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A process for producing a single crystal silicon wafer comprising a front surface, a back surface, a lateral surface joining the front and back surfaces, a central axis perpendicular to the front and back surfaces, and a segment which is axially symmetric about the central axis extending substantially from the front surface to the back surface in which crystal lattice vacancies are the predominant intrinsic point defect, the segment having a radial width of at least about 25% of the radius and containing agglomerated vacancy defects and a residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancies wherein (i) the agglomerated vacancy defects have a radius of less than about 70 nm and (ii) the residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancy intrinsic point defects is less than the threshold concentration at which uncontrolled oxygen precipitation occurs upon subjecting the wafer to an oxygen precipitation heat treatment.
1. A process for growing a single crystal silicon ingot in which the ingot comprises a central axis, a seed-cone, a tail end, and a constant diameter portion between the seed-cone and the tail end having a lateral surface and a radius extending from the central axis to the lateral surface, the ingot being grown from a silicon melt and then cooled from the solidification temperature in accordance with the Czochralski method, the process comprising:
controlling a growth velocity, v, and an average axial temperature gradient, G0, during the growth of the constant diameter portion of the crystal to form a segment which is axially symmetric about the central axis in which crystal lattice vacancies are the predominant intrinsic point defect, the segment having a radial width of at least about 25% of the radius; and,
cooling the ingot to form in the axially symmetric segment agglomerated vacancy defects and a residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancy intrinsic point defects, wherein the agglomerated vacancy defects have an average radius of less than about 70 nm and an average void density of greater than 1�107 cm−3, and the concentration of residual crystal lattice vacancy intrinsic point defects is less than the threshold concentration at which uncontrolled oxygen precipitation occurs upon subjecting the cooled segment to an oxygen precipitation heat treatment.
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16. A method of evaluating gate oxide integrity of a population of single crystal silicon wafers, the method comprising (i) determining the dielectric breakdown characteristics of a first subset of said population as a function of the amount of stress applied to the first subset wherein the amount of stress is increased at a first rate from an initial value to a final value, (ii) determining the dielectric breakdown characteristics of a second subset of said population as a function of the amount of stress applied to the second subset wherein the amount of stress is increased at a second rate from an initial value to a final value and the second rate is different from the first rate, and (iii) using the dielectric breakdown characteristics determined in steps (i) and (ii) to predict the gate oxide failure rate under a defined set of conditions for the population.
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This is a division of application Ser. No. 10/039,196, filed Jan. 2, 2002 U.S. Pat. No. 6,986,925, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/259,362, filed Jan. 2, 2001, both of which are incorporated in their entirety herein by reference.
In general, the present invention relates to the preparation of a single crystal silicon ingot according to the Czochralski method. In particular, the invention relates to a high throughput process for preparing single crystal silicon wafers having improved gate oxide integrity, wherein the growth conditions of a single crystal silicon ingot, from which the wafers are derived, are controlled. More specifically, the growth conditions of a single crystal silicon ingot, including the growth velocity, the average axial temperature gradient and the cooling rate, are controlled in order to limit the size, and in some cases the density, of vacancy-related agglomerated defects, and optionally the residual vacancy concentration, in single crystal silicon wafers derived therefrom. Additionally, the present invention relates to a more accurate and reliable method by which to evaluate the gate oxide integrity of such wafers.
Single crystal silicon, which is the starting material in most processes for the fabrication of semiconductor electronic components, is commonly prepared by the so-called Czochralski (�Cz�) method. In this method, polycrystalline silicon (�polysilicon�) is charged to a crucible and melted, a seed crystal is brought into contact with the molten silicon, and then a single crystal is grown by slow extraction. After formation of a neck is complete, the diameter of the crystal is enlarged by, for example, decreasing the pulling rate and/or the melt temperature until the desired or target diameter is reached. The cylindrical main body of the crystal which has an approximately constant diameter is then grown by controlling the pull rate and the melt temperature while compensating for the decreasing melt level. Near the end of the growth process but before the crucible is emptied of molten silicon, the crystal diameter is typically reduced gradually to form a tail end in the form of an end-cone. The end-cone usually is formed by increasing the crystal pull rate and heat supplied to the crucible. When the diameter becomes small enough, the crystal is then separated from the melt.
In recent years, it has been recognized that a number of defects in single crystal silicon form in the growth chamber as the ingot cools from the temperature of solidification. More specifically, as the ingot cools intrinsic point defects, such as crystal lattice vacancies or silicon self-interstitials, remain soluble in the silicon lattice until some threshold temperature is reached, below which the given concentration of intrinsic point defects becomes critically supersaturated. Upon cooling to below this threshold temperature, a reaction or agglomeration event occurs, resulting in the formation of agglomerated intrinsic point defects.
The type and initial concentration of these intrinsic point defects in the silicon are determined as the ingot cools from the temperature of solidification (i.e., about 1410� C.) to a temperature greater than about 1300� C. (i.e., about 1325� C., 1350� C. or more); that is, the type and initial concentration of these defects are controlled by the ratio v/G0, where v is the growth velocity and G0 is the average axial temperature gradient over this temperature range. In general, a transition from self-interstitial dominated growth to vacancy dominated growth occurs near a critical value of v/G0 which, based upon currently available information, appears to be about 2.1�10−5 cm2/sK, where G0 is determined under conditions in which the axial temperature gradient is constant within the temperature range defined above. Accordingly, process conditions, such as growth rate (which affect v), as well as hot zone configurations (which affect G0), can be controlled to determine whether the intrinsic point defects within the silicon single crystal will be predominantly vacancies (where v/G0 is generally greater than the critical value) or self-interstitials (where v/G0 is generally less than the critical value).
Defects associated with the agglomeration of crystal lattice vacancies, or vacancy intrinsic point defects, include such observable crystal defects as D-defects, Flow Pattern Defects (FPDs), Gate Oxide Integrity (GOI) Defects, Crystal Originated Particle (COP) Defects, and crystal originated Light Point Defects (LPDs), as well as certain classes of bulk defects observed by infrared light scattering techniques (such as Scanning Infrared Microscopy and Laser Scanning Tomography). Also present in regions of excess vacancies are defects which act as the nuclei for the formation of oxidation induced stacking faults (OISF). It is speculated that this particular defect is a high temperature nucleated oxygen precipitate catalyzed by the presence of excess vacancies.
Agglomerated defect formation generally occurs in two steps; first, defect �nucleation� occurs, which is the result of the intrinsic point defects, such as vacancies, being supersaturated at a given temperature. Once this �nucleation threshold� temperature is reached, intrinsic point defects, such as vacancies, start to agglomerate (i.e., void formation begins). The intrinsic point defects will continue to diffuse through the silicon lattice as long as the temperature of the portion of the ingot in which they are present remains above a second threshold temperature (i.e., a �diffusivity threshold�), below which intrinsic point defects are no longer mobile within commercially practical periods of time. While the ingot remains above this temperature, vacancy intrinsic point defects, for example, diffuse through the crystal lattice to sites where agglomerated vacancy defects, or voids, are already present, effectively causing a given agglomerated defect to grow in size. This is because these agglomerated defect sites essentially act as �sinks,� attracting and collecting vacancy intrinsic point defects because of the more favorable energy state of the agglomeration. Accordingly, the formation and size of such agglomerated defects are dependent upon the growth conditions, including v/G0 (which impacts the initial concentration of such point defects) and the cooling rate or residence time of the main body of the ingot over the range of temperatures bound by the �nucleation threshold� at the upper end and the �diffusivity threshold� (which impacts the size and density of such defects) at the lower end.
Maximizing throughput is a primary concern in the cost-effective production of single crystal silicon wafers. As a result, growing single crystal silicon ingots at the highest possible growth rates is the goal for all silicon manufacturers. However, until now, there has generally been no clear way to produce single crystal silicon of an acceptable quality using such growth conditions. For example, high pull rates/cooling rates typically mean a high vacancy concentration, which leads to a high concentration of small, agglomerated defects. Such conditions are favorable, for example, with respect to light point defects (LPDs) because integrated circuit manufacturers typically require that the number of such defects in excess of about 0.2 microns in size not exceed about 20 for a 200 mm diameter wafer. However, such conditions are also unfavorable because they have traditionally been considered to yield wafers having poor gate oxide integrity. In contrast, when slower pull rates/cooling rates are employed as a means by which to improve GOI (slow cooling typically resulting in a few, very large agglomerated vacancy defects being formed), the resulting size of LPDs is unacceptable.
An additional area of concern, with respect to high pull rates/cooling rates, is the residual vacancy concentration. More specifically, high pull rates typically lead to high vacancy concentrations in the silicon that is formed, and well as high cooling rates. High cooling rates, in turn, typically lead to a high residual vacancy concentration (i.e., the concentration of silicon lattice vacancies present in the silicon, once it has cooled to a temperature at which vacancies are essentially no longer mobile). High residual vacancy concentrations are problematic because, upon subsequent heating, they can lead to uncontrolled oxygen precipitation.
Accordingly, a need continues to exist for a method by which single crystal silicon ingots may be grown by the Czochralski process under conditions which maximize not only throughput, but also the yield of the silicon wafers obtained therefrom. Such a process would optimize growth conditions such that the fastest possible pull rate of a given crystal puller could be employed, in view of the need to limit the size, and in some cases the density, of agglomerated vacancy defects, as well as the residual vacancy concentration.
Among the several features of the present invention therefore is the provision of a single crystal silicon ingot, from which a single crystal silicon wafer may be obtained, having improved gate oxide integrity, and a process for the preparation thereof; the provision of such a process wherein the highest possible pull rates, for a given crystal puller, can be employed, thus maximizing throughput and yield; the provision of such a process wherein growth conditions are controlled to limit the size of agglomerated vacancy defects formed; the provision of such a process wherein the density of agglomerated vacancy defects is controlled; and, the provision of such a process wherein the residual vacancy concentration is limited to avoid uncontrolled oxygen precipitation.
Briefly, therefore, the present invention is directed to a process for growing a single crystal silicon ingot in which the ingot comprises a central axis, a seed-cone, a tail end, and a constant diameter portion between the seed-cone and the tail end having a lateral surface and a radius extending from the central axis to the lateral surface, the ingot being grown from a silicon melt and then cooled from the solidification temperature in accordance with the Czochralski method. The process comprises: (i) controlling a growth velocity, v, and an average axial temperature gradient, G0, during the growth of the constant diameter portion of the crystal to form a segment which is axially symmetric about the central axis in which crystal lattice vacancies are the predominant intrinsic point defect, the segment having a radial width of at least about 25% of the radius; and, (ii) cooling the ingot to form in the axially symmetric segment agglomerated vacancy defects and a residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancy intrinsic point defects, wherein the agglomerated vacancy defects have an average radius of less than about 70 nm and the concentration of residual crystal lattice vacancy intrinsic point defects is less than the threshold concentration at which uncontrolled oxygen precipitation occurs upon subjecting the cooled segment to an oxygen precipitation heat treatment.
The present invention is further direct to a single crystal silicon wafer comprising a front surface, a back surface, a lateral surface joining the front and back surfaces, a central axis perpendicular to the front and back surfaces, and a segment which is axially symmetric about the central axis extending substantially from the front surface to the back surface in which crystal lattice vacancies are the predominant intrinsic point defect, the segment having a radial width of at least about 25% of the radius and containing agglomerated vacancy defects and a residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancies, wherein (i) the agglomerated vacancy defects have an average radius of less than about 70 nm, and (ii) the residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancy intrinsic point defects is less than the threshold concentration at which uncontrolled oxygen precipitation occurs upon subjecting the wafer to an oxygen precipitation heat treatment.
The present invention is still further direct to a single crystal silicon wafer comprising a front surface, a back surface, a lateral surface joining the front and back surfaces, a central axis perpendicular to the front and back surfaces, and a segment which is axially symmetric about the central axis extending substantially from the front surface to the back surface in which crystal lattice vacancies are the predominant intrinsic point defect, the segment having a radial width of at least about 25% of the radius and containing agglomerated vacancy defects and a residual concentration of crystal lattice vacancies, wherein (i) the agglomerated vacancy defects have an average radius of less than about 70 nm, and (ii) upon being subjected to a rapid thermal anneal, wherein the wafer is rapidly heated to a temperature of about 1200� C. in the essential absence of oxygen and then cooled, and then subjected to an oxygen precipitation heat treatment, consisting essentially of annealing said wafer at 800� C. for about 4 hours and then at about 1000� C. for about 16 hours, the concentration of oxygen precipitates formed will be less than about 1�108 cm−3.
The present invention is further direct to a method of evaluating gate oxide integrity of a population of single crystal silicon wafers. The method comprises (i) determining the dielectric breakdown characteristics of a first subset of said population as a function of the amount of stress applied to the first subset wherein the amount of stress is increased at a first rate from an initial value to a final value, (ii) determining the dielectric breakdown characteristics of a second subset of said population as a function of the amount of stress applied to the second subset wherein the amount of stress is increased at a second rate from an initial value to a final value and the second rate is different from the first rate, and (iii) using the dielectric breakdown characteristics determined in steps (i) and (ii) to predict the gate oxide failure rate at a given electric field for the population.
Other objects and features of the present invention will be in part apparent and in part pointed out hereinafter.
Based upon experimental evidence to-date, it appears that presently accepted practices for determining gate oxide integrity in single crystal silicon wafers are inaccurate and, as a result, lead to the disposal and therefore waste of wafers which would otherwise be acceptable for use. More specifically, gate oxide integrity requirements are typically presented in terms of a percent failure at a given electrical field, a field which is substantially greater than the field at which the integrated circuit will be operated (e.g., 2�, 3�, 4�, etc. the operating field). As further explained below, such tests can and, it is now believed, do result in the rejection of material which is acceptable for use. This waste is primarily the result of a test which erroneously leads to the conclusion that a few, large agglomerated defects in a given wafer are preferable to a number of, in comparison, relatively small defects.
Accordingly, the present invention enables more wafers to be obtained from a given single crystal silicon ingot by engineering void size, in some cases irrespective of density, by controlling growth conditions (including growth velocity, v, and the average axial temperature gradient, G0, as defined herein), as well as the cooling rate of the ingot within certain temperature ranges during the growth process, in order to meet well-defined failure distribution requirements (i.e., GOI requirements) in both field and time. Additionally, the cooling rate may be controlled to avoid residual vacancy concentrations which are so high that a massive catalysis of subsequent oxygen clustering reactions occurs. Avoiding such reactions is preferred because such vacancy-catalyzed oxygen clusters can and usually do grow large enough in the crystal growth process that they cannot be eliminated by subsequent thermal treatments (such as, for example, the processes described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,761 and PCT/US99/19301, both of which are incorporated herein by reference). As a result, oxygen precipitation performance of such wafers runs out of control, preventing the formation of a denuded zone under ordinary conditions; that is, if the residual vacancy concentration is too high, a wafer subjected to the thermal processes described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,761 and PCT/US99/19301 would not yield the desired result.
Gate Oxide Integrity Determination
Referring now to
Dielectric Breakdown and Material Reliability�Void-Related Dielectric Breakdown:
Referring now to
The effect of the voids in the dielectric breakdown test is to create a peak of breakdown events in the mid-field range. Additionally, there is a second class of defects, denoted by a second peak, beyond the void-related failure peak, which is responsible for the distribution of breakdown events at higher fields. It is this second class, or mode, of breakdown which completes the breakdown process for all devices. This mode is found to be common for essentially all types of material, including defect-free material (e.g., epitaxial silicon), and is due to an effect unrelated to voids. Accordingly, this is generally not a practically important material characteristic for the present invention and therefore will not be discussed further; that is, for purposes of the present invention, we are concerned solely with the first peak.
The presence of this first peak implies that void-related breakdown is a finite effect. The simple reason for this is that there is a limited number of countable voids in any given sample. By the time the electric field reaches values higher than that of the end of second peak, all of the voids in the system have been �turned on;� that is, all of the voids have been transformed from a real physical �defect� (i.e., a void) into an observable electrical defect (i.e., a breakdown site). The integral of electrically detected defects under the peak is equal to the total number of physical voids intersecting the interface.
The reason for this distribution in field of electrical faults resulting from voids (i.e., the width of the peak) is believed to be a combination of scatter in actual void size and, more importantly, scatter in the cross-section of the void-interface intersection resulting from both the size and spatial distribution of the voids. It will be seen that the shape of the peak of the material of the present invention (in addition to simply the average value) is a significant parameter in material reliability.
Breakdown Requirements and Material Screening:
Semiconductor device manufacturers are generally concerned with two questions: (i) what is the yield of devices, and (ii) what is the reliability of the devices over time; in other words, device manufacturers are concerned with how many defective pieces are found in short tests of operation (i.e., �yield�), and how many defective pieces will subsequently develop over the life of a device (i.e., �reliability�). These questions require further clarification; for instance, one must consider what are the operating conditions of the device and what are the allowed levels of defectiveness as a function of time. Initially, if some generally standard answers to these questions are assumed, the operating field would be about 2.5 MV/cm (for 20 nm oxide and 5V Vdd) and a single bit fail would result in a defective chip. After yield screening, it is the reliability requirements that are important. For example, in stringent automotive applications, it is typically required that the failure rate be less than 1 ppm fail in 10 years.
Data such as that shown in
In reality, however, one hundred percent of the void-containing and void-free material will not be free of defects. In an attempt to deal with yield and reliability, therefore, semiconductor device manufacturers have subjected the manufactured semiconductor devices, e.g., capacitors, to fields which are significantly greater than the operating field. This approach, sometimes referred to the �burn-in� test, is a standard part of integrated circuit testing. It is only under such tests that failure due to voids is seen and becomes important. Referring again to
One of the limitations of the burn-in test is that is carried out on the finished semiconductor devices. It cannot, therefore, be used to identify silicon wafers which have a high-probability of yielding semiconductor devices which, if used in a semiconductor device manufacturing process, would produce semiconductor devices having a high incidence of burn-in failure. In an effort to pre-screen silicon wafers for this purpose, semiconductor device manufacturers have subjected silicon wafers to various gate oxide integrity tests, such as ramped field tests (e.g., �BVOX�, wherein the percent pass might be 20%, 70%, etc. up to a given field, such as 8 mV) or the �QBD� test. In principle, however, these tests are equivalent to the �burn-in� test in the sense that the wafers are subjected to an electric field which is arbitrarily selected.
The issue is thus one of correlating the �burn-in� field or equivalent test to the performance specification. Stated another way, the field which actually and effectively identifies, and thus screens, those devices that would fail in the required lifetime of the device, down to the level of the specification (e.g., 1 ppm), without unnecessarily throwing away those devices that would actually have survived must be determined. To determine this, one needs to have reliable information about the time-dependence of the failure mechanism resulting from the particular class of defect for which one is screening. This information then needs to be coupled to the specific field dependence of the distribution with which one is dealing. Until now, this has not been done; rather, only standard, �rule of thumb� approaches have been used to-date. As a result, it can be concluded that: (i) the burn-in field is a largely arbitrarily chosen stress level which, it is hoped, will successfully screen devices in order to reduce the failure rate of devices sold by the integrated circuit manufactures to acceptable levels; and, (ii) the BVOX requirement is based on an equally arbitrarily chosen field (a field larger than the burn-in field), in which the hope is that this screening will produce an acceptable level of success (i.e., yield) through the burn-in test. The problem gets compounded even more when these already arbitrary conditions are then applied to arbitrarily different circumstances, such as different oxide thicknesses.
Applying these standard tests, if the results of �normal� void-containing material are compared to what is conventionally considered to be an �improved� material (i.e., lower void density, slow cooled material), the slow-cooled material appears to be superior. For example,
In view of
The �yield� of slow cooled material is generally better than standard material, based on the assumption that the device under consideration is statistically sensitive at all to the problem (which is a question of the relationship of total gate area and effective defect density; i.e., the �window� problem described herein). Additionally, the material which is essentially free of such agglomerated defects (e.g., epitaxial silicon, or alternatively �low defect density silicon,� as described in PCT/US98/07365 and PCT/US98/07304 which are incorporated herein by reference) is generally better than them both. However, such a conclusion is based entirely upon the field chosen for the test to define the yield which, as noted above, has been selected somewhat arbitrarily to-date. For example, in the present case, if the field is changed from 8 to 4 MV/cm, then all three types of silicon appear to be acceptable. Additionally, at a slightly larger field, the performances of the slow cooled and standard materials are actually reversed. All of this leads one to question just what is actually the best way to define material quality.
Breakdown Statistics:
To resolve this issue, and ultimately determine the best way to evaluate the silicon material for performance, statistical methods have been employed here. The purpose of such an approach is to predict the time dependence of device failure in a system with a given set of defects at a given stress level, and then to assess the effectiveness of the �screening� of the device distribution by a particular burn-in procedure. The stress level of interest is the operating field (e.g., 2.5 mV/cm) and the failure requirements are for extremely low failure rates over very long times (e.g., failure of 1 ppm/10 years). Clearly, a coherent method is needed to extrapolate data which can be taken in a convenient and cost effective way, and this involves the application of statistics.
The first basic assumption is that defects are randomly distributed. Thus, Poisson statistics are employed. �Yield� is simply the probability of not finding a defect in a group of samples. These defects have a density D and the samples (i.e., capacitors) have an individual area A. The yield is given by equation (1):
The cause of the electrical defects of interest are voids that intersect the wafer surface. They have an area density approximately equal to their volume density, ρ, times their average diameter, d. Since the oxide thicknesses of interest are generally small, ranging for example from a few nanometers (e.g., 2, 4, 6, etc.) to a few tens of nanometers (e.g., 10, 20, 30, etc.), compared to the amount of silicon consumed during the oxidation process, it is believed to be reasonable to ignore this small correction here.
It is important to keep in mind that dielectric breakdown tests do not detect voids, rather they detect oxide failures. The only physical or potential defect density is ρd. This is not equal to D in the above expression; rather, D is the electrical defect density which is something different from the void density. A physical defect only becomes an electrical defect when it is �turned-on� by electrical stress. In order to describe and utilize data from electrical stress tests, an approximate mathematical form is needed for this conversion from physical defect to electrical defect.
Constant Field or Current Stress:
There are two main stress variables for the case of dielectric breakdown: electric field (or current) and time. The Weibull approach to this statistical problem assumes a simple power law relation for whatever variable is under test, which usually means just time. However, our case is slightly more complicated than the usual case, in that it is a two-parameter distribution and combines two different power laws for each variable. In this regard, it is to be noted that the Weibull distribution makes no claim to describing or modeling any physical mechanism; rather, it is just a statistical method and a simple, useful and powerful way of dealing with complex data.
To begin then, first consider the simplest kind of applied stress, that of constant field stress E. For this case, the Weibull description of the increase of effective defect density with time is shown in equations (2) and (3):
Once determined, these parameters give a complete description of the rates of failure in a system at arbitrary fields and times. It is, however, only valid for a single type of distributed defect. If there is more than one type of defect present, as is almost always the case, then the parameter set for this distribution is determined independently and then added to the other distribution. In addition to voids, there is a second, higher field class of defect activated by the electrical stress. Fortunately, this class may be clearly separated from the void part of the distribution and analyzed separately.
The parameter set: C, a and b give a kind of �fingerprint� for particular distributions of defects. An example of a typical case is shown schematically in
An example of a real and rather typical time dependent response for a void-dominated system is shown in
The problem with conventional test procedures described above is two-fold. First, they are extremely time consuming and, second, they offer a very narrow range of field investigation. Even at mid-range fields, such tests can require weeks. Since extrapolation down to low fields is the goal, this is not a particularly satisfactory method. A more convenient and highly complementary test is to extract the parameters necessary to predict reliability from a test which rapidly scans a wide range of fields. It is indeed possible to extract all of the parameters solely by means of ramped field tests.
Ramped Field Stress:
Ramped field testing of dielectric breakdown behavior is a popular method of testing. The hypothetical data of
In ramped field tests, both the field and time are varied simultaneously, unlike constant field tests. In order to disentangle the two parameters, one needs a model of how damage builds up or integrates as the field builds up over time. It has now been found that a simple additive damage build up model (see, e.g., R. Falster, The Phenomenology of Dielectric Breakdown in Thin Silicon Dioxide Films, J. Appl. Phys., 66, 3355 (1989)) does not describe the data from void-related breakdown for polysilicon cathodes, and that in order to explain the data of both ramped field and constant field stress a new model for damage (W) build up, as expressed in equation (7), is to be applied:
Upon integration of Equation (7) for a linearly ramped field, this equation produces the �Weibull� description of dielectric breakdown for ramped field tests, in terms of the same �a� and �b� parameters of the constant field test, as indicated in equation (8):
Accordingly, it is to be noted that a change in ramp rate produces a simple shift in the Weibull plot in the amount of a ln[(dE1/dt)/(dE2/dt)]. By simply performing variable ramped rate measurements on the same defect population, one obtains a set of parameters and conformation of these parameters over a wide range of fields. With this formulation, it is possible to go back and forth between data, constant stress and ramped stress tests, which is very useful.
Referring now to
One aspect of the present invention, therefore, is a method of evaluating gate oxide integrity of a population of single crystal silicon wafers. This method comprises several steps: (i) determining the dielectric breakdown characteristics of a first subset of the population as a function of the amount of stress (e.g., an electric field), applied to the first subset wherein the amount of stress is increased at a first rate from an initial value to a final value, (ii) determining the dielectric breakdown characteristics of a second subset of said population as a function of the amount of stress applied to the second subset wherein the amount of stress is increased at a second rate from an initial value to a final value and the second rate is different from the first rate, and (iii) using the dielectric breakdown characteristics determined in steps (i) and (ii) to predict the gate oxide failure rate under a defined set of conditions for the population. Preferably, the first and second rates differ by a factor of at least 5, more preferably at least 10, and for some applications, by at least 100. In addition, in some embodiments it is preferred that three, four or even more subsets of wafers be evaluated at different ramp rates (which preferably differ from each other by a factor of at least 10). For example, in one embodiment each of four subsets of wafers of the population are subjected to an applied electric field which is linearly increased at a rate of 0.05, 0.5, 5 and 50 megavolts/cm/sec., respectively.
In one embodiment of the present invention, the population of wafers upon which the gate oxide integrity test is carried out may be wafers from a specific ingot (or portion thereof), a specific crystal growth process, or even a cassette or a plurality of cassettes of wafers. The subsets are selected from this population and thus may comprise a whole or fractional part of one or more wafers of the population. For example, each of the subsets may comprise a fractional part of the same wafer or wafers. Alternatively, each of the subsets may comprise a fractional part of different wafers. In yet a further alternative, the subsets comprise a fractional part of a partially overlapping set of wafers, i.e., each set comprises a fractional part of the same wafer or wafers and a whole or fractional part of different wafers.
Void-Related Dielectric Breakdown Revisited:
Returning to the question of void-related breakdown distributions, a schematic view is illustrated in
With respect to
In general, voids produced by slow cool-type processes are larger. This is for the simple reason that in slow cool-type processes a smaller number of void sites consume the same number of vacancies as do the larger number of voids in �normal� processes. It is concluded then that the reason for this shift, illustrated in
The Consequences of the Void Size Dependence of Dielectric Breakdown Distributions:
On the surface of things, the application of �burn-in� voltage rules leads one to the straight forward conclusion that the slow cool-type material, with its lower saturated fail percentages, is the better material. Of course, as pointed out herein, this result is not surprising because the very application of this test makes the outcome pre-determined. But, the real question is, what result would be obtained if a different criterion was applied? For example, assume one applies a test which is simply an application of real reliability criteria to the material system; that is, assume one applies a stress at the operating field, rather than some arbitrary field significantly higher than the operating field, and then sees which system has the most fails after, for example, 10 years.
Calculating Extrapolated Reliability:
In order to calculate extrapolated reliability, the system described above is used and extrapolate from ramped field data to constant field operation at a defined operating field. Manipulating equations (4) and (9) above, a simple expression can be written (equation 10) in Weibull form which allows the solution for the device wear-out to be determined at essentially any operating field:
Comparison of Standard and �Slow Cool� Materials:
Referring again to
In this regard it is to be noted that, while the results illustrated in
In view of the foregoing, it can be seen that conventional screening procedures incorrectly identify the slow-cooled material as superior by measuring in the saturation regime. Because the number of failures are so small, the difference in this regime never enters into the real reliability question, or rather it would not enter in until perhaps about 10,000 years or so of device operation. The real issue therefore lies in the initial part of the breakdown distribution; in particular, it lies in the intercept of the rising portion of the curve with the operating field (adjusted by a couple of constants from equation (9)).
�Functionally� Defect-Free Silicon
According to the process of the present invention, it has been discovered that, once a method of analysis for gate oxide integrity has been properly defined and applied, it is clearly preferable to grow single crystal silicon under conditions which yield wafers having voids which are smaller in size and higher in concentration (or number density), in contrast to what has heretofore been deemed acceptable (based on conventional GOI methods of analysis). Stated another way, it has been discovered that, once gate oxide integrity is more accurately defined and measured, single crystal silicon wafers having a higher concentration of smaller voids is preferably to material having, in comparison, a lower concentration of larger voids (as further described herein). Experience to-date indicates that such wafers, from a functional standpoint, are in most cases of a quality comparable to substantially defect-free silicon.
Specifically, the present invention enables the engineering or preparation of �functionally defect-free� silicon, which is a material designed to meet two basic criteria:
Void Size Distribution and �Functional Perfection:�
It was noted above, in the discussion of
Generally speaking, the size of voids is reduced by fast cooling (�fast� cooling being described in greater detail below). There are two components to this approach:
Referring now to
Crystal Growth Considerations for �Functionally Perfect� Material:
The framework for the models which describe the density and size of voids produced in silicon as a function of growth conditions have been described in several recent publications. (See, e.g., V. V. Voronkov et al., J. Cryst. Growth, 194, 76 (1998); V. V. Voronkov, J. Cryst. Growth, 204, 462 (1999); and, R. Falster et al., On the Properties of the Intrinsic Point Defect in Silicon, Phys. Stat. Sol., (B) 222, 219 (2000). See also PCT Application Nos. PCT/US98/07304, 07305 and 07365, all of which are incorporated herein by reference.) Generally speaking, however, the concentration of the vacancies which compose the voids is determined by the parameter v/G0 at the melt/solid interface, wherein v is the growth velocity and G0 is the average axial temperature gradient over a temperature range bound by the solidification temperature and a temperature greater than about 1300� C. (e.g., about 1325� C., 1350� C. or even 1375� C.). The larger this value, in excess of the critical value for v/G0, the larger the vacancy concentration incorporated into the growing crystal. These vacancies become critically supersaturated at some �nucleation� temperature (which itself is dependent upon the concentration of vacancies, in that the higher the vacancy concentration, the higher this temperature), and thus voids are formed. The density of voids produced is essentially proportional to the factor:
q is the cooling rate at the nucleation temperature; and,
Cv is the vacancy concentration at the point of nucleation.
The nucleation process for agglomerated intrinsic point defects typically occurs at a temperature greater than about 1000� C. (e.g., about 1050� C., 100� C., 1125� C., 1150� C., 1175� C., or even 1200� C.). However, it is to be noted that the temperature at which nucleation of the predominant intrinsic point defects occurs can be experimentally determined for a given crystal puller and process as follows. It is believed that silicon self-interstitials in a defined region of the ingot remain as point defects and do not nucleate to form agglomerated defects until that region passes through the section of the hot zone where the silicon reaches the temperature of nucleation. That is, under typical Czochralski growth conditions, the region is originally formed at the solid/liquid interface and has a temperature of approximately the melt temperature of silicon. As the region is pulled away from the melt during the growth of the remainder of the ingot, the temperature of the region cools as it is pulled through the hot zone of the crystal puller. The hot zone of a particular crystal puller typically has a characteristic temperature profile, generally decreasing with increasing distances from the melt solid interface, such that at any given point in time, the region will be at a temperature approximately equal to the temperature of the section of the hot zone occupied by the region. Accordingly, the rate at which the region is pulled through the hot zone affects the rate at which the region cools. Accordingly, an abrupt change in the pull rate will cause an abrupt change in the cooling rate throughout the ingot. Significantly, the rate at which a particular region of the ingot passes through the temperature of nucleation affects both the size and density of agglomerated defects formed in the region. Thus, the region of the ingot which is passing through the nucleation temperature at the time the abrupt change is made will exhibit an abrupt variation in the size and density of agglomerated intrinsic point defects, hereinafter referred to as a nucleation front. Because the nucleation front is formed at the time the pull rate is varied, the precise location of the nucleation front along the axis of the ingot can be compared to the position of the ingot, and correspondingly the nucleation front within the hot zone at the time the abrupt change in pull rate was made, and compared with the temperature profile of the hot zone, to determine the temperature at which the nucleation of agglomerated intrinsic point defects occurs for the type and concentration of intrinsic point defects in the location of the nucleation front.
Thus, persons skilled in the art can grow a silicon ingot by the Czochralski method under process conditions designed to produce an ingot which is either vacancy rich or silicon self-interstitial rich by making abrupt changes in the pull rate and, then by (i) noting the position of the ingot with respect to the temperature profile in the hot zone at the point in time in which the pull rate is changed, and (ii) observing the axial location of the nucleation front, an approximation can be made as to the temperature of nucleation for the concentration of intrinsic point defects present along the nucleation front. Additionally, since the temperature and intrinsic point defect concentration varies radially along the nucleation front, the temperature and intrinsic point defect concentration can be determined at several points along the nucleation front and the temperature of nucleation can be plotted against the intrinsic point defect concentration to determine the temperature of nucleation as a function of intrinsic point defect concentration. The temperature of the silicon along the nucleation front can be determined using any thermal simulation method known in the art which is capable of estimating the temperature at any location within a Czochralski reactor, such as for example, the thermal simulation described in Virzi, �Computer Modeling of Heat Transfer in Czochralski Silicon Crystal Growth,� Journal of Crystal Growth, vol. 112, p. 699 (1991). The concentration of silicon self-interstitials may be estimated along the nucleation front using any point defect simulation method known in the art which is capable of estimating the concentration of intrinsic point defects at any point in the ingot, such as for example, the point defect simulation described in Sinno et al., �Point Defect Dynamics and the Oxidation-Induced Stacking-Fault Ring in Czochralski-Grown Silicon Crystals,� Journal of Electrochemical Society. vol. 145, p. 302 (1998). Finally, the temperature of nucleation verses intrinsic point defect concentration can be obtained for an expanded range of temperatures and concentration by growing additional ingots under varying growth parameters to produced ingots with increased or decreased initial concentrations of intrinsic point defects, and repeating the cooling experiment and analysis described above.
The nucleation process quickly stops once the temperature is within a few Kelvin (e.g., about 2, 4, 6, 8 or more) of the nucleation temperature. Once this temperature is reached, no new voids are produced, but existing voids can continue to grow in size until the diffusion of vacancies becomes so slow as to stop the growth process; that is, once void nucleation stops, void growth will continue as long as vacancies are capable of diffusing to void sites within a commercially practical period of time. In oxygen containing Czochralski silicon, vacancies are bound to oxygen at a characteristic temperature of about 1000� C. (e.g., about 1010� C., 1015� C., 1025� C., or even 1050� C.). In the bound state, the vacancies are effectively immobile on the time scale of void growth. By the time a temperature of about 900� C. (e.g., about 910� C., 925� C., 950� C. or even 975� C.) is reached, essentially all void growth stops.
In view of the foregoing, the process of the present invention is focused upon the cooling rate of the crystal over two, and optionally three, distinct temperature ranges (optional because, in reference to
In addition to controlling void nucleation and growth, it may also be important, in certain circumstances, to control the cooling rate through the temperature range over which vacancies are mobile, either alone or in combination with the control of v/G0 (which determines the initial vacancy concentration), in order to limit the residual vacancy concentration in the silicon segment. More specifically, it is currently believed that when silicon having concentrations of vacancies in excess of about 3�1012 cm−3 (as determined by, for example, the platinum diffusion method described herein below) is exposed to temperatures commonly employed in integrated circuit manufacturing processes (e.g., temperatures ranging of about 600� C. to 800� C.), a form of catalyzed oxygen precipitation will occur. This oxygen precipitation can be beneficial or detrimental, depending upon the degree of precipitation that occurs. For example, such precipitation is beneficial when it can be controlled by thermal treatments such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,761 (incorporated herein by reference), in order to form wafers which have controlled vacancy profiles (which in turn lead to a controlled oxygen precipitation profile). In contrast, this precipitation is detrimental when it cannot be controlled, because it can cause oxygen precipitation in crystals to run out of control (in the sense that a subsequent thermal treatment, such as those disclosed in for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,761 and PCT Application No. PCT/US99/19301 (incorporated herein by reference), cannot erase or dissolve the oxygen clusters which form as the crystal cools). A common example of a situation wherein precipitation typically runs out of control can be found in the extreme tail-end of crystals wherein very rapid cooling occurs.
In normal crystal growth regimes, voids are such effective consumers of vacancies that practically none, certainly far fewer than the 3�1012 cm−3 threshold for the enhanced precipitation effect, remain as the crystal enters the vacancy binding regime. If, however, the crystal is cooled rapidly, such as described herein, then there is some risk that insufficient vacancies are consumed during the growth phase. Schematically, this situation is illustrated in
In order to produce �functionally perfect� (i.e., �functionally defect-free�) silicon, voids must be sufficiently small in size, such that the requirements described above with respect to reliability are met. This necessitates relatively high cooling rates. On the other hand, for a useful product, oxygen precipitation must also be controllable; that is, one should be capable of producing denuded zone-type (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,761) or non-oxygen precipitating-type (see, e.g., PCT Application No. PCT/US99/19301) behavior in the silicon. These two requirements are not necessarily met simultaneously. Accordingly, one aspect of the present invention is the simultaneous meeting of these two requirements and the description of the conditions under which this can be achieved.
Additionally, it is to be noted that, in some instances, there is a possibility that the voids themselves will hinder or prevent the formation of an acceptable denuded zone if sufficiently numerous. In some circumstances, therefore, it may be preferred that the density of voids be less than about 1�108 cm−3.
In those situations where all of the above described limitations are met, a silicon material referred to herein as �useful, functionally perfect� silicon is formed.
Calculations of the Crystal Growth Conditions for �Useful, Functionally Perfect� Silicon:
The calculations which are used to define the operating conditions for such material are relatively complex and multi-dimensional, involving the coupling of several crystal growth parameters. Using the model elements (herein the �standard� model) developed in the references cited above, these can be estimated and then further refined, for example, empirically or by additionally modeling (using means described herein or which are standard in the art). The results are summarized in the complex chart sketched in
It is to be noted, with respect to these values, that in some instances, in order to achieve the desired residual vacancy concentrations and void size, some minimum void density may be necessary. Stated another way, depending upon the initial vacancy concentration and the cooling rate, among other things, there may be a minimum density of voids which is necessary in order for the residual vacancy concentration to be below the desired level (the voids acting as �sinks,� to which the vacancies can diffuse and be consumed), and for the void size to be below the desired level (too few voids and too many vacancies resulting in voids which are too large). In such instances, typically the void density will be at least about 5�106 cm−3, 1�107 cm−3, 5�107 cm−3, 1�103 cm−3, or more.
�Standard Model�
Referring now to
Additionally, it is to be noted that there is a further degree of freedom in the growth of �useful, functionally perfect� silicon that is not illustrated in the already complex diagram of
�Modified Model�
Referring now to
In this example, the process space for the operating conditions to produce �useful, functionally perfect� silicon under the modified model are generally too small and at values of S0 which are, in most cases, impractical. In order to produce silicon under such a model, therefore, we then require two stage cooling to eliminate the lower Cres limit.
Control of v/G0 and Cooling Rates
The general details for controlling v/G0, in order to obtain vacancy-dominated silicon over an appreciable length of the constant diameter portion of a single crystal silicon ingot, are generally known by those of ordinary skill in the art and are described, for example, in PCT Application Nos. PCT/US98/07304, 07305, and 07365. Typically, however, in accordance with the present invention the growth velocity, v, and the average axial temperature gradient, G0, will be controlled such that, for at least a segment of the constant diameter portion of the ingot (e.g., 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 90%, 95% or more, as measured along the central axis of the ingot), vacancies will be the predominant intrinsic point defect in an axially symmetric region having a width, as measured from about the central axis of the ingot toward the circumferential edge, or lateral surface, of the ingot, of at least about 25%, 50%, 75%, 85%, 95% or more, relative to the length of the radius of the ingot. In some embodiments, however, this region will preferably extend from the central axis to the lateral surface of the ingot; that is, preferably the width of the region will be essentially equal to the width of the constant diameter portion of the ingot. However, in those instances wherein this region does not extend from the central axis to the lateral surface, it may optionally be surrounded by another axially symmetric region, wherein silicon self-interstitials are the predominant intrinsic point defect and which is substantially free of agglomerated intrinsic point defects, as described in, for example, PCT/US98/07365.
It is to be noted in this regard that, prior to a thermal treatment, a single crystal silicon wafer, obtained from a single crystal silicon ingot grown in accordance with the present invention, will having a substantially uniform oxygen concentration, void concentration and vacancy concentration (excluding the near-surface region of the wafer). Stated another way, the axially symmetric, vacancy-dominated region of the present invention will extend substantially from the front surface of the wafer to the back surface of the wafer (i.e., the vacancy-dominated region will have a thickness of at least about 90%, 92%, 94%, 96%, 98%, or even about 100%, relative to the overall thickness of the wafer), the oxygen, void and residual vacancy concentration being substantially uniform throughout this region (i.e., from about top to bottom).
Given that the process of the present invention enables essentially the fastest possible growth rates for a given crystal puller to be employed, essentially any value in excess of the critical value of v/G may be employed. Referring again, for example, to
Control of the average axial temperature gradient, G0, may be achieved through the design of the �hot zone� of the crystal puller, i.e. the graphite (or other materials) that makes up the heater, insulation, heat and radiation shields, among other things. Although the design particulars may vary depending upon the make and model of the crystal puller, in general, G0 may be controlled using any of the means currently known in the art for controlling heat transfer at the melt/solid interface, including reflectors, radiation shields, purge tubes, light pipes, and heaters (side or bottom heaters). In general, radial variations in G0 are minimized by, in most cases, positioning such an apparatus within about one crystal diameter above the melt/solid interface. G0 can be controlled further by adjusting the position of the apparatus relative to the melt and crystal. This is accomplished either by adjusting the position of the apparatus in the hot zone, or by adjusting the position of the melt surface in the hot zone. In addition, when a heater is employed, G0 may be further controlled by adjusting the power supplied to the heater. Any, or all, of these methods can be used during a batch Czochralski process in which melt volume is depleted during the process.
It is to be noted that, in accordance with the present invention, cooling is controlled through the temperature range over which nucleation of agglomerated vacancy defects occurs. Once this is achieved, as indicated by
In general, the single crystal silicon may be cooled through the nucleation temperature for agglomerated vacancy defects, and optionally the temperature at which vacancies are no longer mobile for commercially practical periods of time, by means of at least two alternative approaches. In the first approach, the entire ingot (or at least those portions of the ingot which are desired to possess the improved gate oxide integrity of the present invention) is maintained at a temperature in excess of the nucleation temperature until the ingot tail is completed. The ingot is then detached from the melt, the heat input to the hot zone is shut down, and the single crystal silicon is moved from the hot zone of the Czochralski reactor to a chamber separate from the hot zone, such as a crystal receiving or other cooling chamber, where the entire crystal (or at least those above-noted portions) can be cooled in accordance with the present invention. The cooling chamber may be jacketed with a heat exchanging device designed to utilize a cooling medium, for example cooling water, to remove heat from the cooling chamber at a rate sufficient to cool the single crystal silicon ingot at the desired rate, without directly contacting the single crystal silicon with the cooling medium. Alternatively, or in addition to using a cooling jacket, a pre-cooled gas such as, for example, helium may be used to continuously purge the crystal receiving or other cooling chamber to facilitate more rapid cooling. Methods for removing heat from a process vessel are well know in the art, such that persons skilled in the art could employ a variety of means for removing heat from the crystal receiving or other cooling chamber without requiring undue experimentation.
In a second approach, a portion, preferably a large portion, of the ingot is cooled during crystal growth. In this approach, the hot zone of the crystal puller is designed to (i) achieve a desired value (or range of values) for v/G0 across the entire radius of the growing crystal, (ii) provide adequate diffusion of vacancy intrinsic point defects at temperatures intermediate of the temperature of solidification and the nucleation temperature for agglomerated intrinsic point defects, and (iii) cool the ingot through the nucleation temperature for agglomerated vacancy defects in the grown crystal by applying an appropriate axial temperature gradient over a range of temperatures containing the nucleation temperature, and optionally through the temperature at which vacancies no longer diffuse within a commercially practical period of time.
For an ingot prepared in accordance with the process of the present invention (i.e., an ingot containing material which is vacancy dominated), in some instances a low oxygen content material (i.e., less than about 13 PPMA (parts per million atomic, ASTM standard F-121-83), less than about 12 PPMA, less than about 11 PPMA oxygen, or even less than about 10 PPMA oxygen), may be preferred. This is because, in medium to high oxygen contents wafers (i.e., about 14 PPMA to about 18 PPMA), the formation of oxygen-induced stacking faults and bands of enhanced oxygen clustering may become more pronounced. Each of these are a potential source for problems in a given integrated circuit fabrication process.
The effects of enhanced oxygen clustering may be further reduced by a number of methods, used singularly or in combination. For example, oxygen precipitate nucleation centers typically form in silicon which is annealed at a temperature in the range of about 350� C. to about 750� C. For some applications, therefore, it may be preferred that the crystal be a �short� crystal, that is, a crystal which has been grown in a Czochralski process until the seed end has cooled from the melting point of silicon (about 1410� C.) to about 750� C. after which the ingot is rapidly cooled. In this way, the time spent in the temperature range critical for nucleation center formation is kept to a minimum and the oxygen precipitate nucleation centers have inadequate time to form in the crystal puller.
Preferably, however, oxygen precipitate nucleation centers formed during the growth of the single crystal are dissolved by annealing the single crystal silicon. Provided they have not been subjected to a stabilizing heat-treatment, oxygen precipitate nucleation centers can be annealed out of silicon by rapidly heating the silicon to a temperature of at least about 875� C., and preferably continuing to increase the temperature to at least 1000� C., at least 1100� C., 1200� C. or more. By the time the silicon reaches 1000� C., substantially all (e.g., >99%) of such defects have annealed out. It is important that the wafers be rapidly heated to these temperatures, i.e., that the rate of temperature increase be at least about 10� C. per minute and more preferably at least about 50� C. per minute. Otherwise, some or all of the oxygen precipitate nucleation centers may be stabilized by the heat-treatment. Equilibrium appears to be reached in relatively short periods of time, i.e., on the order of about 60 seconds or less. Accordingly, oxygen precipitate nucleation centers in the single crystal silicon may be dissolved by annealing it at a temperature of at least about 875� C., preferably at least about 950� C., and more preferably at least about 1100� C., for a period of at least about 5 seconds, and preferably at least about 10 minutes.
The dissolution may be carried out in a conventional furnace or in a rapid thermal annealing (RTA) system. The rapid thermal anneal of silicon may be carried out in any of a number of commercially available rapid thermal annealing (�RTA�) furnaces in which wafers are individually heated by banks of high power lamps. RTA furnaces are capable of rapidly heating a silicon wafer, e.g., they are capable of heating a wafer from room temperature to 1200� C. in a few seconds. One such commercially available RTA furnace is the model 610 furnace available from AG Associates (Mountain View, Calif.). In addition, the dissolution may be carried out on silicon ingots or on silicon wafers, preferably wafers.
The atmosphere during the rapid thermal annealing and cooling steps is generally any non-oxidizing atmosphere; oxidation of the silicon surface has been found to suppress the vacancy concentration during the rapid thermal annealing step. Preferably, therefore, the atmosphere has a total absence of oxygen or a partial pressure of oxygen which is insufficient to inject sufficient quantities of silicon self-interstitial atoms which suppress the build-up of vacancy concentrations. While the lower limit of oxygen concentration at which the vacancy concentration is unacceptably suppressed has not been precisely determined, it is generally preferred that the atmosphere during the rapid thermal annealing step have less than 2,000 ppm (0.002 atm.) and more preferably less than about 1,000 ppm (0.001 atm.) of oxygen. The atmosphere may be, for example, a nitriding atmosphere such as nitrogen or ammonia, a non-nitriding atmosphere such as helium, neon, carbon dioxide or argon, or combinations thereof. Preferably, it is argon.
Substitutional carbon, when present as an impurity in single crystal silicon, has the ability to catalyze the formation of oxygen precipitate nucleation centers. For this and other reasons, therefore, it is preferred that the single crystal silicon ingot have a low concentration of carbon. That is, the concentration of carbon in the single crystal silicon is preferably less than about 5�1016 atoms/cm3, more preferably less than 1�1016 atoms/cm3, and still more preferably less than 5�1015 atoms/cm3.
Additionally, it is preferred in at least some embodiments that the single crystal silicon wafer be substantially free of nitrogen; that is, in some embodiments it is preferred that the wafers of the present invention be non-nitrogen doped. As used herein, the terms �non-nitrogen doped� and �substantially free of nitrogen� refers to silicon have a nitrogen content less than about 1�1013 atoms/cm3, 5�1012 atoms/cm3, 1�1012 atoms/cm3, 5�1011 atoms/cm3, or less.
Accordingly, the present, �non-nitrogen doped� wafers are distinguishable from wafers which are �nitrogen doped� because, if both are subjected to a heat treatment (e.g., rapid heating to about 1200� C. in the essential absence of oxygen), cooled, and then subjected to an oxygen precipitation heat treatment (e.g., heating to about 800� C. for about 4 hours and then to about 1000� C. for about 16 hours), the concentration of oxygen precipitates in the present �non-nitrogen doped� wafers will be less than about 1�108 per cm3 (e.g., less than about 5�107, 1�107, 5�106, 1�106, or less), while the concentration of the �nitrogen doped� wafers will not.
It is to be noted that, as further described herein below, wafers which are sliced from ingots grown in accordance with the present invention are suitable for use as substrates upon which an epitaxial layer may be deposited. Epitaxial deposition may be performed by any means common in the art. Wafers which are sliced from ingots grown in accordance with the present invention are also suitable for use as substrates for semiconductor on insulator structures (e.g., SIMOX or bonded applications). The semiconductor on insulator composite may be formed, for example, as described in lyer et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,494,849. The present wafers may be employed in such applications as the substrate wafer or the device layer.
Furthermore, it is also to be noted that wafers prepared in accordance with the present invention are suitable for use in combination with hydrogen or argon annealing treatments, such as the treatments described in European Patent Application No. 503,816 A1.
Epitaxial Wafers
Generally speaking, silicon wafers prepared in accordance with the present invention are suitable for use as substrates upon which an epitaxial layer may be deposited. Homoepitaxial deposition may be performed by any means common in the art. In certain of these embodiments, however, control of void size and density are not narrowly critical because the epitaxial deposition process will �fill in� voids present at the wafer surface which would otherwise hinder gate oxide integrity; in these embodiments, the residual vacancy concentration would still be controlled to avoid excessive oxygen precipitation (as described in detail above in reference to �usable, functionally perfect� silicon).
Detection of Agglomerated Defects
Agglomerated defects may be detected by a number of different techniques. For example, flow pattern defects, or D-defects, are typically detected by preferentially etching the single crystal silicon sample in a Secco etch solution for about 30 minutes, and then subjecting the sample to microscopic inspection. (see, e.g., H. Yamagishi et al., Semicond. Sci. Technol. 7, A135 (1992)). Although standard for the detection of agglomerated vacancy defects, this process may also be used to detect agglomerated interstitial defects. When this technique is used, such defects appear as large pits on the surface of the sample when present.
Agglomerated defects may also be detected using laser scattering techniques, such as laser scattering tomography, which typically have a lower defect density detection limit that other etching techniques.
Additionally, agglomerated intrinsic point defects may be visually detect by decorating these defects with a metal capable of diffusing into the single crystal silicon matrix upon the application of heat. Specifically, single crystal silicon samples, such as wafers, slugs or slabs, may be visually inspected for the presence of such defects by first coating a surface of the sample with a composition containing a metal capable of decorating these defects, such as a concentrated solution of copper nitrate. The coated sample is then heated to a temperature between about 900� C. and about 1000� C. for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes in order to diffuse the metal into the sample. The heat treated sample is then cooled to room temperature, thus causing the metal to become critically supersaturated and precipitate at sites within the sample matrix at which defects are present.
After cooling, the sample is first subjected to a non-defect delineating etch, in order to remove surface residue and precipitants, by treating the sample with a bright etch solution for about 8 to about 12 minutes. A typical bright etch solution comprises about 55 percent nitric acid (70% solution by weight), about 20 percent hydrofluoric acid (49% solution by weight), and about 25 percent hydrochloric acid (concentrated solution).
The sample is then rinsed with deionized water and subjected to a second etching step by immersing the sample in, or treating it with, a Secco or Wright etch solution for about 35 to about 55 minutes. Typically, the sample will be etched using a Secco etch solution comprising about a 1:2 ratio of 0.15 M potassium dichromate and hydrofluoric acid (49% solution by weight). This etching step acts to reveal, or delineate, agglomerated defects which may be present.
In an alternative embodiment of this �defect decoration� process, the single crystal silicon sample is subjected to a thermal anneal prior to the application of the metal-containing composition. Typically, the sample is heated to a temperature ranging from about 850� C. to about 950� C. for about 3 hours to about 5 hours. This embodiment is particularly preferred for purposes of detecting B-type silicon self-interstitial agglomerated defects. Without being held to a particular theory, it is generally believed that this thermal treatment acts to stabilize and grow B-defects, such that they may be more easily decorated and detected.
Measurement of Crystal Lattice Vacancies
The measurement of crystal lattice vacancies in single crystal silicon can be carried out by platinum diffusion analysis. In general, platinum is deposited on the samples and diffused in a horizontal surface with the diffusion time and temperature preferably being selected such that the Frank-Turnbull mechanism dominates the platinum diffusion, but which is sufficient to reach the steady-state of vacancy decoration by platinum atoms. For wafers having vacancy concentrations which are typical for the present invention, a diffusion time and temperature of 730� C. for 20 minutes may be used, although more accurate tracking appears to be attainable at a lesser temperature, e.g., about 680� C. In addition, to minimize a possible influence by silicidation processes, the platinum deposition method preferably results in a surface concentration of less than one monolayer.
Platinum diffusion techniques are described elsewhere, for example, by Jacob et al., J. Appl. Phys., vol. 82, p. 182 (1997); Zimmermann and Ryssel, �The Modeling of Platinum Diffusion In Silicon Under Non-Equilibrium Conditions,� J. Electrochemical Society, vol. 139, p. 256 (1992); Zimmermann, Goesele, Seilenthal and Eichiner, �Vacancy Concentration Wafer Mapping In Silicon,� Journal of Crystal Growth, vol. 129, p. 582 (1993); Zimmermann and Falster, �Investigation Of The Nucleation of Oxygen Precipitates in Czochralski Silicon At An Early Stage,� Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 60, p. 3250 (1992); and Zimmermann and Ryssel, Appl. Phys. A, vol. 55, p. 121 (1992); all of which are incorporated herein by reference.
As used herein, the following phrases or terms shall have the given meanings: �agglomerated intrinsic point defects� mean defects caused by the reaction in which vacancies agglomerate to produce D-defects, flow pattern defects, gate oxide integrity defects, crystal originated particle defects, crystal originated light point defects, and other such vacancy related defects, or (ii) by the reaction in which self-interstitials agglomerate to produce dislocation loops and networks, and other such self-interstitial related defects; �agglomerated interstitial defects� shall mean agglomerated intrinsic point defects caused by the reaction in which silicon self-interstitial atoms agglomerate; �agglomerated vacancy defects� shall mean agglomerated vacancy point defects caused by the reaction in which crystal lattice vacancies agglomerate; �radius,� in the context of a silicon wafer or ingot, means the distance measured from a central axis to a lateral surface of a wafer or ingot; �substantially free of agglomerated intrinsic point defects� shall mean a concentration of agglomerated defects which is less than the detection limit of these defects, which is currently about 103 defects/cm3; and, �vacancy dominated� and �self-interstitial dominated� mean material in which the intrinsic point defects are predominantly vacancies or self-interstitials, respectively.
Additionally, as used herein, the following phrases or terms shall have the given meanings: �residual vacancy concentration� refers to the vacancy concentration, as determined by means described herein, of the silicon material obtained for a single crystal silicon ingot grown in accordance with the present invention, after the ingot has been cooled below a temperature at which vacancies are no longer mobile for commercially practical periods of time (i.e., after void growth and/or vacancy diffusion to sites where they may be consumed or annihilated has stopped); and, �uncontrolled oxygen precipitation,� as well as variations thereof, refers to oxygen precipitation which cannot be prevented or �erased� by thermal treatment typically used to dissolve pre-existing oxygen clusters or precipitate nucleii, such as by those methods described or referenced herein; more specifically, this refers to oxygen precipitation which cannot be dissolved by a thermal treatment wherein the silicon is rapidly heated (e.g., at a rate of at least 1� C./sec.) to a temperature not in excess of 1300� C. (e.g. a temperature of 1250� C., 1225� C., or even 1200� C.), as described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,761.
In view of the above, it will be seen that the several objects of the invention are achieved.
As various changes could be made in the above material and processes without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense.
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Trippy Charcoal Retro Wallpaper, 30-450
A wallpaper from the Poise Collection. This wallpaper design is in a charcoal, black & beige colour scheme. Inspired by a wallpaper design from the Graham & Brown archive. This modernised re-interpretation of a 70's vintage pattern is a funky wallpaper which contasts texture, matt and shine finishes.


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Harvard Yard
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Jessie J To Headline Yardfest During Visitas Weekend
British pop artist Jessie J will headline this year's Yardfest, the College's outdoor music concert scheduled for April 24, the Friday of Visitas weekend.
After Snow, Harvard Begins To Tally Damage
Following a series of heavy winter storms, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences has spent about $700,000 in snow and ice removal from rooftops, building entryways, and walkways to date.
A Visitor's Guide to Cambridge and Boston (Cheatsheet for Junior Parents' Weekend)
While most of you juniors are busy doing your laundry and cleaning your room for the first time in months (read: ever) in preparation, Flyby has put together a list of the best places to take your parents when they come to town this weekend.
Fundraising for ODR
A jar holds bake sale donations for the understaffed Office for Sexual and Gender–Based Dispute Resolution.
Seen and Heard: Harvard's March Through Cambridge
The "March on Harvard," as the demonstration has been billed, is the latest in a series of protests on campus and around the country in recent weeks.
Affiliates Raise Hands, Snarl Traffic in Largest Harvard Protest Yet Following Non-Indictments
The "March on Harvard," as the demonstration has been billed, is the latest in a series of protests on campus and around the country in recent weeks.
Protest at Primal Scream Leads to Chaotic Exchange
Protesters said that their goal was not to protest Primal Scream itself, but to hold a four-and-a-half minute period of silence before the run for Michael Brown of Ferguson, Mo. and Eric Garner of New York.
Timothy P. McCarthy
Harvard Kennedy School lecturer Timothy P. McCarthy '93, gives a speech arguing that "black lives have never mattered as much as white lives have" at a protest Wednesday morning outside University Hall.
Jonathan L. Walton
Professor Jonathan L. Walton, Plummer Professor of Christian Morals and Pusey Minister of Memorial Church echoes Martin Luther King Jr., saying, "injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere" at a protest Wednesday morning outside University Hall.
Black Lives Matter
Students and members of the Harvard community lay on the ground Wednesday morning outside University Hall to protest the a St. Louis County grand jury decision not to indict police officer Darren Wilson for killing a black, unarmed teenager, Michael Brown.
Members of the Harvard community donned red "X"s to symbolize black people being treated as targets during protest Wednesday morning outside University Hall, spurred by a St. Louis County grand jury decision not to indict police officer Darren Wilson for killing a black, unarmed teenager, Michael Brown.
Protesting Ferguson Decision, Hundreds Rally in Yard
The protest came just two days after several hundred students from Harvard and Cambridge Rindge and Latin School flooded the center of Harvard Square in protest.


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|Property type
|Minimum Stay
|7 nights
Nothing compares to Scottsdale! Events such as the Barret-Jackson Classic car Auction, the Arabian horse show and FBR Open PGA golf tournmanet. Frequent celebrity sightings, world-renowned restaurants, upscale shopping, the best nightlife and championship golf courses in amongst mountains, palm trees and amazing weather. An extraordinary lifestyle of carefree living, architectural excellence and unequaled value, Bella Vita provides the best of modern luxury and convenience, with remarkable interior finishes, stylish design, open patios or balconies and the best of Scottsdale living.
Bella Vita is ideally located in Scottsdale. It is just minutes from Old Town Scottsdale, known for its tourist attractions, art galleries, dining, nightlife and shopping venues. You will be close by to a great assortment of retail and entertainment centers such as Scottsdale Fashion Square, 5th Avenue shops and the new Scottsdale water front. With easy access to the Loop 101 & Hayden rd, Bella Vita's great location makes it easy to enjoy all that the Phoenix are has to offer and make your vacation the best ever!
A few minutes North and you are in the heart of Kierland Commons, an upscale main street shopping centre
Golf anyone? Courses are plentiful here in Scottsdale. The Silverado golf course ends just north of Bella Vita and the Bike/ Walking path takes you right to the clubhouse.
Walking and biking trails take you along Chaparral Lake to picnic, fish or boating or to the dog park. The bike paths interconnect and offer over 20 miles of scenic riding.
Minimum 1 month bookings May through September. Septmeber through April, $110 per night, minimum 7 nights. $3000 per month.
This condo is very clean and decorated beautifully. Well stocked with everyday needs for a perfect home away from home. I love the BBQ being just outside the condo.
The owner is very easy to deal with. I appreciate his prompt reply to all my correspondence.I would recommend this unit without hesitations.
The place was outstanding. Perfect location, close to everything! Extremely nice, clean, and quiet place. The property owners were fantastic to deal with. Smooth transactions and very accomodating. Will definitely be a returning customer!
This was a beautiful place with plenty of options. Close to down town Scottsdale. Complex was very quite and secure. The Condo was fully operational with everything you need to enjoy your stay. Owner was helpful and detailed with all our questions. I highly recommened this place to family and friends.
This condo is clean, convenient, and nicely appointed. Near Old Town, Fashion Square, and other Scottsdale attractions. I would definitely recommend to family and friends.
|Rate Period
|Weekend Night
|Monthly *
My Standard Rate
7 night minimum stay
* Approximate monthly rate. Actual rate will depend on the days of the month you stay.
Payment is usually accepted in the quoted currency (USD) unless the currency and the amount is specifically agreed in advance with the owner / advertiser.


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Some things are universally relaxing: the sound of a waterfall, the smell of lavender, the realization that the sun isn't a searchlight that's hunting you. Calm down with this Groupon.
Choose Between Two Options
- $39 for a 60-minute massage with aromatherapy (up to an $80 value)
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Choose from the following massage types: Swedish, deep tissue, hot stone, or pregnancy
Shear Madness
The stylists at Shear Madness are equally comfortable sprucing up hairstyles with cuts and color treatments, waxing away facial hair, and misting exteriors with airbrush tans. But unlike Icarus, who flew so close to the sun that his wings got all sweaty and gross, they know their limitations; they pass clients over to an onsite massage therapist for bodywork sessions, which range from 30 to 90 minutes. Ever accommodating, the staff welcomes walk-ins during most business hours and on Saturdays, and they also schedule appointments for after 5 p.m.
95% of 165 customers recommend
"Great salon & very friendly people."
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"a little difficult to find at first , but clean fun atmosphere. Not a lot of glitz or glamour, just a great haircut and highlights with stylist that listen and work..."
"a little difficult to find at first , but clean fun atmosphere. Not a lot of glitz or glamour, just a great haircut and highlights with stylist that listen and work with closely with their clients. Highly recommend , will be returning for my next visit "
Shear Madness Fenton
1671 S. Old Highway 141
Suite C
Fenton, MO 63026
+16367176515Get Directions


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I have find the problem! A problem with the updater-script. In the next days I try to build a new version
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Spectrahue Color Harmonics System™ is a sophisticated energy based modality developed for Lumalight™ - a color and geometry light set with Spectrahue Vibration Technology™. Julianne Bien, developer of the Lumalight Series, is a world leader in color harmonics and has created comprehensive training programs for professionals, self-exploration and animal care. Optimize your holistic wellness center, anti-aging spa and spiritual practice with Lumalight by Spectrahue.
Lumalight is a professional hand-held illuminator. This proprietary light set was first designed in the 90s, and it is available through Spectrahue. Our penlights deliver color energy paired with geometrical designs. Lumalight is non-diagnostic and is not a laser; an ideal complement to all vibrational therapies, bodywork, acupuncture, sound and aroma therapies.
Spectrahue Color Harmonics System has an educational program for Lumalight users which provides insight, knowledge and training for those who are serious about mastering their Lumalight potential. We believe in continuing education and practice, so we include $1000s of training materials and customer support with your light set. For advanced learning, join us at an upcoming Lumalight Color & Geometry Course.
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Drawn to Life: The Next Chapter
Published by THQ, Developed by Planet Moon
Genres: Action / Adventure / Platformer (4 players)
US release date: Oct 10th, 2009 | EU release date: Oct 16th, 2009
Drawn to Life: The Next Chapter is currently in development exclusively for Wii and Nintendo DS . Featuring an innovative new action drawing feature and enhanced drawing tools, the game includes new creative tools and immerses you into new worlds created by you!
On Wii, you can draw your own heroes using the Wii Remote as well as vehicles, weapons and tools to conquer your enemies. The all-new Action Drawing Tool allows for objects to be drawn directly into the game to help navigate through the levels. The game's multiplayer feature also allows you to draw your team members to compete against others in a variety of mini-games, such as soccer, hockey and basketball.
In Drawn to Life: The Next Chapter for Nintendo DS, you can draw your own hero, be it human, animal or a multi-limbed creature! You also have the ability to morph your creation into a blob or a spider, allowing you to play each level a variety of different ways. The DS version also features the Action Drawing Tool and a multiplayer mode where you can trade heroes, weapons and items with your friends.
Drawn to Life: The Next Chapter has no review on Wii's World.
Arindam said:
The original 'Drawn to Life' was an excellent DS game. However, it seems that the Wii sequel was not so well received.
Project Ukulele - Possible Hint at Characters
Could it be?
Free to Play Pokemon Shuffle now available on 3DS eShop
Nintendo offers another micro-transaction based title
Gold Mario Amiibo is a Wal-Mart Exclusive
Get ready to shell out your coins
Area Effect Announces Izle for Wii U
Part action, part adventure, all cel-shaded
Nintendo Confirmed As Sponsor For APEX 2015
Another positive step for the Smash competitive scene
Majora's Mask 3D Collector's Edition Contains Skull Kid Figurine
Pre-orders are now open!
Ackk Studios Rings in the New Year with New Y2K footage
Starting the New Year with a bang!
Is Nintendo Making A New Wii U Gamepad?
Recent commercial may have leaked new GamePad model
Zeldathon Relief Announced
Pot smashing for a great cause
Why the Inclusion of The Duck Hunt Dog in Super Smash Bros. Was Brilliant
How the the most hated character in video games rose to the top of the Smash heap
Planes: Fire & Rescue
Released on November 6th, 2014
The Voice: I Want You
Released on October 21st, 2014
Skylanders Trap Team
Released on October 5th, 2014
Wipeout: Create & Crash
Angry Birds Star Wars
Released on October 29th, 2013
Michael Jordan said:
No they're making it from the movie ... Speed Racer: The Video Game
daveoneal said:
Thanks Rob. I had no idea this one was published. I'm very happy about it! Yes, Jonathan, it is hard as all get-out, ... Street Fighter 2010: The Final Fight review
daveoneal said:
This was a very well-written review. Apparently Super Hexagon was developed by Terry Cavanagh (who made vvvvvv), so ... Cosmophony review
dirk said:
:p p ... TMNT: Smash Up
dirk said:
cool :p ... TMNT: Smash Up
Wii's World is not officially affiliated with Nintendo! (but they wish we were).


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Has anyone used bread yeast for their beer before? What brand? What type? (quick acting, bread machine, etc..)
"I feel sorry for people who don't drink. They wake up in the morning and that's as good as they're going to feel all day." -Dean Martin
I used it once in a mead. The recipe specifically called for bread yeast. It worked well in that mead, but I don't think it would make good beer.
I think makinitgood did...
Then you will have to use your beer yeast to make bread
I have used bread yeast in my wild grape wines, they turn out very good.
When you can buy dry beer yeast for $1.00 to $1.50 why try to use a bread yeast to save 75 cents and possibly ruin a 5 gallon $25+ dollar batch of beer?
nottingham FTW
Joe's Ancient orange mead calls for it, and it works. Ferments out drier than the sweat mead yeast did, but it is a top fermenting yeast.
2 problems I have with it, is while the mead is still young, it seems a lot hotter than other young meads. Second problem is it doesn't pack well to the bottom. I read someone on here say "look at it funny and it will stir up into suspension". And it's true, I think it's impossible to get a clear mead with that stuff.


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Golden Camera Award ceremony, Axel Springer Haus, Hamburg, Germany
AP Photo / Christian Charisius, pool
February 27, 2015 |
Allstate Arena, Rosemont, Ill.
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February 20, 2015 |
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A Passover classic, perfect for your seder, or just a snack! (contains dairy and nuts)
Our classic Coconut Macaroon, with chocolate chips, and a chocolate drizzle. (contains dairy and nuts)
These rich, fudgy, chocolatey, peanut buttery goodies are Gluten Free (!) and we think they are the best way to end any meal. Or start it, we won't judge. (contains dairy and nuts)
The perfect decoration for your Easter table! Chocolate Chocolate Chip or Very Vanilla Cupcakes, topped with coconut frosting and three malted chocolate robin's eggs resting in a coconut nest.
Your choice of Chocolate Chocolate Chip or Very Vanilla Cupcakes, frosted with pastel-colored vanilla frosting and topped off with a malted chocolate robin's egg.
Little bites perfect for celebrating the upcoming little one! An assortment of mini cupcakes and mini cookies. Boy? Girl? Surprise? Let us know & we'll frost accordingly.
Hosting a wedding shower? We've got you covered! This combo comes with a 5″ cake and mini cupcakes – all very vanilla with vanilla frosting for the white on white bridal look.
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text: Getty Images, Justin Sullivan South Dakota Is Looking for an Agriculture Ambassador By Mark Tassler 3 weeks ago The state Department of Agriculture is taking nominations for the 2015 South Dakota Governor's Ag Ambassador Award. Read More|Comment Category: Homepage, News Tags: Agriculture, Farming Send to a friend! Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Pin it! Reddit This! Share on Tumblr!


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I travelled to Cleveland, OH (from Chicago, IL) to play in the Great Lakes Open. And to my surprise, my opponent in the first round was an NM (2236).
Again I used the same strategy in beating an NM (1) Use a No Name opening (2) Hang tough (3) Complicate. Make the NM consume a lot of time on his clock.
The thing here is that an NM under extreme time pressure becomes human and can make a mistake. But today's NMs are lightning fast and accurate under time pressure. So this technique may not be successful today.
I don't know if I understand the resignation. Maybe this ?
Right. After 41.Qxb8+ Bxb8 42.Nf6+ Kg7 43.Nxe4 Black would be a whole R down.
Very nice..! Saw it coming...what if any were the time restrictions? ...and did that loss remove him from the competion? ...and finally overall ....how did you fair?
Yes, that loss removed him from the competition.
I scored 3 out of 4
1.0 against an NM 2236 in the 1st round, 0.5 against a 2089 in the 2nd round, 0.5 against another NM (2380 an Australian who later became an IM), and a 1.0 against a 2126 of New York in the 4th and last round round.
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4 new DEED programs help businesses access capital
Four new business funding programs included in the State Small Business Credit Initiative are available to help businesses access credit, the Minnesota Department of Employment and Economic Development announced.
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