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Five Days of Milan, 18–22 March 1848. | |
Date | 1815–1871 |
Location | Italy |
Participants | Italian society, Kingdom of Sardinia, Provisional Government of Milan, Republic of San Marco, Kingdom of Sicily, Roman Republic, Carbonari, French Empire, Red Shirts, Hungarian legion, Southern Army, United Provinces of Central Italy, Kingdom of Italy |
Outcome |
This article's lead section may not adequately summarize key points of its contents. (September 2014) |
Five Days of Milan, 18–22 March 1848. | |
Date | 1815–1871 |
Location | Italy |
Participants | Italian society, Kingdom of Sardinia, Provisional Government of Milan, Republic of San Marco, Kingdom of Sicily, Roman Republic, Carbonari, French Empire, Red Shirts, Hungarian legion, Southern Army, United Provinces of Central Italy, Kingdom of Italy |
Outcome |
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Italian unification (italian Risorgimento [risordʒiˈmento], meaning the Resurgence) was the political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. Despite a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and end of this period, many scholars agree that the process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and the end of Napoleonic rule, and ended in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.[1][2] Some of the terre irredente did not, however, join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I with the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Some nationalists see the November 3, 1918 Armistice of Villa Giusti as the end of unification.[3]
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman province of Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. During the Byzantine Empire crisis and decline, Italy gradually developed into a system of city-states. This system lasted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the early modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy fights between the major powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire (later Austria) and France. Between the 1300s and 1500s, Italian writers such as Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca, Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini had expressed their opposition to foreign domination. For example, Petrarch's Italia Mia stated that the "ancient valor in Italian hearts is not yet dead". Four verses from Italia Mia were quoted in Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, which looked for a political leader who would unite Italy "to free her from the barbarians".[4] Some historians and scholars consider the Italian states' treaties against foreign domination as the Italic League or the foreign policy of Cosimo De Medici and Lorenzo De Medici a harbinger for a national unity.[5]
A sense of Italian national identity was reflected in Gian Rinaldo Carli's Della Patria degli Italiani,[6] written in 1764, a very famous "much-quoted article telling how a stranger entered a café in Milan and puzzled its occupants by saying that he was neither a foreigner nor a Milanese. 'Then what are you?' they asked. 'I am an Italian,' he explained."[7]
The Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars destroyed the old structures of feudality in Italy. The new French Republic supported the spread of republican principles. The institution of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the royal families, primarily the Bourbons and Habsburgs, and set the stage for the appearance of nationalist sentiment in Italy, which greatly influenced the course of European history (see 1830 and Revolutions of 1848). The various principalities and states were replaced by sister republics.
Nationalism increased in the early 19th century, when Italy, like much of Europe, fell under the sway of Napoleon. In 1805, Napoleon I endeavoured to attach the Italian heritage to France again and was crowned king of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at the Milan Cathedral.
As Napoleon's reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs were the viceroy of Italy, Eugène de Beauharnais, and the king of Naples, Joachim Murat. De Beauharnais tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the new Kingdom of Italy. On 30 March 1815, Murat issued the Rimini Proclamation, which called on Italians to revolt against their Austrian occupiers. Another important figure of this period was Francesco Melzi d'Eril, serving as vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic (1802−1805) and consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death.[8] Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the Congress of Vienna (1815) was convened to redraw the map of Europe. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria.[9]
At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be waged primarily against the Austrian Empire and the Habsburgs, since they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking northeastern part of present-day Italy and were, together, the most powerful force against unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed nationalist sentiment growing on the Italian peninsula, as well as in the other parts of Habsburg domains. The Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich, an influential diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, stated that the word Italy was nothing more than "a geographic expression".[10]
Artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; Vittorio Alfieri and Niccolò Tommaseo are generally considered two great literary precursors of Italian nationalism but the most famous of proto-nationalist works was Alessandro Manzoni's I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed). Some read this novel as a thinly veiled allegorical critique of Austrian rule. The novel was published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years. The 1840 version of I Promessi Sposi used a standardized version of the Tuscan dialect, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it.[11]
Those in favour of unification also faced opposition from the Holy See, particularly after failed attempts to broker a confederation with the Papal States, which would have left the Papacy with some measure of autonomy over the region. The pope at the time, Pius IX, feared that giving up power in the region could mean the persecution of Italian Catholics.[12]
Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified as one country, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take. Vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under rulership of the Pope. His book, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians, was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic while Cesare Balbo supported a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont.[13]
One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari (coalmongers), a secret organization formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of the French Revolution, its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula among the European powers, the Carbonari movement spread into the Papal States, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. The revolutionaries were so feared that the reigning authorities passed an ordinance condemning to death anyone who attended a Carbonari meeting. The society, however, continued to exist and was at the root of many of the political disturbances in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The Carbonari condemned Napoleon III − who, as a young man, had fought on the side of the Carbonari − to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time members of this organization. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually it was a king and his chief minister who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy.[14]
Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement were Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi. The most conservative constitutional monarchic figures included Count Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II, who would later become the first king of a united Italy. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could − and therefore should − be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went to Marseille, where he organized a new political society called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy). The new society, whose motto was "God and the People", sought the unification of Italy. Garibaldi, a native of Nice (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped to South America. He spent fourteen years there, taking part in several wars and learning the art of guerrilla warfare, and returned to Italy in 1848.[15]
In 1820, Spaniards successfully revolted over disputes about their Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards (who, in 1812, had created their constitution), a regiment in the army of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, commanded by Guglielmo Pepe, a Carbonaro, mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, Ferdinand I, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the Holy Alliance. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in Sicily, including the scholar Michele Amari, were forced into exile during the decades that followed.[16]
The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in Piedmont was Santorre di Santarosa, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the House of Savoy. The Piedmont revolt started in Alessandria, where troops adopted the green, white, and red tricolore of the Cisalpine Republic. The king's regent, prince Charles Albert, acting while the king Charles Felix was away, approved a new constitution to appease the revolutionaries, but when the king returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from the Holy Alliance. Di Santarosa's troops were defeated, and the would-be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to Paris.[17]
In Milan, Silvio Pellico and Pietro Maroncelli organised several attempts to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educational means. In October 1820, Pellico and Maroncelli were arrested on the charge of carbonarism and conveyed to the Santa Margherita prison. The sentence of death pronounced on them in February 1822 was finally commuted to fifteen and twenty years of jail in harsh condition, and in the following April they were placed in the Spielberg, at Brünn (today's Brno), where they were transferred via Udine and Ljubljana.[18]
By 1830, revolutionary sentiment in favour of a unified Italy began to experience a resurgence, and a series of insurrections laid the groundwork for the creation of one nation along the Italian peninsula.
The Duke of Modena, Francis IV, was an ambitious noble, and he hoped to become king of Northern Italy by increasing his territory. In 1826, Francis made it clear that he would not act against those who subverted opposition toward the unification of Italy. Encouraged by the declaration, revolutionaries in the region began to organize.
During the July Revolution of 1830 in France, revolutionaries forced the king to abdicate and created the July Monarchy with encouragement from the new French king, Louis-Philippe. Louis-Philippe had promised revolutionaries such as Ciro Menotti that he would intervene if Austria tried to interfere in Italy with troops. Fearing he would lose his throne, Louis-Philippe did not, however, intervene in Menotti's planned uprising. The Duke of Modena abandoned his Carbonari supporters, arrested Menotti and other conspirators in 1831, and once again conquered his duchy with help from the Austrian troops. Menotti was executed, and the idea of a revolution centered in Modena faded.
At the same time, other insurrections arose in the Papal Legations of Bologna, Forlì, Ravenna, Imola, Ferrara, Pesaro and Urbino. These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in favour of the Papal flag, quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed the creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the Duchy of Parma, where the tricolore flag was adopted. The Parmese duchess Marie Louise left the city during the political upheaval.
Insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane unite (united Italian Provinces), which prompted Pope Gregory XVI to ask for Austrian help against the rebels. Metternich warned Louis-Philippe that Austria had no intention of letting Italian matters be, and that French intervention would not be tolerated. Louis-Philippe withheld any military help and even arrested Italian patriots living in France.
In the spring of 1831, the Austrian army began its march across the Italian peninsula, slowly crushing resistance in each province that had revolted. This military action suppressed much of the fledgling revolutionary movement, and resulted in the arrest of many radical leaders.[19]
In 1844, two brothers from Venice, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, members of the Giovine Italia, planned to make a raid on the Calabrian coast against the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and in name of Italian Unification. They assembled a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives, and set sail on their venture on 12 June 1844. Four days later they landed near Crotone, intending to go to Cosenza, liberate the political prisoners and issue their proclamations. Tragically for the Bandiera brothers, they did not find the insurgent band they were told awaited them, so they moved towards La Sila. They were ultimately betrayed by one of their party, the Corsican Boccheciampe, and by some peasants who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of gendarmes and volunteers were sent against them, and after a short fight the whole band was taken prisoner and escorted to Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a previous rising were also under arrest. The Bandiera brothers and their nine companions were executed by firing squad; some accounts state they cried "Viva l'Italia!" (Long live Italy!) as they fell. The moral effect was enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities was universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandiera brothers bore fruit in the subsequent revolutions.[20]
On 5 January 1848, the revolutionary disturbances began with a civil disobedience strike in Lombardy, as citizens stopped smoking and playing the lottery, which denied Austria the associated tax revenue. Shortly after this, revolts began on the island of Sicily and in Naples against King Ferdinand, who conceded as he had in 1821 and granted The Kingdom of Two Sicilies a constitution, as well as releasing political prisoners. In Sicily the revolt resulted in the proclamation of the Kingdom of Sicily with Ruggero Settimo as Chairman of the independent state until 1849 when the Bourbon army took back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force.[21]
In February 1848, there were revolts in Tuscany that were relatively nonviolent, after which Grand Duke Ferdinand granted the Tuscans a constitution. A breakaway republican provisional government formed in Tuscany during February shortly after this concession. On 21 February, Pope Pius IX granted a constitution to the Papal States, which was both unexpected and surprising considering the historical recalcitrance of the Papacy. On 23 February 1848, King Louis Philippe of France was forced to flee Paris, and a republic was proclaimed. By the time the revolution in Paris occurred, three states of Italy had constitutions — four if one considers Sicily to be a separate state.
Meanwhile, in Lombardy, tensions increased until the Milanese and Venetians rose in revolt on 18 March 1848. The insurrection in Milan succeeded in expelling the Austrian garrison after five days of street fights –18 March till 22 March– (Cinque giornate di Milano). An Austrian army under Marshal Josef Radetzky besieged Milan, but due to defection of many of his troops and the support of the Milanese for the revolt, they were forced to retreat.
Soon, Charles Albert, the King of Sardinia (who ruled Piedmont and Savoy), urged by the Venetians and Milanese to aid their cause, decided this was the moment to unify Italy and declared war on Austria (First Italian Independence War). After initial successes at Goito and Peschiera, he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July. An armistice was agreed to, and Radetzky regained control of all of Lombardy-Venetia save Venice itself, where the Republic of San Marco was proclaimed under Daniele Manin.[22]
While Radetzky consolidated control of Lombardy-Venetia and Charles Albert licked his wounds, matters took a more serious turn in other parts of Italy. The monarchs who had reluctantly agreed to constitutions in March came into conflict with their constitutional ministers. At first, the republics had the upper hand, forcing the monarchs to flee their capitals, including Pope Pius IX.
Initially, Pius IX had been something of a reformer, but conflicts with the revolutionaries soured him on the idea of constitutional government. In November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister Pellegrino Rossi, Pius IX fled just before Giuseppe Garibaldi and other patriots arrived in Rome. In early 1849, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed a Roman Republic on February 9. On 2 February 1849, at a political rally held in the Apollo Theater, a young Roman priest, the Abbé Arduini, had made a speech in which he had declared that the temporal power of the popes was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality.".[23] In early March 1849, Giuseppe Mazzini arrived in Rome and was appointed Chief Minister. In the Constitution of the Roman Republic,[24] religious freedom was guaranteed by article 7, the independence of the pope as head of the Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the Principi fondamentali, while the death penalty was abolished by article 5, and free public education was provided by article 8 of the Titolo I.
Before the powers could respond to the founding of the Roman Republic, Charles Albert, whose army had been trained by the exiled Polish general Albert Chrzanowski, renewed the war with Austria. He was quickly defeated by Radetzky at Novara on 23 March 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II, and Piedmontese ambitions to unite Italy or conquer Lombardy were, for the moment, brought to an end. The war ended with a treaty signed on 9 August. A popular revolt broke out in Brescia on the same day as the defeat at Novara, but was suppressed by the Austrians ten days later.
There remained the Roman and Venetian Republics. In April, a French force under Charles Oudinot was sent to Rome. Apparently, the French first wished to mediate between the Pope and his subjects, but soon the French were determined to restore the Pope. After a two-month siege, Rome capitulated on 29 June 1849 and the Pope was restored. Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile — in 1850 Garibaldi went to New York City. Meanwhile, the Austrians besieged Venice defended by a volunteer army led by Daniele Manin and Guglielmo Pepe, which were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were hanged en masse in Belfiore, while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and establishing their control over the Papal Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed.[25]
Although Charles Albert had been soundly defeated in his bid to drive the Austrians from Italy, the Piedmontese did not abandon all hope of Italian domination. Camillo di Cavour, who became president of the Council of Ministers in 1852, also had expansionist ambitions. Cavour saw that Piedmont would not be able to add to its territory singlehandedly. Instead, he hoped for aid from Britain and France in expelling Austria from Italy. An attempt to gain British and French favour by supporting them in the Crimean War was unsuccessful, as Italian matters were ignored at the Congress of Paris. Nevertheless, the war achieved a useful objective—it left Austria, which had uncomfortably tried a balance between the two sides during the war, dangerously isolated.[26]
In 1857, Carlo Pisacane, a man from Naples who decided to leave the Neapolitan army and to embrace Mazzinian ideas, organized an expedition to provoke a rising in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Pisacane offered himself for the task, and sailed from Genoa with a few followers (including Giovanni Nicotera) on board the steamer Cagliari on 25 June 1857. They landed on the island of Ponza, where the guards were overpowered and some hundreds of prisoners liberated, and on 28 of the same month arrived at Sapri in Campania and attempted to reach the Cilento. But hardly any assistance from the inhabitants was forthcoming, and the invaders were quickly overpowered at Padula, Pisacane himself being brutally stabbed with a knife then killed at Sanza by angry locals who did not recognise him believing him to be a wandering gypsy who was stealing their food.[27]
On 14 January 1858 the Italian nationalist Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate the French Emperor Napoleon III. Writing from prison, Orsini did not plead for his life, accepting death for his role in the failed assassination, but rather appealed to Napoleon III to fulfill his destiny by aiding the forces of Italian nationalism. Napoleon, who had belonged to the Carbonari in his youth, and saw himself as in tune with the ideas of the day, became convinced it was his destiny to do something for Italy. In the summer of 1858, Cavour met with Napoleon III at Plombières and the two signed a secret agreement, known as the Patto di Plombières ("Pact of Plombières").[28]
Cavour and Napoleon III agreed to a joint war against Austria. Piedmont would gain the Austrian territories of Lombardy and Venetia and some territories of the former Venetian Commonwealth in the Adriatic, as well as the Duchies of Parma and Modena, while France would be rewarded with Piedmont's territories in Savoy and Nice. Central and Southern Italy, being largely under-developed and of little interest to the wealthier north, would remain largely as it was, although there was some talk that the Emperor's cousin Prince Napoleon would replace the Habsburgs in Tuscany. To allow France to intervene without appearing as an aggressor, Cavour was to provoke Austria by encouraging revolutionary activity in Lombardy.[29]
At first, things did not work out as planned. Austria, ignorant of the Plombières agreement, was surprisingly patient in dealing with the Piedmontese-inspired insurrections. Piedmont's mobilization in March 1859 was something of an admission of defeat, as it appeared that the strategy of provoking Austria into aggression had failed. Without Austrian aggression, France could not intervene; and without French support, Cavour was unwilling to risk war. However, Austria conveniently made their opponents' task easier by sending an ultimatum to Piedmont demanding demobilization. Piedmont could conveniently reject this and, by making Austria seem the aggressor, allowed France to intervene.
The war itself was quite short. The Austrian advance into Piedmont was incompetent, and they were unable to secure the Alpine passes before the arrival of the French army, led personally by Napoleon III. At the Battle of Magenta on 4 June, the French and Piedmontese were victorious over the Austrian army of Count Ferencz Gyulai, leading to Austrian withdrawal from most of Lombardy and a triumphal entry by Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel into Milan. On 24 June a second battle was fought between the two armies at Solferino. This bloody engagement, at which the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph had taken personal command of his troops, saw little skill demonstrated by either emperor, but the French were victorious. The Austrians withdrew behind the Quadrilateral of fortresses on the borders of Venetia. A French and Piedmontese landing force conquered the Island of Lussino (today Losinj).
Napoleon III sought peace at this point. Upon touring the Solferino battlefield, he was aghast at the casualties. He feared that a long and bloody campaign would be necessary to conquer Venetia, which, coupled with fear for his position at home, worry about possible intervention by German states, and dislike of a too-powerful Piedmont-Sardinia, led him to look for a way out. On 11 July he met privately with Franz Joseph at Villafranca, without the knowledge of his Piedmontese allies.
The two agreed on a settlement to the conflict. Austria would retain Venetia, but would cede Lombardy to France, who would then immediately cede it to Piedmont (the Austrians were unwilling to cede the area to Piedmont directly). Otherwise, the Italian borders would remain unchanged. In Central Italy, where the authorities had been expelled following the outbreak of war, the rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, who had fled to Austria, would be restored, while Papal control of the Legations would be resumed. Because Napoleon had not fulfilled the terms of his agreement with Piedmont, he would not gain Savoy and Nice.
The Piedmontese were outraged at this betrayal. Cavour demanded that the war be carried on regardless and resigned when Victor Emmanuel saw that acquiescence was the only realistic option. But most of the Villafranca agreement would prove a dead letter long before it was formalized by the Treaty of Zürich in November. Sardinian troops occupied the smaller Italian states and the Legations, and France was unwilling to pressure them to withdraw and allow the restoration of the old order, while Austria no longer had the power to compel it. In December, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Legations were unified into the United Provinces of Central Italy, and, encouraged by Britain, began seeking annexation by the Piedmont.
Cavour, who triumphantly returned to power in January 1860, wished to annex the territories, but realized that French acquiescence was necessary. Napoleon III agreed to recognize the Piedmontese annexation in exchange for Savoy and Nice. On 20 March 1860, the annexations occurred. Now Piedmont controlled most of Northern and Central Italy.[30]
Thus, by the spring of 1860, only four states remained in Italy — the Austrians in Venetia, the Papal States (now minus the Legations), the new expanded Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.[31][32][33]
Francis II of the Two Sicilies, the son and successor of Ferdinand II (the infamous "King Bomba"), had a well-organized army of 150,000 men. But his father's tyranny had inspired many secret societies, and the kingdom's Swiss Mercenaries were unexpectedly recalled home under the terms of a new Swiss law that forbade Swiss citizens to serve as mercenaries. This left Francis with only his mostly-unreliable native troops. It was a critical opportunity for the unification movement. In April 1860, separate insurrections began in Messina and Palermo in Sicily, both of which had demonstrated a history of opposing Neapolitan rule. These rebellions were easily suppressed by loyal troops.
In the meantime, Garibaldi, a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war with France, persuaded Garibaldi to instead use his forces in the Sicilian rebellions. On 6 May 1860, Garibaldi and his cadre of about a thousand Italian volunteers (called I Mille), steamed from Quarto near Genoa, and, after a stop in Talamone on 11 May, landed near Marsala on the west coast of Sicily.
Near Salemi, Garibaldi's army attracted scattered bands of rebels, and the combined forces defeated the opposing army at Calatafimi on 13 May. Within three days, the invading force had swelled to 4,000 men. On 14 May Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily, in the name of Victor Emmanuel. After waging various successful but hard-fought battles, Garibaldi advanced upon the Sicilian capital of Palermo, announcing his arrival by beacon-fires kindled at night. On 27 May the force laid siege to the Porta Termini of Palermo, while a mass uprising of street and barricade fighting broke out within the city.
With Palermo deemed insurgent, Neapolitan general Ferdinando Lanza, arriving in Sicily with some 25,000 troops, furiously bombarded Palermo nearly to ruins. With the intervention of a British admiral, an armistice was declared, leading to the Neapolitan troops' departure and surrender of the town to Garibaldi and his much smaller army.
This resounding success demonstrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government. Garibaldi's fame spread and many Italians began to consider him a national hero. Doubt, confusion, and dismay overtook the Neapolitan court — the king hastily summoned his ministry and offered to restore an earlier constitution, but these efforts failed to rebuild the peoples' trust in Bourbon governance.
Six weeks after the surrender of Palermo, Garibaldi attacked Messina. Within a week, its citadel surrendered. Having conquered Sicily, Garibaldi proceeded to the mainland, crossing the Strait of Messina with the Neapolitan fleet at hand. The garrison at Reggio Calabria promptly surrendered. As he marched northward, the populace everywhere hailed him, and military resistance faded: on 18 and 21 August, the people of Basilicata and Puglia, two regions of the Kingdom of Naples, autonomously declared their annexation to the Kingdom of Italy. At the end of August, Garibaldi was at Cosenza, and, on 5 September, at Eboli, near Salerno. Meanwhile, Naples had declared a state of siege, and on 6 September the king gathered the 4,000 troops still faithful to him and retreated over the Volturno river. The next day, Garibaldi, with a few followers, entered by train into Naples, where the people openly welcomed him.[34]
Though Garibaldi had easily taken the capital, the Neapolitan army had not joined the rebellion en masse, holding firm along the Volturno River. Garibaldi's irregular bands of about 25,000 men could not drive away the king or take the fortresses of Capua and Gaeta without the help of the Sardinian army.
The Sardinian army, however, could only arrive by traversing the Papal States, which extended across the entire center of the peninsula. Ignoring the political will of the Holy See, Garibaldi announced his intent to proclaim a "Kingdom of Italy" from Rome, the capital city of Pope Pius IX. Seeing this as a threat to the domain of the Catholic Church, Pius threatened excommunication for those who supported such an effort. Afraid that Garibaldi would attack Rome, Catholics worldwide sent money and volunteers for the Papal Army, which was commanded by General Louis Lamoricière, a French exile.
The settling of the peninsular standoff now rested with Napoleon III. If he let Garibaldi have his way, Garibaldi would likely end the temporal sovereignty of the Pope and make Rome the capital of Italy. Napoleon, however, may have arranged with Cavour to leave the king of Sardinia free to take possession of Naples, Umbria and the other provinces, provided that Rome and the "Patrimony of St. Peter" were left intact.[35]
It was in this situation that a Sardinian force of two army corps, under Fanti and Cialdini, marched to the frontier of the Papal States, its objective being not Rome but Naples. The Papal troops under Lamoricière advanced against Cialdini, but were quickly defeated and besieged in the fortress of Ancona, finally surrendering on 29 September. On 9 October, Victor Emmanuel arrived and took command. There was no longer a papal army to oppose him, and the march southward proceeded unopposed.
Garibaldi distrusted the pragmatic Cavour, particularly due to Cavour's role in the French annexation of Nice, Garibaldi's birthplace. Nevertheless, he accepted the command of Victor Emmanuel. When the king entered Sessa Aurunca at the head of his army, Garibaldi willingly handed over his dictatorial power. After greeting Victor Emmanuel in Teano with the title of King of Italy, Garibaldi entered Naples riding beside the king. Garibaldi then retired to the island of Caprera, while the remaining work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.
The progress of the Sardinian army compelled Francis II to give up his line along the river, and he eventually took refuge with his best troops in the fortress of Gaeta. His courage boosted by his resolute young wife, Duchess Marie Sophie of Bavaria, Francis mounted a stubborn defence that lasted three months. But European allies refused him aid, food and munitions became scarce, and disease set in, so the garrison was forced to surrender. Nonetheless, ragtag groups of Neapolitans loyal to Francis fought on against the Italian government for years to come.
The fall of Gaeta brought the unification movement to the brink of fruition — only Rome and Venetia remained to be added. On 18 February 1861, Victor Emmanuel assembled the deputies of the first Italian Parliament in Turin. On 17 March 1861, the Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy, and on 27 March 1861 Rome was declared Capital of Italy, even though it was not actually in the new Kingdom.[36]
Three months later Cavour, having seen his life's work nearly complete, died. When he was given the last rites, Cavour purportedly said: "Italy is made. All is safe."[37]
Mazzini was discontented with the perpetuation of monarchical government, and continued to agitate for a republic. With the motto "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic", the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. There were obstacles, however. A challenge against the Pope's temporal domain was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and French troops were stationed in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions.[38]
Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he attacked Rome. Frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, he came out of retirement to organize a new venture. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed again at Palermo, where he gathered volunteers for the campaign, under the slogan Roma o Morte ("Rome or Death"). The garrison of Messina, loyal to the king's instructions, barred their passage to the mainland. Garibaldi's force, now numbering two thousand, turned south and set sail from Catania. Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at Melito on 14 August and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains.
Far from supporting this endeavour, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August the two forces met in the Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, but Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. The volunteers suffered several casualties, and Garibaldi himself was wounded; many were taken prisoner. Garibaldi was taken by steamer to Varignano, where he was honorably imprisoned for a time, but finally released.
Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a safer means to the acquisition of the remaining Papal territory. He negotiated with Napoleon III for the removal of the French troops from Rome through a treaty. They agreed to the September Convention in September 1864, by which Napoleon agreed to withdraw the troops within two years. The Pope was to expand his own army during that time so as to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French troops departed from Rome, in spite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal, Italy (excluding Venetia and Savoy) was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.[39]
The seat of government was moved in 1865 from Turin, the old Sardinian capital, to Florence, where the first Italian parliament was summoned. This arrangement created such disturbances in Turin that the king was forced to leave that city hastily for his new capital. [40]
In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Austria contested with Prussia the position of leadership among the German states. The Kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to capture Venetia from Austrian rule and allied itself with Prussia. Austria tried to persuade the Italian government to accept Venetia in exchange for non-intervention. However, on 8 April, Italy and Prussia signed an agreement that supported Italy's acquisition of Venetia, and on 20 June Italy declared war on Austria. Within the context of Italian unification, the Austro-Prussian war is called Third Independence War, after the First (1848) and the Second (1859).[41]
Victor Emmanuel hastened to lead an army across the Mincio to the invasion of Venetia, while Garibaldi was to invade the Tyrol with his Hunters of the Alps. The enterprise ended in disaster. The Italian army encountered the Austrians at Custoza on 24 June and suffered a defeat. On 20 July the Regia Marina was defeated in the battle of Lissa. Italy's fortunes were not all so dismal, though. The following day, Garibaldi's volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the battle of Bezzecca, and moved toward Trento.[42]
Meanwhile, Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck saw that his own ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with Austria on 27 July. Italy officially laid down its arms on 12 August. Garibaldi was called back from his successful march and resigned with a brief telegram reading only "Obbedisco" ("I obey").
In spite of Italy's poor showing, Prussia's success on the northern front obliged Austria to cede Venetia. Under the terms of a peace treaty signed in Vienna on October 12, Emperor Franz Joseph had already agreed to cede Venetia to Napoleon III in exchange for non-intervention in the Austro-Prussian War and thus Napoleon III ceded Venetia to Italy on 19 October in exchange for the earlier Italian acquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy and Nice.
In the peace treaty of Vienna, it was written that the annexation of Venetia would have become effective only after a referendum—taken on 21 and 22 October—to let the Venetian people express their will about being annexed or not to the Kingdom of Italy. Historians suggest that the referendum in Venetia was held under military pressure,[43] as a mere 0.01% of voters (69 out of more than 642,000 ballots) voted against the annexation.[44] However it should be admitted that the re-establishment of a Republic of Venice orphan of Istria and Dalmatia had little chances to develop.
Austrian forces put up some opposition to the invading Italians, to little effect. Victor Emmanuel entered Venice and Venetian land, and performed an act of homage in the Piazza San Marco.[45]
The national party, with Garibaldi at its head, still aimed at the possession of Rome, as the historic capital of the peninsula. In 1867 Garibaldi made a second attempt to capture Rome, but the papal army, strengthened with a new French auxiliary force, defeated his badly armed volunteers at Mentana. Subsequently, a French garrison remained in Civitavecchia until August 1870, when it was recalled following the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War.
Before the defeat at Mentana, Enrico Cairoli, his brother Giovanni and 70 companions had made a daring attempt to take Rome. The group had embarked in Terni and floated down the Tiber. Their arrival in Rome was to coincide with an uprising inside the city. On 22 October 1867, the revolutionaries inside Rome seized control of the Capitoline Hill and of Piazza Colonna. Unfortunately for the Cairolis and their companions, by the time they arrived at Villa Glori, on the northern outskirts of Rome, the uprising had already been suppressed. During the night of 22 October 1867, the group was surrounded by Papal Zouaves, and Giovanni was severely wounded. Enrico was mortally wounded and bled to death in Giovanni's arms.
With the Cairoli dead, command was assumed by Giovanni Tabacchi who had retreated back with the remaining volunteers into the villa, where they continued to fire at the papal soldiers, which drew back in the evening and retired to Rome. The survivors retreated to the positions of Garibaldi, the Italian border.[22]
At the summit of Villa Glori, near the spot where Enrico died, there is a plain white column dedicated to the Cairoli brothers and their 70 companions. About 100 meters to the left from the top of the Spanish Steps, there is a bronze monument of Giovanni holding the dying Enrico in his arm. A plaque lists the names of their companions. Giovanni never recovered from his wounds and from the tragic events of 1867. According to an eyewitness,[46] when Giovanni died on 11 September 1869:
In the last moments, he had a vision of Garibaldi and seemed to greet him with enthusiasm. I heard (so says a friend who was present) him say three times: "The union of the French to the papal political supporters was the terrible fact!" he was thinking about Mentana. Many times he called Enrico, that he might help him! then he said: "but we will certainly win; we will go to Rome!"
In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian War began. In early August, the French Emperor Napoleon III recalled his garrison from Rome, thus no longer providing protection to the Papal State. Widespread public demonstrations illustrated the demand that the Italian government take Rome. The Italian government took no direct action until the collapse of the Second French Empire at the Battle of Sedan. King Victor Emmanuel II sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face-saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian Army into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope. The Papacy, however, exhibited something less than enthusiasm for the plan:
The Pope's reception of San Martino (10 September 1870) was unfriendly. Pius IX allowed violent outbursts to escape him. Throwing the King's letter upon the table he exclaimed, "Fine loyalty! You are all a set of vipers, of whited sepulchres, and wanting in faith." He was perhaps alluding to other letters received from the King. After, growing calmer, he exclaimed: "I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!" San Martino was so mortified that he left the next day.[47]
The Italian Army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna, crossed the papal frontier on 11 September and advanced slowly toward Rome, hoping that a peaceful entry could be negotiated. The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on 19 September and placed Rome under a state of siege. Although now convinced of his unavoidable defeat, Pius IX remained intransigent to the bitter end and forced his troops to put up a token resistance. On 20 September, after a cannonade of three hours had breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia, the Bersaglieri entered Rome and marched down Via Pia, which was subsequently renamed Via XX Settembre. 49 Italian soldiers and four officers, and 19 papal troops died. Rome and Latium were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite held on 2 October. The results of this plebiscite were accepted by decree of 9 October.
Initially the Italian government had offered to let the pope keep the Leonine City, but the Pope rejected the offer because acceptance would have been an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom's rule over his former domain. Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican, although he was not actually restrained from coming and going. Rather, being deposed and stripped of much of his former power also removed a measure of personal protection — if he had walked the streets of Rome he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private. Officially, the capital was not moved from Florence to Rome until July 1871.[48]
Historian Raffaele de Cesare made the following observations about Italian unification:
The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon's feet — that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the Conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the Pontiff.[49]
For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations…. Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured.[50]
Italian unification is still a topic of debate. According to Massimo d'Azeglio, centuries of foreign dominations have created remarkable differences in several parts of Italy in terms of society, and the role of the newly formed government is to face these differences and to create a united Italian society. Still today the most famous quote of Massimo d'Azeglio is: "L'Italia è fatta. Restano da fare gli italiani" (literally: Italy has been made. Now it remains to make Italians; but it is often reported more colloquially as: We have made Italy. Now we must make Italians).[51]
Several scholars studied positive and negative aspects of Italian Unification. The economist and politician Francesco Saverio Nitti wrote that the newly created state didn't take in consideration the economic differences between Northern Italy (that already had an advanced free market economy) and Southern Italy (that based its development on the state protectionism of few private initiatives with a limited use of new technologies); when the Kingdom of Italy extended the free market economy to the rest of the country, it was totally helpless for the South as well as destructive for its already weak economy. He thought that this change should have been much more constant in order to allow the birth of an adequate entrepreneurial class able to make strong investments and initiatives in the south. These mistakes were the cause of the economic and social problems known as Southern Question (Questione Meridionale).[52][53]
The politician, historian and writer Gaetano Salvemini said that even though Italian Unification is a strong opportunity of a moral and economic rebirth of Italy's Mezzogiorno (Southern Italy), most of the Italian politicians didn't understand the importance of the battle against corruption and organized crime in the South as well as in the North. The political theorist Antonio Gramsci criticized Italian Unification for the limited presence of the masses as well as the lack of a modern land reform.[54][55]
Revisionism of Risorgimento produced a clear radicalization in mid-twentieth century, after the fall of the Savoy monarchy and fascism, for which Risorgimento was considered an intangible myth. Reviews of the historical facts concerning Italian unification have also been undertaken by some foreign academic authors, such as Denis Mack Smith, Christopher Duggan, and Lucy Riall. Historians have also developed two additional topics: the role of the masonic lodges and foreign powers (Great Britain and France in particular) and the controversial suppression of brigandage.[56]
The process of unification of the Italian people in a national State was not completed in the nineteenth century. Many Italians remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy and this situation created the Italian irredentism.
Italia irredenta (Unredeemed Italy) was an Italian nationalist opinion movement that emerged after Italian unification. It advocated irredentism among the Italian people as well as other nationalities who were willing to become Italian and as a movement; it is also known as "Italian irredentism". Not a formal organization, it was just an opinion movement that claimed that Italy had to reach its "natural borders". Similar patriotic and nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the 19th century.[57]
During the post-unification era, some Italians were dissatisfied with the current state of the Italian Kingdom since they wanted the kingdom to include Trieste, Istria, and other adjacent territories, as well. This Italian irredentism succeeded in World War I with the annexation of Trieste and Trento, with the respective territories of Venezia Giulia and Trentino.
The Kingdom of Italy had declared neutrality at the beginning of the war, officially because the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary was a defensive one, requiring its members to come under attack first. Many Italians were still hostile to Austria's continuing occupation of ethnically Italian areas, and Italy chose not to enter. Austria-Hungary requested Italian neutrality, while the Triple Entente (which included Great Britain, France and Russia) requested its intervention. With the London Pact, signed in April 1915, Italy agreed to declare war against the Central Powers, in exchange for the irredent territories of Friuli, Trentino, and Dalmatia (see Italia irredenta).
Italian irredentism obtained an important result after the First World War, when Italy gained Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, and the city of Zara. During the Second World War, after the Axis attack on Yugoslavia, Italy created the "Governatorato di Dalmazia" (from 1941 to September 1943), so the Kingdom of Italy annexed temporarily even Split(Italian Spalato), Kotor (Cattaro), and most of coastal Dalmatia. From 1942 to 1943, even Corsica and Nice (Italian Nizza) were temporarily annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, nearly fulfilling in those years the ambitions of Italian irredentism.
For its avowed purpose the movement had the "emancipation" of all Italian lands still subject to foreign rule after Italian unification. The Irredentists took language as the test of the alleged Italian nationality of the countries they proposed to emancipate, which were Trentino, Trieste, Dalmatia, Istria, Gorizia, Ticino, Nice (Nizza), Corsica, and Malta. Austria-Hungary promoted Croat interests in Dalmatia and Istria to weaken Italian claims in the western Balkans before the First World War.[58]
After WWII the irredentism movement faded away in Italian politics. Only a few thousand Italians remain in Istria and Dalmatia as a consequence of the Italian defeat in WWII and of the slaughter of few thousands of Italians as reprisals for fascist atrocities and the subsequent choice to keep Italian citizenship by an additional approximately 400,000 people in what became known as the Istrian exodus. However only 350,000 refugees were ethnic Italians (76% of which born in the territories surrendered), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.[59]
Anniversary of Risorgimento | |
Monument to Italia Turrita in Reggio Calabria | |
Observed by | Italy |
Type | National |
Significance | Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy on March 17, 1861 |
Celebrations | Parades, Fireworks, Concerts, Picnics, Balls, Trade shows |
Date | March 17 |
Frequency | every fifty years |
Italy celebrates the Anniversary of Risorgimento every fifty years, on March 17 (date of proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy).
The anniversary occurred in 1911 (50th), 1961 (100th) and 2011 (150th) with several celebrations throughout the country.[60]
150th Anniversary of Risorgimento | ||||||||||||||||
In art, this period was characterised by the Neoclassicism that draws inspiration from the "classical" art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome. The main Italian sculptor was Antonio Canova who became famous for his marble sculptures that delicately rendered nude flesh. The mourning Italia turrita on the tomb to Vittorio Alfieri is one of the main works of Risorgimento by Canova.
Francesco Hayez was another remarkable artist of this period whose works often contain allegories about Italian unification. His most known painting The Kiss aims to portray the spirit of the Risorgimento: the man wears red, white and green, representing the Italian patriots fighting for independence from the Austro-Hungarian empire while the girl's pale blue dress signifies France, which in 1859 (the year of the painting's creation) made an alliance with the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia enabling the latter to unify the many states of the Italian peninsula into the new kingdom of Italy. Hayez's three paintings on the Sicilian Vespers are an implicit protest against the foreign domination of Italy.
Andrea Appiani and Domenico Induno are also known for their patriotic canvases. Risorgimento was also represented by works not necessarily linked to Neoclassicism as in the case of Giovanni Fattori who was one of the leaders of the group known as the Macchiaioli that soon became a leading Italian plein-airists, painting landscapes, rural scenes, and scenes of military life during the Italian unification.[61]
In literature, lots of works were dedicated to Risorgimento since the beginning. The most known writer of Risorgimento is Alessandro Manzoni whose works are a symbol of the Italian unification, both for its patriotic message and because of his efforts in the development of the modern, unified Italian language; he is famous for the novel The Betrothed (orig. Italian: I Promessi Sposi) (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.
Vittorio Alfieri, considered as the founder of a new school in the Italian drama, expressed in several occasions his suffering about the foreign domination's tyranny.
Ugo Foscolo describes in his works the passion and love for the fatherland and the glorious history of the Italian people; these two concepts are respectively well expressed in two masterpieces, The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis and Dei Sepolcri.
Vincenzo Monti, known for the Italian translation of the Iliad, described in his works both enthusiasms and disappointments of Risorgimento until his death.
Giovanni Berchet wrote a poetry characterised by a high moral, popular and social content; he also contributed to Il Conciliatore, a progressive bi-weekly scientific and literary journal, influential in the early Risorgimento that was published in Milan from September 1818 until October 1819 when it was closed by the Austrian censors; its writers included also Lodovico di Breme, Giuseppe Nicolini and Silvio Pellico.
Giacomo Leopardi is generally considered one of the most important poets of Risorgimento thanks to works such as Canzone all'Italia and Risorgimento.
Niccolò Tommaseo, the editor of the Italian Language Dictionary in eight volumes, is considered a precursor of the Italian irredentism and his works are a rare examples of a metropolitan culture above nationalism; he supported the liberal revolution headed by Daniele Manin against the Austrian Empire and he will always support the unification of Italy.
Francesco de Sanctis is considered one of the most important scholars of Italian language and literature in the 19th century; he supported the Revolution of 1848 in Naples and for this reason he was imprisoned for three years; his reputation as a lecturer on Dante in Turin brought him the appointment of professor at ETH Zürich in 1856; he returned to Naples as minister of public instruction after the unification of Italy.
The writer and patriot Luigi Settembrini published anonymously the Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies, a scathing indictment of the Bourbon government and was imprisoned and exiled several times by the Bourbons because of his support to Risorgimento; after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the University of Naples.
Ippolito Nievo is another main representant of Risorgimento with his novel Confessioni d'un italiano; he fought with Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand.
Risorgimento was also depicted in several famous novels: The Leopard written by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, Heart by Edmondo De Amicis and Piccolo mondo antico by Antonio Fogazzaro.[62]
Risorgimento was characterised by the support of several famous Italian composers. In his L'italiana in Algeri (The Italian Girl in Algiers), Gioachino Rossini expressed his support to the unification of Italy; the patriotic line Pensa alla patria, e intrepido il tuo dover adempi: vedi per tutta Italia rinascere gli esempi d'ardir e di valor / "Think about the fatherland and intrepid do your duty: see for all Italy the birth of the examples of courage and value" was censored in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Vincenzo Bellini was a member of the Carbonari and in his masterpiece I puritani (The Puritans), the last part of Act 2 is an allegory to Italian unification. Another Bellini opera, Norma, was at the center of an unexpected standing ovation during its performance in Milan in 1859: while the chorus was performing Guerra, guerra! Le galliche selve (War, war! The Gallic forests) in Act 2, the Italians began to greet the chorus with loud applause and to yell the word "War!" several times towards the Austrian officers at the opera house.[63]
The relationship between Gaetano Donizetti and the Risorgimento is still controversial; even though Giuseppe Mazzini tried to use some of Donizetti's works for promoting the Italian cause, Donizetti had always preferred not to get involved in politics.[64]
Nevertheless, Giuseppe Verdi is considered the most important composer and an emblematic figure of the Risorgimento; many of his works are linked to Italian unification. In particular, the Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves (known as Va, pensiero) from the third act of the opera Nabucco was intended to be an anthem for Italian patriots, who were seeking to unify their country and free it from foreign control in the years up to 1861 (the chorus's theme of exiles singing about their homeland, and its lines like O mia patria, si bella e perduta / "O my country, so lovely and so lost" was thought to have resonated with many Italians).[65] Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva VERDI" was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'Italia (Viva Victor Emmanuel King of Italy), referring to Victor Emmanuel II.[66][67]
Goffredo Mameli and Michele Novaro are known to be respectively the writer and the composer of Il Canto degli Italiani (The Song of the Italians) which would be adopted as the Italian national anthem after the birth of the Italian Republic even though it was already common during Risorgimento, and Giuseppe Verdi chose Il Canto degli Italiani to represent Italy in the London International Exhibition of 1862.[68]
The Resurgence is the subject of an opera, Risorgimento! (2011) by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Italian unification.
The Leopard is a film from 1963, based on the novel by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, and directed by Luchino Visconti. It features Burt Lancaster as the eponymous character, the Prince of Salina. The film depicts his reaction to the Risorgimento, and his vain attempts to retain his social standing.
There are other movies set in this period:
Italy in 1859: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), light green Duchy of Parma, green Duchy of Modena, dark green Grand Duchy of Tuscany, red Papal States, yellow Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Italy in 1860: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), pink United Provinces of Central Italy, red Papal States, yellow Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Italy in 1861: orange Kingdom of Italy, blue Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian Empire), red Papal States.
This article uses bare URLs for citations, which may be threatened by link rot. (September 2014) |
The Risorgimento is the name given to the process that ended with the political unification of Italy in 1871
The functional importance of the Risorgimento to both Italian politics and Italian historiography has made this short period (1815–60) one of the most contested and controversial in modern Italian history
La Sicilia sarà una delle più belle gemme della sua corona; ed uno degli elementi più vitali della nazione
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Italian Risorgimento. |


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Researchers turn to facial recognition software to ID subjects of historical artworks.
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As if there weren't enough insecurity about Social Security numbers, now there's more reason to worry: University researchers have found that using facial recognition software and social media profiles — like those on Facebook and T... Read Post
A new study that was unveiled by Carnegie Mellon University's Robotics Institute in Pittsburgh showed that it is possible to find your social security number using facial recognition software. Just by taking the picture of a person ... Read Post
Facebook could reportedly face legal action if it doesn't suspend or make major changes to its facial recognition software in Germany. Facebook's facial recognition technology, which automatically enrolls all Facebook users, is used... Read Post

subset: commoncrawl


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This product has been discontinued
I am disappointed with this mascara .. I will tell you why.. it didn't give any length or volume to my lashes :( In the trash, it went Lol!!
I love the Lash Stiletto mascara always gives my lashes impressive length and defines nicely. I would recommend this mascara.
Thought I would give the waterproof One by One a try. Total failure. Flaked all over my eyes within one hour. Yuck. Back to my waterproof Define a Lash...
1 out of 1 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
Despite the good reviews on here, I am not impressed with this mascara. This does absolutely nothing for my lashes. The claim is that it separates and de-clumps every lash for instant clump free volume. BULL. My lashes are very long, but thin. I go for volumizing mascaras with a more dry formula, and this just doesn't cut it. My first complaint is that awful chemical-rose smell that all maybelline mascaras have... unnecessary. It does linger quite a while on your lashes. Getting to the actual application, it did exactly what it WASN'T supposed to... I had clumped up lashes. I tried everything from a lash comb to dabbing the brush onto a tissue to get the excess mascara off, and I still had clumps.
I guess I'll stick to my HG, Revlon Grow Luscious.
1 out of 1 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
Fell for cute packaging. Not impressed. Back it will go. Hardly gave me volume and definitely not lengthening which is fine since it's advertised for volume but dang would've been nice. It looked like I had 6 lashes.
1 out of 1 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
I've been through a lot of mascara in the past few years, trying to find one that will work well. The mascara endcap at Sephora knows me well, but I found most of those clumpy, and the tubes dried out quickly. Maybelline Volume Express was recommended in a feature I read, and it was cheap enough that I thought I'd give it a whirl when my tube of Smashbox mascara dried out within about two months.
For me, the brush makes this mascara. The rubber brush really does grab every lash, so it's much easier to apply and does a better job of defining. I haven't had any problems with it drying out quickly, after having it for a couple of months, either. It hasn't been clumpy, and it stays on all day without disappearing.
It doesn't maintain the curl in my lashes all day, but then, I haven't yet found a mascara that will -- including all the mascaras that allegedly curl your lashes.
So far, I'd say this mascara is as good -- and actually in many cases better -- than all the mascaras I've tried in the past few years. Given the price, I'm likely to stick with it.
I love this mascara very much! It does dry out a bit quickly when you apply it to your lashes but I feel like that will prevent it from running if you happened to rub your eyes. Anyways, I won't purchase this againonly because I love using different mascaras when I finish a tube but I love this! It does make your lashes a lot longer and it's great :)
I liked this for a week, after that it dried to fast on my lashes and the tube seemed dry after 3 weeks. It would flake very easily so I just the it away. I really liked it while it lasted I dont know if it was just the bottle I had but it wasn't good.
More reviews by BeautyAndTheBlush
I purchased the Maybelline Volume Express One by One mascara in search of a mascara that would coat every lash with definition and open up my eyes, without the fake and clumpy look that some mascaras may offer. I found just this! I rated it 4/5 because I thought that it can get a little clumpy if you apply too many coats. The price was also very reasonable. The package quality was nice because the brush came separately in the package so that you can admire the va-va-volume-making brush! The red bottle is also very chic. When I apply this mascara, it look so natural and really defines even my smallest lashes on the bottom! The only downside is that I found it doesn't quite extend your lashes all that much, so I would recommend using a lengthening mascara after a coat or two of this mascara, that is if you want less of a natural look and more of a more of a "girls night out" look! Yes I would definitely buy this product again and I recommend this to anyone who likes a natural look with lashes that are coated in a silky formula "one by one!"
Thank-you, and remember to celebrate YOUR beauty everyday! :)
I find this is a pretty good cheap mascara. I still like my YSL the best but it is so expensive. This does a good job of separating the lashes but it doesnt give you the volume and length of some of the higher end mascara brushes. I would purchase again - a good mascara for a great value!
I'm always looking for great mascara which lenghtens, volumizes and separates lashes.
This is the closer I got to perfection! No clumps, nice brush, easy to apply (even if I always smudge, as I have really small eyes).
The price is extremely reasonable (I spent 30 on Lancome's Hypnose Doll Eyes and it was sooo not worth it!).
I think I found my mascara <3


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For my first two batches I made, the two additional gallons I had to add came straight from the tap. I've since realized that is supposed to be boiled. I don't really want to take the extra time to boil and then cool that extra water, so I was just wondering if anybody has any work arounds, like using bottled water, or if that's a no no. Thanks!
I use gallons of spring water all the time. I've done plenty of batches and never had any infections. Works great.
^^^^^Me Too
Thanks, I'm guessing you just go to the grocery store and just pick up the gallons they have there, correct?
I wouldn't worry too much about just using straight tap water or bottled water. Yes it's an extra precaution to boil it, but the infection concerns are minimal. If you're doing partial wort boils, an easy thing to do is to put 2-3 gals of water in the freezer when you start brewing. Let it get cold enough where it's just starting to form ice crystals, but don't freeze it. Pour 1 gal of water into your fermenter bucket. Pour/strain/siphon the hot wort into the fermenter bucket. The top off with more cold water. Cools the wort to pitching temps every time. And yes, you can use just about any water you would by at the store for extract brewing as long as it isn't flavored or carbonated.
I always had good tap water (no chloramines or chlorine issues), so I never boiled my top off water. But if your water doesn't taste great, or you have chloramines or chlorine in the water, using bottled water to top off with (and to brew with) is great.
I have pretty decent water in my area, but it does have a little chlorine/chloramine (never bothered to check which, but I can taste it's got one or the other), and worse, my house has old cast iron pipes. Not enough to stain, but enough I don't like drinking it. Since my remedy for that was to get a water delivery service, I just ask for a few extra 5 gallon jugs every month beyond my expected use. Costs a little more than filling stations, but I don't have to lug it in, and I always have a rack of water in my house. Plus, having lived in areas with the occasional hurricane/massive snowstorm and losing power and or water service, it feels good to have an extra supply anyway. I highly recommend distilled, and the trace mineralized distilled if the water company offers it.
I've used tap water straight from the faucet for a dozen batches with no issues. Plus it airates the wort!


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Quotes & Info
MREE > SEC Filings for MREE > Form 8-K on 11-Feb-2014 | All Recent SEC Filings |
Change in Directors or Principal Officers
William L. Cooper, III resigned from the boards of directors of MainStreet BankShares, Inc.("MainStreet") and its wholly-owned banking subsidiary, Franklin Community Bank, N.A. (the "Bank"), effective Wednesday, February 5, 2014. Mr. Cooper was a member of the Human Resources and Executive Committees.
MainStreet believes Mr. Cooper resigned on account of a disagreement with the Bank over the resolution of credit issues concerning outstanding loans owed by him and a related entity to the Bank. The Bank was unable to reach an agreement with Mr. Cooper that complied with its credit policies and associated regulatory guidance to avoid the loans becoming criticized assets requiring significant additional amounts to be allocated to the allowance for loan losses.


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Week 5 heroes & goats
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Bench Warmer
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Re: Week 5 heroes & goats
Without a doubt the hero is Mendy ... I will admit I had doubt before the game! Great runs by Mendy though! Without his yardage we lose that game!
Hero runner up goes to several ... BB, Timmons (gawd I hope he keeps playing at this level!), Brown (when he actually caught the ball), Heath (who is ALWAYS clutch!) and Harrison (for playing with passion on his first game back!)
The goat ... EVERY player who drew a penalty! We gave up over 100 yards in penalties today. Even if the Refs are against us, which I believe they are ... a lot of those penalties were called correctly.
Goat runner up ... those $!*!#@ refs! Seriously! Call the game fairly. I know many are calling goat on Wallace, but he was getting held on many of his routes!
Disappointments are the injuries to Woodley and Polamalu. I heard (albeit from a Poopstain fan) that Polamalu said he likes to be around the guys and to practice, but doesn't care much for playing anymore. Anyone have info on that? Because I smell bullsh!t from a jealous fan!
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
Ric Ocasek | |
Background information | |
Birth name | Richard T. Otcasek |
Born | Baltimore, Maryland, United States | March 23, 1949
Genres | Rock, new wave |
Occupation(s) | Musician, singer, songwriter, music producer |
Instruments | vocals, guitar |
Years active | 1973–present |
Associated acts | The Cars |
Website | ricocasek |
Notable instruments | |
Mid-1970s Fender Jazzmaster[1] |
Ric Ocasek | |
Background information | |
Birth name | Richard T. Otcasek |
Born | Baltimore, Maryland, United States | March 23, 1949
Genres | Rock, new wave |
Occupation(s) | Musician, singer, songwriter, music producer |
Instruments | vocals, guitar |
Years active | 1973–present |
Associated acts | The Cars |
Website | ricocasek |
Notable instruments | |
Mid-1970s Fender Jazzmaster[1] |
Ric Ocasek (born Richard T. Otcasek; March 23, 1949) is an American musician and music producer. He is best known as lead vocalist (along with Benjamin Orr), rhythm guitarist and songwriter for the rock band, the Cars. Ocasek grew up in Baltimore, Maryland.[2] When Ocasek was 16, his father, a computer analyst for NASA, was transferred to Cleveland, Ohio. It was there that he first met Benjamin Orr. Orr was a member of a popular local band that performed on WEWS-TV; Ocasek liked their performance and got in touch with Orr.[3] Ocasek briefly attended Bowling Green State University near Toledo, Ohio.[4][5] However, he dropped out to pursue a career in music.[6] He reconnected with Benjamin Orr in Columbus, Ohio, and the two began booking bands together. Soon, they formed one of their own and began to perform in and around Ohio State University.[7] Ocasek is married to model Paulina Porizkova, who is his third wife. They got married in 1989.[8] Ocasek has six children from his three marriages, including two sons with Porizkova.[9]
In the early 1970s Ric Ocasek played in the folk band Milkwood with friend Ben Orzechowski (Ben Orr), who were influenced by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.[10] The band released one album in 1973, How's the Weather, on Paramount Records. The album had no success and quickly disappeared shortly after release, and Milkwood split up. It was then that Ric Ocasek and Ben Orr formed their new band, Richard and the Rabbits (a name suggested by Jonathan Richman).[11] In 1974 Ric and Ben played as a duo at a south shore Boston Ground Round Restaurant, until a company V.P. stopped in one night and said they were not "family-friendly entertainment", and had to let them go.
Ocasek's breakout success was as a founding member of the new wave band Cap'n Swing, later renamed the Cars, which had numerous hit songs from 1978 to 1988; he played rhythm guitar and sang lead vocals for a majority of songs (bassist Benjamin Orr was lead vocalist on the remaining tracks). After splitting writing duty with Orr in the 1970s, Ocasek became the principal songwriter of the band, and wrote nearly all of the Cars' material, sharing credit on only a few songs with bandmate Greg Hawkes as co-writer. In 2010, Ocasek reunited with the surviving original members of the Cars to record their first album in 24 years, titled Move Like This, which was released on May 10, 2011.
The singer released his first solo album in 1982. Beatitude is a somewhat more experimental variation of the Cars' new wave rock sound. A more synthesizer-heavy follow up, This Side of Paradise, was released in 1986. A No. 15 hit single, "Emotion in Motion", accompanied the album.
The Cars disbanded in 1988, and he disappeared from the public eye for a couple of years. He resurfaced in 1990 with his own album, Fireball Zone. One track, "Rockaway", enjoyed a brief stay on the charts, but his solo albums have seen disappointing sales, especially compared to his success with the Cars. He subsequently released other solo works throughout the decade, including 1993's Quick Change World, 1996's Getchertikitz (a collaboration with Suicide's Alan Vega comprising only beatnik poetry set to music, sound effects, etc.), and 1997's Billy Corgan-produced Troublizing (which Ocasek supported with a very brief tour, his first since leaving the Cars). In 2005 Ocasek released another album, Nexterday, to little fanfare, but it received positive reviews.
During his time with the Cars, Ocasek developed a reputation as a successful producer, and took this role for many up-and-coming bands of differing genres including Bad Brains' Rock for Light and Guided by Voices' Do the Collapse. His other production credits include Weezer's Blue Album & Green Album (both multi-platinum), Suicide, Romeo Void, Hole, Bebe Buell, No Doubt, Nada Surf, Irish folk-punk band Black 47, Bad Religion, Johnny Bravo, D Generation, The Wannadies, Possum Dixon, Martin Rev, Jonathan Richman, and, most recently, the 2006 album by The Pink Spiders titled Teenage Graffiti. He also produced a portion of the third Motion City Soundtrack album, Even If It Kills Me. Currently, Ocasek is producing Everything Will Be Alright in the End, the ninth studio album by Weezer and his third collaboration with the band. Ocasek will also produce the next album by English indie rock band The Cribs.[12]
Ocasek wrote a book of poetry, 1993's Negative Theatre. It was at one time expected to be incorporated into an album and multimedia incarnation of the same name, but those plans were dropped abruptly. For many years Ocasek had a hobby of making drawings, photo collages, and mixed-media art works which, in 2009, were shown at a gallery in Columbus, Ohio as an exhibit called "Teahead Scraps".[13]
Ocasek had a cameo role in the John Waters feature film Hairspray,[14] and had a bit part in the 1987 movie Made in Heaven[15] in which he played a mechanic. He had a non-speaking role (beatnik painter) in Woody Allen's "Take the Money and Run" (1969).
Ocasek stated in a 2005 interview in Rockline that he hated touring and it was unlikely that he would do so again. He also stated he would not be reuniting with the Cars again, but gave the okay to his former bandmates to do so with Todd Rundgren replacing him on vocals (the resulting band is called The New Cars).
On April 17, 2006, Ocasek appeared on The Colbert Report and volunteered to put Todd Rundgren "on notice". He appeared again on the July 26, 2006, episode to cheers from the audience as he volunteered to lead a commando mission to "rescue" Stephen Jr., the baby eagle at the San Francisco Zoo named after Stephen Colbert. He also appeared again on April 18, 2007, in order to support his wife during her appearance on the show, after remarks that she found Colbert "extremely attractive". He has been mentioned many times in other episodes as well.
The Cars, with Ocasek, appeared on The Colbert Report on August 9, 2011, to promote their new album, Move Like This.
In 2012, Ocasek wrote another book, "Lyrics and Prose", a complete collection of lyrics from his solo albums, as well from the Cars' albums. It also contains prose and poetry never set to music, also photographs and artwork done over the years that was previously unpublished.
Ocasek has been married three times. He married early in life, but divorced and was married to his second wife, Suzanne Ocasek, in 1972.[16] Ocasek was still married to Suzanne when he met model Pavlína Pořízková during filming of the music video for the Cars' song "Drive" (directed by Timothy Hutton) in 1984. At that time Pořízková was 19 years old and Ocasek was 35.
Five years after meeting (in 1989), Ocasek and Porizkova married. This was Ocasek's third marriage, and Porizkova's first.
Ocasek has six sons, two from each of his three marriages. One of his sons, Christopher Otcasek, is a singer who formed the rock group Glamour Camp. Adam Otcasek was born in 1970. Eron was born in 1973 and Derek was born in 1982.[16]
He and co-founder of the Cars Benjamin Orr were known to be close friends. Their friendship was commemorated in a song Ocasek wrote as a dedication to Orr upon his death in 2000 ("Silver", from Nexterday).
Year | Song | Australia | Canada | US Hot 100 | US MSR | US A.C. | US Dance | Album |
1983 | "Something to Grab For" | - | - | 47 | 5 | - | - | Beatitude |
"Jimmy Jimmy" | - | - | - | 25 | - | 60 | ||
"Connect Up to Me" | - | - | - | - | - | 37 | ||
1986 | "Emotion in Motion" | 8 | 18 | 15 | 1 | 8 | - | This Side of Paradise |
"True to You" | 100 | - | 75 | 9 | - | - | ||
1991 | "Rockaway" | - | 46 | - | 11 | - | - | Fireball Zone |
Year | Song | Album | Notes |
1991 | "Zip-A-Dee-Doo-Dah" | Simply Mad About the Mouse | |
1991 | "Fly by Night" | Moment of Truth | Writer of one track on album by Terri Nunn |


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Does anyone know if there is something available to purchase with the scent they use in the Beach Club Lobby? We just got home and boy would it be nice to walk into our home and have it smell like "our home"!
I really think an old Bath and Body Works scent called Green Clover & Aloe smells JUST like it. Since B&BW no longer sells it, you can do a "Green Clover & Aloe" search on Etsy and it'll come back with loads of vendors selling all sorts of scented products: candles, soaps, wax tarts, etc. I adore that scent -- reminds me of the lobby every time I smell it.
The scent in BC right now is not the usual beachy scent, its a sweeter holiday scent. Is that the one you mean? Last week it smelled like the Yankee Candle Caramel Pecan Pie, but usually reminds me more of Bath & Body works Cotton Blossom.
As others have said, the holiday smell in the Beach Club lobby is different from the regular scent. Here is the info from the YC/BC FAQ thread: What is that awesome smell at the Beach Club? Want to feel like you are living at the Yacht or Beach Club all year long??? You can purchase the body products provided for use during your stay, you can buy the same type of mattress that encourages restful vacation sleep and you can even purchase the scent system used in the lobbies so that your house can smell like your "Home away from home": The scent generator may be purchased at www.scentairhome.com The scent used is green clover and aloe The scent generator is pretty pricey, so here are some Redneck scent solutions- if you can't affort the scentair system, there are reports that certain fragrances at Bath & Body Works are good matches. Unfortunately, some of these lines have been discontinued: BBW: Rainkissed Leaves, Exotic Rainforest, Oceanside, Cotton Blossom Please let us know if you have found other good substitutions.
Thank you so much! Since we are always there in December I guess I am looking for the holiday scent! Will be headed to either Yankee candle or Bath and body works in the an!
Before you rush out all of those fragrances are discontinued in room fragrances. And here's a link to the scent generator, but be prepared to part with serious $$: http://www.enviroscent.com/Shop/Accscent-Machines#
We just bought the enviroscent machine with the green clover and aloe scent. It was an early Christmas present from my husband. It smells wonderful in the house. We have a two story house and the entire house smells so good.
What is the size of this machine? Would you say it is suitable for small rooms as well, or air will become too saturated? Are there any intensity controls?
I've found that Rainkissed Leaves from Bath and Body Works smells very similar to the scent at BC. It's not available in store but it is available online.
Bumping in case anyone can comment on Accscent machines: What is the size of this machine? Would you say it is suitable for small rooms as well, or air will become too saturated? Are there any intensity controls?
Bath and Body works has some new fresh scents out for Spring. (The employees usually say that when one scent is discontinued, another similar is brought out to take its place) in wondering if any of these new scents are close to the Beach Club scent. I've got my last Sunrise Lagoon and Clean Mist candles out, which happen to smell just like that light, fresh, green scent in the lobby. Anyone check out the newest scents to see if they're close?
We just got our new spring line in at Yankee & there is one in the Pure Radiance line (not the regular Housewarmer line) called Seaglass that reminds me of Beach Club! That was the 1st thing I said when I smelled it!
I'll have to check that scent out. Thanks for the info, I'm always looking at how to bring that Disney magic to our everyday lives!
I was at the BC in December, and the scent in the lobby kind of reminded me of maple syrup. It was nice but I liked the scent in the Poly lobby a lot more.
Is this the same smell that is in the Yacht Club? We love the YC smell and I can't remember if they are the same! Thanks!
So how big are these Accscent machines? Would you say it is suitable for small rooms as well, or air will become too saturated? Are there any intensity controls?


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RIKON Benchtop Bandsaw Now $229.99
Add a great bandsaw to even the smallest shop! Buy Now & Save $60
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By John
from Whitney, TX
About Me Casual Do-It-Yourselfer
Comments about Leather Powerstrop, Vee & Flat, Set of 2 :
Have not actually used yet but a good weight and no doubt it will work as advertised.
Leather Powerstrop set of 2
By exfemalecop
from Angola, IN
About Me Avid Do-It-Yourselfer
Not what we thought we were buying but it works for when my boyfriend goes to the lake or somewhere away from home.
works ok but had a hole in the leather
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sharpening carving knifes


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to guest 461Submitted by Guest94289900 (not verified) on Tue, 10/09/2012 - 8:02am.
Hold on, wait. WHO is it that needs to leave their attitude at the babysitters? Right, that's what I thought. Better yet, with your horrendous juvenile disgusting attitude, why don't YOU stay home with your ugly frown and pout around your own house. »
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3 Mazurkas, Op.29 (Glière, Reinhold)
Free public domain sheet music from IMSLP / Petrucci Music Library
It is unlikely that this work is public domain in the EU, or in any country where the copyright term is life-plus-70 years. However, it is in the public domain in Canada (where IMSLP is hosted) and other countries where the term is life-plus-50 years (like China, Japan, Korea and many others worldwide). As this work was first published before 1923 or failed to meet notice or renewal requirements to secure statutory copyright, it is very likely to be public domain in the USA as well. |
Sheet Music
Complete Score
*#06947 - 0.32MB, 8 pp. - (0) - V/V/27 - 1216x⇩
Publisher Info.:
Moscow: P. Jurgenson, n.d.(1906), plates 31818-31820
Public Domain - Non-PD EU [tag/del]
General Information
Work Title | 3 Mazurkas, Op.29 |
Alternative Title |
Composer | Glière, Reinhold |
Opus/Catalogue Number | Op.29 |
Movements/Sections | 3 |
Year/Date of Composition | 1906 |
First Publication | 1906 |
Dedication | Leopold Godowsky |
Piece Style | Romantic |
Instrumentation | piano |


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Dec 31, 2010, 09:21 AM | ||
Chris, good to see you in this forum too. Stagger you're in competant company with Chris following along. I'm curious about large electric twins for thier reliability. A couple years ago I started working on a 100" DH Sea Hornet for twin 2C motors (one clock wise, one counter clock wise), but put it on hold as the 2C reliability always maybe me hesitant. I'm thinking about getting back to it with a pair of Hacker A60 motors. We'll see. |
Dec 31, 2010, 10:30 AM | |
The reliability of the systems is much higher than even a few years ago, so... Go for it.
For bigger models I would suggest using separate power systems, just "Y"ing the throttle control from the reciever. Also, use a separate flight pack power system. Other than that... I wouldn't be surprised if I have flown with Chris, or maybe his Dad. I see he's from San Diego, where I'm from, also. (I moved to Iowa in 1975, then moved back to San Diego from 1988-1995.) I belonged to the club that flew at the old landfill just west of College Grove Mall, along/above Interstate 94. I also flew out at the Lakeside club field, which was next to the old El Capitan High School practice football field. My dad and I used to fly at the field down in the riverbed by El Cap, also. Oh, and I also flew a couple times at the Miramar Naval Air Station's club field northeast of the runway approach. I lived in El Cajon. Grew up in Santee. |
Dec 31, 2010, 10:42 AM | |
Working on putting the tail on the fuse now. Wings are pretty much done. Just need to drill and install screws in the outer wing panel spar tubes. I'm going to install wood dowels into the tubes to give the screws something solid to screw into. Since I have a small SUV, 2004 Ford Explorer, and only have large aircraft .60 size and up, (5) this one will be broken down every trip. (I know, I need a trailer!)
I'm finding the instructions are very basic, and the kit has been finalized long after the original instructions were printed. The control linkages are totally different than the instructions show, and items are not finished the way shown. There are also some extra ABS trim parts not covered in the instructions. An experienced modeler should have no trouble building this model, as the instructions do give the basics necessary, but not much more. Well, have to take the wife to work, (bad weather,) will post more later. Don |
Dec 31, 2010, 11:46 AM | |
@ Staggerflyer, I hear you on the props. I've ultimately decided to select my power system around an APC 15.75x13 3-blade prop that I'll cut down to 15". Not the most scale looking prop per say, but there's a real limited selection on 3blade props in this size and you're lucky if they have a larger than 10 pitch. I'm not sure we've had the opportunity to fly together unless you ever came up to mile square park to fly in those years you were in SD? I grew up in the LA area and then moved to SD for work in 2003. I currently fly at the miramar site.
@ SS, I can back what staggerflyer is saying regarding twins. My F-14 twin EDF I was flying some 5 or more years ago I had setup running twin ESCs through a y-chord into the Rx. I also ran separate battery packs for each fan. I've found this really works well and plan to setup my tigercat (and any other twins for that matter) exactly the same. I don't think you'll have anything to worry about with your Sea Hornet, especially if you go with a pair of A60 motors...so long as you don't push things too hard obviously. You know, my first two flights on that tomcat were with big ol' gp-3300 nimh packs. it was shortly thereafter that thunderpower came online with their first lipo offerings. Things sure have changed since then! Chris |
Dec 31, 2010, 10:31 PM | ||
And if anyone wants to join in, or has some ideas/tips from one they have built, or know about, by all means, join in. I sure don't know everything, even tho' I've been building & flying R/C since 1981, and U-Control since, maybe 1960, could even be a little earlier. I just got into electrics about 5 years ago, and have been switching over to 100% electric for about 3 years. This will be my third twin, second electric. My first twin was a combining of two Fun Sport P-51 Mustangs into a P/F-82 Twin Mustang, powered by 2 HB .25s, built in the early '80s. Was a good flyer, and I did have a couple engine out events, all ending well. My second twin was the E-Flite P-38, with two E-Flite 450s. It met it's demise last New Years day Freeze Fly when we tried to hand launch it in high winds (about 15 mph+) and the launcher hit his hood on his jacket with the wingtip. Could not save it... So, follow along, or join in, all welcome. |
Dec 31, 2010, 11:42 PM | |
Moorpark, Ca.
Joined Apr 2004
1,138 Posts
Will be watching this with great intrest as Santa, aka, the wife, had one of these under the tree, well, not really under the tree (much to large a box), but close enough. I still have to finish a H9 P-40, 90% complete, before beginning the Tigercat. I can vouch for the effectiveness of the APC 15.75" X 13" 3 blade prop cut down to 15". I've done that mod on my H9 Spitfire with fine results. 1300+ watts with an e-flite 60 and 6s 5000 lipo. 15 X 8s just didn't get the job done. So you're figuring 20+ lbs. Sounds like 1100 to 1200 watts per side to fly scale like. maybe 2 e-flite 60s & CC 80 amp ESCs on 2 6s 5000 batts?? Good luck! Happy new Year!!
Rick |
Dec 31, 2010, 11:50 PM | |
My retracts arrived today, but I didn't get any work done on her. Had to take the wife to work, about 20 miles away, during an ice storm. It was bad enough I decided to stay in the town where she works, which is also where the club I fly with is located. Marshalltown, Iowa. So I spent the day at one of our members house, who lives close to where the wife works.
Maybe tomorrow. |
Jan 01, 2011, 12:10 AM | |
Rick, welcome. I have the Black Horse P-40 from Hobby People, with the Scorpion 4025-12, 440kv, motor with Castle Phoenix ICE 100 ESC, turning the APC 15.75x13x3 prop at full size, using 5s 5000mah 20C Blue Lipos. 65.3" wingspan, flaps and mechanical retracts, 9lb 2oz auw. 84.7 amps, 1585 watts. This is the same power system I am planning on using on my Tigercat. Should pull it with authority. It pulls the P-40 straight up till I back off.
I'm basing the 20lb weight on reports from other sites. These were/are nitro powered planes, I haven't found a weight report on an electrified one, yet. All of my electrics have come out slightly lighter than the same models with nitro, and dry tanks. So... Don |
Jan 01, 2011, 11:32 PM | |
I've been interested in these for a while and nearly bought a NIB ESM version last September. If it wasn't for the fact I was off to the States a few day later, I would have bought it! Anyway the one that appeared in RCM&E in December 2009 and January 2010 ran E-flite Power 60's spinning APC-e 14x10 props and powered by two 6s 3800's. It appears the author was quite happy with it but suggested to throw away the undercarriage doors! Good luck with it! I might just buy one myself! Regards Peter ImagesView all Images in thread
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