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Early India
From the Origins to AD 1300
Romila Thapar
Available in US and Territories, Canada
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Paperback, 586 pages
February 2004
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Author Bio
Early India
represents a complete rewriting by Romila Thapar of her classic work,
A History of India
(the first volume in the
Penguin History of India
series), thirty-five years after it was first published. Thapar has incorporated the vast changes in scholarly understanding and interpretation of Indian history that have occurred during her lifetime to revise the book for a new generation of readers. This new work brings to life thousands of years of history, tracing India's evolution before contact with modern Europe was established: its prehistoric beginnings; the great cities of the Indus civilization; the emergence of mighty dynasties such as the Mauryas, Guptas, and Cholas; the teachings of the Buddha; the creation of heroic epics such as the
and the
and the creation of regional cultures. Thapar introduces figures from the remarkable visionary ruler Ashoka to other less exemplary figures. In exploring subjects as diverse as marriage, class, art, erotica, and astronomy, Thapar provides an incomparably vivid and nuanced picture of India. Above all, she shows the rich mosaic of diverse kingdoms, landscapes, languages, and beliefs.
Romila Thapar
is Professor Emeritus in History at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. In 1983 she was elected General President of the Indian History Congress and in 1999 a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy. She is the author of
Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas; Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations; History and Beyond; Sakuntala: Texts, Readings, Histories; Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History;
Somanatha : the Many Voices of a History
"Thapar is to be congratulated for producing a revision that should be read carefully by every serious scholar or student of anything Indian."—Frederick M. Smith, Univ. of Iowa
Religious Studies Review
"Romila Thapar is the most eminent Indian historian. This superb book is not only the basic history of how India came to be and an introduction to how the writing of history takes shape, but also, not the least, a deconstruction of the historical myth and inventions on which is based the present intolerant and exclusivist Hindu nationalism. It is essential reading today."—Eric Hobsbawm
"One of the world's most eminent historians of India, Thapar gives us a thoroughly revised edition of her authoritative general history. This one contains the accumulated research of the last thirty years and includes richly textured accounts of life in ancient India. Like its predecessor, this is indispensable reading for anyone interested in India's long and complex history."—Thomas R. Metcalf, Professor of History and Sarah Kailath Professor of Indian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, and co-author of
A Concise History of India
"Incorporating newer findings, methods, and interpretations, this thorough and outstandingly written addition to the author's highly acclaimed
History of India, Volume One
manifests her long and distinguished service to the study of Indian history. Thapar's skillful analysis of how India's past has been interpreted not only brings greater clarity to the understanding of contemporary India, but also contributes usefully to a broader study of history and historiography."—Peter L. Schmitthenner, Associate Professor of History, Virginia Tech
A book originally written when one had just been initiated into the profession, now being revised late in life, has elements of an autobiography. Returning to a book of almost forty years ago has brought home to me the substantial changes in the readings of early Indian history, some arising out of new data and many more from new interpretations of the existing data. There has been much discussion on these readings and my participation in these has shaped my own understanding of this period. The attempt here is to incorporate such readings that I think are valid without writing an entirely different book. Inevitably, however, there is much that is different in this book. Many ideas that were merely glanced at in the earlier version have now been further drawn out. One may not have been ware of it at the time, but the earlier version was written at a nodal point of change when early Indian history, which had begun essentially as an interest in Indology, was gradually becoming part of the human sciences ñ a change that I hope to demonstrate in the first chapter on historiography. I have stayed largely within the framework of the earlier book since I thought it was still viable and did not require radical alteration. Chapters have been re-oriented so that some contain more new material, while in others the emphasis is on new interpretations. The reading of early Indian history has seen considerable changes in the last four decades and I have sought to capture these in the narrative that follows.
The new readings that emerged from various ongoing assessments. Some were of colonial interpretations of the Indian past, which also had to contend with the attitudes to Indian culture that were prevalent in the period just after Indian independence. In the popular imagination of Europe, India had been the fabulous land of untold wealth, of mystical happenings and of an association with ideas that reached beyond mundane experience. From gold-digging ants to philosophers who lived naked in the forests and meditated on the after-life of the soul, these were all part of the picture of India formed by the ancient Greeks, for example, and these images persisted in Europe into more recent centuries. As in every other ancient culture, wealth in India was limited to the few. Publicized myths, such as that of the rope trick, was also the preoccupation of just a handful of people. It is true, however, that acceptance ñ sometimes bemused ñ of such notions was more extensive in India. Whereas in some cultures the myth of the rope trick would have been ascribed to the prompting of the devil, and all reference to it suppressed, in India it was received with a mixture of belief and disbelief. A fundamental sanity in Indian civilization has been due to an absence of Satan.
Other reactions contending with earlier colonial and nationalist views of Indian culture were different. One was the rather simplistic reaction of annulling or reversing negative statements about Indian civilization and exaggerating the positive statements ñ a reaction that now seems to be capturing some part of the popular Indian imagination. The more serious concern with history was its recognition as a discipline with a method, including the search for readings that incorporated viable alternative ways of explaining the past. It is the latter that is being set out in this book.
To begin with the beginning then, is to start by asking how histories of India
came to be written, who the historians were, why they were writing and what were the intellectual and ideological influences that shaped their histories, in short, that which is now called historiography. HIstory is not information that is handed down unchanged from generation to generation. HIstorical situations need to be explained and explanations draw on analyses of the evidence, providing generalizations that derive from the logic of the argument. With new evidence or fresh interpretations of existing evidence, a new understanding of the past can be achieved. But interpretations have to conform to the basic requirements of using reliable evidence, analytical methods and arguments drawing on logic. Following from these, a sensitivity is needed to the ways in which people from earlier times led their lives and thought about their past. Historiography therefore becomes a prelude to understanding history as a form of knowledge.
Interpretations frequently derive from prevalent intellectual modes. These constitute shifts in the way history is read. Looking at how histories are written is in part the intellectual history of the period under discussion and can therefore be vibrant with ideas and explanations. The starting point in the history of a society, therefore, has to be a familiarity with its historiography ñ the history of historical interpretation. This provides recognition of the intellectual context of history, instead of setting this aside with a preference for just a narration of events. Familiarity with the context encourages a more sensitive understanding of the past. This awareness of historiography has contributed substantially to the change in understanding Indian history over the last half-century.
Historiographical change incorporates new evidence and new ways of looking at existing evidence. The inclusion of perspectives form other human sciences such as studies of societies, economies and religions has led to some important reformulations in explaining the past, resulting primarily from asking different questions from the sources than had been asked before. If earlier historical writing was concerned largely with politics, today it includes virtually all human activities and their interconnections. These are crucial to the argument that the image of reality, as reflected in the human sciences, is socially and culturally controlled and that actions have multiple causes. Advances in knowledge would inevitably change some of these perspectives. Historical explanation therefore creates an awareness of how the past impinges on the present, as well as the reverse.
Among the new sources of evidence, quite apart from the occasional coin, inscription or sculpture, have been data provided by archaeology, evidence on the links between environment and history, and the insights provided by historical and socio-linguistics. Aspects of the oral tradition, when used in a comparative manner, have often illustrated the methods that are used to preserve information, either by societies that are not literate or by those that chose to use the oral form in preference to the literate. The possibility of applying these methods to an earlier oral tradition has been revealing.
In recent years the early history of India has increasingly drawn on evidence from archaeology, which has provided tangible, three-dimensional data in the artefacts and material remains discovered through survey and excavation. These were once used to corroborate the evidence from literary and textual sources (and in some theories about ancient India they continue to be thus used). But archaeological data may or may not corroborate literary evidence, and, where they do not, they provide and alternative view. In the absence of written evidence, or where the written evidence remains undeciphered, artefacts can fill lucanae. The corroboration is not one-to-one since archaeological data are substantially in the form of artefacts, whereas textual information is abstract, and both are subject to the intervention of the historian's interpretation. The relationship of archaeological data with literary evidence is complicated and requests expertise in each category. Reacting against the earlier tyranny of the text, some archaeologists today would deny the use of texts, even in comparative way.
Sophisticated methods of excavation and the reading of excavated data are far more complex than in the days when an archaeologist had merely to dig and to discover. Various techniques from scientific disciplines are being used in the analyses of archaeological data, and the scope of the information provided by these has expanded enormously to include data on climate, ecology, settlement patterns, palaeo-pathology, flora and fauna. Palaeo-botany ñ the study of plant and seed remains from an excavation ñ relates to the flora and environmental conditions, and therefore adds another dimension to the understanding of human settlements. Some of this data can lend itself to a modicum of statistical analysis.
India still sustains an extensive range of societies, some even suggesting a stone age condition. This 'living pre-history', as it has been called, underlines the continuity of cultural survivals. Attempts are now being made in the cross-discipline of ethno-archaeology to correlate ethnographic studies with the excavations of human settlements. The correlating may raise some doubts, but the usefulness of such studies lies in the asking of questions, for instance, on forms of social organization or on the functions of artefacts. In areas where there are some cultural survivals, these procedures can endorse the assistance occasionally provided by fieldwork as an adjunct to textual studies, and, as has been rightly argues, this is particularly pertinent to the study of religion in INdia. Fieldwork provides insights that can enhance the meaning of the text. The changes that occur, for instance, in rituals incorporate elements of history, particularly in societies where for many people ritual activity or orthopraxy is more important that theology or orthodoxy. The entirely text-based studies of religions are now being supplemented by comparative studies of the practice of various religions.
Impressive evidence, both in quality and quantity, has come from sites dating to the second and first millennia BC excavated during the past half-century. It is now possible to map the settlements of the period subsequent to the decline of the first urban civilization in north-western India and this provides some clues to the successor cultures. There is also evidence on some of the precursor settlements in the Ganges Plain and its fringes in central India, providing clues to the nature of the second urbanization of the mid-first millennium in the Ganges Plain. However, these questions can only be answered after there have been horizontal excavations of the major sites, and activity that awaits attention. Megalithic burials of various kinds, dating from the late second millennium BC, are especially characteristic of the peninsula. Their origins and relationships to settlements remains somewhat enigmatic, but at least they provide evidence of cultural levels and networks prior to the information from inscriptions, coins and texts.
Recent studies of archaeological data have led to an interest in the environment as a factor in the making of history. This began with the long debate on whether the decline of the Indus cities was substantially due to environmental degradation. To this has been added the evidence of the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra River in northern INdia, with related hydraulic changes and their historical implications. Archaeological evidence has also been used to suggest a decline in urban centres during the Gupta period, thus questioning its claim to being an age of considerable urban prosperity. Artefacts can be examined as pointers to technology, leading to the examination of the role of technological change in history. There has been an extended discussion, for example, on the role of iron technology ñ particularly in the clearing of forests and the use of the iron ploughshare as processes related to urbanization in the Ganges Plain.
Archaeological evidence has also underlined the significance of geography to history, particularly in understanding the location of settlements, the movements of peoples and the creation of states. Large unitary kingdoms were more easily hosted in the northern Indo-Gangetic Plains. The southern half of the subcontinent, the peninsula, was divided into smaller regions by mountains, plateaus and river valleys ñ a topography that made the functioning of expansive kingdoms of the north attracted the attention of the historians. Periods when such kingdoms flourished were described as 'Golden Ages' and those that saws the growth of smaller and more localized states were viewed as the 'Dark Ages'. The history of the peninsula received far less attention, except when it too could boast of large kingdoms. It suffered further from the fact that political strategy in the peninsula and its economic potential differed from that of the north. This is particularly noticeable in the deployment of maritime commerce as part of the economy in some states.
Among the more interesting departures from earlier views has been the realization that particular geographical regions do not remain pivotal to historical activity permanently. They can and do change, as do the regions that are their peripheries. Sometimes multiple centres share the same history and at other times the centres have diverse histories. Why such regions change and how this affects historical evolution is in itself a worthwhile exploration. The recognition of the region and its links with geomorphology and ecology is drawing the attention of historians. However, a region in the Indian subcontinent cannot become an isolated historical entity, and regional histories inevitably have to be related to larger wholes. Detailed studies of regions have inducted an interest in landscape and how it has changed. The agencies of change are dependent on geology, geomorphology and human activity, but what needs to be more looked at more closely is the effect of a change in landscape on history. The most obvious examples of this are changes in river courses or deforestation. We still tend to resume that the landscape of today was also the landscape of yesterday.
Associated with fieldwork is the study of oral traditions, which has been used by anthropologists in deriving material for analyzing myths and for kinship patterns. Although myths need not go back to earlier times, they can in some cases carry forward earlier ideas. But because of their fluid chronology, and the fact that they are generally not records of actual happenings, myths can only be used in a limited way. Mythology and history are often counterposed and myth cannot be treated as a factual account. Yet the prizing out of the social assumptions implicit in a myth can be helpful to reconstructing some kind of history. The interpretation of myths, if handled with caution, can invoke some of the fantasies and subconscious beliefs of their authors, while the structure of the myth can hint at the connections and confrontations in a society of those sustaining the myths. Since the history now reflects many voices, some from sources other than those from the from the courts of rulers, the oral tradition or the more popular traditions are no longer dismissed as unimportant. Obviously the survival of the oral tradition is from a recent period, but a familiarity with the techniques of assessing an oral tradition has been helpful in re-examining texts that were once part of an early oral tradition. Oral sources were sometimes preserved through being so carefully memorized that the text almost came to be frozen, as in some of the Verdic ritual compositions. Alternatively, the memorization was less frozen and more open, with a composition such as the epic poetry of the
, and many interpolations became possible. The ways in which oral traditions work provide a variety of approaches to such texts. Linguistics is another field that is proving helpful to historians of early India. Analyzing a word helps to explain its meaning and, if it can be seen in a historical context, much is added to the meaning. Words such as
ñinitially meaning chief and subsequently king ñ constitute a history of their own and have a bearing on historical readings. Socio-linguistics provides evidence of how words can point to social relationships through the way in which they are used. Given the connection between language and the fact that languages change, both through use and through communication between speakers of different languages, such change becomes a significant adjunct to other historical evidence. The study of a language from the perspective of linguistics is not limited to similarities of sound or meaning, but involves a familiarity with the essential structure of the language ñ grammar, morphology, phonetics ñ and this is more demanding that just being able to read and write a language.
Linguistic diversity may well have been registered in the Indian subcontinent from earliest times, which might explain part of the problem in attempting to decipher the Indus script. Among the many languages used in India, Tibeto-Burman, for example, has been associated with the northeastern and Himalayan fringes. The Austro-Asiatic group of languages, particularly Munda, clusters in parts of central and eastern India. It could have been more widespread if one believes the mythology of its speakers or, for that matter, the evidence of some of the linguistic elements which occur as a substratum in the earliest Indo-Aryan compositions. Dravidian is likely to have been more extensively used that it is now, with groups of speakers in central India and with four major languages derived from it in the peninsula, not to mention the pocket of Brahui in the north-west of the subcontinent. The reason why, or the way in which, a language either spreads or becomes restricted, has historical explanations.
Indo-Aryan spread gradually over northern India, incorporating some elements of Austro-Asiatic and Dravidian. It bears repeating the Indo-Aryan is in fact a language label, indicating a speech-group of the Indo-European family, and is not a racial term. To refer to 'the Aryans' as a race is therefore inaccurate. The racial identities of speakers of Indo-Aryan languages are not known. When textual sources refer to
the reference is generally to an identity that involves language, social status and associated rituals and custom. It is in this sense that the term is used in this book.
Other than archaeological data, there have been no major sources of new evidence that would radically change our understanding of the period. The recent discovery of important inscriptions and coins has clarified some ambiguities. The exploration of textual data has led to evidence being gathered from texts of historical importance, but in languages other than Sanskrit. Perhaps the most significant change with regard to textual sources is a greater recognition than important authoritative, didactic texts, or even the epics, as we have them today, were not necessarily written at a precise point in time. They have been edited over long time periods and interpolations have been incorporated. A single authorship for a text is not insisted upon. The tradition of writing and using texts in the early past was different from the way in which we view authorship and texts today. It was recognized that succession of authors, generally of the same persuasion, could edit the same text. The authorship, audience and purpose of a text are also now receiving attention when data is gathered.
;The problems of tech chronology of these texts remains as complicated as before, and this prevents their being closely related to a particular period. A large number of texts of other genres, for instance creative literature, are of single authorship, even if their chronology is sometimes uncertain. These have been used in making comparative linguistic analyses. Some attempts have also been made in sifting linguistic style and usage to ascertain the history of the compilation of a text. Such sifting has been facilitated on a few occasions through the use of computers, although this technique is not entirely without hassles.
One of the current debates relating to the beginnings of Indian history involves both archaeology and linguistics, and attempts to differentiate between indigenous and alien peoples. But history has shown that communities and their identities are neither permanent nor static. Their composition changes either with the arrival of new people in an area, and the possible new technologies that are introduced, or by historical changes of a more local but far-reaching kind. Some areas are more prone to change, such as borderlands, mountain passes and fertile plains, whereas densely forested areas or deserts may retain their isolation for a longer period until such time as there is a demand on them for resources. To categorize some people as indigenous and others as alien, to argue about the identity of the first inhabitants of the subcontinent, and to try and sort out these categories for the remote past, is to attempt the impossible. It is precisely the intermixture of peoples and ideas that the genesis of cultures is to be found. Such arguments arise from the concerns of present-day privilege and power, rather than from the reading of history.
It was not just the landscape that changed, but society also changed and often quite noticeably. But this was a proposition unacceptable to colonial perceptions that insisted on unchanging character of Indian history and society. The concentration on dynastic histories in the early studies was due to the assumption that in 'Oriental' societies the power of the ruler was supreme even in the day-to-day functioning of the government. Yet authority for routine functions was rarely entirely concentrated at the centre in the Indian political systems. Much that was seen as essentially centralized in theories such as 'Oriental Despotism' was in actual fact localized through the functions of caste and of other organizations. The understanding of political power in India involves analyses of caste relationships and institutions, such as the guilds and rural and urban councils, and not merely a survey of dynasties. That the study of institutions did not receive much emphasis was in part due to the belief that they did not undergo much change: an idea derived from the conviction that Indian culture had been static, largely owing the lethargy of the Indian and his gloomy, fatalistic attitude to life. Yet even a superficial analysis of the changes in social relationships within the caste structure, or the links between politics and economic systems, or the vigorous mercantile activities of Indians throughout the centuries, points to anything but static behaviour or an unchanging socio-economic pattern. At certain levels there are aspects of cultural traditions in India that can be traced to roots as far back as a few thousand years, but such continuity should not be confused with stagnation. The chanting of the gayatri
hymn has a history of three millennia, but its current context can hardly be said to have remained unchanged from earlier times, and for the historian the context is as important as the content of the hymn.
In common with all branches of knowledge, the premium on specialization in the later twentieth century has made it impossible to hold a seriously considered view about a subject without some technical expertise in the discipline. Such expertise enhances both the pleasure and the understanding of what is under study. To be able to read a text or a coin legend or an inscription is the bare minimum of knowledge required: some familiarity within the mathematics of numismatics, the semiotics of symbols and the contextual dimensions of a text make history a far richer discipline than it was thought to be. The interpretation of a text draws on its authorship, intention, audience, historical context and its interface with other texts of its kind. As a result there is a distance between the professional historian and the amateur writing history. The function then of a history such as this is to provide some flavour of the richer taste emerging in historical research.
My attempt in this book is to treat political history as a skeletal framework in order to provide a chronological bearing, even if chronology is not always certain. This also introduces a few names of rulers as a more familiar aspect of early Indian history. However, the major focus of each chapter is the attempt to broadly interrelate the political, economic, social and religious aspects of a period with the intention of showing where and why changes have occurred and how these in turn have had an effect on each aspect. Where there are continuities these will become apparent. The subdivisions in each chapter, therefore, are not meant to suggest separate entities, but are pointers to what is significant in that period. The contents of the chapters do not exactly match the periods listed in the first chapter in my reconsideration of periodization, but the book does follow the pattern suggested.
The pattern of change moves from small societies and states with a relatively uncomplicated organization to the emergence of more complex societies, often accompanied by large states and the requirements of such states. In summary form, the latter included a variety of facets, such: the need to administer extensive territory, literally , in terms of the reality on the ground; agrarian and commercial economies of varying kinds; diverse social forms, some of which were viewed as part of a uniform caste organization, while others were described as deviant forms; the structures of knowledge and the way in which their ideological formulations were linked to other aspects of society and culture; manifold religious sects expressing social concerns, as well as incorporating ideas that ranged form mythology to philosophical notions; creative literature of various kinds; the location of sacred sites that gave a tangible presence to religious sects and their varied forms of worship. Implicit in the listing of these items are the ways in which they are linked, and their forms are either influential or fade away. The discussion of these links and the changes they bring about, in other words the explanation of historical change, will hopefully unfold the narrative.
The structure of administration that helped the define the nature of the state began as a rudimentary form of ensuring the functioning of a particular form of government, for instance chiefship or kingship. It tended to become increasingly complex as it had to adjusted to the environment ñ forests, pastures, deserts, fields, mountains, seas ñ and the environment could be diverse in the large states, which sometimes prevented a neat, uniform administration. The notion of governance, therefore was modified up to a point by local requirements. The balance between the concentration and the distribution of power was another determining factor of administration, as was the control over resources. Theories of governance would both have influences, and been influenced by, the form of administration. Territory included within a state could be defined by campaigns where a successful campaign brought in more territory, or else the existing territory could be eroded if the campaign failed. Such demarcations derive from politics, but also, although to a lesser extent, from terrain.
Economies were matched to the patterns of states and to the power that they wielded. Agrarian economies varied in relation to ecology, crop patterns, methods of irrigation and the hierarchy of control over agricultural land. The latter was initially diverse, but slowly evolved into forms that extended over large areas. The forms grew out of matters relating to sources of power, resources for the economies and the diverse methods of obtaining and controlling human labour. The growth of cities is also a pointer to commerce, with trade being the most effective economy in some areas. Histories of India in the past have been essentially land-locked, with maritime trade playing a marginal role. This is now being corrected by the attention given to maritime trade, both in terms of the commercial economy and the creation of new social identities involving traders who settled in India.
There has been a tendency to treat caste as a uniform social organization in the subcontinent. But there are variations in terms of whether landowning groups or trading groups were dominant, a dominance that could vary regionally. The hierarchical ordering of society became uniform, but there were ways of handling the hierarchy that introduced regional variations. Both agriculture and commerce allow a different set of freedoms to, and restrictions on, castes. This raises the question of whether in some situations wealth, rather than caste-ranking, was not the more effective gauge of patronage and power. The formation of castes is now being explored as a way of understanding how Indian society functioned. Various possibilities include the emergence of castes from clans of forest-dwellers, professional groups of religious sects. Caste is therefore seen as a less rigid and frozen system than it was previously thought to be, but at the same time this raises a new set of interesting questions for social historians.
The manifold expressions of structured knowledge are generally seen as tied to philosophical notions, as indeed they were. But not all categories of knowledge were invariably divorced from technological practices and texts. The techniques of preserving knowledge or the methods of advancing knowledge are diverse, ranging form the oral to the literate, and incorporate, at various levels, the technological as well as the theoretical. Equally important are the intellectual contestations between the heterodoxy and the orthodoxy, between the nature of belief and the nature of doubt.
Creative literature is characteristic of every period, but the predominant forms that it takes would appear to vary. The great oral compositions, such as the epics, took shape in the early times, while the more courtly literature of the educated elite became more frequent from the early centuries of the Christian era. Nevertheless, even if courts fostered poetry and drama of a sophisticated kind, the popularity of epics continued. This popularity is demonstrated from time to time in the choice of themes for courtly literature selected from popular literature, but of course treated in a different manner.
Similarly, religious literature ranges from ritual texts to the compositions of religious poets and teachers intended for a popular audience, and the intricacies of the philosophical discourse intended for other audiences. Since the sources are largely those of the elite, we have less information of the religions of ordinary people, and what we do know comes indirectly from the sources. Possibly the excavation of settlements in the future will provide more data on popular religion. But from what can be gathered there appears to have been a considerable continuity at the popular level, for example in the worship of local goddesses ñ as would be expected.
Apart from the study of texts, on which the initial understanding of Indian religions was based, the history of religions in India has been studied by investigating cults with information on ritual and belief, and working on the history of sects that extends to the social groups supporting particular beliefs and forms of worship. Arguing the Vedic Brahmanism ñ drawing its identity from the Vedic corpus ñ was a religious for associated with socially dominant groups, supporting practices and beliefs that could be seen as an orthodoxy, there have been studies of movements that have distanced themselves in various ways from Vedic Brahmanism. The Shramana group ñ Buddhism, Jainism and various 'heterodox' sects ñ is one such well-established group. More recently, sects within the Hindu tradition deriving their identity from the texts known as the
and the
variously linked with or distanced from the orthodoxy, are being seen as constituting what some historians of religion prefer to call Puranic Hinduism or the Puranic religions. The distinguishing features relate to differences in belief and ritual from Vedic Brahmanism. The history of these sects points to processes that either retain their distinctiveness or else encourage an accommodation with Veid Brahmanism, although the two are not equated.
Close identities between religious sects and castes are frequent in Indian religion and the multiplicity of reasonably independent sects has led some scholars to speak of the Hindu religions (in the plural). The term 'Hindu' to describe a religious identity came into currency as late as the second millennium AD. Prior to that, sectarian identities were more frequently referred to, since the over-arching term
included not only sacred duties but also a range of social obligations. Sects are not invariably formed by breaking away from historical religious mainstream, but are at times born from a mosaic of belief, worship and mythology coming together. Relating religious sects to castes as segments of society provides pointers to where religious and social concerns overlap. What is of greater interest is the manner in which some of these popular manifestations of religion find their way into the religious activity of the elite.
This last aspect also introduces a dimension relating to the history of art that perhaps requires a fuller integration into history. The history of art is no longer confined to discussing an image isolated in a museum or a structure seen as an entity by itself. Each is part of a larger history. Architecture, for instance, has also to be viewed as representing an institution, and both institutional and aesthetic needs would determine form. In many ways narrative provides a bridge, whether it be stories relating to the life of the Buddha or the mythology surrounding deities. At one level these are representations of reality, but are not merely that, and their other meanings also have to be read. Similarly, there remains the perennial question of whether the icon of a deity is to be viewed primarily as an aesthetic object of a religious representation, or both, or much more. There is also the question raised by art historians as to when an image become a stereotype. This is related to the question of the identities or artists or architects. These remain largely anonymous in the earlier periods, barring an occasional name, and it is only in the later period that names are mentioned more frequently so that we learn something about them. But even this information is limited, although we know relatively more about their patrons. Our contemporary aesthetic concerns become the primary, although these are different from the aesthetics of earlier times. As has been rightly said, we have to assess how much was routine and how much was inspired by the ideas of their time, which means that historians have to recover 'the period eye'. Implicit in these lists of items, and in their narration and discussion aspects of the past, are theories of explanation. My attempt to address these aspects leads to a presentation of how history moved and societies changed in the Indian subcontinent. There is now far greater sensitivity among historians of early India about the way in which early history is written and the intellectual dimensions of this historiography. Four decades ago, this was a preliminary inquiry but it has since become a theme of considerable historical interest. This has also made historians more aware of their own location on the historiographical map. To that extent, historical argument has become more demanding and more taut. Given the centrality of theories of explanation in the historical research that has followed, the narrative of history has been encouraged to present connections between the personalities of the past, their activities and the degree to which they made or were made by their historical context where information is available. However, barring a few exceptions, it is the historical context that has primacy, which is evident also in the shift of focus to the group. Inevitably, the range of players has increased with some attention to groups earlier thought to be insignificant and to activities earlier thought to be marginal. The change aims at a more integrated understanding of a complex society, its various mutations, its creativity and its efforts at enhancing its contributions to civilization.
End Notes
1. This book covers the early part of the history of pre-modern south Asia. Terms such as 'India' and 'Indian' apply to the subcontinent, except where specified as referring to the modern nation state of India.
2. A hymn from the
evoking the solar deity, and regarded as particularly holy.
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£59,950 2 Bedrooms Murrayfield Way, Darlington
A charming two bedroom end link property situated on the Red Hall Estate close to local amenities and excellent routeways across town. The property is offered with deceptively spacious living accommodation and has been priced to achieve a speedy sale.
Venture Properties - Darlington
£59,950 Sold STC 2 Bedrooms Stockton Road, Darlington, DL1
This property is going to auction on Wednesday 12th June at Ramside Hall Hotel, County Durham, DH1 1TD. Registration starts at 6.30pm and the auction starts at 7.00pm.
This property is for sale by the modern auction method of sale also known as a
This property is for sale by the modern auction method of sale also known as a
Robinsons Chartered Surveyors - Darlington
£61,500 2 Bedrooms Locomotive Street, Darlington
Located in the Springfield area of Darlington this two bedroom end terrace with garage comes to the market with no onward chain and would be and ideal investment or first time buy. The property is within easy reach of supermarkets, bus routes, schools,
Venture Properties - Darlington
£61,500 2 Bedrooms Locomotive Street, Darlington
Offered for sale with NO ONWARD CHAIN, an ideal investment for the first time buyer or investor. The property is within easy access of amenities and schools. Briefly comprising living room, kitchen, bathroom/WC and two good sized bedrooms. Externally
Nick & Gordon Carver - Darlington
£64,950 Sold STC 3 Bedrooms Headingley Crescent, Darlington, DL1
An impressive three bedroom mid link property located in the Redhall area of Darlington. EPC Rating DThis property must be viewed internally to appreciate what it has to offer. A fitted kitchen . The property comprises entrance hall, lounge, dining room,
Your Move - Darlington
£67,500 Sold STC 2 Bedrooms Gouldsmith Gardens, Darlington, DL1
A rare chance to purchase a lovely two bedroom first floor flat, subject to leasehold, situated in the popular Whinfield location of Darlington. The property is extremely rare in this location making viewing strongly advised to avoid disappointment. The
Your Move - Darlington
£70,000 2 Bedrooms Rose Lane, Haughton, Darlington DL1
###new price ###spacious two bed###en-Suite Shower Room### two Reception Room###no chain### Deceptively Spacious Two Bedroom Mid Terrace Situated In The Popular Haughton Village Area Of Darlington, The Property Briefly Comprises; Entrance Hall, Lounge Le
Northgate Estate Agents (Darlington)
£70,000 2 Bedrooms Belsay Walk, Darlington DL1
Offers in Excess Of £70, 000 To £80, 000 We are pleased to offer to the market this two bedroom mid terrace property located in the popular Haughton area of Darlington. Benefiting from off street parking for two cars, full uPVC double glazing & gas cen
Northgate Estate Agents (Darlington)
£76,950 3 Bedrooms Hercules Street, Darlington, DL1
We are delighted to offer to the market this bedroomed mid terraced property which is located in the Springfield area of Darlington off Wylam Avenue.Immaculately presented and comprises Entrance Vestibule. Lounge. Kitchen/Dining Area. Bathroom WC.
Your Move - Darlington
£79,950 Sold STC 2 Bedrooms Kintyre Close, Darlington, DL1
This is a fabulous opportunity to acquire a TWO BEDROOMED MODERN LINK HOUSE which lies on the desirable Whinfield estate. The property is at the end of a block of similar properties and has the additional benefit of a very large side garden. The garden
Robinsons Chartered Surveyors - Darlington
£80,000 2 Bedrooms Inglewood Close, Darlington, DL1
This property is being marketed on behalf of Taylor Wimpey under their Part Exchange Property Scheme.Priced to achieve a quick sale.An excellent opportunity to purchase this two bedroom property which is located in this sought after area of Darlington,
Your Move - Darlington
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Community Status Updates
Maximus Decimus
Can't believe Richie got me the 132 quid tongs! Ta man http://yfrog.com/kjggvscjJul 29 2011 09:40 PM
"@aprecious: @gingerkev my brother is called kev and he is ginger :)". You could call him 'Ginger Kev'!Jul 29 2011 09:40 PM
Mack: We must get better: SWINTON go into tomorrow's co-operative Championship 1 clash with London Skolars wit... http://tinyurl.com/3edjq2oJul 29 2011 07:38 PM
Gav Wilson
Who will win tonight? Join us for live scores and discussion now! - www.loverugbyleague.com/livescores @LoveRugbyLeague #RugbyLeagueJul 29 2011 07:38 PM
Get in there jimmy, has there ever been a better swing bowler #greatestever #testmatch #cricket #engindJul 29 2011 06:38 PM
Maximus Decimus
Disadvantages of leaving Widnes #1 - in a nuclear holocaust I now stand a lower chance of survivingJul 29 2011 06:37 PM
james cunny
Mid day finish tomorrow then a week off that's how I roll defo gonna have a good drink for nana tomorrowJul 29 2011 06:37 PM
"@sarahjw21: Well that nap made me feel better... Not". It's a 50/50 thing with napping. Sometimes you feel good and the others, worse!Jul 29 2011 06:37 PM
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Gav Wilson
Michael Coady is being released from his Leeds Rhinos contract a year early, one for Dave Woods to work on at York? #RugbyLeagueJul 29 2011 03:34 PM
Gav Wilson
Only someone with the lyrical genius of Pitbull could rhyme the word 'Kodak' with the word 'Kodak'.Jul 29 2011 01:32 PM
John Drake
By popular demand @rlworld mag is now available on #android as well as #ipad and web at http://tinyurl.com/6ya9esq #rugbyleagueJul 29 2011 12:31 PM


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Updated 04/10/2014
A seven-stop commuter funicular begins at Piazza della Nunziata and ends at a high lookout on the fortified gates in the 17th-century city walls. Ringed around the circumference of the city are a number of huge fortresses; this gate was part of the city's system of defenses. From Righi you can undertake scenic all-day hikes from one fortress to the next.
Piazza della Nunziata, Genoa, 16122, Italy
Website: www.amt.genova.it
Sight Details:
Updated 04/10/2014


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AISD board shouldn't rush bond decision
Arlington school board members, scheduled to meet Thursday to consider calling a $663.1 million bond election in May, should take their time in that decision.
There's no need to rush. The deadline for calling the election is still three weeks away.
Trustees should use this time to scrub the list of projects, which was put together during five months of deliberation by the 38-member Capital Needs Steering Committee.
There's every reason to believe the committee has done a good job. In fact, the six board members at last week's meeting were unanimous in accepting the committee's recommendations. Committee members deserved that show of confidence, just as they deserve the board's thanks for their hard work.
But none of the committee members are responsible to the district's taxpayers for these decisions. Every school board member is.
Accepting the committee's recommendations should not be taken as a commitment to put all of them on the ballot.
Taxpayers deserve a thorough airing of the proposals by their elected board members. They deserve to see those officials working hard to determine for themselves whether each dollar in borrowed bond money is necessary and will be spent wisely.
They deserve the opportunity, on more than one occasion, to comment to board members about the proposals.
They deserve to know how much this borrowing can be expected to cost them.
The project list is long and impressive: two new elementary schools; specialized centers for students focused on fine arts, career and technical training and agricultural science; a $25 million districtwide athletic complex; multipurpose activity centers at each high school at a total cost of $60 million.
Taxpayers deserve to hear their school board deliberate how to package the bond list on the ballot. Sometimes, districts put their entire list in one proposition for an all-or-nothing vote. Others split proposals into two, three or more propositions so voters have more choices.
A survey conducted at school district expense indicated that more than half the district's voters would support issuing as much as $700 million in bonds. Survey results are no guarantee of election results.
The next three weeks are a valuable time for board members to convince voters they are being presented with the right bond package under the right terms.
Local Spotlight
Join the Discussion
Fort Worth Star-Telegram is pleased to provide this opportunity to share information, experiences and observations about what's in the news. Some of the comments may be reprinted elsewhere on the site or in the newspaper. We encourage lively, open debate on the issues of the day, and ask that you refrain from profanity, hate speech, personal comments and remarks that are off point. Thank you for taking the time to offer your thoughts.


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A tribute to Keebler
This is a little tribute to my loyal dog Keebler who was with us for fourteen years until yesterday.
Some of you may remember the story of how he got his name. His mother was a stray who had a litter of pups in a hollow tree. Hence his name Keebler (as in the Keebler elves of cookie fame).
I found him beside the road while walking one day. He was just a young dog when we moved to this property and established Triple Creek. He was allowed to run free on our 52 acres and stayed with me whatever I was doing waiting patiently for me to finish. Always ready for a walk. Always welcoming us home with an excited bark. Warning of any approaching visitors as soon as they turned in the driveway.Patient and gentle with the grandkids. Barely tolerant of a new puppy (Rebel) that pulled on his tail constantly, but who he came to accept as a pal. He will be greatly missed.
And on a lighter note:
TO GOD: from the dogs
Dear God: Why do humans smell the flowers, but seldom, if ever, smell
one another?
Dear God: When we get to heaven, can we sit on your couch? Or is it
still the same old story?
Dear God: Why are there cars named after the jaguar, the cougar, the
mustang, the colt, the stingray, and the rabbit, but not ONE named for
a dog? How often do you see a cougar riding around? We do love a nice
ride! Would it be so hard to rename the "Chrysler Eagle" the Chrysler
Dear God: If a dog barks his head off in the forest and no human hears
him, is he still a bad dog?
Dear God: We dogs can understand human verbal instructions, hand
signals, whistles, horns, clickers, beepers, scent ID's,
energy fields, and Frisbee flight paths. What do humans understand?
Dear God: More meatballs, less spaghetti, please.
Dear God: Are there mailmen in Heaven? If there are, will I have to
Dear God: Let me give you a list of just some of the things I must
remember in order to be a good dog;
1. I will not eat the cats' food before they eat it or after they
it up.
2. I will not roll on dead seagulls, fish, crabs, etc., just because I
like the way they smell.
3. The diaper pail is not a cookie jar.
4. The sofa is not a 'face towel'.
5. The garbage collector is not stealing our stuff
6. My head does not belong in the refrigerator.
7. I will not bite the officer's hand when he reaches in for Mom's
driver's license and registration.
8. I will not play tug-of-war with Dad's underwear when he's on the
9. Sticking my nose into someone's crotch is an unacceptable way of
saying "hello".
10. I don't need to suddenly stand straight up when I'm under the
11. I must shake the rainwater out of my fur before entering the house
- not after.
12. I will not throw up in the car.
13. I will not come in from outside and immediately drag my butt.
14. I will not sit in the middle of the living room and lick my crotch
when we have company.
15. The cat is not a 'squeaky toy' so when I play with him and he
that noise, it's usually not a good thing.
And, finally, my last question...
Dear God: When I get to Heaven may I have my testicles back?
Norma, I agree.....a truly lovely and loving tribute to your Keebler. Thank you for sharing a bit of his life with us. He looks to have been a very special and important part of your family. I am sure his passing leaves a huge hole in your heart.
I enjoyed the Dog's letter to God....
My best to you..
A handsome boy indeed, Norma.
The Last Battle
If it should be that I grow frail and weak
And pain should keep me from my sleep,
Then will you do what must be done,
For this -- the last battle -- can't be won.
You will be sad I understand,
But don't let grief then stay your hand,
For on this day, more than the rest,
Your love and friendship must stand the test.
We have had so many happy years,
You wouldn't want me to suffer so.
When the time comes, please, let me go.
Take me to where to my needs they'll tend,
Only, stay with me till the end
And hold me firm and speak to me
Until my eyes no longer see.
I know in time you will agree
It is a kindness you do to me.
Although my tail its last has waved,
From pain and suffering I have been saved.
Don't grieve that it must be you
Who has to decide this thing to do;
We've been so close -- we two -- these years,
Don't let your heart hold any tears.
-- Unknown
A beautiful tribute, Norma, and a beautiful boy. Such sweet and gentle eyes.
Old Dogs Do Not Die
We have a secret, you and I,
That no one else shall know,
For who but I can see you lie
Each night in the fireglow?
And who but I can reach my hand
Before we go to bed,
And feel the living warmth of you
And touch your silken head?
And only I walk woodland paths,
And see you ahead of me,
Your small form racing with the wind,
So young again, and free.
And only I can see you swim
In every brook I pass...
And when I call, no one but I
Can see the bending grass.
Author Unknown
hi norma. what a wonderful tribute, it just brought tears to my eyes... we had to put down our dog of 14 years a month ago and i feel your pain so fresh again... your family album is just beautiful. i still remember when you lost your horse... animals bring so much joy, i just wish they lived so much longer... i hope your heart heals soon, your added humor was a wonderful touch.
i just read a book last week that had a wonderful concept of death, seeing keebler by the river reminded me of it. the thought was our souls are all collective, like in a river. when they tumble over high waterfall, like in yosemite, the water turns into spray or droplets, the individual souls living, its still water, just unique. when the water falls, it recollects into a river again to continue on. seeing keebler by the river made me think he is not alone now...
Thanks everyone for acknowleging my pain. He was a good dog. I am grateful he was able to care for himself till the end and went before I got up yesterday morning. I have had to make the decision for other pets in the past and found it much harder.
Jain, I am sorry you had that sorrow recently too. I like the concept of death you related. I remembered how you always planted a tree or something for all your pets. Keebler now has a small memoral garden.
Sue and Eden , thanks for adding your poems.
Bob and I just read the book "Marly and Me " a month or so ago. A good read about a dog and his owner , but I dreaded reading the end.
I can't imagine my life without animals. Thankfully we still have Rebel and Jasmine.
Norma this thread is bringing tears to my eyes. Keebler looks like he was a happy, loving and well loved pet. I'm so sad for your loss. No matter how much we know they aren't as long lived as we would wish for we are never ready to say goodby.
Norma...what a lovely, *loving* tribute to Keebler and what a beautiful dog! Gosh he's even gorgeous in those awkward "teen years"! At about 6 months old all of my dogs always looked like they were just ears and long legs. :-)
I especially love the pics of Keebler with the grandchildren - it's so obvious that they loved him and he them. The pic of your grandson looking into Keeblers eyes and Keebler looking into his says it all about wonderful Keebler. I know it's not much comfort now, but Keebler really was a lucky dog and I can see in his eyes that he knew it too! He had a good life! :-)
I loved the letter to God too...that was so cute! And the beautiful tributes from Eden & Sue. So I hope you don't mind but I want to leave you with just a few of my favorites too:
Don't accept your dog's admiration as conclusive evidence that you are wonderful. LOL, I have to remind myself of that *all* the time! :-)
A dog is the only thing on earth that loves you more than he loves himself.
We wonder why the dogs always drink out of our toilets, but look at it from their point of view: why do humans keep peeing into their water bowls?
Near this spot are deposited the remains
of one who possessed Beauty
without Vanity,
without Insolence,
without Ferocity,
And all the Virtues of Man
Without his Vices.
This Praise,which would be unmeaning flattery if inscribed over Human Ashes,
but is just a tribute to the Memory of "Boatswain," a Dog
who was born at Newfoundland, May, 1803, And died at Newstead Abbey Nov. 18, 1808.
- Lord Byron -
Norma, I wish there were something I could say to make you feel better (though I know at the moment there is not). It's so hard losing our loving companions. And so sorry to hear about your loss too Jain. It's been eight years since I lost Spike and almost 10 years since I lost Willie and though of course life goes on, still, every time I think of them, I wish I could have them back here with me. It's kind of weird cause the love and the grief is so real, but you think a lot of people wouldn't understand, would think "it's a dog". But, luckily, we have this place and these people to talk to, right Norma?
Shannon is playing in my head...
Norma, what a beautiful tribute you have done for your Keebler. And what a lovely boy he was--you can see the total love in his eyes, and how great he was with the grandkids.
He is waiting, with my Boomer and all the other beloved pets, for you at The Rainbow Bridge. So sorry for your loss. Until you meet again, I hope you enjoy the link below, and take some small comfort from it as I did...
Here is a link that might be useful: The Rainbow Bridge
Hi Norma:
Keebler definitely had some Golden in him. Isn't it wonderful when a happy accident occurs, we find a pet maybe when we aren't even looking for one, or it finds us, and they turn out to be such a nice one?
Ei, that was a great poem, it really struck a nerve with me. I am going to save it, and you also reminded me of my dog Ginger, who was a very special pet for us. She was a dog like no other. She has been gone 8 years, and we all still miss her, and share Ginger stories, eventhough Max and Maggie are good in their own way.
jain! so nice to "see" you. Sorry about your guy too. I miss your posts and wonder how your garden is going.
I am working on a post for the regular idyll.
Norma, you have composed a lovely memorial to Keebler -- everyone has already said such lovely things as well - I hope they are a teeny comfort to you -- Keebler was a lucky fellow to have found such a wonderful family. I am sure he rewarded you in a fitting fashion just as well. I hope you all find peace in this hard time.
I knew you would all understand. Ei I like the cute quotes as well as the serious ones. And just think Lord Byron felt the same way about his dog almost two hundred years ago. Thankfully we had Keebler over twice as long as he had Boatswain.
Taryn, I have read The Rainbow Bridge before, but never saw it illustrated and with music. It was very touching.
Saucy, he never liked having the camera pointing at him so I always had to catch him off guard. I think Sue has that problem with her dogs too.
Deanne, this post wasn't meant to make anyone sad, just to share. But animal lovers that we are all just can't help shedding a tear or two.
Woody, I thought you had lost a dog recently too, but wasn't sure. I'm glad you have room in your heart for another one. I hope it works out.
Drema,Marian, Chelone and anyone else . Thanks for caring.
I think the other dogs are grieving a bit too. But life goes on. I think we will all go for a walk and enjoy the crisp fall day. Norma
Hey Mom,
This is a great tribute to "Keebie". I'm really going to miss his wonderful welcome home greetings. Every time I came home for a visit it was like he was saying "I know you, were have you been?" I hope your memory is as good. LOL I was watching a dog show last night on TV with Tony and had taken the day off today to get some things done around the house. I had a great time just a little while ago throwing the ball for Tyson and Clover. Then when I logged in and saw your email it must have been a sign to appreciate the loyality and companionship that our animals bring us. I'm so thankful that I grew up in a family that had pets. Even living in the burbs is a little easier when there are animals around you.
In loving memory of:
Honey, Teddy, Sugar, Jaybo, Cody, Zelda, BJ, Cody, Snowflake, Fritz and Keebler.
By the way, Virginia was beautiful!
Love you,
Norma, Thankyou so much for sharing your special friend with me. He was so beautiful. and the "Dear God" brought some fond memories of some of my special friends. and the other posts esp the Rainbow Bridge really brought some bigtime tears not especially of sadness but of the joy and love of knowing these loved pet friends and i beleive i will see them all again. Be glad you knew Keebler.Thankyou again


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Tag Archives: Lexington Ky
Look What's New – March 2015
It is that time of year, when new products start to arrive here at Willis Music in Lexington, KY. Come by our store on West Tiverton Way, and see the newest products available in 2015! Here is a sneak peak: … Continue reading
Open Mic Night!
Due to unforseen circumstances we have had to CANCEL our Open Mic Night scheduled for March 30. We hope to bring this back soon! It's back!!!!!
March 2015 Calendar of Events
Here is a complete listing of Sales & Events taking place this month at the Lexington, KY Willis Music store! Don't miss out on our month long PERCUSSION SALE! Check out this to learn more: http://lexington.willismusic.com/2015/03/march-percussion-sale-event We have also extended … Continue reading
March Percussion Sale Event
March to the beat of your own drummer at the MARCH PERCUSSION SALE EVENT taking place at Lexington, Kentucky's One Stop Music Shop – Willis Music. All month long we will have have great deals on drum sets, cymbals, and … Continue reading
Vocal Workshop – March 28, 2015
Willis Music in Lexington is hosting a Vocal Workshop led by local jazz vocalist Jessie Powell. This workshop is for singers of ALL genres and experience! Soon we will announce the names of 2-3 other vocalists/producers who will be on … Continue reading
2015 Piano Workshop Dates
We are excited to announce the dates for the 2015 Willis Music Piano Workshops in Lexington, KY. MARK YOUR CALENDARS NOW! Wednesday, July 29 Clinician: Eric Baumgartner and…… Monday, October 26 Clinician: Phillip Keveren This piano clinics are FREE for all … Continue reading
Spring 2015 Group Guitar Class
Are you new to guitar and just want to learn to play? Or an Intermediate player ready to go to the next level? Are you an Advanced player or a Pro stuck in a rut? Our next Guitar Group Classes … Continue reading
Willis Music Nominated for Lexington Music Award
Willis Music in Lexington, KY has been nominated for the 2015 Lexington Music Award for Best Music Store (instruments)! This is the first-ever year for this event, and we are honored to be a part of it! The Lexington Music … Continue reading
Free Guitar Clinic – January 31
Join us this Saturday, January 31 @ 2p.m. for a FREE Guitar Clinic titled "Breaking Out of the Box" here at Willis Music in Lexington, KY! The clinician will be Berklee College of Music graduate, Alan Robinson, who demonstrates techniques … Continue reading
Christmas Week at Willis Music
Christmas is just one week away! Come to Willis Music to find the perfect gift for the musicians in your life, and fill the stockings of all your loved ones! This Saturday we are giving away a $50 Gift Card … Continue reading


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The two major ways are sclerotherapy or laser technology (sometimes used together). Sclerotherapy is an injection into the vein which causes it to collapse, and laser technology just removes it altogether. Laser tech is best for small or medium-sized veins, and scleotherapy is used for large ones. If you are curious about this, and wonder if it may be right for you, contact a doctor in Pasadena today!


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Can You Contract HIV From Blood On Hand
Here's a taste of what TheBody.com has to offer on this topic:
Get the Facts
Women and HIV/AIDS...HIV. Whilemany questions remain unanswered, available information shows that HIV affectsmen and women differently in some ways: When women are first diagnosed, they tend to have lower viral loads (amount of HIV in the blood) compared to men who are newlydiagnosed Women generally have a faster disease progression, and lower CD4 cell counts, than men with equivalent viral loads Women are more likely than men to develop bacterial...
Ask the Experts
hand washing (aids and hep c)Thanks for answering my previous question, very interesting info. I have 1 more question, would you be so helpful and answer this question, like I said I last time I will happilly donate to your site.My question is this:Really hard to explain this,...
Response from Barbara McGovern, M.D.
Tufts University School of MedicineI would not expect transmission through this route. Read more »
Could i contract HIV?Dear Doctor Bob, I should start by saying that i have a really bad case of OCD. my story is this...i went to the supermarket and used one of those touch screen self check outs. When i got home, i washed my hands a couple of times with antibacterial...
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...right? Of course right!So to sum up, touching the touch screen self-checkout at the local Piggly Wiggly and then washing your hands "a couple of times" and then touching the string of your tampon, which touches your "intimates" carries absolutely... Read more »
Blood got on my hand and I can't function....Hello DoctorIm at my wits end. My panic attacks have culminated due to a new incident involving blood from an unknown source, and now I basically want to drive my car into a tree just to escape these worries. Can you please help me? Heres the...
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...Hello,HIV cannot permeate intact skin. Your fears of "microscopic cuts too small to be seen" are irrational and unwarranted. Your HIV-acquisition Read more »
Broken skin on handsWhat are the chances of contracting HIV through broken skin while shaking hands with a HIV positive person? No blood was seen but suspect dry blood to be present?Since then I have had diarhea, headache and sore groin but possibly due to serious...
Response from Ewald Horwath, M.D.
University of Miami School of Medicine...You cannot get HIV infection by shaking hands.Your symptoms are due to anxiety or something else, but not HIV. Read more »
HIV Transmission...scratched? Can HIV be transmitted by being spit on by an HIV-infected person? Can I get HIV from casual contact (shaking hands, hugging, using a toilet, drinking from the same glass, or the sneezing and coughing of an infected person)? ... Read more »
Understanding HIV-Related Lab Tests I: Complete Blood Count and Blood Chemistry... Lab Tests Are Important Tools The Basics Complete Blood Count (CBC) Blood Chemistry (Chemistry or Chem Screens) The Bottom Line Lab Tests Are Important Tools Having regular Read more »
The Faith in Prevention Training Manual: Tools for Your HIV/AIDS Ministry...cannot live for very long outside the body. Therefore, the virus is not transmitted through day-to-day activities such as shaking hands, hugging, or even kissing. You cannot become infected from a toilet seat, drinking fountain, doorknob, dishes,... Read more »
Three Reasons Why Criminalizing HIV Is So Wrong...responsibility." Currently, there are no statutes explicitly criminalizing HIV transmission or exposure in DC but in the right hands of a paranoid, uninformed "advocate" that could all change. Here are three reasons why the criminalization of... Read more »
Connect With Others
is this a risk?
Posted by mslatinpear, 1 Reply...blood test. i'm very worried that I could have contracted HIV or something from the blood on the chair. She didn't wash her hands between wiping the blood with the alcohol wipes and using a new wipe on me. what if she had gotten something on... Read more »
I have HIV from Hand job or sex?
Posted by goloka, 3 Replies...them all back. Did I contract HIV ? Please help ? Q: From any of these act, did I contract HIV ? Q: What are chance of me contracting HIV from hand job ? Q: What does Absence on WB meant, 3 years ago ? Q: Did I get any STD from the Hand Job... Read more »
Posted by Anonymous, 3 Replies...penis was a nono. i did penetrated him with a dildo he had. the only thing that worries me is that i touch, hold the dildo in my hand while penetrating him. there was no condom on the dildo, or a glove on my hand. after realizing his scars i did... Read more »
possible eye exposure?
Posted by Anonymous, 1 Reply...Hello. I would like to know if there is risk in the following situation which I experienced a few months ago. I have a fear to blood and contracting HIV for the last couple of years, just for your info. A few months a go, on a warm day I went... Read more »
Resource Centers
Guides for People With HIV


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Clanard Court Hotel
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Photos of Clanard Court Hotel
TripAdvisor Reviews Clanard Court Hotel Athy
Travel Blogs from Athy
An Irish Christening
... Today I've packed up as I'm staying at Viviane's house tonight, but first we are stopping at Newcastle to attend the christening of John and Kay's youngest grandchild. They have 10 grandchildren in total. At the christening I met all of John and Kay's children and grandchildren. There are four christenings happening today, and the grandchild of John & Kay will be christened with his cousin from the other side. They are both cute little red heads. ...
Wedding Weekend & Greene's Saga End
... enjoyable lunch, then did some odds and ends to get ready for the Sligo roadtrip (gathered firewood, put Lupus in a makeshift laundry basket cage, etc). We had a pleasant roadtrip there, chatting some, sleeping, having some ice cream along the way, and finally arriving. We unpacked, explored the cute cottage, and got settled in. Catherine made dinner and served us wine by my nice cozy fire. We drank by the fire, and soon went to bed after a long day and weekend.
A goodbye.
... wrote the script did a great job. Nervy close win, series nearly in their hands before a close loss, looking to have it won at 19-3 before having to, as they say, go out and win it again from 19-16. Boy how they won it. 41-16, running tries in for fun in a burst from 20 or so minutes to go, making it comfortable. That was the last thing we could do together. Linda had a flight at 4.15 she could probably switch to, not wanting to hang around for her originally scheduled 10/7 ...
... kids who currently just won't eat anything at all, unless it is a treat of some sort (especially since they have been sick so they are just not eating anything at all). I don't know if I will be successful or not, and I will have to change my way of thinking a lot as well but I think it is something I can do. I will develop recipes that can taylor to kids and adults alike and also recipes that are easy simple and able to be ...
On our way to Dublin
... than the old walk thru arches. We soon found our gate and then spent the next 3+ hrs. waiting for our flight to depart @1:37 pm.
The flight went very smoothly and we arrived in ATL about 15 minutes early. Took the ATL train over to Terminal E and our gate.. Bonnie & Terry were scheduled to arrive at the same time we were; they showed up a few minutes after we arrived at the gate.
The flight went well with ...


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Americas Best Value Inn Buda - Buda
15101 IH 35 - Buda1-877-662-6988
Searching for convenient motel rates in Buda? Take a look at Americas Best Value Inn Buda!
This Buda motel offers free Wi-Fi and laundry facilities. Don't forget to pack your swimwear as this motel features a seasonal outdoor pool.
Sit back and relax in the lobby which has free newspapers and coffee.
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Breakfast at Americas Best Value Inn Buda
A free continental breakfast is served each morning.
Facilities at Americas Best Value Inn
- Personal newspapers
- Newspapers
- Front desk - 24 hour
- Outdoor swimming pool
- Internet/Email services
- Laundry room
- Free parking
Know before you go
- Only registered guests are allowed in the guestrooms.
- The property has connecting/adjoining rooms, which are subject to availability and can be requested by contacting the property using the number on the booking confirmation.
Check-in: after 3 PM.
Check-out: before 11 AM.
Please contact the property ahead of time if you are planning to arrive after 9 PM. Guests planning to arrive after 9 PM must contact this property in advance to arrange check-in. Please contact the office using the information on the reservation confirmation received after booking.
PolicyExtra-person charges may apply and vary depending on hotel policy.
Government-issued photo identification and a credit card or cash deposit are required at check-in for incidental charges.
Special requests are subject to availability upon check-in and may incur additional charges. Special requests cannot be guaranteed.
- Minimum Spring Break check-in age is 21 years old.
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The following fees and deposits are charged by the property at time of service, check-in, or check-out.
- Cleaning deposit: USD 25.00 per stay
- Rollaway bed fee: USD 10.00 per day
The above list may not be comprehensive. Fees and deposits may not include tax and are subject to change.
Room Details
Americas Best Value Inn Buda has 42 guest rooms, all featuring free local calls and premium TV channels. Kitchen amenities include refrigerators and microwaves, making it possible to dine in while you travel.
Guests can unwind at the end of a long day and enjoy 37-inch TVs with satellite channels. Corporate travelers visiting the Buda area will benefit from free wireless high-speed Internet access as well as complimentary newspapers. Additional guest comforts include air conditioning, coffee/tea makers and blackout drapes/curtains.
Bathrooms are outfitted with shower/tub combinations.
Accommodation Services
- Air conditioning
- Mini fridge
- Coffee and tea maker
- Satellite TV
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Distances from Americas Best Value InnLady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - 11.9 km / 7.4 mi
Century South Shopping Center - 12.3 km / 7.6 mi
Southridge Plaza - 12.4 km / 7.7 mi
Circle C Golf Club - 13.2 km / 8.2 mi
Roy Kizer Golf Course - 13.6 km / 8.5 mi
McKinney Falls State Park - 13.7 km / 8.5 mi
Garrison Park - 14 km / 8.7 mi
Battle Bend Park - 14.7 km / 9.2 mi
Sunset Valley Village - 15.5 km / 9.6 mi
Burger Stadium - 15.7 km / 9.8 mi
Sunset Valley Marketfair - 15.7 km / 9.8 mi
Joslin Park - 15.7 km / 9.8 mi
Southwood Center - 15.9 km / 9.9 mi
West Gate Central - 15.9 km / 9.9 mi
Austin Department of Veterans Affairs - 16.4 km / 10.2 mi
The preferred airport for Americas Best Value Inn Buda is Austin, TX (AUS-Austin-Bergstrom Intl.) - 19.3 km / 12 mi.
Distances are calculated in a straight line from the property's location to the point of interest or airport and may not reflect actual travel distance.
Distances are displayed to the nearest 0.1 mile and kilometer.
Transportation services Americas Best Value Inn Buda
- Free parking
We have the accommodation you need, all over the world
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I don't see Dennis being as low as 5. He was just hte # 1 seed, and has a win over Gomez and two out of three wins over Kennedy. Dennis will probably be the 4th seed, now that I look at it, so it probably won't make a difference, although it's possible he could be seeded third. I think he'd prefer the 4 or 5 seed.
I think Craig will be 7th seed, Umbehauer will be 8th. Craig has a win over Umbehauer, and he's looked great winning EIWA's this weekend.
197, I'd like to see Todd as the # 1 seed, but I'm not sure how that weight will play out. It's a tough weight to seed.


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O-TOWN THROWDOWN 2April 18 * OwatonnaFour Seasons Centre
3 RIVER THROWDOWN VIIApril 25 * La CrescentLa Crescent Community Arena
NO MERCY IVMay 16 * Detroit LakesKent Freeman Arena
Austin • Torgeslive.com
RSS Feed
KOTC: March Mayhem
3-28-15 * Walker
150 -- Dan Wales def. Sam Cleveland by submission due to arm triangle choke in first round.
155 -- Jay Feiock def. Ben Miller by TKO at 3:04 of first round.
145 -- Lindsey Lawrence def. Raquel Leeper by TKO (injury) after second round.
170 -- Marc Hummel def. John Waggoner by submission due to armbar at 1:12 of first round.
195 -- Shamus O'Grady def. Dale Grindahl by submission to strikes at :40 of first round.
170 -- Josh Holtz def. Spencer Klein by unanimous decision.
140 -- Cody Bourdeau def. River Shady by unanimous decision.
145 -- Isaac Birchem def. Scott Spurgeon by submission due to armbar at 2:18 of first round.
155 -- Andrew Bushey def. Brandon Hurst by submission due to rear-naked choke at 2:38 of first round.
145 -- Andrew Yantes def. Eugene Stangel by submission to strikes at 1:42 of second round.
155 -- Jesse Hernandez def. Benneth Bowman by submission to strikes at :31 of first round.
205 -- Antonio Aguilar def. Tyler Vogel by split decision.
O-TOWN THROWDOWN IIOwatonna * April 18Four Seasons Centrecagetix.com * Tickets available now!
Copyright © 2010-2012 - Minnesota MMA email@example.com us for advertising opportunities.


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new clematis grower wants to train vine
Hi all!
The nice people in the Name That Plant forum have identified the pretty vine that has popped up in my garden as Clematis terniflora. I want to train it to the fence where it is growing - it's making an attempt on its own, but most of the plant is drooping all over the ground, so I want to help it out.
I have never trained a vine before. The fence posts/slats are very wide, so I can't just tie it up with twine. Any suggestions? Also any advice about the care and feeding of clematis would be appreciated, as I've never grown one before.
That is a very vigorous type 3 clematis and at this time of year there is little you can do with training - the plant is at its peak of growth and will die back for the winter shortly. At the end of winter - around March - you should cut back the vine pretty hard, somewhere around 18" or to the third set of buds from the ground. From that point, training should be relatively easy! Growth can be fast - this gets to be a huge vine - so you need to keep on it. Stringing fishing line can help to give support but I've found the vine able to attach and drape itself over a fence or other structure quite easily without much assistance.
In my area, the rapidly growing, large species clems like SAC need no particular fertilizing - they grow fine without it. Just provide water during very dry periods and cut back hard each March. And you should be aware that this clem is considered to be invasive in some parts of the country due to its ability to reseed freely.
I've seen folks fasten wire fencing of some kind to a fence to help clematis climb.
Also, with regard to GG's comment about cutting it down, doing this annually will keep the blossoms from being only at the top of the plant, and it will grow to full height each year after the spring pruning.
I don't know where you are, but if you are in an area where it's warm enough for the seeds to ripen, trimming most of the old blooms off the plant with something like hedge shears after the bloom is done will help keep it from seeding around any more.
Ah thanks, that's very useful, I was wondering how to promote flowering. Also good to know how to help control re-seed.
I am virtually certain I've found the parent of my plant - a neighbor about 4 doors over has a beautiful one. I'm not complaining about my freebie, but something that spreads so readily does deserve close watching. ;)
Ian, that's a beautiful plant! Definitely improves the chain link.
My fence is wide, wide, wooden slats, and the poor plant *is* having trouble climbing it. I'm very antsy to start getting it put in order ... I tacked it up in one place, but because I let it go so long on its own it's a bit of a sprawling mess. Bought some twine and will make another go this weekend; will take some more pictures as I would like more advice. I understand it's the wrong time to prune, but it is such a tangly mess ...


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Every perfect home media center needs a network attached storage. How else are you going to store your favourite TV shows and movies?
Media streaming devices are simply awesome. Those little boxes that connect to your TV can add a wealth of entertainment options to your living room. But which device is best for you?
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text: #FridayFlashback – Mandy Moore "Candy" Official Music Video By Kat Mykals February 21, 2014 10:10 AM Share on Facebook Share on Twitter It's a #FridayFlashback! That means you get another fun throwback song and official music video to get your weekend kicked off right! This week's #FridayFlashback is "Candy" from Mandy Moore and is a special request from Chandelle. I was trying to come up with a great song for you today, and Chandelle suggested this one from Mandy Moore. Enjoy your #FridayFlashback! See More #FridayFlashbacks Filed Under: #FridayFlashback, Official Music Video Category: Music, Random Thoughts, Videos, What's New Share on Facebook Share on Twitter More Leave a comment Send to a friend! Print this page Pin it! Reddit This! Share on Tumblr! Best of 106.1 KISS FM Recommended For You Around the Web


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Creating a high-quality e-mail list is essential for establishing lasting relationships with customers, writes Syed Balkhi, founder of WPBeginner. Instead of buying an e-mail list, develop your list organically. Provide multiple opportunities on your website for visitors to opt in and be precise about what they will receive, Balkhi recommends.
View Full Article in:Huffington Post, The
Published in Briefs:


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Discover a selection of top forums extreme rich on the internet. Come to share your passion on forums extreme rich and meet other fans of extreme rich. Then, why don't you create your own forum of extreme rich ?
This is the place for MMA fans to discuss MMA News, Events, and where MMA fans can give their fight predictions on MMA events.
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OP Junior Member
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I then wanted to put a custom recovery and rom manger didnt work and so I tried TWRP Manager. I selected the wrong phone, the LG G2X and it rebooted and will not come on now.
When I go to device manager, the phone is showing up as QHSUSB_BULK and when I plug the phone into the pc, a list of drives show up and windows wants me to format them.
I am wondering if anyone has the 20y files I would need to fix a hardbricked phone that doesnt have adb, fastboot or download. I believe I would need the following:
1- sbl1.img
2- aboot.img
3- rpm.img
4- tz.img
can I install an earlier firmware version or does it need to be the same exact one that was on it before?
I am talking about using this method:


text:
Tuesday, 22 Dec 2009 11:55 AM
Rocker Ronnie Wood of the Rolling Stones was given a formal police warning Tuesday for assault, his spokesman said.
Spokesman David Rigg confirmed that Wood, who is 62, received the warning, or caution, after he was arrested earlier this month for assault near his home in Esher, in southern England.
Rigg said he was unable for legal reasons to give details of who made the complaint against Wood.
A caution is a formal warning given by police. It is not a criminal conviction but police keep a record of it for five years.
Wood's private life has been in turmoil for more than a year since he started a high-profile relationship with Ekaterina Ivanova, a 20-year-old Russian cocktail waitress.
That relationship led to his divorce last month from Jo Wood, his wife of 24 years, on grounds of adultery.
The Woods have two children together.
When asked about Wood, Surrey Police said a 62-year-old man had been cautioned over a domestic incident. Neither Surrey Police nor Rigg gave any further details.
Wood issued a statement through his spokesman saying: "I am greatly relieved that this matter is resolved and look forward to 2010 very positively."
Wood is a longtime guitarist with the Rolling Stones, one of the world's most popular rock bands. He joined the band in 1976 and has spent more than three decades touring the world with the band, one of the most successful live acts in history.
According to Forbes, the band recently earned about $88 million in one 12-month stretch.
In recent years Wood has also found success as an artist, selling his paintings in numerous galleries.
His romantic troubles have provided ample fodder for Britain's tabloids, who have run repeated photographs of the craggy, aging rocker cavorting with his young Russian girlfriend.
He was treated for alcoholism in 2008.
© Copyright 2015 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
Tuesday, 24 Feb 2015 18:23 PM
Little Rock, Arkansas, gained attention during the Civil Rights movement when nine African-American teenagers entered th . . .
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Michele Bachmann, a potential GOP presidential hopeful in 2016, seems to be a political target that liberals love to sho . . .
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Imagine walking into Dick's Sporting Goods to make a gun purchase, something that's entirely legal under the Second Amen . . .
This serial criminal, like at least half the Democrat Party, belongs in federal...
Another disgusting betrayal of an ally by this Administration -- driven solely...
I don't feel anyone should be denied a seat at the Lunch counter..
But I do...
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The Top 10 In Action Sports
0116 Things That Will Give 90s Skater Kids A Serious Flashback
02The 10 Most Spectacular Road Trips on Earth
03Water Slides, Plane Wings and Danny MacAskill: This is Road Cycling Like Never Before...
0424 Reasons Why Snowboarding Was Better In The Early Noughties
0517 Holiday Beer Photos That Every Skier Takes to Make Their Friends Jealous
06Could Scientists Be About to Build a Terminator? They're Closer Than You Think…
07These Guys Made A Drone That Can Save You From Drowning... Here's How
08Flips, Whips and Utter Madness: Crankworx New Zealand Is Well Underway... And The Footage Will Leave You Amazed
09This Stunning Aspen Mountain Mansion Costs $100 Million... And It's Not Hard to See Why
10Win a Holiday for 2 in Chamonix with Three #holidayspam
Roxy Photo Shoot in Hemsedal, Norway: Part 2
A Snowboarding video by amy - 10,276 views
The Roxy snowboard team head to Hemsedal, Norway to get photos for the Roxy advertising campaign. Tania Detomas steps up to the big kicker and Kjersti Buaas tries her hand at photography after dislocating her shoulder.
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Why are the Pols picking the scab now? Healing is more important than blame finding 20 years later.
neither hutus nor tutsis can be responsible. responsible can only be individual human but never an cultural or ethnic group. this way of thinking was leading to this genocide exactly as to others in history. its a shame to see an international famous newsmagazin using such words.
and what if, according to your words, tutsis were shooting the plane? then it was their own blame to get killed in following monthes? please take a bit more care about the words you are using, thats everybodys responsibility to history.
"Cynical diplomats wonder whether France's president, Nicolas Sarkozy, has fiddled the findings to improve relations with Rwanda and win business contracts there."
And what do you wonder, Mr Economist? Or are you still sitting on the fence, thinking the opposing claims carry equal weight? Perhaps the genocidaires are morally equivalent to those who put a stop to the Genocide and have ever since been working assiduously toward reconciliation and national development. But then what does that say about your moral compass?
Politics in New Zealand: A Winston win
Containing Iran: The Sunnis strike back
Middle East and Africa
The Amanda Knox verdict: Innocente
Harry Reid's retirement: Republicans get their wish
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The week ahead: Open to investigation
Emerging markets: Predicting the next crisis
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Nuclear talks with Iran: Distrust and verify
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Hotel Antica Repubblica
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Travel Blogs from Amalfi
Day 11: Amalfi Coast
... 25 mi long Strada Statale 163 which runs along the coastline from the town of Vietri sul Mare in the east to Positano in the west). Many compare to Highway 1 in California. The view was incredible as we made many turns and watched Vespas weave in and out of the traffic along the way. As we approached town we spotted a film crew, and based on what we saw believe it to maybe be a Mazda commercial. Our first stop was in the upscale resort town of Positano. ...
The Amalfi Coast
... a Caruso museum with many photos and caricatures along with newspaper clippings all related to the great singer. We were treated to a glass of prosecco each, as well as a zucchini flower fritter appetizer. At the end of the meal they brought us a glass of limoncello each as well as a plate of cherries. What a great place and a wonderful way to end our last day. I truly hope we can "Torna a Sorrento" (come back to Sorrento) some day just like the song says ...
An excursion along the coast to Amalfi
... he may have filled it with seawater from the bay.... or worse still, topped it up himself at the local toilet" (she didn't actually say that last bit...but the inference was clearly there). Well, in a moment Jan nearly created the total collapse of the EU...... "You sheeeet tourist" yelled the man in broken Amalfian-English, "you are blurrrdy sheeet" - he carried on endlessly, gesturing with his arms as though he was conducting the Last Night of the Proms!. ...
Sailing the Amalfi coast
... foot! I actually had one night in a hotel in a Procida in the middle of my sailing adventures and it was quite an experience just trying to get to the hotel. I knew my hotel was about 1.5km/5 minute drive from the Marina but had been advised to catch the bus to my hotel as it was a long/steep walk apparently and was only one euro on the bus compared to 14 euros in a taxi! However after a 45 minute wait for my bus, 20 minutes on the bus as it went in the opposite loop and then a 500m ...
Amalfi: Big miles on our feet-Big points for Italy
... a coffee within the Piazza del Duomo where the Cattedrale di Sant'Andrea dominated our view. A stunning structure with a large flight of stairs cascading up to it. It is from the early 10th Century. Inside is the crypt of St Andrew the Apostle. This Piazza is in the middle of Amalfi, the town was built all around it with half towards the mountains and half towards the sea. It seems the life of the town is here in this Piazza. Amalfi is actually not that big, population of about ...