text:
Mycenaean Greece
|Mycenaean Greece
|Bronze Age
|c. 1600 BC – 1100 BC
|Preceded by
|Minoan civilization
|Followed by
|Greek Dark Ages
Part of a series on the
|History of Greece
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Mycenaean Greece refers to the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece (c. 1600–1100 BC). It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, with its palatial states, urban organization, works of art and writing system.[1] Among the centers of power emerged the most notable were that of Pylos, Tiryns, Midea in Peloponnese, Orchomenos, Thebes, Athens in Central Greece and Iolcos in Thessaly. The most prominent site was Mycenae, in Argolid, to which the culture of this era owes its name. Mycenaean and Mycenaean influenced settlements also appeared in Epirus,[2][3] Macedonia,[4][5] on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant,[6] Cyprus[7] and Italy.[8]
Mycenaean Greece perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean. Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization, among them the Dorian invasion or activities connected to the "Sea People". Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have been also suggested. The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology, including the Trojan Epic Cycle.[9]
- 1 Mycenaean civilization
- 2 Historical correlations
- 3 Identity
- 4 Political organization
- 5 Society
- 6 Economy
- 7 Religion
- 8 Architecture
- 9 Art and craftwork
- 10 Funerary practices
- 11 Destruction
- 12 See also
- 13 References
- 14 Further reading
- 15 External links
Mycenaean civilization[edit]
Mycenaean civilization originated and evolved from the society and culture of the Early and Middle Helladic periods in mainland Greece.[10] It emerged in circa 1600 BC when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete.
Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization (which may have been crippled by the Minoan eruption of the Santorini/Thera volcano), and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called Linear A) to write their early form of Greek in Linear B. Mycenaean expansion reached western Anatolia, in particular Miletus (Milawatta in Hittite), Iasus and Ephesus[11][12][13] where high-quality Palace style structures and Mycenaean ceramics have been recovered.[14]
Not only did the Mycenaeans defeat the Minoans, but according to later Hellenic legend they defeated Troy, presented in epic as a city-state that rivaled Mycenae in power. Because the only evidence for the conquests is Homer's Iliad and other texts steeped in mythology, the existence of Troy and the historicity of the Trojan War is uncertain. In 1876, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann uncovered ruins at Hissarlik in western Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) that he claimed were those of Troy. Some sources claim these ruins do not match well with Homer's account of Troy,[15] but others disagree.[16]
The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in beehive tombs (tholos tombs), large circular burial chambers with a high vaulted roof and a straight entry passage lined with stone. They often buried daggers or some other form of military equipment with the deceased. The nobility were frequently buried with gold masks, tiaras, armor, and jeweled weapons. Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some of the nobility underwent mummification, whereas Homer's Achilles and Patroclus were not buried but cremated, in Iron Age fashion, and honoured with a gold urn, instead of gold masks.
Historical correlations[edit]
From a chronological perspective, the Late Helladic period (LH, 1550–1060 BC) is the time when Mycenaean Greece flourished under new influences from Minoan Crete and the Cyclades. Those who made LH pottery sometimes inscribed their work in Linear B, a syllabic script recognizable as a form of Greek. LH is divided into I, II, and III; of which I and II overlap Late Minoan ware and III overtakes it. LH III is further subdivided into IIIA, IIIB, and IIIC.
Late Helladic pottery typically stored such goods as olive oil and wine. LHI ware had reached Santorini just before the Thera eruption. LHIIB began during LMIB, and has been found in Egypt during the reign of Tuthmosis III. LHIIB spanned the LMIB/LMII destruction on Crete, which is associated with the Greek takeover of the island.
LHIIIA:1 corresponds with the reign of Amenhotep III, who recorded with the heading ti-n3-y 'Danaans' (Mycenaean *Danawoi, later Greek loses w, the digamma ϝ, before a vowel) the apparently equal cities d-y-q-e-i-s 'Thebes' (Mycenaean *Thegʷais, the gʷ develops into b in later Greek) and m-w-k-i-n-u 'Mycenae' (Mycenaean *Mukanai). LHIIIA:1 also corresponds with the time of Attarsiya, the Man of Ahhiya, who alternately attacked and aided the rebel Madduwatta of Zippasla.[17] Ahhiya and its LHIIIA:2-B derivative, Ahhiyawa, can be linked to Greece only indirectly. The Hittites did not use any term approximating ti-n3-y; and they did not link Ahhiya, with these cities, or any other projected LBA names of known Greek cities. Also, no "Attarsiyas layer" of LHIIIA:1 has yet been found in western Anatolia. Still, Ahhiya must refer to a powerful people off the coast of Miletus, and Greece is the best available option at this time.
LHIIIA:1-period ti-n3-y/"Ahhiya" (and for that matter LHIIIA:1 Greece) did not feature otherwise in the inscriptions of the great kings of the Bronze Age, and certainly not as a coherent state.
LHIIIA:2 ware was in the Uluburun shipwreck, and was in use at Miletus before Mursili II burned it in circa 1320 BC. At this time, actual maritime trade was the specialty of the Cypriots and Phoenicians (so the presence of LH ware does not necessarily mean the presence of Mycenaeans).
During the LHIIIA:2 period, kings of "Ahhiyawa" began to come to the attention of the Hittites, possibly as rulers of the "Achaean" states. In LHIIIB, they rose almost to the status of the Great Kings in Egypt and Assyria. LHIIIB is also the period of Linear B script at the mainland palaces; prior to then, Linear B was in use primarily in the Cyclades and Crete. The term "Submycenaean" was introduced in 1934 by T. C. Skeat,[18] but this is now regarded as a pottery style rather than a distinct period. Current opinion sees this style as the final stage of Late Helladic IIIC (and perhaps not even a very significant one).[19] Arne Furumark already termed it LHIIIC:2 in his monumental "Mycenaean Pottery: Analysis and Classification" (Stockholm 1941). This pottery is best known from the cemeteries of Kerameikos in Athens, the island of Salamis located in the Saronic Gulf off Attica, Skoubris in Lefkandi (Euboea), and the markets of Athens (Agora), Tiryns, and Mycenae.
Since the decipherment of the somewhat younger Linear B tablets, it is thought that the people we call Mycenaeans might have been Achaeans or later subjected by them. No written source found at a Mycenaean site reveals what they called themselves. Upon a reading of the Iliad, where the residents of the Peloponnesus and adjacent islands are often called Achaeans, and taking into account mention of the Ahhiyawa in Hittite sources from the Late Bronze Age,[20] the theory suggests itself that the Mycenaeans could possibly even be Achaeans.[21] The Tawagalawa Letter written by an unnamed Hittite king of the empire period (14th–13th century BC) to the king of Ahhiyawa, treating him as an equal, suggests that Miletus (Millawanda) was under his control and refers to an earlier "Wilusa episode" involving hostility on the part of Ahhiyawa.[22] Ahhiya(wa) has been identified with the Achaeans of the Trojan War and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of Troy. However, the exact relationship of the term Ahhiyawa to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation is hotly debated by scholars, even following the discovery that Mycenaean Linear B is an early form of Greek; the earlier debate was summed up in 1984 by Hans G. Güterbock of the Oriental Institute.[23]
Political organization[edit]
Mycenaean world[edit]
Given the absence of direct sources, the political organization of the Mycenaean world cannot be determined with absolute certainty; however, it was the Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) that constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece.[24] In the tradition recorded centuries later in Homer, there were several states, the cities of the Iliad: Mycenae, Pylos, Orchomenos—which are known to archaeology—and perhaps also Sparta or Ithaca, although these are unconfirmed. Only the states of Pylos and Knossos are clearly attested in the Linear B texts. Even so, it is impossible to know which was the dominant political center in Greece, if there indeed was one. Possible candidates are Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, and Orchomenus. In Argolis, Mycenae seems to have enjoyed a hegemonial position for some time, while in Boiotia the rulers of Thebes or Orchomenus, who presumably constructed the great non-palatial citadel at Gla, probably played a leading role. The existence of a unified state in Greece during the Mycenaean era is unlikely, especially as there are indications of inter-state competition through the construction of great Cyclopean fortification systems and the lack of any bureaucratic Linear B documents suggesting a dominant centre.
States of Pylos and Knossos[edit]
On a smaller scale, some uncertain information about the internal organization of the best-known kingdoms, Pylos and Knossos, can be gleaned from Linear B texts.
The state appears to have been ruled by a king, the wa-na-ka (ϝάναξ, wánax), whose role was no doubt religious and perhaps also military and judicial. He is identifiable in the Homeric anax (ἄναξ, "divine lord", "sovereign", "host"). Nine occurrences of the word in texts having to do with offerings suggest that the sovereigns of Pylos and Knossos were probably worshipped, but the term "for the king" is usually accompanied by another name. The term qa-si-re-u (cf. βασιλεύς, "basileús"), which was later used in Greece for "king" , seems that was used for the "chief" of any group of people. (Later Homer mentions many basilees in Ithaca).[25]
The land possessed by the king is usually the te-me-no (τέμενος / "témenos"). Other important land owners were the ra-wa-ke-ta ("lāwāgetas"), the leader of the people, and the te-re-ta ("telestai"), the officials. Lawagetas could be the leader of the army, but it is not confirmed by the inscriptions. The e-qe-ta ("equetai"), literally, "the companions" or "followers", were a group of nobles (aristocrats), who followed the king in peace and war.[25] There is also at least one instance of a person, Enkhelyawon (Linear B: 𐀁𐀐𐁈𐀺) at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as being probably a king.[26]
Besides the members of the court, there were other dignitaries in charge of local territorial administration. The kingdom of Pylos was divided into two great provinces, the de-we-ra ka-ra-i-ja, the near province, and the pe-ra-ko-ra-i-ja, the far province, around the town of re-u-ko-to-ro. The kingdom was further subdivided into sixteen districts. To manage these districts, the king named a ko-re-te (koreter, '"governor") and a po-ro-ko-re-te (prokoreter, "deputy"). A da-mo-ko-ro (damokoros, "one who takes care of a damos"), was an official appointment probably in charge of the commune. The communal land was held at the hands of da-mo (literally, "people", cf. δῆμος, dễmos), or "plot holders" that probably expressed the voice of the district.[25] A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. γερουσία, gerousía). It is, incidentally, interesting to note that in Classical Greece, the basileus is the king, the monarch, as if between the disintegration of Mycenaean society and the Classical Age no higher authority survived — de facto, and then, over the generations, de jure — than the communal official.[25]
Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, 𐀅𐀗, da-mo,[27] who lived at the commune level; these last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace.[25]
Among those who evolved in the palace setting could be found well-to-do high officials who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo: craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants, to name a few. On a lower rung of the social ladder were found the slaves, 𐀈𐀁𐀫, do-e-ro, "male slave" and 𐀈𐀁𐀨, do-e-ra, "female slave" (cf. δοῦλος, doúlos).[28] These are recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities.[25]
The economic organization of the Mycenaean kingdoms known from the texts seems to have been bipartite: a first group worked in the orbit of the palace, while another was self-employed. This reflects the societal structure seen above. However, there was nothing to prevent a person working for the palace from running his own business. The economy was supervised by scribes, who made note of incoming and outgoing products, assigned work, and were in charge of the distribution of rations. The du-ma-te seems to have been a sort of supervising quartermaster.
The territory of the Mycenaean kingdoms of Pylos and Knossos was divided into two parts: the ki-ti-me-na, the palace land, and the ke-ke-me-na, the communal land, cultivated by those the texts call ka-ma-na-e-we, undoubtedly the da-mo. The palace lands are those attested in the texts. One part makes up the te-me-no of the wa-ka-na and of the ra-wa-ge-ta, as seen above. The other part was granted as a perquisite to members of the palace administration. These lands might be worked by slaves or by free men to whom the land had been leased.
Agricultural production in these kingdoms reflected the traditional "Mediterranean trilogy": grain, olives, and grapes. The grains cultivated were wheat and barley. Olive orchards were planted for the production of olive oil. This was not only a foodstuff, it was much used as a body oil and in perfume. Grapes were also cultivated, and several varieties of wine were produced. Besides these, flax was grown for linen clothing and sesame for its oil, and trees were planted, such as the fig.
Livestock consisted primarily of sheep and goats. Cows and pigs were less common. Horses were kept chiefly for the pulling of chariots in battle.
The organization of artisanal labor is especially well known in the case of the palace. The archives of Pylos show a specialized workforce, each worker belonging to a precise category and assigned to a specific place in the stages of production, notably in textiles.
The textile industry was one of the principal sectors of the Mycenaean economy. The tablets of Knossos reveal the entire chain of production, from the flocks of sheep to the stocking of the palace storerooms with the finished product, through the shearing and the sorting of the wool in the workshops, as well as working conditions in those workshops. The palace of Pylos employed around 550 textile workers. At Knossos, there were some 900. Fifteen different textile specialties have been identified. Next to wool, flax was the fiber most used. The largest Mycenaean workshop, at least 3,000 square meters in area, dedicated to the processing of flax was recently discovered in Euonymeia.
The metallurgical industry is well attested at Pylos, where 400 workers were employed. It is known from the sources that metal was distributed to them, that they might carry out the required work: on average, 3.5 kilograms (7.7 lb) of bronze per smith. On the other hand, it is not known how they were paid — they are mysteriously absent in the ration distribution lists. At Knossos, several tablets testify to the making of swords, but with no mention of the true industry of metallurgy.
The industry of perfumery is attested as well. Tablets describe the making of perfumed oil. It is known, too, from the archaeology that the workers attached to the palace included other kinds of artisans: goldsmiths, ivory-carvers, stonecarvers, and potters, for example. Olive oil was also made there. Certain areas of endeavor were turned toward export.
Commerce remains curiously absent from the written sources. Thus, once the perfumed oil of Pylos has been stored in its little jars, the inscriptions do not reveal what became of it. Large stirrup jars that once contained oil have been found at Thebes in Boeotia. They carry inscriptions in Linear B indicating their place of origin, western Crete. However, Cretan tablets say nothing about the exportation of oil. There is little information about the distribution route of textiles. It is known that the Minoans exported fine fabrics to Egypt; the Mycenaeans no doubt did the same. Indeed, it is probable that they borrowed knowledge of navigational matters from the Minoans, as is evidenced by the fact that their maritime commerce did not take off until after the founding of the Minoan civilization. Despite the lack of sources, it is probable that certain products, notably fabrics and oil, even metal objects, were meant to be sold outside the kingdom, for they were made in quantities too great to be consumed solely at home.
Archaeology can, however, shed some light on the matter of the exportation of Mycenaean products outside of Greece. A number of vases have been found in the Aegean, in Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt and farther west in Sicily, even in Central Europe and as far away as Great Britain.[29] Moreover, Mycenaean swords are known from as far away as Georgia in the Caucasus,[30] an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been found in Bavaria, Germany[31] and Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England.[32][33]
In a general way, the circulation of Mycenaean goods is traceable thanks to nodules, ancestors of the modern label. They consisted of small balls of clay, molded with the fingers around a lanyard (probably of leather) with which they were attached to the object. The nodule displayed the imprint of a seal and an ideogram representing the object. Other information was sometimes added: quality, origin, destination, etc.
By the close of the Bronze Age (up to Late Helladic IIIC) contacts between the Aegean and its neighbours were well established. Mycenaean connections extended as far as Sardinia.[34] Southern Italy and Sicily,[35] Asia Minor[36] While Mycenaean pottery has been found as far as Cyprus,[37] the Levant,[38] Egypt (especially Tell el Amarna[39]) and even southern Spain.[40] The circulation of goods and produce between centres are attested in Linear B records, though evidence of direct exchange is not.
Fifty-six nodules found at Thebes in 1982 carry an ideogram representing an ox. Thanks to them, the itinerary of these bovines can be reconstructed. From all over Boeotia, even from Euboea, they were taken to Thebes to be sacrificed. The nodules served to prove that they were not stolen animals and to prove their origin. Once the animals arrived at their destination, the nodules were removed and gathered to create a book-keeping tablet. The nodules were used for all sorts of objects and explain how Mycenaean book-keeping could have been so rigorous. The scribe did not have to count the objects themselves, he could base his tables upon the nodules.
The religious element is difficult to identify in Mycenaean civilization, especially as regards archaeological sites, where it remains problematic to pick out a place of worship with certainty. John Chadwick points out that at least six centuries lie between the earliest presence of proto-Greek speakers in Hellas and the earliest Linear B inscriptions, during which concepts and practices will have fused with indigenous beliefs, and—if cultural influences in material culture reflect influences in religious beliefs—with Minoan religion.[41] As for these texts, the few lists of offerings that give names of gods as recipients of goods reveal nothing about religious practices, and there is no surviving literature. John Chadwick rejected a confusion of Minoan and Mycenaean religion derived from archaeological correlations[42] and cautioned against "the attempt to uncover the prehistory of classical Greek religion by conjecturing its origins and guessing the meaning of its myths"[43] above all through treacherous etymologies.[44] Moses I. Finley detected very few authentic Mycenaean reflections in the eighth-century Homeric world, in spite of its "Mycenaean" setting.[45] However, Nilsson asserts, based not on uncertain etymologies but on religious elements and on the representations and general function of the gods, that a lot of Minoan gods and religious conceptions were fused in the Mycenaean religion. From the existing evidence, it seems that the Mycenaean religion was the mother of the Greek religion.[46] The Mycenaean pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in Classical Greece.[47]
Poseidon (Po-se-da-o) seems to have occupied a place of privilege. He was a chthonic deity, connected with the earthquakes (E-ne-si-da-o-ne: earth shaker), but it seems that he also represented the river spirit of the underworld as it often happens in Northern European folklore.[48] Also to be found are a collection of "Ladies". On a number of tablets from Pylos, we find Po-ti-ni-ja (Potnia, "lady" or "mistress") without any accompanying word. It seems that she had an important shrine at the site Pakijanes near Pylos.[49] In an inscription at Knossos in Crete, we find the "mistress of the Labyrinth" (da-pu-ri-to-jo po-ti-ni-ja), who calls to mind the myth of the Minoan labyrinth.[50] The title was applied to many goddesses. In a Linear B tablet found at Pylos, the "two queens and the king" (wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te) are mentioned, and John Chadwick relates these with the precursor goddesses of Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon.[51][52]
Demeter and her daughter Persephone, the goddesses of the Eleusinian mysteries, were usually referred to as "the two goddesses" or "the mistresses" in historical times.[53] Inscriptions in Linear B found at Pylos, mention the goddesses Pe-re-swa, who may be related with Persephone, and Si-to po-ti-ni-ja,[54] who is an agricultural goddess.[49] A cult title of Demeter is "Sito" (σίτος: wheat).[55] The mysteries were established during the Mycenean period (1500 BC) at the city of Eleusis[56] and it seems that they were based on a pre-Greek vegetation cult with Minoan elements.[57] The cult was originally private and there is no information about it, but certain elements suggest that it could have similarities with the cult of Despoina ("the mistress") - the precursor goddess of Persephone - in isolated Arcadia that survived up to classical times. In the primitive Arcadian myth, Poseidon, the river spirit of the underworld, appears as a horse (Poseidon Hippios). He pursues Demeter who becomes a mare and from the union she bears the fabulous horse Arion and a daughter, "Despoina", who obviously originally had the shape or the head of a mare. Pausanias mentions animal-headed statues of Demeter and of other gods in Arcadia.[58] At Lycosura on a marble relief, appear figures of women with the heads of different animals, obviously in a ritual dance.[59] This could explain a Mycenaean fresco from 1400 BC that represents a procession with animal masks[60] and the procession of "daemons" in front of a goddess on a goldring from Tiryns.[61] The Greek myth of the Minotaur probably originated from a similar "daemon".[62] In the cult of Despoina at Lycosura, the two goddesses are closely connected with the springs and the animals, and especially with Poseidon and Artemis, the "mistress of the animals" who was the first nymph. The existence of the nymphs was bound to the trees or the waters which they haunted.
Artemis appears as a daughter of Demeter in the Arcadian cults and she became the most popular goddess in Greece.[63] The earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek a-te-mi-to and a-ti-mi-te, written in Linear B at Pylos.[64] Her precursor goddess (probably the Minoan Britomartis) is represented between two lions on a Minoan seal and also on some goldrings from Mycenae.[65] The representations are quite similar with those of "Artemis Orthia" at Sparta. In her temple at Sparta, wooden masks representing human faces have been found that were used by dancers in the vegetation-cult.[66] Artemis was also connected with the Minoan "cult of the tree," an ecstatic and orgiastic cult, which is represented on Minoan seals and Mycenaean gold rings.[67]
Paean (Pa-ja-wo) is probably the precursor of the Greek physician of the gods in Homer's Iliad. He was the personification of the magic-song which was supposed to "heal" the patient. Later it became also a song of victory (παιάν). The magicians was also called "seer- doctors" (ιατρομάντεις), a function which was also applied later to Apollo.[68]
Athena (A-ta-na) appears in a Linear B inscription at Knossos from the Late Minoan II-era. The form A-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja (mistress Athena) is similar with the later Homeric form.[69] She was probably the goddess of the palace who is represented in the famous "Procession-fresco" at Knossos.[70] In a Mycenaean fresco, there is a composition of two women extending their hands towards a central figure who is covered by an enormous figure-eight shield. The central figure is the war-goddess with her palladium (classical antiquity), or her palladium in an aniconic representation.[49]
Dionysos (Di-wo-nu-so[71]) also appears in some inscriptions. His name is interpreted as "son of Zeus" and probably has a Thraco-Phrygian origin. Later his cult is related with Boeotia and Phocis, where it seems that was introduced before the end of the Mycenean age. This may explain why his myths and cult were centered in Thebes, and why the mountain Parnassos in Phocis was the place of his orgies. However, in the Homeric poems he is the consort of the Minoan vegetation goddess Ariadne.[72] He is the only Greek god other than Attis who dies in order to be reborn, as it often appears in the religions of the Orient.[73] His myth is related with the Minoan myth of the "divine child" who was abandoned by his mother and then brought up by the powers of nature. Similar myths appear in the cults of Hyakinthos (Amyklai), Erichthonios (Athens), and Ploutos (Eleusis).[74]
Other divinities who can be found in later periods have been identified, such as the couple Zeus–Hera, Hephaestus, Ares, Hermes, Eileithyia, and Erinya. Hephaestus, for example, is likely associated with A-pa-i-ti-jo at Knossos whereas Apollo is mentioned only if he is identified with Paiāwōn; Aphrodite, however, is entirely absent.[75] Qo-wi-ja ("cow-eyed") is a standard Homeric ephithet of Hera.[54] Ares has appeared under the name Enyalios (assuming that Enyalios is not a separate god) and though the importance of Areias is unknown, it does resemble the name of the god of war.[76] Eleuthia is associated with Eileithuia, the Homeric goddess of child-birth.[77]
There were some sites of importance for cults, such as Lerna, typically in the form of house sanctuaries since the free-standing temple containing a cult image in its cella with an open-air altar before it was a later development. Certain buildings found in citadels having a central room, the megaron, of oblong shape surrounded by small rooms may have served as places of worship. Aside from that, the existence of a domestic cult may be supposed. Some shrines have been located, as at Phylakopi on Melos, where a considerable number of statuettes discovered there were undoubtedly fashioned to serve as offerings, and it can be supposed from archaeological strata that sites such as Delphi, Dodona, Delos, Eleusis, Lerna, and Abae were already important shrines, and in Crete several Minoan shrines show continuity into LMIII, a period of Minoan-Mycenaean culture.
The principal Mycenaean towns were well fortified. The town could be situated on an acropolis as in Athens or Tiryns, against a large hill as in Mycenae, or on the coastal plain, like Gla or Pylos. Besides the citadels, there are also isolated forts that undoubtedly served to militarily control territory. Mycenaean walls were often made in a fashion called cyclopean, which means that they were constructed of large, unworked boulders up to eight meters (26 ft.) thick, loosely fitted without the clay mortar of the day. Different types of entrances or exits can be seen: monumental gates, access ramps, hidden doors, and vaulted galleries for escaping in case of a siege. Fear of attack meant that the chosen site must have a cistern or well at its disposal.
The Mycenaean sites are composed of different types of residences. The smallest are rectangular in form and measure between 5 and 20 metres (16–66 ft.) on a side. These were the houses of the lowest classes. They could have one or several rooms; the latter become more widespread in more recent periods. On a more developed level are found larger residences, measuring about 20 to 35 meters (66 to 115 ft.) on a side, made up of many rooms and central courtyards. Their layout resembles that of a palace. It is not, however, certain that these were indeed the residences of the Mycenaean aristocrats; another theory is that they were palace annexes, being often situated next to them.
The best examples of the Mycenaean palace are seen in the excavations at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Pylos. That these were administrative centers is shown by the records found there. From an architectural point of view, they were the heirs of the Minoan palaces and also of other palaces built on the Greek mainland during the Bronze Age. They were ranged around a group of courtyards each opening upon several rooms of different dimensions, such as storerooms and workshops, as well as reception halls and living quarters. The heart of the palace was the megaron. This was the throne room, laid out around a circular hearth surrounded by four columns, the throne generally being found on the right-hand side upon entering the room. The staircases found in the palace of Pylos indicate palaces had two stories. Located on the top floor were probably the private quarters of the royal family and some storerooms. These palaces have yielded a wealth of artifacts and fragmentary frescoes.
The most recent find is a Mycenaean palace near the village of Xirokambi, in Laconia. As of early 2009, the excavation is at its first stages and artifacts uncovered so far include clay vessels and figurines, frescoes and three Linear B tablets. Preliminary findings indicate that one of the tablets contains an inventory of about 500 daggers and another is an inventory for textiles. The discovery was announced at the Athens Archaeological Society on 28 April 2009.[78]
Architectural elements[edit]
Roof tiles[edit]
Contrary to an often held view, some Mycenaean representative buildings already featured roofs made of fired tiles, as in Gla and Midea.[79]
Art and craftwork[edit]
The Mycenaeans made a great deal of pottery. Archaeologists have found a great quantity of pottery from the Mycenaean age, of widely diverse styles — stirrup jars, pitchers, kraters, chalices sometimes called "champagne coupes" after their shape, etc. The vessels vary greatly in size. Their conformations remained quite consistent throughout the Mycenaean period, up through LHIIIB, when production increased considerably, notably in Argolis whence came great numbers exported outside Greece. The products destined for export were generally more luxurious and featured heavily worked painted decorations incorporating mythic, warrior, or animal motifs. Another type of vessel, in metal (normally bronze), has been found in sizeable quantities at Mycenaean sites. The forms of these were tripods, basins, or lamps. A few examples of vessels in faience and ivory are also known.
Figures and figurines[edit]
The Mycenaean period has not yielded sculpture of any great size. The statuary of the period consists for the most part of small terracotta figurines found at almost every Mycenaean site in mainland Greece, in tombs, in settlement debris, and occasionally in cult contexts (Tiryns, Agios Konstantinos on Methana). The majority of these figurines are female and anthropomorphic or zoomorphic. The female figurines can be subdivided into three groups which were popular at different periods: the earliest are the Phi-type, which look like the Greek letter phi and their arms give the upper body of the figurine a rounded shape. The Psi-type looks like the letter Greek psi: these have outstretched upraised arms. The latest (12th century BC) are the Tau-type: these figurines look like the Greek letter tau with folded(?) arms at right angles to the body. Most figurines wear a large 'polos' hat.[80] They are painted with stripes or zigzags in the same manner as the contemporary pottery and presumably made by the same potters. Their purpose is uncertain, but they may have served as both votive objects and toys: some are found in children's graves but the vast majority of fragments are from domestic rubbish deposits.[81] The presence of many these figurines on sites where worship took place in the Archaic and Classical periods (circa 200 below the sanctuary of Athena at Delphi, others at the temple of Aphaia on Aegina, at the sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas above Epidauros and at Amyklae near Sparta), suggests both that many were indeed religious in nature, perhaps as votives, but also that later places of worship may well have first been used in the Mycenaean period.[82]
Larger male, female or bovine terracotta wheelmade figures are much rarer. An important group was found in the Temple at Mycenae together with coiled clay snakes,[83] while others have been found at Tiryns and in the East and West Shrines at Phylakopi on the island of Melos.[84]
The painting of the Mycenaean age was much influenced by that of the Minoan age. Fragments of wall paintings have been found in or around the palaces (Pylos, Mycenae, Tiryns) and in domestic contexts (Zygouries).[85] The largest complete wall painting depicting three female figures, probably goddesses, was found in the so-called Cult Centre at Mycenae.[86] Various themes are represented: hunting, bull leaping (tauromachy), battle scenes, processions, etc. Some scenes may be part of mythological narratives, but if so their meaning eludes us. Other frescoes include geometric or stylised motifs, also used on painted pottery (see above).
Military items have been found among the treasures of the Mycenaean age. The most impressive work is that of the Dendra panoply, a complete suit of Mycenaean armor and the oldest form of metal armor.[87] The cuirass is made up of bronze plates sewn to a leather garment. The weight of this armor must have hindered the mobility of a warrior, and it is for this reason it is supposed that it was worn by a warrior riding in a chariot.
The typical Mycenaean helmet, in use from the 17th to the 10th centuries BC,[88] was made of cut segments of boar's tusk sewn to a leather or cloth backing.[89] This type is illustrated in ivory relief plaques found in the shaft graves of the 17th and 16th centuries BC and in wall paintings of that era from Akrotiri on Thera (Santorini) and of the 13th century BC in the so-called Palace of Nestor at Pylos. Groups of boar's tusk plates from the helmets themselves have been found at many sites, including Mycenae, Prosymna, Thermon and Elateia, as well as in southern Italy. This is the type of helmet which is described by Homer several hundred years later.[90]
Offensive arms were made of bronze. Spears and javelins have been found, as well as an assortment of swords of different sizes designed for striking with the point and with the edge.[91] Daggers and arrows, attesting to the existence of archery, compose the remainder of the armament found from this period.[92]
As for defensive weapons, two types of shields were used by the Mycenaeans: the "figure eight" or "fiddle" shield,[93] and a rectangular type, the "tower" shield, rounded on the top.[94] They were made of wood and leather, and were of such a large size that if he wished to a warrior could crouch behind his shield and have his whole body covered.
Funerary practices[edit]
The usual form of burial in the Late Helladic was inhumation.[95] The dead were almost always buried in cemeteries outside the residential zones and only exceptionally within the settlements (the most famous burials in Grave Circle A originally lay outside the citadel and were only brought within it when the citadel wall was extended circa 1250 BC).
The earliest Mycenaean burials were mostly in individual graves in the form of a pit or a stone lined cist and offerings were limited to pottery and occasional items of jewellery. A large cemetery with burials of this kind spread around the northern and western slopes of the citadel at Mycenae.[96] Groups of pit or cist graves containing elite members of the community were sometimes covered by a tumulus (mound) in the manner established since the Middle Helladic period.[97] It has been argued that this form dates back to the oldest periods of Indo-European settlement in Greece, and that its roots are to be found in the Balkan cultures of the 3rd millennium BC, and even the Kurgan culture;[98] however, Mycenaean burials are in actuality an indigenous phenomenon/development of mainland Greece with the Shaft Graves housing native rulers.[99] Pit and cist graves remained in use for single burials throughout the Mycenaean period alongside more elaborate family graves (see below).[100]
The Shaft Graves at Mycenae within Grave Circles A and B belong to the same period and seem to represent an alternative manner of grouping elite or royal burials – and isolating them from those of the majority. Grave Circle B is the earlier of the two groups, already in use in the MH period, and contains lavish grave goods – gold and silver, jewellery, weapons and pottery. Circle A, excavated by Heinrich Schliemann, enclosed fewer but extraordinarily well provided graves.
Beginning also in the Late Helladic are to be seen communal tombs of rectangular form.[101] It is difficult to establish whether the different forms of burial represent a social hierarchization, as was formerly thought, with the tholoi being the tombs of the elite rulers, the individual tombs those of the leisure class, and the communal tombs those of the people. Cremations increased in number over the course of the period, becoming quite numerous in LHIIIC. The most impressive tombs of the Mycenaean era are the monumental royal tombs of Mycenae, undoubtedly intended for the royal family of the city. The most famous is the Treasury of Atreus, a tholos. Nearby are other tombs (known as "Circle A"), popularly identified with Clytemnestra and Aigisthos. All contained impressive treasures, exhumed by Schliemann during the excavation of Mycenae. It has been argued that different dynasties or factions may have competed through conspicuous burial, whereby grave circle A represents a new faction in the ascendancy (at this time, LHI, the relative wealth and consistency of 'B' burials declines).[102] The Mycenaean "tholoi" may, again, represent another factional grouping, or a further formalization in burial practices by the faction previously buried in A. Nevertheless, there is a demonstrably apparent expansion in relative size, wealth/cost expenditure, and visibility in the construction of these graves over this period, coinciding with increased foreign/trading contacts and the further entrenchment of the palatial economy.
The timing and interpretation of the end Mycenaean period poses an array of questions that have yet to be answered. The end of LHIIIB1 was marked by some destruction, in particular at Mycenae. By LHIIIB2, an augmentation of the Mycenaean systems of defense can be seen, a sign of increasing insecurity. But this does not seem to have been a period of crisis, because these levels have yielded archaeological material that shows a degree of wealth in no way inferior to that of previous periods. The end of this period is nevertheless marked by a number of destructions in the greater part of the Mycenaean sites on mainland Greece.
LHIIIC saw a decrease in the number of sites in Greece, which might have been considerable in certain regions (nine-tenths of the sites in Boeotia disappeared, and two-thirds in Argolis). Moreover, population movements, with some Mycenaeans fleeing to Cyprus, as well as other Greek islands and coastal parts of Anatolia have been noted. Yet certain sites such as Mycenae and Tiryns continued to be inhabited, and the material culture found there continues to exhibit Mycenaean traits, such that LHIIIC is considered to be a level of Mycenaean civilization. However, a new type of ceramic appeared, called "Barbarian Ware" because it was formerly attributed to foreign invaders, and there was also a continuing increase in the practice of cremation.
Several explanations have been advanced for the causes of the decline of Mycenaean civilization in this period. Those concerning natural factors (climate change, earthquakes) are considered more controversial. The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict. The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders; sometimes the Dorians or the Sea People are invoked.
Some scholars believe that the destruction of the Mycenaean centres was caused by the wandering of northern people. They destroyed the palace of Iolcos (LHIIIC-1), the palace of Thebes (late LHIIIB), then they crossed Isthmus of Corinth (end of LHIIIB) they destroyed Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos, and finally returned northward. However, Pylos was destroyed by a sea-attack, probably by the Sea People.[103] The invaders didn't leave behind traces of weapons or graves, and it cannot be proved that all the sites were destroyed about the same time.[104]
The movements of people to the Middle East at this period, are mentioned in Egyptian inscriptions calling the invaders by the name of the Sea People, are quite real. It is known that these people were responsible for numerous destructions in Anatolia and the Levant, and finally they attacked Egypt in several phases (circa 1301-1164 BC). Mention of a people called Eqwesh who attacked Egypt during the reign of Merneptah, in an Egyptian text of the 12th century BC has caused specialists to suppose that the Mycenaeans had taken part in these invasions (this is not certain).[105]
Emily Vermeule suggests that the breaking-up of the commercial networks at the end of the 13th century BC, was disastrous for Greece, and it was followed by the attack of the Sea People who were searching for new lands.[106] However, most of the destroyed Mycenaean sites are far from the sea, and the expedition against Troy at the end of this period shows that the sea was safe. Desborough believes that the sea was safe in central and south Aegean in this period.[107]
There is the second theory, which has the Mycenaean civilization falling in the course of internal societal conflicts brought on by a rejection of the palatial system by the most underprivileged strata of society, who were impoverished at the end of the Late Helladic. This hypothesis is sometimes joined with the preceding one, mingling social divisions with ethnic divisions. However, social revolutions couldn't break out almost simultaneously throughout Greece.[108] Mylonas believes that some developments in Argolis and attempts for recovery after 1200 BC, can be explained by internal fighting, and by pressure created by the Dorians. Even if the Dorians were one of the causes of the Bronze age collapse, there is evidence that they brought with them some new elements of culture, a cist grave completely different from the Mycenaean "tholos", and a new dialect of Greek, Doric. It seems that the Doric tribes moved southward gradually over a number of years, and they devastated the territory, until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centres.[109]
In this context, it has to be stressed that the beginning of the Iron Age made large numbers of comparatively cheap weapons accessible. This economic factor is also seen as a root cause of the appearance of the "Sea Peoples" in Egypt and the destruction of Ugarit and the Hittite Empire.
Whatever were the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had definitely disappeared after LHIIIC, when the sites of Mycenae and Tiryns were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurs after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opens a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the Greek Dark Ages of traditional historiography.
See also[edit]
- Mycenae
- Mycenaean language
- Linear B
- Achaeans (Homer)
- Helladic
- Bronze Age
- Aegean civilizations
- Greek Dark Ages
- List of Mycenaean deities
- ^ Fields, 2004: p. 10-11
- ^ Hammond 1976, p. 139: "Moreover, in this area a small tholos-tomb with Mycenaean pottery of III B style and a Mycenaean acropolis have been reported at Kiperi near Parga, and another Mycenaean acropolis lay above the Oracle of the Dead on the hill called Xylokastro."
- ^ Tandy 2001, p. xii (Fig. 1); p. 2: "The strongest evidence for Mycenaean presence in Epirus is found in the coastal zone of the lower Acheron River, which in antiquity emptied into a bay on the Ionian coast known from ancient sources as Glykys Limin (Figure 2-A)."
- ^ Borza 1992, p. 64: "The existence of a Late Bronze Age Mycenaean settlement in the Petra not only confirms its importance as a route from an early period, but also extends the limits of Mycenaean settlement to the Macedonian frontier."
- ^ Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory – Mycenaean Sites
- ^ van Wijngaarden 2002, Part II: The Levant, pp. 31–124; Bietak & Czerny 2007, Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy, "Mycenaeans and Philistines in the Levant", pp. 501–629.
- ^ van Wijngaarden 2002, Part III: Cyprus, pp. 125–202.
- ^ Peruzzi 1980; van Wijngaarden 2002, Part IV: The Central Mediterranean, pp. 203–260.
- ^ The extent to which Homer attempted to or succeeded in recreating a "Mycenaean" setting is examined in Moses I. Finley The World of Odysseus, 1954.
- ^ Dickinson 1977, pp. 32, 53, 107–108; Dickinson 1999, pp. 97–107.
- ^ Hooker 1976, p. 115.
- ^ Castleden 2005, p. 194: "The Mycenaean colonies in Anatolia were emphatically confined to a narrow coastal strip in the west. There were community-colonies at Ephesus, Iasos and Miletus, but they had little effect on the interior..."
- ^ Gitin et al. 1998, p. 40: "To sum up, Bronze Age Miletus was settled mainly by Mycenaeans in the second and probably also in the third building period."
- ^ Preziosi & Hitchcock 1999, p. 195.
- ^ Burkert 1987, p. 121; Meyer, E. RE Suppl. XIV, pp. 813–815.
- ^ See sources cited at Homeric Troy.
- ^ Translation of the Sins of Madduwatta
- ^ Skeat 1934.
- ^ Dickinson 2006, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Güterbock 1983, pp. 133–138; Mellink 1983, pp. 138–141.
- ^ Huxley 1960; see Achaeans (Homer)#Hittite documents.
- ^ Translation of the Tawagalawa Letter
- ^ Güterbock 1984, pp. 114–122.
- ^ Thomas 1995, p. 350.
- ^ a b c d e f Chadwick 1976, Chapter 5: Social Structure and Administrative System, pp. 69–83.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, pp. 71–72.
- ^ δῆμος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
- ^ δοῦλος. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
- ^ Castleden 2005.
- ^ Boston University – The Historical Society
- ^ Amber object bearing Linear B symbols from the Freising district of Germany, excavations in the years 1994–1997.
- ^ Budin 2009, p. 53: "One of the most extraordinary examples of the extent of Mycenaean influence was the Pelynt Dagger, a fragment of a Late Helladic III sword, which has come to light in the tomb of a Wessex chieftain in southern England!"
- ^ Feuer 2004, p. 259.
- ^ Feuer 2004, pp. 155–157; Balmuth & Tykot 1998, "The Mycenaeans in Sardinia", p. 400; Runnels & Murray 2004, p. 15.
- ^ Ridgway 1992, p. 4; Taylour 1958; Fisher 1998; Runnels & Murray 2001, p. 15; Vianello 2005, "Eastern Sicily and the Aeolian Islands", p. 51; Feuer 2004, pp. 155–157; van Wijngaarden 2002, Part IV: The Central Mediterranean, pp. 203-260.
- ^ Runnels & Murray 2001, p. 15.
- ^ Kling 1989; Nikolaou 1973; International Archaeological Symposium 1973.
- ^ Stubbings 1951, IV: Mycenaean II Pottery in Syria and Palestine; V: Mycenaean III Pottery in Syria and Palestine.
- ^ Petrie 1894.
- ^ de la Cruz 1988, pp. 77–92; Ridgway 1992, p. 3; Runnels & Murray 2001, p. 15.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 88.
- ^ As explicitly expressed in Martin P. Nilsson, The Minoan-Mycenaean Religion and Its Survival in Greek Religion, 1927.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 84.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 87: "Words that are not understood are constantly deformed to give them meanings. Mere resemblance is of course nearly always deceptive."
- ^ Finley 1954.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, p. 339.
- ^ Paul, Adams John (10 January 2010). "Mycenaean Divinities". Northridge, CA: California State University. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
- ^ Nilsson 1940.
- ^ a b c Mylonas 1966, p. 159.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Mylonas 1966, p. 159: "Wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te, (to the two queens and the king). Wanax is best suited to Poseidon, the special divinity of Pylos. The identity of the two divinities addressed as wanassoi, is uncertain."
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 76.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, p. 463.
- ^ a b Chadwick 1976, p. 95.
- ^ Eustathius of Thessalonica, scholia on Homer, 265.
- ^ Mylonas 1961.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, p. 475.
- ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece, VIII-25.4, VIII-37.1ff, VIII.42.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 479–480.
- ^ Robertson 1959, p. 31; National Archaeological Museum of Athens, No. 2665.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, p. 293.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 227, 297.
- ^ Pausanias. Description of Greece, VIII-37.6.
- ^ Chadwick & Baumbach 1963, p. 176f.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 273, 295.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 162, 310, 489.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 281, 283, 301, 487.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 500–504; Chadwick 1976, p. 88: "Pa-ja-wo suggested Homeric Paieon, which earlier would have been Paiawon, later Paidn, an alternative name of Apollo, if not again a separate god."
- ^ Kn V 52 (text 208 in Ventris and Chadwick); Chadwick 1976, p. 88.
- ^ Hagg & Wells 1978, Arne Furumark, "Aegean Society", p. 14: "Atano is identical with the Greek Athana (that she was originally the Minoan "palace goddess" was rightly concluded long ago by Martin P. Nilsson)."
- ^ Palaeolexicon. "di-wo-nu-so".
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 565–568.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, p. 215.
- ^ Nilsson 1967, Volume I, pp. 215–219.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 99.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, pp. 95, 99.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 98.
- ^ Ταράντου, Σοφία (28 April 2009). "Βρήκαν μυκηναϊκό ανάκτορο". Ethnos.gr. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
- ^ Wikander 1990, p. 288; Shear 2000, p. 134.
- ^ French 1971, pp. 101–187.
- ^ See account of their use in K.A. and Diana Wardle "The Child's Cache at Assiros, Macedonia", in Sally Crawford and Gillian Shepherd (eds): Children, Childhood and Society: Institute for Archaeology and Antiquity Interdisciplinary Studies (Volume I) Oxford: Archaeopress, 2007.
- ^ Hägg & Marinatos 1981, Robin Hägg, "Official and Popular Cults in Mycenaean Greece", pp. 35–39.
- ^ Moore, Taylour & French 1999.
- ^ Renfrew, Mountjoy & Macfarlane 1985.
- ^ Immerwahr 1990.
- ^ Taylour 1969, pp. 91–97; Taylour 1970, pp. 270–280.
- ^ Modern Reconstruction of the Dendra Panoply.
- ^ Wardle & Wardle 1997, p. 65 (Fig. 21); pp. 69–70.
- ^ Mycenaean Helmet.
- ^ Homer. The Iliad, 10.260–10.265.
- ^ Mycenaean Swords; Mycenaean Type G Sword (Horn Sword).
- ^ Mycenaean Dagger.
- ^ Mycenaean "Figure Eight" Shield, Fresco.
- ^ Mycenaean Tower Shield, Drawing.
- ^ Cavanagh & Mee 1998.
- ^ Taylour, French & Wardle 2007; Alden 2000.
- ^ Pelon 1976.
- ^ Hammond 1967, p. 90.
- ^ Dickinson 1977, pp. 33–34, 53, 59–60.
- ^ Lewartowski 2000.
- ^ Papadimitriou 2001.
- ^ See Graziado 1991 for a more comprehensive discussion of these trends, in addition to a sophisticated study of the grave goods in particular burials.
- ^ Mylonas 1966, pp. 227–228.
- ^ Chadwick 1976, p. 178.
- ^ Drews 1993, p. 49.
- ^ Vermeule 1960, p. 67.
- ^ Mylonas 1966, pp. 230–231.
- ^ Blegen, quoted in J. Alsop, From the Silent Earth, New York: Harper, 1964.
- ^ Mylonas 1966, pp. 231–232.
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- Shear, Ione Mylonas (January 2000). "Excavations on the Acropolis of Midea: Results of the Greek–Swedish Excavations under the Direction of Katie Demakopoulou and Paul Åström". American Journal of Archaeology 104 (1): 133–134.
- Skeat, T.C. (1934). The Dorians in Archaeology. London: de la More Press.
- Stubbings, Frank H. (1951). Mycenaean Pottery from the Levant. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Tandy, David W. (2001). Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy. Montréal, Québec, Canada: Black Rose Books Limited. ISBN 1-55164-188-7.
- Taylour, Lord William; French, Elizabeth Bayard; Wardle, K.A. (2007). Well Built Mycenae (Volume 13): The Helleno-British Excavations within the Citadel at Mycenae 1959-1969. Warminster, England: Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-1-84-217295-7.
- Taylour, Lord William (1969). "Mycenae, 1968". Antiquity 43: 91–97.
- Taylour, Lord William (1970). "New Light on Mycenaean Religion". Antiquity 44: 270–280.
- Taylour, Lord William (1958). Mycenaean Pottery in Italy and Adjacent Areas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Thomas, Carol G. (1995). "The Components of Political Identity in Mycenaean Greece". Aegaeum 12: 349–354.
- van Wijngaarden, Geert Jan (2002). Use and Appreciation of Mycenaean Pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy (1600–1200 BC). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-9-05-356482-0.
- Vermeule, Emily Townsend (March 1960). "The Fall of the Mycenaean Empire". Archaeology (Archaeological Institute of America) 13 (1): 66–76. doi:10.2307/41663738.
- Vianello, Andrea (2005). Late Bronze Age Mycenaean and Italic Products in the West Mediterranean: A Social and Economic Analysis. Oxford: Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-84-171875-0.
- Wardle, K.A.; Wardle, Diana (1997). Cities of Legend: The Mycenaean World. London: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 978-1-85-399355-8.
- Wikander, Örjan (January–March 1990). "Archaic Roof Tiles the First Generations". Hesperia 59 (1): 285–290. doi:10.2307/148143.
Further reading[edit]
- Barlow, Jane Atwood; Bolger, Diane L.; Kling, Barbara (1991). Cypriot Ceramics: Reading the Prehistoric Record. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. ISBN 978-0-92-417110-9.
- Doumas, Christos (1980). Thera and the Aegean World II: Papers Presented at the Second International Scientific Congress, Santorini, Greece, August 1978. London: Thera and the Aegean World. ISBN 978-0-95-061332-1.
- French, Elizabeth Bayard (2002). Mycenae: Agamemnon's Capital. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1951-X.
- Hänsel, B. (ed.); Podzuweit, Christian (1982). "Die mykenische Welt und Troja". Südosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 V. Chr. (in German). Berlin: Moreland Editions. pp. 65–88.
- Higgins, Reynold Alleyne (1997). Minoan and Mycenaean Art. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-50-020303-3.
- Mountjoy, Penelope A. (1986). Mycenaean Decorated Pottery: A Guide to Identification (Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 73). Göteborg: Paul Aströms Forlag. ISBN 978-9-18-609832-2.
- Nur, Amos; Cline, Eric (2000). "Poseidon's Horses: Plate Tectonics and Earthquake Storms in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean". Journal of Archaeological Science 27 (1): 43–63. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0431.
- Taylour, Lord William (1990) [1964]. The Mycenaeans. London: Thames & Hudson Limited. ISBN 978-0-50-027586-3.
- Vermeule, Emily; Karageorghis, Vassos (1982). Mycenaean Pictorial Vase Painting. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67-459650-4.
- Weiss, Barry (June 1982). "The Decline of Late Bronze Age Civilization as a Possible Response to Climatic Change". Climatic Change 4 (2): 173–198. doi:10.1007/bf00140587. ISSN 0165-0009.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mycenaean culture.
- Godart, Louis (2013) [January 1997]. "Les citadelles mycéniennes" (in French). Clio.
- Hemingway, Seán; Hemingway, Colette (2000–2013). "Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History: Mycenaean Civilization". The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- Horejs, Barbara; Pavúk, Peter, eds. (2007). "The Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Project". The Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory Team.
- Rutter, Jeremy B. "Prehistoric Archeology of the Aegean". Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College.
- Salimbetti, Andrea (30 September 2013). "The Greek Age of Bronze".
- "The Mycenaeans and Italy: The Archaeological and Archaeometric Ceramic Evidence". University of Glasgow School of Humanities.
- Wright, James C. (2002). "The Nemea Valley Archaeological Project: Internet Edition". Bryn Mawr College Department of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology.


text:
Vitamin D Deficiency Center - Idaho Falls, ID
WebMD Physician Directory
Idaho Falls, Idaho
Vitamin D Deficiency
What is vitamin D?
The "sunshine" vitamin is a hot topic. Should people be exposed to the sun for their vitamin D? Are the guidelines for how much vitamin D we need adequate? Is the tolerable upper limit too low? What benefits does vit...
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Emergency Contact for Idaho Falls
Nearby Idaho Falls Hospitals *
Mountain View Hospital
Eastern Idaho Reg Med Ctr
Bingham Memorial Hospital
State Hospital South
Madison Memorial Hospital
*Provider Directory Terms of Use:
The WebMD 'Provider Directory' is provided by WebMD for use by the general public as a quick reference of information about Providers. The Provider Directory is not intended as a tool for verifying the credentials, qualifications, or abilities of any Provider contained therein. Inclusion in the Provider Directory does not imply recommendation or endorsement nor does omission in the Provider Directory imply WebMD disapproval.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Greenbriar State Park - Nature Play Space
Located in Greenbriar State Park in Maryland's Frederick and Washington Counties, this nature play area is adjacent to the new "nature shack" which is a meeting area, exhibit area, activity area, and programming site. This site will take advantage of the location near the lake and the nature shack to invite children and visitors to explore a natural area that is physically challenging and engaging. This park typically draws visitors that tend to use the grills and gathering areas, but not explore the natural lands surrounding the area.
The majority of materials for the play space were from the adjacent forest with the exception of the concrete pipe that forms the tunnel. The idea of the play space and all of the work was done in-house by park staff, using the talents of our lifeguards, grounds crew, technicians, and park rangers. From concept to completion the project took five months.


text:
Hi: 10° Lo:5°
By Laura Maltby Thursday 18 October 2012 Updated: 22/10 08:17
HELPING capture a suspected murderer has seen a Kenilworth man honoured by internet giant Google.
Luka Magnotta fled from Canada in May this year after a video depicting the dismembering of a Chinese student was posted online.
And through his own knowledge of multilingual social networking service Google+, Mike Downes showed Interpol and Toronto Police how to establish a press conference using Google+ Hangouts – an internet-based video chat.
Magnotta was apprehended a month later in an internet café in Berlin while reading news stories about himself.
Mike has worked with other media organisations, including KOMU TV in the USA, to teach them about using Google+ Hangouts as a tool for reporters to file stories from remote locations.
And it is this as well as work with law enforcements agencies overseas helping them to increase their presence on the web, which prompted him to be recognised as a 'hometown hero' by Google.
On a more personal note, Mike has participated in 'hangouts' with Olympic champion Usain Bolt, Spice Girl Melanie C, and Radio 1 presenter Reggie Yates discussing topics ranging from astrophysics to Team GB's success at the Olympics.
Mike, a former primary school teacher, said: "Google+ gives anyone the ability to connect with people who share similar passions and interests at the click of a button.
"I have been on Google+ for a little over a year now and I've already connected with over 20,000 people from across the globe.
"There is no reason why businesses and individuals in Warwickshire can't set up a Google+ page. My experience of Google+ has been fantastic as it allows me to connect with people locally and from across the globe."
Anoek Eckhardt, communications and public affairs manager at Google, said Mike was a great ambassador for Google+.
He added: "His interaction to share knowledge, advice and learn together highlights the collaborative power of Google+.
"We hope others from across Kenilworth and throughout Warwickshire follow his lead to connect with family, friends and like-minded people through Google+."
1 Leamington Pump Room Gardens plans unveiled
2 Man sought in connection with Leamington pub assault
3 Witnesses sought to Warwick pub fight
4 Stephen Fry, Boy George, Gok Wan and more love Warwick Rowers
A TEENAGER has died after being hit by
TICKETS go on sale on Sunday morning (December
A MULTI-million pound refurbishment of Royal Leamington Spa
A FATHER'S "Herculean" effort to save his children
REPAIR don't bin was the message in Stratford at the ...
CONCERNS are growing for a missing 14-year-old Rugby girl. Na ...
FEARS Rolls-Royce will close its entire Ansty site are mounting ...
A WORLD famous comedian will be stopping off in Redditch ...


text:
Prices and availability are subject to change from the time and date that you print this page.
4/2/2015 4:20:32 AM. For Customer Service, please call 800.933.9904
This lamp base is sure to make a refreshing new addition to your décor. Add any of our table shades for a custom look.
Dew Drop Table Lamp Base 6" dia. x 16"H
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- Base does not accommodate a harp
- Top of shade measures 9.75"dia, bottom of shade 11" dia
- Table base with Light Years shade is approximately 21"H
- Lamp base features 76" clear cord
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Show 'em what you're made of
- Acrylic base
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text:
Mortal Kombat - PS Vita
Take the Kombat to the streets; fight anywhere, anytime, all in the palm of your hand.
The latest entry in the Mortal Kombat franchise can now be played anywhere, anytime! Mortal Kombat for PlayStation Vita puts the deadliest fighting tournament in the palm of your hand. Bringing new and exclusive content to the PS Vita system, this edition of Mortal Kombat offers over-the-top fatalities and cringe-worthy X-ray moves. Players will get to test themselves with 150 brand new Challenge Tower missions, including touchscreen Fatalities, Test Your Slice and Test Your Balance. Players can also take the fight to their friends wherever they go with local multiplayer using ad-hoc connectivity or against friends near and far with a Wi-Fi connection.
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There is no additional information available for this item.


text:
You keep saying that ext3 is superior to HFS+ but you still have not said why. On what grounds are you basing this? Also without knowing the the environment and switches used for the bonnie++ benchmark, those results have to be taken with a grain of salt. We do not know for example on those results:
Was the partitions on the same area of the area of the drive? Location of the partition can greatly vary results.
What block sizes were used on the partition?
If it was a raid, what type of raid? Chunk size? What stripe size was used? If raid 5 what parity algorithm was used?
Is barriers being used?
All these items can cause a system's I/O results to vary greatly.


text:
Bucks Receive:
Pick #12 (Magic)
T-Wolves Receive:
Pick #20 (Bucks)
Pick #25 (Wolves)
Last edited by IamQuailman; 07-15-2012 at 04:12 PM.
People's Basketball Sim League presents...
1995-96 Season
C Kevin Willis | PF Brian Grant | SF Jalen Rose | SG Michael Finley | PG Terrell Brandon
Key Reserves: Dikembe Mutombo | Todd Day
This is pretty hilarious haha. I accept.
should have made it a 3 team deal...
Lol we were talking the whole time. When I said I neeed a couple of hours to think it through, it was basicly to get his approval =)
That explains why you didn't need a couple of hours lol.
Only thing is, it's pick #13, not #12.
PelicansReport.com Sim League
New Orleans Hornets General Manager
There are currently 1 users browsing this thread. (0 members and 1 guests)


text:
|Version 16 (modified by szabgab, 4 years ago) (diff)
Regex Editor for building and debugging regular expressions
Padre provides an easy way to build and analyze regular expressions compatible with Perl 5.
Test Case
The regex editor currently provides a single way to build both regexes and substitutes.
- Open the Regex editor via Tools/Regex? Editor
- At the top you see 5 check-boxes for the modifiers of the regex
- The first window called Regular Expression is where you can type in the regex. By default you will see \w+ in there
- The Replace with text contains Baz
- Original text contains Foo Bar
- Matched text Foo Bar with Foo being red and underline
- Result from replace contains Baz Bar
For ideas install kregexpeditor or regexxer on Linux or try Regex Coach: http://weitz.de/regex-coach/ on Windows See also http://www.regexbuddy.com/
- Support various versions of the perl 5 regexes (5.8, 5.10, 5.12 etc)
- There should be an option (a selector on this window) to decide which regex dialect to support
- (That is, there are certain new features in the regex engine and information about then under the buttons should be displayed along witht the minimum version required)
- Support Perl 6 style regexes
- Probably the regex and substitute part should be separated. At the top should be
- Regular Expression
- Original text
- Matched text
- checkbox to enable/disable substitution
- Replace with text window
- Result from replace window
Attachments (1)
added by szabgab 4 years ago.
regex editor in 0.84
Download all attachments as: .zip


text:
Hi: 10° Lo:2°
By Court Reporter Monday 21 January 2013 Updated: 05/02 08:19
A MAN who brutally raped a woman in her own home and attacked her with a kitchen knife during a six-hour ordeal has been jailed for eight years.
Craig Sanderson and his victim, who cannot be named, had been for a drink together earlier in the day - but at her home things took a sinister turn when he locked her in a downstairs bathroom and attacked her while her child watched television in the living room.
The 30-year-old, of Nansen Close, Daventry, met the woman last August when the pair went for a drink before returning back to her home in Rugby.
Prosecutor Michelle Heeley told Warwick Crown Court how they continued drinking and Sanderson began to act oddly, going out into the garden in the rain and removing his hoodie and t-shirt.
When he came back inside, he locked the door and made an offensive suggestion before ordering her into the downstairs bathroom where he attacked her.
Afterwards, referring to the woman's child, Sanderson told her to 'put that thing to bed'.
She did so, but when she left the child's bedroom the woman was confronted by Sanderson holding a kitchen knife and ordering her into her bedroom.
Miss Heeley told the court: "She felt helpless and did as she was told and got onto the bed. He told her to undress and pointed the knife at her neck. He then began to rape her again, restraining her by holding her hands down.
"She was crying, and he punched here to the face and told her to shut up, then paused and closed the bedroom window so people would not hear her."
Sanderson then knelt across his terrified victim and grabbed her hair - pulling out a clump - before attacking her again.
He then went downstairs into the kitchen, followed by the woman who asked him for her phone, which he had taken.
Sanderson asked if she was going to call the police. When she said yes, she then felt a 'massive whack' to her head - knocking her out cold.
The blow, which Sanderson later described as an uppercut, was struck with the hand in which he was holding the knife. The blade hit her head with such force it bent.
Neighbours who heard the commotion came to investigate and found the woman lying unconsious - the knife next to her and a pool of blood forming from her wound.
When he was arrested Sanderson - who had previous convictions for violence and drugs offences and was on bail for an assault at the time - admitted that he had 'sparked her out' but claimed they had had rough sex which was consensual.
Defending him, Maxine Krone said: "It is clear he did his best to be frank and accepted full responsibility for his actions. He showed an understanding of how dreadfully he had behaved.
"He has put forward no justification or excuse for his behaviour and has expressed remorse. He was scared and disgusted by his own behaviour."
She added Sanderson was taking Subutex - used to treat heroin addiction - at the time and had also been drinking all day.
Sanderson had pleaded guilty to two charges of raping his victim and one of wounding her with intent.
Sentencing him, Judge Simon Drew said he will have to serve two-thirds of his sentence before he can be considered for release.
And he ordered Sanderson should remain on licence after his release until 2025, as well as register as a sex offender for life.
1 Rugby man with kilos of cannabis not a dealer
2 Three-lorry M6 crash kills driver
3 Rugby gyratory barriers return amid safety fears
4 M&S, Burton head to bigger out-of-town stores
5 Free school bid sparks concern from Rugby candidate
WARWICKSHIRE Police commissioner Ron Ball has pledged plain
TWO men were attacked and robbed by a
AN ANIMAL rights activist who targeted livestock vehicles
A MUM has described the terrifying ordeal of
COVENTRY is to bid to smash the world record for ...
THE WIFE of Birmingham City FC goalkeeper Colin Doyle is ...
POLICE are looking to speak to this man in connection ...
WITH the 'Winds of Winter' blowing, Redwings Horse Sanctuary near ...


text:
21 February 2011
Samoan Family Websites
So I thought that this may be a beginning of sharing Samoan Family Websites on the Samoan Genealogy Group. These sites vary in information posted by the families themselves.
If you have a family website and would like to share it. Please share a link.
12 comments:
Maiava & Gogouli Family - Upu TomuaReplyDeleteReplies
Here is the link to this family site.Delete
Maiava & Gogouli Family
Talofa and Welcome to the Sooalo/Mao Samoa WebsiteReplyDelete
Check it out
Charles Nicholas King married Tapuitea Fatutalie Samia about 1900, daughter of Fatutalie (High Talking Chief) Voice of the Western District for Tuitele. Tapuitea's mother was Elena Mamea of Fagamalo.ReplyDelete
Link to site here
Teo Family genealogy from the village of Vailoa, Tutuila, American Samoa.ReplyDelete
Link to site here
Saumalu Tui II Family Reunion 2009ReplyDelete
Vailoa Aleipata Samoa 2009 1St Family reunion
The HUNKIN/TUITELE Family of American SamoaReplyDelete
This Ancestry message board of the Hunkin/Tuitele family share 5 generations. Take a look and see if this may help in your research.
HunKin/Tuitele Family of American Samoa
Here is another family site.ReplyDelete
PITO'AU PITO'AU & SIA'AGA SILA (Lefaga, Samoa)


text:
|Regions:Dover/Somersworth -Great Bay - Rochester - Portsmouth
|Berwick Eliot Kittery North Berwick Lebanon South Berwick York
Go Mobile: http://mobile.fosters.com
South Berwick property preserved after 3-year effort
Sunday, January 20, 2013
SOUTH BERWICK, Maine — Following a three-year effort, the conservation of the "Kimball Farm North" property in South Berwick was completed by Great Works Regional Land Trust at the very end of 2012. The 37-acre site is adjacent to the Hilton-Winn Farm. This acquisition creates 356 acres of contiguous, protected lands where Wells, York, Ogunquit, and South Berwick come together.
A partnership with the Town of South Berwick seeks to reduce road mortality for frogs, turtles, and small mammals by a redesign and upgrade to the culverts, reconnecting the wetlands on the property to the nearby Ogunquit River. "An opportunity for Great Works to bring funds to a community for infrastructure improvements while benefiting wildlife makes this a notable project," stated Tin Smith, project coordinator.
Funding for Kimball North was provided by the Maine Natural Resource Conservation Program, Elmina B. Sewall Foundation, Mt. Agamenticus to the Sea Coalition, Hirshom family, Fields Pond Foundation, a neighbor, and members of Great Works Regional Land Trust. A small parking lot with hiking trails is being planned in conjunction with the Youth Enrichment Center at the Hilton Winn Farm.


text:
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Adam Wells on the Future of Travel
"There's so much potential to improve airline travel in so many ways, and we've only just begun. We have the opportunity to make travel entertaining and pleasurable instead of...05.12.09
Antonio Citterio on Kitchens of the Future
"As the kitchen assumes its place as the most important part of the home, we are thankfully moving away from the idea of designing the kitchen as if it were a clinic or a sterile environment.04.16.09
Beyond Thunderdome
Ten years from now, a hundred, a thousand? Yeah, we know what architecture will look like then.written by: Dan Maginn10.12.10
Cardenio Petrucci on Kitchens of the Future
Cardenio Petrucci has seen the kitchen assume increasing prominence, to the point where it's akin to a piece of fine furniture.04.16.09
Christine Rosen on Kitchens of the Future
"Looking at the data, we will continue to eat more convenience foods and to gather less as a family, just as our kitchens become ever more 'gourmet' and 'professional.'04.16.09
Daniel Patterson on Kitchens of the Future
According to this chef who routinely pushes the boundaries of how food is prepared and presented, the ideal kitchen will look back to the future.04.16.09
Design Activism: Public Domain
Though it's quite popular to proclaim that design can change the world, even the best-laid plans aren't enough to make a difference on their own. We spoke with three leading design...written by: Jordan Kushins12.10.09
Diana Balmori on the Future of Landscape Architecutre
Planting a vegetable garden, however, shouldn't be the end of our transformation of the domestic landscape, as Diana Balmori explains.05.26.09
Driving: Joy Ride
San Francisco–based design team Mike and Maaike wave goodbye to the driver's seat with their concept car, the ATNMBL (the "autonomobile"). Consider it a high-tech living room on...written by: Sam Grawe11.16.09
Green Between the Lines
Wondering what's in store for our beloved local green spaces? A trio of experts has the forecast.06.09.10
Groceries: Marketing Strategy
In 1955, photographer Elliott Erwitt snapped a photo of a bereted Frenchman riding his bicycle down a tree-lined road with a child and a pair of baguettes strapped to the rear. It's easy to...written by: Sarah Rich12.09.09
Home Furnishings: Mag-Neato
For almost a decade Dwell has printed countless examples of new furniture designs, but with a handful of exceptions, little has been offered—–to us or to you—–in the way of...written by: Sam Grawe12.16.09
Jim Starry on the Future of Travel
"We have to reconsider the basic structure of airports. If we land planes on an incline to assist in deceleration and have runways end on top of the terminals to eliminate the need for...05.11.09
Joel Turkel on the Future of Prefab
The future of prefab is an increasingly nonarchitectural problem.written by: Joel Turkel10.03.09
Johnny Grey on Kitchens of the Future
The nephew of food guru Elizabeth David, Grey found validation for his design approach in the field of neuroscience.04.16.09
Judy Kameon on the Future of Landscape Design
There's a common misconception that the scale of domestic projects places them in the realm of "garden designers" rather than landscape architects, but size is not always the...05.26.09
Just Browsing
Personal devices are the new frontier for shops peddling their wares. Have a look at how your toddler will shop.written by: Shonquis Moreno11.06.10
Kathryn Gustafson on the Future of Landscape Design
As housing demographics shift, so too does our conception of the average American residential landscape.05.26.09
Leo Marmol on the Future of Prefab
More and more people are coming to us informed about the complete benefits of prefab construction.01.28.09
Lumen on the Horizon
There's a light at the end of the tunnel; this trio of design luminaries tells us precisely how it will work.written by: Patrick Di Justo08.26.10
Luxury: Evaluating Values
Luxury, a term that once conjured images from Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous, is now just as often used to aggrandize personal organizers, iPod cases, and websites. So we turned to Augustin...written by: Aaron Britt11.16.09
Michael Van Valkenburgh on the Future of Landscape Design
Though large projects often garner the greatest attention, Michael Van Valkenburgh agrees that residential projects are also worthwhile:03.23.09
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Some people assume that yet-to-be-invented high-tech materials and systems will be the saviors of our construction industry.01.28.09
Play: Electric Slide
A group of Columbia University students have a good time reinventing the playground as a place to harness all that youthful energy.written by: Marc Kristal11.16.09
Preservation Recommended
With the preservation of mid-century buildings already a touchy subject—–many people are still unwilling to see the value in preserving "modern" architecture—–we...written by: Aaron Britt12.14.09


text:
Hazard Insurance
A contract whereby any insurer, or a premium, undertakes to compensate the insured for a loss on a specific property due to certain hazards.
One who inherits from the estate of a person who has died.
Money held back by a title company, at the lender's instructions, until a contingency is met. Typically, a repair to the home. One and one half to double the estimated amount necessary is held back. Upon completion of repairs, the holdback is released.
Homeowners Association
(1) An association of people who own homes in a given area, formed for the purpose of improving or maintaining the quality of the area.
(2) An association formed by the builder of condominiums or planned developments and required by statute in some states. The builder's participation as well as the duties of the association are controlled by statute.
Homeowner's Insurance
Includes the coverage of hazard insurance plus added coverage such as personal liability, theft away from the home and other such coverage.
Homeowners Policy
A multiple peril insurance policy commonly called "package policy". It is available to owners of private dwellings and covers the dwelling and contents in the case of fire or wind damage, theft, liability for property damage, and personal liability.
Housing Expense Ratio
A home owner's monthly housing expense as a percentage of his or her monthly income.


text:
404 File Not Found
Host by NetBox Version 2.8 Build 4128
Gift Wrap Available
Cat's Own Scratching n Relaxing Bed
Omega Paw Ripple Board Cat Bed can serve your cat's everyday needs of sleeping, scratching and massaging. This 3 -in-1 unit is made with cardboard and patented Ripped Board that gives a soothing massage to your cat. The massage board surface is treated with organic catnip oil and can keep your cat busy for hours.
Omega Paw Ripple Board Cat Bed
Dimensions: 16in length x 16in width x 5in height
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|Ripple Board Cat Bed - Green
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text:
So You Think You Can Dance
(Medley)arr. Mark Brymer - Hal Leonard Corporation
Try out your best moves in this fast-paced seven-minute medley that includes ten all-time hits, including the theme song from Fox-TV's Emmy-nominated series! Songs include: Dancing in the Street; Dancing Machine; Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now); Just Dance; Let's Twist Again; The Loco-Motion; Shake It; So You Think You Can Dance; Straight Up and Y.M.C.A.


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Cut the clutter and take control of your space. For the kitchen, think food storage, drawer organizers and more. Here are storage tips for every room and every house. Under bed storage is a simple, tidy solution for hiding away items. Get a lightweight, easy-care hamper for dirty laundry plus hangers and closet systems for once they're out of the wash. Shower caddies and organizers give shampoo, body wash and your favorite loofah a home of their own. On to the living room: modular shelving gives you lots of storage options because there's never one right way to organize your space. And don't forget the office: the right filing system makes all the difference come Tax Season.
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Charles Yu is the author of How to Live Safely in a Science Fictional Universe, which was named one of the best books of the year by Time magazine. He received the National Book Foundation's 5 Under 35 Award for his story collection Third Class Superhero, and was a finalist for the PEN Center USA Literary Award. His work has been published in The New York Times, Playboy, and Slate, among other periodicals. Yu lives in Los Angeles with his wife, Michelle, and their two children.
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Poodle Jewel wrote:..my lycra bodysuit was bright orange.
sassenach.girl wrote:Should we be looking at heaters?
sassenach.girl wrote:Absolutely Gypsy ..... electric fan heaters for sure. Will likely get 2 x BigW cheapies: one for each bedroom in the tent :)
sassenach.girl wrote:The two bedrooms are completely separate, with a 3x2.3m "lounge" in between, so I think 2 might be in order.
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News BSCT set to invade Seymour
Seymour, July 15- The first event in the Badger Stock Car Tour is set to take the 1/3 mile banked clay oval at the Seymour Speedway in 2 days, Wednesday July 17.
A field of over 50 cars are expected to compete in the first leg of the 3 day series, and with over 40 cars pre entered, that number could easily be surpassed.
The event will feature a complete program topped by a 30 lap feature which will pay the winner $700. The Seymour Speedway boasts three and four wide racing on a regular basis and should be up to the challenge Wednesday night.
The series will continue at the ThunderHill Speedway in Sturgeon Bay on Thursday night, and close on Friday night at the Speedzone in Oshkosh along with the Badger Mod Tour.
The IMCA Sport Mods will also be on the big program. They will compete to get into the 20 lap main with a top prize of $350. This in not a sanctioned race but will follow all rules except the claim.
The pit will open at 4:30 with Sport Mod draw closing at 6:15. The Badger Tour draw cut off is 6:30. All pit passes are $25. Racing starts at 7 PM…SHARP!
The grandstand will open at 5 PM. Regular admission prices will be in effect for this special event. Adults $10, Seniors 55 and up- Students 13-18 $8, Kids 12 and under FREE with an adult.
The drivers must compete in all three events to qualify for a special series point fund, which makes Seymour a key race.
The Stock Car series has been a much anticipated series and the drivers are set to showcase their talents and the Seymour Speedway is just the right venue for a truly competitive event.
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The Skytrain has two lines running above Bangkok's central areas, while the Bangkok Metro has one route and covers areas not connected by the Skytrain. The Metro intersects with the Skytrain at three points and has 18 stations, with frequent services running until midnight. The bus system has always been the main form of public transport, but it should be used with care due to pickpockets. The most interesting way to get around is on the waterways of the Chao Phraya River where numerous river taxis, long-tail boats and large waterbuses make most tourist sites easily reachable for about THB 10. Tuk tuks (colourful three-wheelers) are the standard way of making short journeys and are cheaper and quicker than regular taxis, but fares should be negotiated before boarding. Metered and un-metered taxis are air-conditioned, but be aware that drivers don't carry much change. Any taxi or tuk tuk can be hired for a day's tour of the sights (THB 500-800). Bangkok also has free bikes for tourists for two set routes along the river; the east side goes past some of the biggest temples, while the west side goes through more residential areas.
220 volts AC, 50Hz. Both flat and round two-pin plugs are used.
The unit of currency is the Baht (THB), which is divided into 100 satang. Money can be exchanged at the airport, banks, hotels and bureaux de change. Banks are open Monday to Friday. ATMs are available in most cities and tourist resorts. Most major credit cards are accepted at hotels and larger businesses.
The international country dialling code for Thailand is +66. International direct dial facilities are available throughout most of the country. Mobile phone networks cover most towns, cities and holiday resorts; operators use GSM networks. Internet cafes are available in the main towns and resorts.
Emergencies: 191
|New Year's Day
|1 Jan
|1 Jan
|Chakri Day
|7 Apr
|7 Apr
|Songkran Festival
|14 Apr - 15 Apr
|14 Apr - 15 Apr
|National Labour Day
|1 May
|1 May
|Coronation Day
|5 May
|5 May
|H.M. Queen's Birthday
|12 Aug
|12 Aug
|Chulalongkorn Day
|23 Oct
|23 Oct
|H.M. King's Birthday
|5 Dec
|5 Dec
|Constitution Day
|10 Dec
|10 Dec
|New Year's Eve
|31 Dec
|31 Dec
Bangkok has a hot, tropical climate with average high temperatures ranging between 88°F (31°C) and 93°F (34°C) all year. November to February is the driest time of year and the most popular with tourists. March, April and May are the hottest months, and the rainy season runs from May to October. During the wet season short showers are likely during the afternoon, though sometimes it will rain all day.
The free shuttle bus (Express route) transports passengers to the Transport Centre from where public buses, taxis and rental cars depart. Taxis can also be found on Level 1 at Arrivals. Public buses run several routes from the Transport Centre to Bangkok, while the Airport Express provides air-conditioned coaches between the airport and first-class hotels in downtown Bangkok. There is also a Limousine Service counter on the 2nd floor of the Arrivals Hall.
Car hire is available from Avis, Budget, Europcar, Hertz, Sixt and Thai Rent-a-Car. Bookings can be made at the Car Rental service counter at Arrivals.
From the airport passengers can either catch a taxi from the departure terminal or ride a free shuttle to the Public Transportation Center and hire one from there. Travel time depends greatly on traffic but is at least 30 minutes and can be much more. An exit fee is expected to be paid by the passenger although this can be paid at the end of the ride. Passengers can request the driver use the expressway which will cost a small additional fee. Rides will cost between THB 200-400.
Shuttle buses provide a free service between the main terminal and the transport centre, as well as connecting other airport facilities.
Currency exchange is available on Level 2 at Arrivals, and ATMs are located throughout the terminal building. Public telephones are widely available. A tourist information service is located in the Arrivals hall on Level 2. Duty free shopping and a myriad of restaurants, wine bars and fast food outlets are also available.
Short and long-term parking is available at Suvarnabhumi International Airport. Short-term rates range from THB 25 for the first hour to THB 250 for the day. Long-term rates start at THB 20 per hour and go up to THB 140 per day.
Wifi is available throughout the airport and it is free in some areas, mainly the concourses.