly assigned to the requesting client. If the first and second identifiers match in step 460, the memory controller transitions to step 490. In step 490, the data is discarded. In one embodiment, an output module, such as NRB 375 (
In one embodiment, the second identifier is used to select a value from a kill list. The kill list is used to identify memory requests to be terminated. Identifiers of subsequent memory requests or data from the memory requests are each compared to the kill list to determine if any of them should be terminated. It should be appreciated that other methods of identifying the memory requests to be terminated may be performed without departing from the scope of the present invention. In one embodiment, memory requests are terminated prior to being placed on the queue (step 430). In one embodiment, the point of terminating the memory request is dependent on the delay involved between providing the memory request to the bus interface unit (step 440) and receiving the kill signal from the bus interface unit (step 445).
The systems described herein may be part of an information handling system. The term �information handling system� refers to any system that is capable of processing information or transferring information from one source to another. An information handling system may be a single device, such as a computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a hand held computing device, a cable set-top box, an Internet capable device, such as a cellular phone, and the like. Alternatively, an information handling system may refer to a collection of such devices. It should be appreciated that the system described herein has the advantage of providing improved performance in handling memory requests.
In the preceding detailed description of the embodiments, reference has been made to the accompanying drawings which form a part thereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the invention may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that logical, mechanical and electrical changes may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. To avoid detail not necessary to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention, the description may omit certain information known to those skilled in the art. Furthermore, many other varied embodiments that incorporate the teachings of the invention may be easily constructed by those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the specific form set forth herein, but on the contrary, it is intended to cover such alternatives, modifications, and equivalents, as can be reasonably included within the spirit and scope of the invention. The preceding detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims.
Patent Citations
Referenced by
Legal Events
Original Image


text:
Mattb1's Blog
Monday - August 3
Didn't sleep well last night. It was really windy and our furniture on our roof deck kept blowing around. I was too lazy to get up and go tie it down. I would just fall asleep and then hear a chair go flying across the roof.
I may try and get a short ride in tonight as my legs are tired from yesterday.
Rest Day Today
I may try and get a short ride in tonight as my legs are tired from yesterday.
Rest Day Today
Sunday - August 2
- RACE DAY: Rock 'N' Roll Chicago Half Marathon
mattb1's Training Log
Upcoming races
- March's totals
- February's totals
- 2015 totals
- 2014 totals
Swim: 4h 25m - 12900 Yd
Bike: 10h 09m - 183.35 Mi
Run: 5h 55m - 37.92 Mi
Strength: 05m
Swim: 1h 30m - 4500 Yd
Bike: 4h 00m - 70.55 Mi
Run: 1h 08m - 7.21 Mi
Strength: 1h 15m
Swim: 5h 55m - 17400 Yd
Bike: 16h 39m - 298.9 Mi
Run: 15h 21m 35s - 99.75 Mi
Strength: 3h 00m
Swim: 48h 24m - 154524 Yd
Bike: 173h 53m 18s - 3150 Mi
Run: 121h 50m 03s - 800 Mi
Strength: 6h 55m
Elliptical Training: 40m
Stairmaster: 22m
StairMill: 1h 30m

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Visit create.airbnb.com »
Thanks for taking the time to report this user.
Your participation helps keep Airbnb a safe and trusted
community, and it doesn't go unnoticed!
I'm a software developer currently living in Vancouver.
Justin has completed online and offline ID verification.
Learn more »
Thanks for the stay! Everything was perfect!!


text:
A comparative study of multiple accessing schemes
Erkip, Elza
Aazhang, Behnaam
Conference paper
Gaussian channels fading multipath channels code division multiple access frequency division multiple access time division multiple access land mobile
We compare the performance of different accessing schemes (frequency division, time division and code division) for the uplink in a wireless communication system. We assume an additive white Gaussian noise channel with multipath fading. We consider the case when the receiver can track the channel parameters, but the transmitters cannot. We look at three different measures of performance: the Shannon capacity, the delay limited capacity and probability of outage. Shannon capacity is better suited for systems where the delay requirements are not as stringent, whereas the delay limited capacity and probability of outage give the performance when there are strict delay requirements or when the channel is slowly fading. We observe that all three schemes have the same achievable rates of transmission in Shannon sense, but the code division multiple access scheme performs better than frequency and time division in terms of delay limited capacity and probability of outage.
MetadataShow full item record
- ECE Publications [1058]
Related items
Showing items related by title, author, creator and subject.
Blind PARAFAC Receivers for Multiple Access-Multiple Antenna Systems de Baynast, Alexandre; De Lathauwer, Lieven; Aazhang, Behnaam (2003-10-01)In this paper, we present a new blind receiver for multiple access channel with multiple transmit antennas per user and multiple receive antennas (MIMO channel). After being multiplied by a spreading sequence, each user s ...
Stabilization and throughput of spread spectrum multiple access systems with multiple reception capability Papasakellariou, Aristides (1992)The task of stabilizing communication networks sharing a spread spectrum channel is addressed. A slotted system is considered and the stabilization is achieved by controlling the number of packets that are transmitted in ...
Gradient Estimation for Sensitivity Analysis and Adaptive Multiuse Interface Rejection in Code-division Multiple-access Systems Mandayam, Narayan B.; Aazhang, Behnaam (1997-07-20)In this paper, we consider a direct-sequence code-division multiple-access (DS-CDMA) system in the framework of a discrete-event dynamic system (DEDS) in order to optimize the system performance. Based on this formulation, ...


text:
Hands on Hands Challenge
Monday, March 23, 2015
In 2015, EMS providers are challenged to invite (1) friend to EMS and educate another in Hands Only CPR. Click HERE.
BLS Practitioners that expire April 1, 2015
Thursday, March 5, 2015
New cards have been sent out. If you have not received your card, please check your con-ed in the EMS Portal then contact our office to make sure we have the correct address on file.
Thank you.
CPR Card Submission For Renewal of Certification
Wednesday, February 25, 2015
All certified EMS practitioners are required to submit a current CPR card at the time of their state certification renewal. See EMSIB 2015-002
The memo also addresses EMSVO credentials and the process that is to be followed if the NEW EMS provider registration card does not list the EMSVO credentials on the card. These process are in effect as of February 24, 2015.
New Scope of Practice
Tuesday, January 20, 2015
Published in Saturday's PA Bulletin is PA EMS's new scope of practice 2015. Nov. 2014 scope of practice
ATTENTION PARAMEDICS & PHRNs
Monday, December 22, 2014
ATTENTION PARAMEDICS & PHRNs
Your status reports along with a letter explaining your new expiration date has been mailed. Please contact our office to update your information if you do not receive yours by January 10, 2015.


text:
This video is part of the following collections:
- Like
- Thanks for voting!
- Download
- Collection
amonradius March 9, 2014
se questa troietta è italiana io sono cinese :D
Other vid... July 16, 2014
AniB July 1, 2014
My bf likes when I swallow his balls like that.
cinlefox May 30, 2014
Great tits, arse and pussy
Average Italian guy March 14, 2014
Italian? Man she ain't Italian at all!
Ben November 2, 2014
I wish my bf could do that he just dos oral not deep throat
TjX December 2, 2014
born to be fucked...
ohmygod March 25, 2015
i HAVE TO wake up each morning with this girl, I need it lol, need to fuck it each day to be happy in my life, oh my god
fedorainspector February 25, 2015
She aint italian. She is British faking an Italian accent. Otherwise she would moan in Italian would not bang
Ken January 12, 2015
got ya faketaxi old man is also the fake agent old man ..same tattoos, voice and moles! Cunning guy
Monkey March 11, 2014
Italian my arse!
dude March 10, 2014
she is Stella Cox and she's not Italian at all...
Jon McFakename March 10, 2014
This is one of the most beautiful body I've ever seen. Pure hotness.
PL March 9, 2014
Stunning girl - beautiful tits and a great slim body. Great BJ skills - heaven. Shame the guy wastes her with a poor fuck - she deserved better to show her sexiness. What is her name? Any other porn vids with her in?
blown away March 9, 2014
she should go see a real agent, because oh my fucking god!!!!!
watcher March 6, 2014
absolutely amazing
Sexy Leroy March 10, 2014
Fucking incredible.
Muppet4 March 10, 2014
Holy god... Some girls just know what they are doing. I'm sure everyone believes she is Miss Innocent but Damn... She is stunning... So Fucking Hot... Woof!
cccuu March 6, 2014
who is she ?
british321 March 10, 2014
that's bollocks. She definitely doesn't sound like she just moved from Italy but well. Fuck that, she's well fit
PP March 10, 2014
Xiao March 10, 2014
Same way like BRCC?
Loading Comments
- FakeAgentUK Sexy Italian babe shows unbelievable deep throat skills


text:
This hotel is in a good location with shops attached. The lobby is beautiful. However, that's where the plesantries end. The room was not up to par. Per entrance to room, light fixture was missing. There was scuff marks on the walls in the room, and stains on the sheets. Valet was not so great. At 30.00 a day, having to wait awhile for your car to brought around after calling down prior. While in Valet care, my friends car was hit. Overall, just not a great stay. Don't plan to ever stay at another Marriott again...
- Reservation Options:
- TripAdvisor is proud to partner with Expedia, Booking.com, Hotwire, Despegar.com, Orbitz, Marriott, Hotels.com, TripOnline SA, Odigeo and Tingo so you can book your Miami Marriott Biscayne Bay reservations with confidence. We help millions of travelers each month to find the perfect hotel for both vacation and business trips, always with the best discounts and special offers.
- Also Known As:
- Miami Marriott Biscayne Bay Hotel Miami
- Marriott Miami


text:
Garage with a basement
This is the second place(out of 100) that I have seen, a small garage(20 by 20) with a basement(exterior entrance). About four old rusty I beams and a steel ceiling are used to support the vehicle and the concrete floor.
Nor sure how well this works.
Its begging for clean up , ventilation and heat, and maintenance.
Grit blast, prime and paint?
These things have never been done ...for 50 years it appears.
99.9% of homeowners garages have no basement..
Come 4 Dec, I am willing to bet $90K that this is an idea with merit and that it can work...it will be my gardening area....I may even try an indoor compost section.Of course, the 90K buys the 1.5K floor space house , garage and land....I hope..
We are planning a home with walkout basement on a sloping lot. Our Architect recommended adding a basement below the garage due to the amount of fill that would need to be brought in to provide a level garage floor. This would become my workshop in place of building a separate free-standing structure. Once cost estimates are in, we will know if this is a less expensive route to take or not.
An idea's qualities should be its economic feasibility among other things, newness and fads matter not.....Its something that fill should be such a costly factor....its only dirt...but those huge boulders underneath are a challenge.
Best of success and luck,Kymike, with the basement under the garage.
my buddy has a lawn service. they built a nice house on a hilly lot and have a huge basement garage. and brother in law built a new 7k sq/ft house with a 4car garage that is 30x50 with a sport court underneath. it has 18ft ceilings and in-floor hot water heat. he said he knows of other houses that have the same feature. my wife said he was building a gym in his new house and i had to see it to understand what she meant.
"Our Architect recommended adding a basement below the garage due to the amount of fill that would need to be brought in to provide a level garage floor. "
Fill must be VERY expensive in your location.
A garage with a basement is much more expensive then a simple slab ion grade.
The slab becomes a real structural element, requiring engineering.
If you want a clear area under the slab (and not a forest of supports) it gets even more expensive.
You are likely to end up with a slab over 12 inches thick.
person i know put addition on fairly new house. turns out backyard was dump site for development. they excavated down 20 ft thru debris to find undisturbed soil. had footing poured, built 20ft of cinderblock foundation and backfilled it so they now have crawlspace. developer gave them a deal.


text:
Houston Attorney Crusading Against 'Unconstitutional' Court Fees
A Harris County attorney is waging a one-woman war against the way Texas uses hundreds of court fees it collects from people in the criminal justice system.
A Harris County attorney is waging a one-woman war against the way Texas uses hundreds of court fees it collects from people in the criminal justice system.
After 14 years of enthusiastic prison-building, Perry is taking credit for a tiny softening in his rhetoric on crime just in time for a presidential run.
Just four other governors answered Rick Perry's call to defy a federal law designed to reduce prison rape.
One of the contributors to Texas' slowly dropping incarceration rates is a growth in diversion programs that address problems like addiction and mental illness.
Harris County, for example, recently doubled its number of crisis intervention response teams, which include trained deputies and mental health clinicians who answer 9-1-1 calls where mental illness may be a factor.
The ABA report makes recommendations on every stage of Texas's capital punishment system. Law enforcement should use model practices when dealing with eyewitnesses; interrogations should be videotaped; biological evidence should be safely preserved and defendants should be able to have it tested. Crime lab standards should be standardized and test results verified independently and often. Texas should use national standards for arson investigations, give juries better instructions, and provide adequate counsel for defendants in every stage of the process.
Yet even if these and all the other recommendations were all followed, Anthony Graves would not be satisfied.
The study found that detained defendants had it worse all around. They were less likely than bond defendants to receive deferred adjudication or probation. And they were about half as likely to have their charges dismissed. That means in addition to having spent time in jail before their trial—which, obviously, the bonded defendants didn't—detained defendants were likelier to get additional jail time.
Finally, among bonded and detained defendants who were sentenced to jail, the detained defendants received longer sentences. In brief, for being poor, they're punished twice.
While news that TDCJ is spending $750,000 on climate-controlled swine barns is catchy, it ignores the real story.
David Berg, a veteran Texas attorney, mines the intersections of family, justice and mortality in his new book Run, Brother, Run: A Memoir of […]
When Isabel Saucedo arrived at Texas' BAMBI unit on a recent October morning, it was clear this wasn't going to be a typical prison […]
On May 12, Johnnie Pinchback became the 28th Dallas man to be freed from prison after evidence proved police got the wrong guy. […]


text:
Adoption CounselorPrince George's County Animal Management Division
The Prince George's County Animal Management Division is seeking an Adoption Counselor at our high volume, open admission shelter. Previous experience processing animal adoptions and experience working with Chameleon software preferred. Position description and job application can be obtained online at www.princegeorgespets4us.com and clicking on the "careers page" link. Please fax your application and resume to the Animal Management Division at (301) 780-7257, or mail or drop off at the Animal Services Facility located at 3750 Brown Station Road, Upper Marlboro, Maryland 20772.Closing Date: April 15, 2015 Posted: March 20, 2015
Animal Shelter DirectorTownship of Montclair
The Animal Shelter Director provides executive level oversight and management of shelter and Township animal control services including intake, adoptions, spay/neuter and other medical services; safety compliance, shelter operations and animal control, health and welfare; oversight of shelter and animal control staff and schedules; oversight of outsourced services provided to other towns, facilities and program management, satellite adoption events and customer service. Responsible for a high level of service, development, and implementation of all shelter operational objectives, including responsible animal care and effective outreach services to the community; serves as a facility spokesperson in the community. Salary: DOQ, plus full benefits. Contact email@example.com for full job description, duties and requirements.Closing Date: April 2, 2015 Posted: March 19, 2015
Executive DirectorBest Friends Animal Society
Best Friends Animal Society is looking for an Executive Director for our New York office. This is a leadership position responsible for overseeing the general management of Best Friends Animal Society's New York office, with presence and operations based out of New York City. The New York Executive Director is also responsible for managing the integration of Best Friends Animal Society – New York's staff into the organization culture. The ideal candidate will have 5+ years proven successful experience in leadership and management, including overseeing strategy, operations, budgeting and staffing. 5+ years' experience working for or with a humane organization is preferred. For a complete job description and to complete an online application and submit a resume, please visit our website at http://bestfriends.org/Careers/Current-Job-Openings/.Closing Date: April 19, 2015 Posted: March 19, 2015
Behavior ManagerDumb Friends League
Responsibilities • Create and manage the delivery of animal behavior programs. • Monitor and evaluate program effectiveness, including statistical analysis, report creation and presentation, and implement improvements. • Consult with League staff and managers to develop procedures and protocols for the treatment, care, and evaluation of animals. • Collaborate with and serve as a resource for other animal welfare agencies. • Develop departmental objectives and plans and assist in the development of League initiatives and programs. • Develop SOPs and ensure they are updated, followed, and communicated with staff and volunteers. • Develop and monitor budget. • Recruit, hire, develop, and coach and counsel staff members. Required • Bachelor's degree in animal science or equivalent experience • Five years' professional experience working with animals • Excellent interpersonal communication skills • Ability to effectively communicate in writing • Supervisory experienceClosing Date: April 30, 2015 Posted: March 19, 2015
Executive DirectorMorristown-Hamblen Humane Society
The Executive Director of Morristown-Hamblen Humane Society is responsible for the day-to-day operation of animal shelter and animal control services provided to the citizens of Hamblen County, Tennessee. Activities associated with this position include ensuring that all animal care programs are conducted in a humane and compassionate manner, overseeing the selection, evaluation, discipline and discharge of staff, preparation and monitoring of operating budgets and overseeing all banking. This job requires strong interpersonal, organizational and decision making skills, thorough experience and knowledge of animal control activities, animal shelter operations, personnel management and finances. The executive director reports to a board of directors. Salary is based on experience.Closing Date: March 31, 2015 Posted: March 19, 2015
Director of Shelter MedicineSonoma Humane Society
SHS is a progressive open admission animal shelter with an average annual intake of 2,700 animals and a lives-saved rate of 97%. Working with our Lead Shelter Veterinarian, the Director of Shelter Medicine will guide our shelter medical department in providing high quality medical care for our shelter population. Candidates should be highly effective at time management and thrive in a fast paced environment. Candidates also must be proficient in HQHVSN, and have at least 2 years experience in a shelter setting. We seek a candidate able to practice exemplary veterinary medicine in a high volume setting, balancing donor-funded resources while striving to provide the best possible care on both a herd health and individual level. Full job description available at www.sonomahumane.org/careers.Closing Date: May 15, 2015 Posted: March 19, 2015
Relief Surgical Prep Techwww.pawschicago.org
The Surgical Prep Tech assists the Veterinarian during medical and surgical procedures, monitors anesthesia, administers doses of medications and prepares samples to be sent to outside laboratories. Duties and Responsibilities: Prepare animals for surgical suite. Monitor animal, draw medications, administer medications, shave, intubate and generally prepare animal for surgery as required by veterinarian including blood draws, IV and performs blood, fecal and urinalysis. Move animal into and out of surgical suite. Maintain visual check on animals throughout the anesthesia process and post-recovery holding area. Clean, sterilize and prepare surgical instruments/materials as required in advance of need. Maintain required records and manage controlled and non-controlled medications. Requirements: Passion for animals and animal welfare. Preference will be given to applicants who are CVT, although a candidate with a minimum of 3 years technician experience will be considered.Closing Date: May 18, 2015 Posted: March 18, 2015
Animal Shelter Executive DirectorAdams County
Adams County is seeking qualified, energetic applicants to be considered for a fast-paced, dynamic and rewarding position as Executive Director of the Animal Shelter. The ideal candidate will have experience implementing initiatives that improve the Shelter's presence in the community, the effectiveness of our service, the quality of our workplace, and the health and wellbeing of animals in our care. The successful candidate will be adept at managing administrative, managerial, and front-line staff and demonstrate the ability to use performance metrics to meet operational targets. Additionally, the successful candidate will have a desire for innovation, creativity, strategy, and a love for the mission that embodies all Shelters across the nation. The Animal Shelter Executive Director is responsible for the overall operations of the Animal Shelter and Adoption Center and for the safe and humane care of animals.Closing Date: April 1, 2015 Posted: March 18, 2015
Kennel AttendantLifeLine Animal Project
Lifeline Animal Project is looking for a compassionate and committed Dog House care attendants for part and full time employment. In addition to providing daily care, rehabilitation and socialization, Dog House attendants are responsible for the health and well being of the 70-90 canine residents. Responsibilities include but are not limited to: feeding, cleaning, rotating and supervising play groups, administering medications, working respectfully with volunteers, potential adopters and other staff and engaging in community outreach. An inventive and positive attitude is necessary. Employees must be able to lift 50+ lbs., and be physically and emotionally capable of 8-10 hour shifts on their feet while engaging with dogs of a variety of sizes, breeds and temperaments. Employees must also be willing and prepared to work compassionately with animal victims of abuse, cruelty, and neglect and understand that the needs of our dogs always come first. Animal handling experience preferred.Closing Date: April 25, 2015 Posted: March 18, 2015
Associate VeterinarianSan Antonio Humane Society
HQHVSN + patient triage and management. GREAT perks and benefits. See full job description @www.sahumane.org. or contact firstname.lastname@example.com Date: August 17, 2015 Posted: March 17, 2015
Search Jobs
Search by Category
Search by Location
- All
- Alabama
- Alaska
- Arizona
- Arkansas
- California
- Colorado
- Connecticut
- Delaware
- District of Columbia
- Florida
- Georgia
- Hawaii
- Idaho
- Illinois
- Indiana
- Iowa
- Kansas
- Kentucky
- Louisiana
- Maine
- Maryland
- Massachusetts
- Michigan
- Minnesota
- Mississippi
- Missouri
- Montana
- Nebraska
- Nevada
- New Hampshire
- New Jersey
- New Mexico
- New York
- North Carolina
- North Dakota
- Ohio
- Oklahoma
- Oregon
- Pennsylvania
- Rhode Island
- South Carolina
- South Dakota
- Tennessee
- Texas
- The United States
- Utah
- Vermont
- Virginia
- Washington
- West Virginia
- Wisconsin
- Wyoming


text:
More English Setter Puppies and Dogs for sale.
4XCH. Norman's Tekoa Storm SH Puppi... Hillcrest Kennel in Tuscola, Illinois
TRAINED ENGLISH SETTER FEMALE FOR S... LOCKNLOAD KENNEL, LLC in Pierce, Colorado
Started Male Setter Seeya Later Kennels in Mercer, Wisconsin
english setter pups due in may four sisters kennels in york springs, Pennsylvania
English Setter Puppy For Sale Rockin T Kennels in Theodore, Alabama
English Setter Puppy For Sale Rockin T Kennels in Theodore, Alabama
Ryman Style - Classic Looking Flanagan Springs Kennel in Winchester, Kentucky
Fritz and Dusty's pups Carpenters Kennels in Clarksburg, Missouri
Started Setter Male Nice wild bird dog Seeya Later Kennels in Mercer, Wisconsin
Deadwater ENG.SETTER pups May 1st Deadwater Gun Dogs in Colebrook, New Hampshire
Introduced Female English Setter Craney Hill Kennel in Mitchell , Georgia
Started English Setter Male Seeya Later Kennels in Mercer, Wisconsin
Female setter for sale Bumsted Kennels in Polo, Illinois
3 year old English Setter male- Gui... Valhalla Kennels & Hunt Club in Bennett, Colorado
English Setter Puppies Available Round River Setters in Burlington, Iowa
Exceptional Setter Pups Berg Bros. Setters in Clearwater, Minnesota
Tekoa,Grouse Ridge English Setter P... 6 R Upland Kennels in Grinnell, Iowa
Ryman-PineCoble Pedigree Male whelp... Heartland Setters Kennels in Atwater, Minnesota
English Setter Pups New England Windfall Farm English Setters in North Berwick, Maine
ENGLISH SETTER PUPPYS ABBEY LANE ENGLISH SETTERS in WALLACE, Michigan
Started 15 month old English Setter Male Seeya Later Kennels in Mercer, Wisconsin
Started 2 yr old setter male Grand Valley Kennels in Sedalia, Missouri
English Setter Puppies Sired by Ind... Indian Creek Gun Dogs in Franklin Lakes, New Jersey
Brannigan's Last Straw pups Carpenters Kennels in Clarksburg, Missouri
Nice hunting dog Seeya Later Kennels in Mercer, Wisconsin
English Setter Puppies - Ready to G... Anderson Ranch Gundogs in Olney, Texas
NOW ACCEPTING DEPOSITS!!!! Peregrine Kennel in Arkansas
Classic Setters, Large & Elegant - English Setters in Winchester, Kentucky - Flanagan Springs Kennel
This is a Ryman Line breeding. We have a cross of DeCoverly and Pinecoble lines. These pups will be registered with the FDSB. They are out of a mating of Rosie and Flag. These two pups are orange males. The Ryman line is special because they are so affectionate and have a close working, slow deliberate style when hunting in the field. This trait crosses over to long walks where the dog will check back often. The dam, FSK Rosemary has been OFA'd with good hips. Check out our website and Facebook Page for Flanagan Springs Kennel. These pups are current on their immunizations and wormings.
Ad location: Winchester, Kentucky
Ad created: Sep 29, 2013
Contact Information
Contact Name: Loring Daugherty
859-745-2702Contact breeder through email Click here to visit website
Flanagan Springs Kennel Breeder Information


text:
Post Content
Many of us living in Massachusetts travel for recreation: skiing in New Hampshire, a summer's weekend down at the Cape, a camping trip in Amherst woods or even the two-hundred-mile trip from Boston to New York City. For drivers of electric vehicles, these trips averaging eighty to a hundred miles can be daunting.
Most electric vehicles are limited by the charge in their batteries and can only go sixty to a hundred miles on a single charge, depending on traffic and driving habits. Standard battery charging times of six to eight hours don't cut it. For these long trips, drivers need powerful charging stations that can recharge a car's battery quickly, ideally within the time of a lunch break or even a bathroom break.
EEA Secretary Rick Sullivan, UMass Amherst Chancellor Kumble Subbaswamy and other campus officials in early February marked the installation of the first public level three electric vehicle charger in Massachusetts at UMass Amherst. Level three chargers, also known as DC fast chargers, operate at 480 volts and can charge electric cars much faster than most existing chargers – up to an 80% charge in less than thirty minutes for a Nissan Leaf. Most of the currently available electric charging stations that you might see at parking lots are level two chargers that operate at 240 volts and take nearly a full work day to fully charge a car. There aren't many DC fast chargers on the road; these are much more expensive to purchase and install than the regular level two 240-volt chargers.
To help with the installation costs, the Department of Energy Resources (DOER) obtained a grant for installing public DC fast chargers. The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration provides funding for transportation projects aimed at providing clean air and reducing traffic. With more public DC fast chargers available, electric vehicle drivers can drive further and use their electric vehicles for long road-trips, reducing emissions. DOER's Clean Cities Coalition program plans to fund more level three chargers, extending the range of more electric vehicles in Massachusetts.
The Amherst DC fast charger was obtained through a partnership with Nissan USA. Drivers with a membership to Chargepoint, a national system of charging stations for electric vehicles, will be able to access the Amherst DC fast charger for about $3 a charge, according to Bill Watts of Transportation Services at UMass Amherst. Currently, Nissan Leafs (Leaves?) and the Mitsubishi i-Miev are the only electric vehicles in the U.S. that can use the type of fast charger installed at UMass, but other electric vehicle models are expected to join the Leafs and i-Mievs in fast charging within the next year with the use of an adapter.
Recent Posts
Dam Ice posted on Mar 12
You may have noticed many "falling ice" signs around town. Personally, I recently counted five of them on my way to the coffee shop. The icicles and falling ice are actually caused by ice dams, and the Building Science Corporation (BSC) and Massachusetts Department of …Continue Reading Dam Ice
Fish Need Clean Energy, Too posted on Feb 18
Running a fish farm is an intense operation, one that requires a lot of labor and a large amount of energy. Currently, the McLaughlin Hatchery uses a significant amount of oil to heat its facility. The facility is going to replace its oil furnace with a renewable energy heating system, a new high efficiency wood pellet boiler and pellet storage silo that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions by almost 92 percent, save an estimated $11,432 annually, and reduce annual oil use by more than 5,000 gallons.
Wood Pellets are the New Oil for Regional Schools Reducing Fuel Costs posted on Feb 12
Did you know that it is possible to heat buildings in the northeast using wood biomass, a renewable energy fuel? With nearly one-third of total energy costs going toward heating our buildings, it is no wonder that Massachusetts school districts are searching for cheaper and …Continue Reading Wood Pellets are the New Oil for Regional Schools Reducing Fuel Costs


text:
Guest Post by Steve Saville
Gold vs. Silver During Precious Metals Bull Markets
It is widely believed that silver outperforms gold during bull markets for these metals, but that's only partially true. It's true that silver tends to achieve a greater percentage gain than gold from bull-market start to bull-market end. It's also the case that silver tends to do better during the final year of a cyclical bull market and during the late stages of the intermediate-term rallies that happen within cyclical bull markets. However, the early stages of gold-silver bull markets tend to be characterised by relative strength in gold. This is a point we've made in the past, including in TSI commentaries earlier this year, but warrants revisiting due to the recent price action.


text:
Off-Highway vehicles allowed on county roads starting Sunday
Updated: 12/01/2014 - A new ordinance allows off-highway vehicles to travel on county roads, even those that are paved and share the road with other cars.
Updated: 12/01/2014 - A new ordinance allows off-highway vehicles to travel on county roads, even those that are paved and share the road with other cars.
Posted: 11/30/2014 - The BLM is closing various area roads to protect wintering wildlife starting on December 1st.
Updated: 11/29/2014 - Duffy's Outdoor Power is bringing in the Christmas cheer this year with a model train show.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - The prime minister of Antigua & Barbuda has appointed actor Robert De Niro as special economic envoy of the twin-island nation in the eastern Caribbean.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Hit-and-run collisions between cars and bicyclists have increased 42 percent since 2002 in Los Angeles County despite an overall drop in hit-and-run accidents.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Bill Cosby is still performing at a suburban New York venue next weekend but the embattled comic is offering refunds to ticket holders who don't want to go.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Some black bears have taken shelter under a deck near the hot tubs outside a Steamboat Springs condominium complex, and property managers are worried they might try to hibernate there.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Researchers at Washington State University are working on a breath test to determine if a driver is under the influence of marijuana.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - President Barack Obama has done his part to support independently owned business as the holiday shopping season begins.
Updated: 11/29/2014 - The city of Montrose has another way for people to shop locally at small businesses.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Police and court records have been sealed for a second person who was once charged in the death of an Aspen woman.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - A convicted drug dealer linked to The French Connection heroin smuggling ring that spawned an Oscar-winning film of the same name is facing sentencing in another drug operation.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - They're not old enough to vote in an election, but they can now have a vote on New York City-appointed boards that take influential stands on neighborhood issues.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Analysts say Thanksgiving Day and online sales appear to have made Black Friday shopping a little tamer.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Utah education officials want to offer colleges more money to help students graduate faster.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - Police are investigating an explosion at a Commerce City housing complex believed to have been caused by the manufacturing of hash oil.
Posted: 11/29/2014 - After stores in the mall are mobbed on Black Friday, our nation encourages what's become known as "Small Business Saturday."
Updated: 11/28/2014 - Grand Junction Boy Scout Troop 303 opened their annual Christmas tree lot today.
Updated: 11/28/2014 - According to Calorie Control, the average person eats around 4,500 calories on Thanksgiving. Here are some tips for getting back in shape
Posted: 11/28/2014 - Viewers shared some of their Thanksgiving photos, full of friends and family.
Posted: 11/28/2014 - Best Buy's website is up and running again, after being down for more than an hour this morning with a message that read, "WE'RE SORRY."
Posted: 11/28/2014 - The United States is appealing a World Trade Organization decision that made it harder for U.S. consumers to know where meat in the grocery story came from.
Posted: 11/28/2014 - Colorado's new retail marijuana industry is joining the rush for holiday shopping dollars.
Updated: 11/28/2014 - Getting up before the sun and hitting retail stores for the big holiday savings is a tradition for millions of Americans, and here and Grand Junction it's no different. Thousands of shoppers were out around town looking for the best deals.
Updated: 11/28/2014 - Electronics are the hot item on black Friday, where people were lining up for their newest piece of technology for hours this morning.


text:
Things I like.......Family, friends, all kinds of music, movies, especially international and art house films, architecture, travel, all kinds of food, NPR, Scrabble, birding, the Chicago Bears, the Blackhawks, and alas, the Cubs.
Brenda really enjoys gardening, flowers, reading and some quilting.
My wife Brenda and I are especially proud of our grown up sons and one grandson. Brenda does Day Care in our home and I am a K-4 public school music teacher. We're both pretty quiet but love life and love to laugh!


text:
|Part of the series on
Igbo religion and spirituality
Divinities (Alusi)
Legendary creatures and concepts
Odinani (Igbo: ọ̀dị̀nànị̀, O-di-NAH-ni) comprises the traditional religious practices and cultural beliefs of the Igbo people.[1] Odinani is a monotheistic[2] and panentheistic faith, having a God. Although a pantheon of spirits exists, the lesser spirits prevalent in Odinani expressly serve as elements of Chineke (or Chukwu).[3] Chineke is a compound word encompassing the concept of chí the divine masculine force and (nà) ékè the creative and divisive feminine force. The concept of chúkwú, or 'supreme chi' was largely propagated by the Aro-Igbo of Arochukwu in eastern Igboland who wielded much spiritual force over the eastern Niger Delta in the 18th century due to their operating of the Ibini Ukpabi oracle.
Lesser spirits, known as ágbàrà and alusi are below the high god and are parts of the high god chi na ékè divided by gender in his mind. Ágbàrà is a divine force that manifests as separate spirits, a concept of 'the eye of sun or' (ányá ánwụ́) existed as a feminine solar deity that was part of solar veneration among the Nri-Igbo. The lesser spirits are mediated by dibia and other priests who do not contact the high god directly. Under this class of spirits are minor spirits know as mmúọ defined by their perceived malevolent or benign natures. Divination among the Igbo is know as áfà.
The number of people practicing igbo religion had decreased drastically in the 20th century with the influx of Christian missionaries under the auspices of the British colonial government of Nigeria. In some cases Igbo religion syncretised with Christianity, but in many cases indigenous rites were demonised by Christian missionaries who pointed out the practice of human sacrifice and some other cultural practices that were illegal under the colonial government. Earlier missionaries referred to many indigenous religious practices as juju. Igbo religion is most present today in harvest ceremonies such as new yam festival (ị́wá jí) and masquerading traditions such as mmanwu and Ejagham derived Ekpe.
Remnants of Igbo relgious rites spread among African descendats in the Caribbean and North America in era of the Atlantic slave trade. Igbo ọ́bị̀à was transferred to the British Caribbean and Guyana as obeah and aspects of Igbo masquerading traditions can be found among the festivals of the Garifuna people and jonkonnu of the British Caribbean and North Carolina.[4][5][6][7]
Odinani in northern Igbo dialects is the compound of the words ọ̀ dị̀ ('located') + n (nà, 'within') + ànị̀ (land or Ala earth goddess).[3] Other variants include omenala, omenana, and omenani in primarily in the southern Igbo dialects.[8] The word odinani and all its variations is also associated with the culture and customary laws of the Igbo people. Many of the laws and culture were counterparts with religion such as taboos and laws concerning sacred spaces like a deities sacred forest. Since customary law is recognised in Nigeria, many in Igbo society find themselves syncretising these beliefs with other beliefs and religions.
Odinala is a panentheistic faith with a strong central spiritual force at its head which all things are believed to spring from. Chukwu is the central deity. Chukwu as the creator of everything (visible and invisible) and the source of other deities is referred to as Chineke. Chukwu is genderless possessing the supreme power in the cosmos control. Chukwu is reached through various spiritual forces mainly under the spirit class of Alusi which are incarnations of the high god. If an Arushi is assigned to an individual, it becomes a chi, a personal guardian god. The chi manifests as mmuo, spirits, a persons earth bound spirit chooses sex, type, and lifespan before incarnation in the human world.[9]
Ofo and ogu is a law of retributive justice. Ofo and ogu vindicates people wrongly accused of crimes and can call its name in prayer. Those who are guilty are expected face the wrath of Amadioha.[10] Kola nut is used in ceremonies honour Chukwu, chi, Arushi and ancestors and is used as a method of professing innocence when coupled with libations. The Igbo often make clay altars and shrines of their deities which are sometimes anthropomorphic, the most popular example being the wooden statues of Ikenga. Typically, only men are allowed to make representational figures of supernatural forces.[11]
In Igbo cosmology, the world was divided into four corners by the high god corresponding to èké órìè (or óyè) àfọ̀ ǹkwọ́ which are the days of the week in the Igbo calendar regarded as market days.[12][13] In one Igbo cosmological theory reported by W.R.G. Morton in the 1950s from an elder in Ibagwa Nike in northern Igboland, Chukwu sees that the sun travels across the world in the day time which cuts into two in order for the moon to pass on a perpendicular route, so the world is divided into four parts and four days.[12] The quarterly division of the earth and the days makes the number four sacred (ńsọ́) to the Igbo.[12][14] The pattern of two and four reoccur in Chukwu's creations.[14] The days correspond to the four cardinal points and are its names in Igbo, èké east, órìè west àfọ̀ north, ǹkwọ́ south.[15] The Nri-Igbo claim the market days to have been introduced to the Igbo by their divine progenitor and king Eri in the 9th century after encountering them as deities.[16] These alusi are venerated as the primary or as a major deity under Chineke in parts of Igboland. In terms of hierarchy, some communities recognising èké as the head of these alusi, while others prioritise órìè and ǹkwọ́ first after the high god.[16] Market days may have local deities representing the spirits in some places, in many southern Igbo towns Agwu is the patron of Eke, Ogwugwu the patron of Orie, Amadioha the patron of Afo and Ala for Nkwo.[12] These days and spirits are the names of the caridnal position
Kola nut (ọ́jị̀, O-ji, or ọ́jị̀ Ìgbò) offerings and prayers (ị́gọ́ ọ́jị̀, I-go O-ji, 'kola nut blessing', ị́wá ọ́jị̀, 'kola nut breaking') can be performed personally between one and his spirit or in a group in a form of a prayer or chant. The saluter addresses their personal god or chi as well as alusi and their ancestors. These kola nuts are held in a special round bowl called ọ́kwá with a compartment at the centre of the bowl for condiments for the kola nut such as alligator pepper and ground peanuts. The bowl and kola nut rite is used to welcome visitors into a household.[17] After the prayer, the ceremony ends with the saluter sharing pieces of the kola with the group, known as ị́ké ọ́jị̀. The kola is supposed to cut by hand, but more recently knives have become acceptable. When the cola has three cotyledons, or parts, it is considered an ọ́jị̀ ìkéǹgà in some northen communities (going by other names in communities Ikenga doesn't operate) and is considered a sign of great luck, bravery and nobility. O wetalu oji wetalu ndu — 'one who brings kola brings life' is a popularise saying that points to the auspiciousness of the kola rite.[18]
Chi is the personal spiritual guardian of a person and determines destiny, conceived as ḿmúọ́, a spirit.[9] The overall chi indirectly in charge of everything (visible and invisible) is Chukwu, the supreme being, compounding the words chí + úkwú ('great in size, supreme'). Chi is believed to be a spiritual connection between an individual and the high god and the dictates aspects of a persons spiritual journey on Earth. The high god, Chukwu, is believed to assign chi before and at the time of an individuals birth. It is a guardian spirit providing care, guardianship, and providence, in this respect, the concept of chi is analogous to the concept of a guardian angel in Christianity, the daemon in ancient Greek religion, and the genius in ancient Roman religion. Unlike Chukwu who is genderless, chi can be either feminine or masculine. A dibia can identify a person's chi through divination (áfà) and advices adherents of ways to placate it.
Chukwu's incarnations in the world (Igbo: ụ̀wà) are the Alusi, supernatural forces that regulate human life. In southern Igbo dialects especially, ágbàrà is the term for these forces. The alusi, who are also known as arushi, anusi, or arusi in differing dialects all spring from Ala the earth spirit who embodies the workings of the world. There are lesser alusi in Odinani, each of whom are responsible for a specific aspect of nature or abstract concept. According to Igbo belief, these lesser alusi, as elements of Chukwu, have their own specific purpose.[19] Alusi manifest in natural elements and their shrines are usually found in forests in which they are based around specific trees. At shrines, íhú mmúọ́, an object such as a hung piece of cloth or a group of statues are placed at an alusi's group of trees to focus worship. Many of these shrines are by the roadside in rural areas. Tender palm fronds symbolise spiritual power and an are objects of sacralisation, shrines are cordoned off with omu to caution the public of the deities presence.[20] Larger clay modelings in honour of an alusi also exist around forests and rivers. Other alusi figures may be found in and around peoples homes and the shrines of dibia, much of these are related to personal chi, cults, and ancestral worship.
Ala (meaning 'earth' in Igbo, also àjáànà) is the feminine earth spirit who is also responsible for morality and fertility and the dead ancestors who are stored in the underworld in her womb. Ala is at the head of the Igbo pantheon, maintaining order and and carrying out justice against wrongdoers. She is the most prominent and worshipped alusi.[18] Ala is believed to be involved in all aspects of human affairs including festivals and at offerings. She is the ground itself, and for this reason taboos and crimes are known as nsọ ala ("desecration of Ala"). When an individual dies what is considered a 'bad death' in the society, such as from the effects of divine retributive justice or breaking a taboo, they are not buried in the earth, but are discarded in a forrest so as not to offend Ala. As in cases of most alusi, Ala has the ability to be malevolent if perceived to be offended and can cause harm against those who offend her.
|Mabri: Art as Process in Igboland by Herbert M. Cole, a description of mbari
Among a small area of the Urata-Igbo cultural area, near Owerri, there is a tradition of building votive monument houses called ḿbàrí primarily dedicated to the ágbàrà Àlà specific to the community and sometimes other community deities. The name joins the word ḿbà ('nation, town, society') + rí ('eat') in reference to the 'festival of life' held after its completion. These votive shrines are typically designed with four columns and a central volt, around the columns are modelled deities, spirits, and depictions of human life, the entire building built out of clay from termite mounds symbolically named jí ('yam') by the initiated spirit workers called ńdí m̀gbè. Ndi mgbe are secluded from the community for a couple of months during the rites of building the mbari to a deity. Mbari are requested by a deity who the diviner tells the community feels neglected and cannot feel pride in the face of other deities in the spirit world. A string of unusual and unfortunate events befalling the community is linked to the aggrieved deity. An mbari is commissioned and artists are chosen. After the completion of the mbari the spirit workers are reincorporated into the community and a feast is held for the opening of the mbari house where elders and the community come to exhibit the critique the expensive mbari. The mbari house is not a source of worship and is left to dilapidate, being reabsorbed by nature.[21][22]
Amadioha (from ámádí + ọ̀hà, 'free will of the people' in Igbo) is the Alusi of justice, thunder, lightning and the sky and is referred to as Amadioha in southern Igboland, Kamalu, Kamanu, Kalu among the Aro and other Cross River Igbo people, Igwe among the Isuama Igbo and in northwestern Igboland, and Ofufe in certain parts of Igboland.[23][24][25][26][27] His governing planet is the Sun.[28] His color is red, and his symbol is a white ram.[29] Metaphysically, Amadioha represents the collective will of the people and he is often associated with Anyanwu.[30] He the expression of divine justice and wrath against taboos and crimes, he is sworn by and strikes down those who swear falsely with thunder and lightening.[23] Amadioha shrines exist around Igboland, his main shrine is located at Ozuzu in the riverine Igbo region in northern Rivers State. While Anyanwu is more prominent in northern Igboland, Amadioha is more prominent in the south. His day is Afo, which is the second market day.[31]
Ikenga (literally meaning "place of strength") is an alusi and a cult figure of the right hand and success found among the northern Igbo people. He is an icon of meditation exclusive to men and onwers of the sculpture refer to it as their 'right hand'.[32] Ikenga is a source of encoded knowledge unraveled through psychological principles. Ikenga figures are common cultural artefacts ranging for six inches to 6 feet high and can be humanistic or highly stylised.[9][32] There are anthropomorphic, architectonic, and abstract cylindrical Ikenga sculptures.[9] Ikenga is a symbol of success and personal achievement.[9] Ikenga is mostly maintained, kept or owned by men and occasionally by women of high reputation and integrity in the society. It comprises someone's chi (personal god), his ndichie (ancestors), aka Ikenga (right hand), ike (power) as well as spiritual activation through prayer and sacrifice.[33] Igbo cultures value of resourcefulness and individualism in society utilises the concept of Ikenga to regulate the relationship between individuality and family relations and obligations, as well as free will and industriousness balanced with destiny decided persons chi. Ikenga acts as a physical medium to the consciousness and emphasises individual initiative through reflection and meditation.[9] Success validates the Ikenga and the sculptures act as visual representation of a persons inner success, people give offerings in thanks to the Ikenga after providing energy to overcome any unwanted pre-life choices.[9] These choices are at the hands of the persons earth bound spirit, mmuo, who chooses sex, type, and lifespan before incarnation.[9] The successful Ikenga influenced the saying of well being 'íkéǹgàm kwụ̀ ọ̀tọ́ ta ta' meaning that 'my Ikenga stands upright today'.[32] During festivals of Ogbalido or olili Ikenga ('feast of Ikenga') sculptures of him may be paraded around a village or displayed at the village centre if too monumental to transport.[9] When a person does not become successful with hard work the Ikenga has 'fallen' and is seen as a sign of danger, if meditation and cajoling the Ikenga fails, the sculpture is 'thrown down' and broken which spiritually kills the Ikenga; a new one is carved to replace it.[9] At burials, a mans Ikenga is broken into two with one piece buried with him and the other destroyed.[9][32]
This Alusi was adept at bargains and trade, and praying to Ekwensu was said to guarantee victory in negotiations. As a force of change and chaos, Ekwensu also represented the spirit of war among the Igbo, invoked during times of conflict and banished during peacetime to avoid his influences inciting bloodshed in the community.. He was invoked during times of conflict and banished during peacetime to avoid his influences inciting bloodshed in the community. This is based upon the finding of old shrines dedicated to the worship of the spirit[34] as well as the recounting of old oral stories which depict the character of Ekwensu.[35] Among the Christian Igbo Ekwensu is representative of Satan and is seen as a force which places itself opposite to that of Chukwu.[36]
Other forces[edit]
An ogbanje was believed to be an evil spirit that would deliberately plague a family with misfortune. In folklore, the ogbanje upon being born by the mother, under a certain amount of time (usually before puberty), would deliberately die and then come back and repeat the cycle, causing the family grief. Female circumcision was sometimes thought to get rid of the evil spirit, whereas finding the evil spirits Iyi-uwa, which they have dug somewhere secret, would ensure the ogbanje would never plague the family with misfortune again. The Iyi-uwa was the ogbanje's way of coming back to the world and also a way of finding its targeted family.[37]
Dibia are the mystic mediators between the human world and the spirit world and act as healers, scribes, teachers, diviners and advisors of people in the community. They are usually consulted at the shrine of a communities major deity. Dibia is a compound of the words di ('professional, master, husband') + ọ́bị̀à ('doctoring, sciences').[7] The dibia are believed to be destined for spiritual work. The dibia sees the spiritual world at any time and interprets what messages being sent and sees the spiritual problems of living people. They are given the power by the spirit world to identify any alusi by name and the possible ways of placating and negotiating with the deity. Dibia are thought to be revealed to posses the power over one of three elements namely water (and large bodies of water), fire and vegetation. Dibia whose elements are vegetation can go on to become herbalists by their supposed instinctual knowledge of the health benefits of certain plants they are instinctually drawn to, fire element dibia can handle fire unscathed during their initiation, and water element dibia do not drown. Dibia can partially enter the spirit world and communicate this by rubbing chalk on one half of their face.[18] Dibia and obia practices were transported to the British Caribbean during the slave trade and became known as obeah.
Ancestral veneration[edit]
Ndebunze, or Ndichie, are the deceased ancestors who are considered to be in the spirit word, àlà mmúọ́. In Odinani, it is believed that the dead ancestors are invisible members of the community; their role in the community, in conjunction with Ala, is to protect the community from epidemics and strife such as famine and smallpox.[19] Shrines for the ancestors in Igbo society were made in the central house, or òbí or òbú, of the patriarch of a housing compound. The patriarchal head of the household is in charge of venerating the patriarchal ancestors through libations and offerings, through this the living maintain contact with the dead. Only a patriarch whose father is dead, and therefore in the spirit world where they await reincarnation into the community, were able to venerate ancestors.[38][39] Female ancestors were called upon by matriarchs. At the funeral of a mans father there is a hierarchy in Igbo culture of animals that will be killed and eaten in his honor. Usually this depended on the rarity and price of the animal, so a goat or a sheep were common and reltively cheaper, and therefore carried less prestige, while a cow is considered a great honor, and a horse the most exceptional. Horses cannot be given for women.[40] Horses were more common among the North eastern Igbo due to tsetse fly zone that Igboland is situated in and renders it an unsuitable climate for horses.[41][42] Horse heads are traditionally decorated and kept in a reliquary and at shrines.
A number of major masking institutions exist around Igboland that honour ancestors and reflect the spirit world in the land of the living. Young women, for example, are incarnated in the society through the àgbọ́ghọ̀ mmúọ́ masking tradition in which mean represent ideal and benevolent spirits of maidens of the spirit world in the form of feminine masks. These masks are performed at festivals at agricultural cycles and at funerals of prominent individuals in the society.[43]
See also[edit]
- ^ Afulezy, Uju "On Odinani, the Igbo Religion", Niger Delta Congress, Nigeria, April 03, 2010
- ^ Ikenga International Journal of African Studies. Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria. 1972. p. 103. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ a b M. O. Ené "The fundamentals of Odinani", KWENU: Our Culture, Our Future, April 03, 2010.
- ^ Obeah. Merriam Webster. Retrieved 2010-06-03.
- ^ Chambers, Douglas B. (2009). Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia. Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp. 14, 36. ISBN 1-60473-246-6.
- ^ Rucker, Walter C. (2006). The river flows on: Black resistance, culture, and identity formation in early America. LSU Press. p. 40. ISBN 0-8071-3109-1.
- ^ a b Eltis, David; Richardson, David (1997). Routes to slavery: direction, ethnicity, and mortality in the transatlantic slave trade. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 0-7146-4820-5.
- ^ Okwunodu Ogbechie, Sylvester: Ben Enwonwu: the making of an African modernist, page 161. University Rochester Press, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Wiredu, Kwesi (2008). A Companion to African Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 420. ISBN 0470997370.
- ^ Ofo: Igbo Ritual Symbol by Christopher I. Ejizu
- ^ T. Phillips (ed.) "Ceramic altar for the new yam harvest festival", BritishMuseum.org, London, April 03, 2010
- ^ a b c d Ụkaegbu, Jọn Ọfọegbu (1991). "Igbo Identity and Personality Vis-à-vis Igbo Cultural Symbols". Pontifical University of Salamanca. p. 60.
- ^ Anyahuru, Israel; Ohiaraumunna, Tom (2009). Musical Sense and Musical Meaning: An Indigenous African Perception. Rozenberg Publishers. p. 56.
- ^ a b Morton, W. R. G. (1956). "God, man and the land in a Northern Ibo village-group". African Abstracts (International African Institute) 7–9: 15.
- ^ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 247. ISBN 0-521-45599-5.
- ^ a b Chigere, Nkem Hyginus M. V. (2001). Foreign Missionary Background and Indigenous Evangelization in Igboland. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 20. ISBN 3825849643.
- ^ Idigo, Anthony Chike (2002). Oji: cola acuminata-Oji Igbo : the cornerstone of Igbo traditional ceremonies. Snaap Press. p. 26. ISBN 9780491732.
- ^ a b c Udoye, Edwin Anaegboka (2011). Resolving the Prevailing Conflicts Between Christianity and African (Igbo) Traditional Religion Through Inculturation. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 142. ISBN 364390116X.
- ^ a b Ilogu, Edmund (1974). Christianity and Ibo culture. Brill. pp. 34–36. ISBN 90-04-04021-8.
- ^ Olupona, Jacob K.; Nyang, Sulayman S.; Kalu, Ogbu U. (1993). "Religion and social control in Igboland". Religious Plurality in Africa: Essays in Honour of John S. Mbiti. Walter de Gruyter. p. 118. ISBN 3110850079.
- ^ Cole, Herbert M. (1982). Mbari: Art and the Life Among the Owerri Igbo. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253303974.
- ^ Cole, Herbert M. "Mabri: Art as Process in Igboland". University of Iowa Museum of Art. Retrieved 2015-03-28.
- ^ a b Onunwa, Udobata R. A Handbook of African Religion and Culture. Dorrance Publishing. p. 18 year=2010. ISBN 1434953963.
- ^ Jones, G. I. (2000). The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria. James Currey Publishers. p. 28. ISBN 0852559186.
- ^ McCall, John. Dancing Histories: Heuristic Ethnography with the Ohafia Igbo. Page 123
- ^ Oriji, John. Sacred Authority in Igbo Society. Page 115
- ^ Diala, Isidore. Ritual and Mythological Recuperation in the Drama of Esiaba Irobi. Page 101
- ^ Uchendu, Victor C. The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria. Page 96
- ^ Diala, Isidore. Ritual and Mythological Recuperation in the Drama of Esiaba Irobi. Page 104
- ^ Iwu, Maurice. Handbook of African medicinal plants. Page 320.
- ^ Patrick, Iroegbu. Igbo-Okija Oracles and Shrines, Development and Cultural Justice
- ^ a b c d Basden, G. T. (2013). Among the Ibos of Nigeria: 1912. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 1136248498.
- ^ Okere first=Rose. "Ikenga In Traditional Igbo Society". Ngrguardiannews.com.
- ^ Agozino, Emmanuel. 'Ekwensu:God of victory not devil', Nigerian Compass, Nsukka, April 03, 2010
- ^ "Ancient Igbo", AfriSacredStar, April 03, 2010
- ^ A.I. Bewaji, John. "OLODUMARE: GOD IN YORUBA BELIEF AND THE THEISTIC PROBLEM OF EVIL.", University of Florida, Gainesville, April 03, 2010
- ^ Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
- ^ Njoku, Akuma-Kalu; Uzukwu, Elochukwu (2014). Interface Between Igbo Theology and Christianity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 184. ISBN 144387034X.
- ^ Gomez, Michael Angelo (1998). Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South. University of North Carolina Press. p. 129. ISBN 0807846945.
- ^ Ottenberg, Simon (2006), Toyin Falola, ed., Igbo Religion, Social Life, and Other Essays, Africa World Press, p. 348, ISBN 1592214436
- ^ Spinage, Clive (2012). African Ecology: Benchmarks and Historical Perspectives. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 932. ISBN 3642228712.
- ^ Williams, Ian (2005). Riding in Africa. Ian Williams. p. 30. ISBN 0595373011.
- ^ Werness, Hope B. (2003). Continuum Encyclopedia of Native Art: Worldview, Symbolism, and Culture in Africa, Oceania, and North America. A&C Black. p. 145. ISBN 0826414656.
External links[edit]
- The Fundamentals of Odinani
- On Odinani the Igbo Religion
- Religion and the Igbo People
- An insight guide to Igboland's Culture, Religion and Language
- Photographs of Igbo masquerades
- Ohafia Igbo culture


text:
Just inOn salePlus size
- Under $50
- $50-100
- $100-250
- $250-500
- $500-1,000
- Over $1,000
- Fashion
- Shoes
K. Jacques
- K. Jacques
- K. Jacques St. Tropez Parys Gladiator SandalsNavy suede sandals featuring a side buckle closure and multiple straps across the vamp. Leather sole Flat heel Leather
- K Jacques St Tropez Metallic leather sandals$315 net-a-porter.comHeel measures approximately 10mm/ 0.5 inch. Soft pinks and metallics remain in the style spotlight this season, so tap both trends with K Jacques St Tropez's sandals. Crafted from soft leather, this multi-strap style have a supportive ankle strap.