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World agricultural and food production (see Table) declined in 1993, according to preliminary estimates of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Excessive rain and flooding severely damaged feed-grain and oilseed crops in the U.S., and economic disruptions in the former Soviet Union and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Europe continued to obstruct the expansion of agricultural production and trade. The drought in southern Africa, which brought famine to much of the region in 1992, was broken, but food supplies remained scarce in several areas. Other countries in Africa were still afflicted with or not yet recovered from war or civil strife. Food-aid commitments in 1992-93 reached a record 15.1 million tons of cereals as donors responded to emergencies. The FAO published an important assessment of the likely course of the world food situation, especially as affecting the less developed countries (LDCs) through the first decade of the 21st century, that had both optimistic and sobering elements. (For Shipment of Food Aid in Cereals, see Table.)National and International Issues
Trade issues affecting agriculture captured the headlines during much of the year. Agricultural issues were critical to U.S. acceptance of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and to the conclusion of the Uruguay round of multilateral trade negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The agricultural provisions of NAFTA had less effect on trade between the U.S. and Mexico than provisions for other sectors, but modifications of some provisions, particularly those dealing with sugar, were vital to the agreement's passage. An 11th-hour agreement resolving long-standing differences between the U.S. and the European Community (EC) on agriculture made possible the completion of the GATT negotiations and U.S. submission of the pact to Congress before expiration of the "fast-track" negotiation authority on December 15.
Reports by the FAO and the World Food Program suggested that civil warfare or its aftermath continued to be a greater threat to food security than weather in 1993, especially in Africa. In Angola internal strife brought collapse of the country's economy and marketing system, drove many farmers away from their farms, and prevented outside help from reaching famine-stricken areas. Continued fighting in The Sudan created more refugees and displaced persons at the same time that many people stricken by famine earlier were returning to their homes. Some 40,000 Sudanese were reported to have crossed into Uganda and another 60,000 into Ethiopia, Kenya, and Zaire.
In Somalia the intervention of UN and U.S. troops may not have brought political stability, but it did lead to a significant improvement in the country's food situation. Relief agencies began to scale down their operations as food became more available in markets and prices fell, but the need for food for returning refugees also contributed to the necessity for continuing outside food aid.
The slow return of some 650,000 Rwandan refugees following the September peace agreement delayed the planting of 1993-94 crops and created a continuing need for food aid. Eritrea continued heavily dependent on food aid because of the large number of returning refugees with the end of conflict there. Food supplies were considered satisfactory in Ethiopia, thanks to good crops and substantial food-aid imports.
Kenya's corn crop--normally the source of substantial exports--was hard hit by drought. The country was already burdened with nearly half a million refugees from neighbouring Somalia, Ethiopia, and The Sudan. Continuing civil strife in Liberia was disastrous for food production and distribution, especially in central and northern areas, but the midyear peace agreement gave hope of expanded food relief.
Fighting also hampered food production in Sierra Leone, and relief shipments could not reach some areas, particularly those held by rebels. Political and economic turmoil left many displaced and destitute in Zaire. In Mozambique the October 1992 peace agreement and the end of the drought permitted an increase in domestic food supplies and improved relief distribution, especially to returning displaced persons.
In November the FAO released an extensive review of the current state and future prospects for the global food situation, Agriculture: Towards 2010. FAO analysts started by combining the data on soil quality and terrain features--contained in the FAO-Unesco Soil Map of the World--with inventories of temperature and moisture conditions for individual countries. They then assessed how the crop yields actually achieved by the technology available under the most favourable conditions by experiment stations and farmers might be approached or reduced under the agroclimatic conditions they had mapped.
The comprehensive study reported slow but steady progress in increasing global food production and per capita food supplies. World per capita food supplies were some 18% larger than 30 years previously, and the majority of LDCs shared in the gains. The number of people chronically undernourished was estimated to have declined, from nearly 950 million 20 years earlier to some 800 million persons in 1993, and represented about one-fifth of the population in the LDCs. Many countries, however, hardly made any progress, and sub-Saharan Africa was worse off than it had been 20 or 30 years earlier.
Looking to the future, the FAO saw this combination of slow progress and the persistence of serious hunger likely to continue over the next two decades. The incidence of chronic undernutrition in LDCs could fall from about 800 million people to about 650 million, with per capita food supplies for direct human consumption growing from an average of nearly 2,500 calories per day to just over 2,700 by 2010. By comparison, per capita supplies in the developed countries were not expected to rise much above the current average of 3,400 calories. These estimates assumed world population growth of about 1.5% annually--from 5.3 billion people in 1990 to 7.2 billion by 2010. About 94% of the increase would come in the LDCs.
It was anticipated that consumption in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia (including China), Latin America, and the Caribbean region could climb to or above 3,000 calories per day. The increase in East Asia could cut the number of malnourished dramatically (from about 250 million to about 70 million) and leave sub-Saharan Africa, at about 2,150 calories, with the largest and fastest-growing concentration of undernourished people (nearly 300 million). Population there was expected to grow 3.2% annually. Moderate gains in South Asia, approaching 2,500 calories, would leave the region with about 200 million undernourished persons.
These gains would result mainly from increased domestic production in the LDCs supplemented by some growth in food imports. They would come even in the absence of major new technological breakthroughs and despite a further slowdown in overall world agricultural production--from 2.3% annually over the past 20 years to perhaps 1.8% over the next two decades. The slower growth reflected less need for expanded production in most developed countries--and in several LDCs where consumption requirements were becoming largely satisfied--and the slow growth of effective demand in many poorer countries where consumer buying power remained weak.
In other words, the continued existence of poverty was the main reason for undernutrition, not resource constraints like inadequate land, water, or technical knowledge such as that embodied in high-yielding plant varieties. There remained, nevertheless, a strong connection between eliminating undernutrition and promoting more rapid agricultural development because the majority of the poor in LDCs still depended on agriculture for employment and income. Increasing agricultural production in many cases represented the major opportunity for increasing income and improving nutrition, particularly in countries with high concentrations of rural poverty.
The report in effect conceded that limited agricultural resources were still an obstacle to food security and that the need had not been overcome for both private and government action to achieve the potential increases in output that were identified in the report. The existence of 650 million undernourished persons implied continuing food emergencies and a need for external food aid.
The Uruguay round of GATT negotiations begun in 1986 was finally concluded on December 15, just hours before expiration of the "fast-track" authority for U.S. congressional approval. The "now-or-never" character of the deadline contributed to resolution of agricultural issues that had dragged the negotiations out for three years. The agreement was lauded as bringing agriculture truly under international trade rules for the first time and as a major step toward greater market orientation of domestic agricultural and trade policies around the world.
Agriculture presented special obstacles because the sector was generally more heavily dependent upon domestic support policies, which were closely intertwined with trade policies. Further complications were agriculture's vulnerability to instability because of weather, the socioeconomic impact of the movement of rural people to cities, and the slow adjustment of political representation in many countries to those shifts. Domestic agricultural policies were almost completely off-limits to discussion. For instance, the U.S. had joined GATT only on the condition--"the section 22 waiver"--that it could restrict agricultural imports if they interfered, for almost any reason, with domestic support programs. Although the U.S. initially challenged internal elements of the EC's common agricultural policy (CAP) in the Tokyo round of 1979, it ultimately pulled back rather than risk gains in the reduction of barriers to industrial products.
Conditions were changing, however. The mid-1980s saw large increases in the budgetary costs of supporting domestic agricultural programs, particularly in the U.S. and the EC. Domestic agricultural prices were supported at levels that induced more production than could be absorbed in the domestic market without producer subsidies, restriction on price-undercutting imports, or export subsidies to dispose of surpluses. The cost of these programs began to make finance ministers in many countries the discreet advocates of reduced agricultural supports and freer trade, leaving agricultural ministers to bear the brunt of farmer complaints.
Not only that, the trade barriers and export-subsidy competition were generating a full menu of trade disputes--the chicken, pasta, and white wine "wars" making the most colourful headlines. These disputes threatened waves of retaliations and counterretaliations of expanding magnitudes. The major warring parties tended to be the U.S. and the EC, which rose from net importer to major exporter largely as a consequence of its CAP. Other exporters that relied less on subsidies threatened to join the fray. Many LDCs with strong tendencies toward government intervention in their economies began to see advantages to freeing up their economies and promoting freer trade as an engine of growth. All these influences gave growing support to the view that there also were advantages to be gained from a worldwide simultaneous reduction of trade-distorting policies and the internal government support policies that inspired them. However, U.S. persistence in pushing for serious reform measures, even at the risk of endangering an overall GATT agreement, was probably decisive in bringing agricultural policies under GATT.
The changes in world agriculture brought about by the agreement were major but were due to come in small increments. For the first time under GATT, commitments to reduce export subsidies, to increase import access systematically, and to reduce internal support were specified in detail. The greatest impact of the agreement would likely come from the reduction of export subsidies, which may have been the primary U.S. objective in the negotiations. Both the EC and the U.S. would make substantial reductions in such expenditures. The increase in market access accomplished by the agreement was likely to be smaller initially, but the stage was set for future reductions by the establishment of specific tariffs and the elimination of the moving target represented by nontariff barriers.
For many--especially the EC and the U.S.--the agreed-to cuts in agricultural subsidies primarily represented a freezing of subsidies at current levels brought about by domestic budgetary pressures. The plan helped deter backsliding and opened the way for future reductions. The agreement called for further negotiations in its fifth year, based on a reassessment of the agreement's accomplishments, taking into account nontrade concerns, "special and differential treatment" for LDCs, and the agreement's object of establishing a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading system. The main features of the final agreement built upon the "Dunkel text" of 1991 and the EC-U.S. "Blair House agreement" of 1992.
Except for LDCs, all parties by the end of the six-year implementation period were to have reduced budgetary outlays for export subsidies by at least 36% and the quantity of products subject to export subsidies by 21% from the average in the 1986-90 base period. No reductions would be required of the "least developed countries," but the reductions were 24% and 14%, respectively, for other LDCs. One part of the accord called for the cuts to be in equal annual installments, but another had the effect of permitting smaller cuts in the early years, as long as the target established by the 1986-90 base period was met at the end of the six years. (Parties were permitted a later base period--such as 1991-92, when subsidies were higher--for calculating the maximum level of subsidies permitted annually.) This modification accommodated the need of the EC for more time to dispose of its large stocks of surplus grain--especially wheat--and represented a key compromise that led to French, and thus EC, acceptance of the agricultural package.
The agreement required "tariffication"--the conversion to tariffs of all nontariff barriers--and commitments to guarantee and gradually increase minimum levels of access to import markets. These barriers included the EC's variable levies, the section 22 U.S. import quotas on sugar and dairy products, the "voluntary restraints" on meat exports accepted by Australia and New Zealand to avoid triggering the U.S. meat quota, and the outright prohibition of imports by many other countries, such as Japan's ban on imported rice.
The new tariffs initially were intended to maintain the same level of protection as had the old nontariff barriers unless reductions were negotiated elsewhere in the agreement. For developed countries these new tariffs, as well as pre-existing ones, were to be reduced over six years by an average of 36%, with a minimum of 15% for individual tariff items. The percentages were 24% and 10%, respectively, for LDCs, except for the least developed countries, which were exempt. The preagreement level of import access was supposed to be guaranteed, generally by use of tariff-rate quotas (TRQs) that charged a lower tariff on a specified volume of imports but a much higher tariff for imports in excess of that amount. All tariffs, new or old, were to be binding. Such bindings fixed tariffs at levels that could not be changed unless negotiations had provided for other forms of compensation to trading partners for the resulting reduced market access.
Just how much increased trade these reductions might actually encourage was hard to say because countries tended to adopt a wide margin of safety in setting them. Probably of more trade importance was the creation of minimum import opportunities through the use of TRQs in cases where imports were less than 5% of domestic consumption. The TRQs, initially set at 3%, were to be expanded to 5% over the six years. Special, somewhat less stringent, minimum-access commitments were agreed to by Japan and South Korea for rice. Special quantity and price-based safeguards would protect producers in importing countries from sudden surges in imports; special provisions applied in LDCs where a primary agricultural product was the predominant staple in the country's traditional diet.
The amount of all trade-distorting subsidies was to be reduced by 20% by the year 2000 from the 1986-88 base period for each developed country and 13.3% by the year 2005 for each LDC, except that the least developed countries needed only not exceed subsidies in the base period. For all countries, reductions since the base period were counted. As agreed at Blair House, the reduction applied to all supported commodities in aggregate, not to commodities individually. The flexibility allowed by this provision and the fact that both the EC and the U.S. had cut back supports since the base period, when they were at a peak, made it unnecessary for either to cut subsidies further.
The agreement also recognized a government's right to apply sanitary and phytosanitary protections to human, animal, and plant life. All signatories were encouraged to adopt internationally recognized standards but were free to apply stricter standards. All such measures were to be based on scientific justification or on risk assessment.
The sharp decline in the weather-ravaged U.S. coarse-grain crop was the primary cause of an expected (in December) 5% reduction in world grain production in 1993-94. Grain supplies were adequate for maintaining consumption in 1993-94 with moderate increases in international prices because of the substantial buildup of global grain stocks during 1992-93. (For World Cereal Supply and Distribution, see Table.)
World wheat production in 1993-94 was little changed from 1992-93, and supplies were ample because of large carry-in stocks. Production gains in China, South Asia, and Eastern Europe roughly offset reductions in the former Soviet Union (mainly Kazakhstan), the EC, and North America. In Eastern Europe a poor 1992 wheat harvest and a lack of foreign exchange with which to import wheat contributed to an overall decline in global wheat consumption in 1992-93. Global wheat stocks increased substantially in 1992-93, with the EC again the leading stock holder.
Wheat imports by the former Soviet republics increased to about 23.7 million tons in 1992-93, assisted by various aid, credit, and barter arrangements with the U.S. and the EC, but the ability of the region to maintain imports in 1993-94 was weakened by a shaky credit record. By the end of 1993, Russia had made considerable progress in catching up on overdue grain payments to the U.S., the EC, and Canada but not sufficiently to be reinstated in the U.S. credit-guarantee program from which it had been suspended in late 1992.
The decline in global rice production in 1992-93 mainly reflected sharp declines in Chinese and Japanese output. Large stocks of rice resulting from China's bumper harvest the previous year depressed prices in an economy that as a result of economic reforms responded more to market signals. Consumer demand was weak for high-yield, low-quality rice, the production of which was encouraged by the government's previous policies. Farmers responded by switching to higher quality but lower yielding rice varieties, more profitable cash crops (e.g., vegetables, fruit, and fish), and nonagricultural land uses. The result was the smallest harvested area for rice since 1969-70.
Unfavourable weather reduced Japanese rice output to the lowest level in decades and led the government to end its ban on rice imports temporarily. The need to import substantial quantities of rice may also have made it easier for the government to agree, for the first time, to permit importation of at least small quantities of rice on a regular basis under the GATT agreement. The Japanese consumer's preference for high-quality japonica rice, which normally accounted for less than 15% of a world rice market (dominated by indica rice), led to a strong run-up in prices that favoured the major suppliers of that rice, Australia and the U.S.
The 31% reduction in the U.S. corn (maize) crop was responsible for a 9% decline in world coarse-grain production in 1993-94. Overall, global coarse-grain supplies, however, were only 5% smaller because of large carry-in stocks in the U.S. resulting from the record-high U.S. corn harvest. Among major export competitors, production rose in Canada, China, Australia, and the EC. China emerged as the second largest coarse-grain exporter (mainly corn and barley), shipping 11.9 million tons in 1992-93, compared with 8.6 million for the EC and 51 million for the U.S.
Coarse-grain imports into the countries of the former Soviet Union, which averaged more than 20 million tons annually in 1989-91, were about half that in 1992-93. Besides the financial restraints on imports, the reduction of livestock subsidies, higher meat prices, and weakened consumer demand reduced meat consumption and feed-grain consumption. In October Mexico announced a reduction in corn support prices to take place over a short transition that was likely to lead to the substitution of wheat for corn plantings, particularly in irrigated areas where corn had supplanted wheat. The U.S. was expecting a substantial expansion of corn exports to that country as the combined result of this policy and Mexico's reduction of import barriers as the result of NAFTA.
World oilseed output was expected to be smaller in 1993-94 because of a U.S. soybean crop greatly reduced by rain and flood damage in some areas and drought in others. A 50% reduction in producer prices for oilseeds resulting from lower price supports, together with land idling under the EC reform of the CAP, resulted in a 10% decline in EC oilseed production in 1993-94. (For World Production of Oilseeds and Products, see Table.)
In the EC reduced domestic oilseed meal supplies and cheaper feed-grain prices--both the result of CAP reform--were resulting in less oilseed meal and more grain being fed to animals. Financial and credit problems, together with declining livestock herds were the cause in Eastern Europe and Russia. Large carry-in stocks of soybeans from bumper harvests in 1992-93 cushioned the impact of smaller oilseed supplies, but international soybean prices, which had tended slowly downward in recent years, began to strengthen in the latter half of 1993. They averaged $246 per ton (c.i.f., Rotterdam, U.S. No. 2 yellow) in 1992-93 (October-September), compared with $237 in 1991-92, and showed signs of moving higher.
Production of oilseeds with relatively high oil content--such as rapeseed, sunflower seed, and palm oil--had been growing more rapidly in recent years than those with high meal content. Efforts by many, particularly among the LDCs, to achieve self-sufficiency in vegetable oils were a major factor. The resulting increase in vegetable oil supplies contributed to lower prices and more rapid expansion of global consumption and trade than was the case for meals. Prices of most vegetable oils, except coconut and corn, recorded gains in 1992-93. Soybean oil prices began to recover in mid-1993, averaging $453 per ton (f.o.b., Rotterdam) in 1992-93, compared with $437 in 1991-92. The price of soybean meal edged up to $207 per ton (c.i.f., Rotterdam) in 1992-93.
The decline of the world cattle inventory tapered off in 1993. The U.S., where the cattle herd had been expanding since 1991, accounted for most of the gains. The largest declines were in the former Soviet Union, the result of confused market conditions and a shortage of animal feed. Dairy reforms in the EC, where cattle herds were important for both dairy and beef production, reduced cow herds in nearly all countries. In reunified Germany, the herd was to be reduced by five million head over five years. World beef output was estimated (in October) to be marginally smaller in 1993. EC government-held surplus stocks of beef continued to exceed one million tons in 1993, despite the decline in EC beef production. (For Livestock Numbers and Meat Production in Major Producing Countries, see Table.)
The growth in global pork production slowed in 1993. The largest increases were in China and the EC. China had been encouraging the creation of large-scale modern production facilities, increasing production efficiency, and greatly reducing government intervention in marketing, but commercial production still accounted for only about 20% of all hog production. Per capita meat consumption was growing at a moderate pace in China.
The world's sheep flock, particularly in China and Australia, was increasingly being devoted to producing meat rather than wool. The trend was likely to accelerate in the U.S., where a program created to ensure wool supplies during World War II, which provided a producer premium equal to one or two times the market price, was being phased out.
The freeing up of markets in China led to a dynamic expansion of its poultry industry, aided by an inflow of foreign capital and technology. Annual production increases had been 12% or more over the past four years, and China was challenging Brazil as the second largest exporter of broiler poultry meat. The strong domestic demand for white meat in the U.S., together with a sharp reduction in sales to the former Soviet Union, freed up large quantities of inexpensive dark meat for export that embroiled the U.S., the world's leading poultry meat exporter, in several trade disputes around the world. Most Central American countries, Colombia, Venezuela, the Czech Republic, Poland, and South Africa all imposed new import restrictions that the U.S. found reason to question.
World milk production was estimated by the FAO to have fallen about 1% in 1993, the third year of decline in a row. Output fell nearly 3% in the developed countries, largely because of continuing reductions in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where it fell the most because of further herd reductions and short supplies of feed and winter fodder. Output in the LDCs, however, which accounted for only about one-third of global production, rose 3%. (For World Production of Dairy Products, see Table.)
EC and U.S. export subsidies, larger supplies from Oceania, and a slowing of shipments to the former Soviet Union helped weaken international dairy prices. International prices for butter and nonfat dry milk (NFDM) weakened in 1993, slipping from a peak in January of $1,450 per metric ton of butter (f.o.b., North European and selected world ports) to a low of $1,250 by October-November. The former Soviet republics, however, continued as the major importer of butter, thanks to food aid and other subsidized sales. The price of NFDM--$1,725 in January and February--was down to $1,338 by December. Demand for cheese remained generally strong globally, leading to further expansion of both production and consumption.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) perpetuated a highly charged controversy over the use of hormones in dairy cows to increase milk output when in November it approved the use of recombinant bovine somatotropin (BST). This synthetic hormone would supplement the BST produced naturally in a cow's pituitary gland. Sale of the drug was delayed until February 1994 after completion of a congressionally mandated study of the drug's social and economic impact.
FDA approval came after several extensive scientific reviews of the drug's safety begun in the early 1980s. The FDA found milk from treated cows safe to consume and indistinguishable from milk of untreated cows. The FDA did find that cows treated with BST had a slightly increased incidence of mastitis but concluded that safeguards were adequate.
A 12-month extension of the ban on BST was agreed upon in December by EC agricultural ministers, however. Their concerns were primarily economic and social. They feared the drug's use would undermine the CAP by unbalancing the supplies of both milk and meat (BST is also a livestock growth promotant) and drive many small farmers out of business in poorer regions.
Expectations of a record-matching sugar crop in 1992-93 were not met because of unfavourable weather late in the year in parts of Asia and the poor performance of the Cuban sugar industry. A shortage of production inputs and industry breakdowns were limiting production in Cuba, Ukraine, and Russia. Cuba's sugar production fell almost 40% in 1992-93, and only a very modest recovery was in sight for 1993-94. The harvest was curtailed to permit early preparations for expanding future production. The disruption of Cuban markets in Russia and Eastern Europe had also contributed to the precipitous decline in Cuban output in recent years. Cuba's sugar exports fell from about 7 million tons annually at the end of the 1980s to about 3.8 million in 1992-93. Although the downward trend in sugar output in the former Soviet Union appeared to be reversing, supplies remained tight because of a shortage of foreign exchange with which to import sugar. Russia planned to barter fuel, fertilizer, and other supplies for two million tons of Cuban sugar in 1993-94. (For World Production of Centrifugal Sugar, see Table.)
U.S. growers' opposition to the NAFTA provisions dealing with sugar endangered congressional acceptance of the entire agreement. The original text allowed duty-free entry into the U.S. of a minimum of 7,250 tons or up to 25,000 tons of Mexico's net production surplus--production minus domestic consumption--during the first six years of the agreement's 14-year transition period. Limiting exports to surplus prevented the reexport of sugar Mexico might import from third countries. If Mexico achieved a production surplus in any two successive years, it could ship its entire surplus duty-free in years 7 through 14; if not, only 150,000 tons in year 7 plus annual increments of 10% thereafter would be allowed.
The revised agreement eliminated this "two-year rule" and instead permitted Mexico to ship up to 250,000 tons of its production surplus duty-free annually in years 7 through 14. Another revision limited potential Mexican exports by counting consumption of high-fructose corn syrup as part of total sugar consumption in determining the production surplus. By the end of the transition, all restrictions on sugar trade between the two countries were to be eliminated except those applying to sugar imported duty-free into the U.S. for refining and reexported under an existing U.S. program.
Renewed attempts during the year to negotiate a new International Coffee Agreement under the designation of the International Coffee Organization (ICO) failed because of inability to agree on the allocation of export quotas and differences between consuming and producing countries over how much higher quality coffees would be available under the quotas. The treatment of sales to non-ICO members was also an issue. The ICO had had no economic provisions since export quotas were suspended in July 1989. The ICO lost its largest consumer member in September when the U.S. announced that it would not extend its membership in the ICO beyond Sept. 30, 1994, because of a lack of congressional support and the U.S. coffee industry's preference for a free market in coffee. (For World Green Coffee Production, see Table.)
In July coffee-producing countries began to band together to raise coffee prices. In September 28 countries representing nearly 90% of global coffee exports announced formation of the Association of Coffee Producing Countries, with headquarters in Brazil. It included all of the major coffee-producing countries except Mexico, India, and Vietnam. The association agreed to hold back exportable production on a scale beginning at 20% when the 20-day moving-average ICO composite price for "Other Milds and Robustas" was below 75 cents per pound. Members exporting less than 400,000 bags annually would be exempt from retention, and no decision was made about the inclusion of instant coffee in the scheme.
The indicator price, after averaging nearly 54 cents for 1992, had risen, with implementation of the scheme, to over 71 cents in mid-December. The recovery in Brazilian output gave a prospect of substantially increased global coffee production in 1993-94. Supplies in importing countries were already more than ample because of their large buildup of stocks in 1992-93.
World prices for cocoa beans gave indication of bottoming out in 1993 after eight consecutive years of decline. The reason was expectations of reduced global cocoa output in 1993-94 resulting from poor crop prospects in West Africa. Futures prices (New York, nearest three-month average) steadied in 1993, averaging about 43 cents per pound during the first eight months, compared with 47 cents in 1992, but began to rise in the autumn. Despite the fact that low prices discouraged new plantings and good farming practices in many countries, the impact on overall production was fairly small. The large plantings of cacao trees in Malaysia, Côte d'Ivoire, and Indonesia in the mid-1980s were just approaching their maximum harvest potential. Cocoa bean stocks were drawn down modestly again in 1992-93 when cocoa bean grindings once again exceeded production, but stocks still equaled the equivalent of a six-month global supply. Overall, cocoa consumption was restrained by continuing low consumption in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. (For World Cocoa Bean Production, see Table.)
A new International Cocoa Agreement (ICCA) was adopted in July to replace one that expired on September 30. The 1986 ICCA had attempted to maintain cocoa prices within an agreed band through operation of a buffer stock. The arrangement broke down in 1989 when large supplies severely depressed prices and the buffer stocks reached their maximum. Lengthy negotiations failed thereafter over differences between producing and consuming nations on what new, lower price band to defend, how to finance a withholding scheme, and how to handle large arrears owed by producing countries to maintain the buffer stock. The new agreement abandoned the buffer-stock concept in favour of supply management based on voluntary cuts in production by members. Implementation of the cuts, however, was postponed until February 1994 because of delays in ratification. Malaysia, Indonesia, and the U.S. were expected to remain outside the ICCA. A sell-off of the buffer stock in monthly installments to be spread over four and a half years was already under way.
A modest decline in world cotton production was expected in 1993-94 despite generally better weather than the previous year. Farmers in China moved much land out of cotton and into other crops in response to poor weather, insect infestations, and deferred government payments. The recovery of Pakistani output was slowed by damage from insects and the leaf-curl virus; the government suspended cotton exports to prevent a further rise in domestic cotton prices that threatened to undermine the competitiveness of the country's textile exports. In Central Asia the long decline in acreage planted to cotton appeared to be ending, and production was expected to record the first increase since 1988. (For World Cotton Production, see Table.)
Cotton use was rising most in countries that supplied their own cotton to manufacture and export textiles. Several countries in East Asia that traditionally relied on imported cotton to produce yarn for export had to cut back yarn production. One result was that cotton trade grew more slowly than cotton use.
Global cotton stocks, which had soared to 40.6 million bales by the end of 1991-92, fell 5% during 1992-93, and an even larger decline seemed in prospect for 1993-94. Most of the decline occurred in China's large stocks. International cotton prices remained depressed by large global carryover stocks of cotton, which at the end of 1992-93 equaled 45% of cotton use.
International prices of cotton (Northern European Cotlook Index "A"), whose most recent high in 1990-91 (August-July) averaged 82.9 cents per pound, had fallen to an average of 57.7 cents by 1992-93 and moved in a narrow band under 56 cents during early 1993-94. These continuing depressed prices led to reduced cotton plantings in Latin America, and several traditional cotton exporters there, such as Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, and some Central American countries, were increasingly importing more cotton than they exported.
See also Gardening.
This updates the article agriculture, history of.
According to the latest statistics compiled by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the total world fish catch continued to decline, although less steeply than was evident in 1990. The record catch of 100 million metric tons in 1989 had declined to 97,245,600 metric tons in 1990; the 1991 total world catch was confirmed at 96,925,900 metric tons, a drop of just under 320,000 tons from the previous year. (For world fisheries catch and trade, see Table.)
A recovery in the catch of Peruvian anchovy (anchoveta) to 4,017,106 metric tons in 1991 from 3,771,577 metric tons in 1990 reversed a decline of 1,635,950 metric tons recorded from 1989 to 1990. Alaska pollock, however, continued to drop in catch from 5,736,109 metric tons in 1990 to 4,893,493 in 1991. The top 10 species landed in 1991 (in order of tonnage) were Alaska pollock, South American pilchard, anchoveta, Chilean jack mackerel, Japanese pilchard, skipjack tuna, silver carp, Atlantic herring, European pilchard (sardine), and Atlantic cod. These 10 species produced a combined total catch of 27,716,381 metric tons, compared with 29,773,392 metric tons in 1990, a decline of nearly two million metric tons. Catches of other species, including capelin, large-head hairtail, Araucanian herring, pink salmon, and Cape horse mackerel, showed significant increases but not enough to offset the deficit.
China increased its catch from 12,095,363 metric tons in 1990 to 13,134,967 in 1991, an increase of 8.6%. The republics of the former Soviet Union dropped from second to third position with a decline from 10,389,030 metric tons in 1990 to 9,216,927 in 1991. Japan moved up to second place despite the fact that its catch fell from 10,350,338 metric tons in 1990 to 9,306,827 in 1991. Both Peru and Chile benefited from the return of the anchoveta. The top 10 catching nations in 1991 were China, Japan, the former Soviet Union, Peru, Chile, the U.S., India, Indonesia, Thailand, and South Korea.
The worldwide problem of overfishing and dwindling fish stocks continued to be at the forefront of the commercial fishing agenda. One of the major areas of concern was the continued pressure being put on migratory and straddling fish stock. The latter are species that straddle a country's 200-mi exclusive economic zone (EEZ), spending part of their life cycle within the boundaries of a particular country's waters but also spending either part of the year or part of their life cycle outside that zone in international waters, where there is little effective regulation of fishing. The northern cod and groundfish stocks on the Grand Banks off Canada's Newfoundland and Labrador coasts were good examples of such species. During the past few years, Canada had campaigned relentlessly to stop what it described as illegal fishing by European Community (EC) fishermen, who were operating on the boundary of Canada's 200-mi EEZ on the Grand Banks. In 1992 Canada instituted a two-year moratorium on domestic fishing for cod along the northern coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador and called on the EC to withdraw its fleets. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) estimates revealed that stocks of cod, redfish, flounder, and American plaice had dropped to historically low levels; by 1992 they were less than one-third of the total in 1986. Some 890,000 metric tons of these species were estimated to have been taken from NAFO-regulated waters between 1986 and 1992, some 16 times the quota set for those stocks. After the moratorium on cod was introduced, the areas affected were extended and other species included; when they would be reopened remained uncertain. The effect of this in the past three years was the loss of jobs for 40,000 fishermen and fish-processing workers in Newfoundland and Labrador. In December Canada's Federal Fisheries Minister Brian Tobin officially closed several Atlantic cod and haddock fisheries.
The survival of straddling stocks was not unique to Canada, with threats being posed on Argentina's Patagonian shelf, in the Barents Sea, in the waters off of Namibia, off the shores of Chile and Peru, on New Zealand's Challenger plateau, in the Sea of Okhotsk, and in the Bering Sea. Highly migratory fish stocks were also under extreme pressure, with species such as yellowfin, skipjack, albacore, southern and northern bluefin, and bigeye tuna all in danger.
The opportunity for countries throughout the world to take steps toward addressing these problems came in July 1993 with the first substantive session of the United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, held in New York City. The conference's mandate was to identify and assess existing problems related to the conservation and management of these two types of fish stocks, to consider means of improving cooperation between nations, and to formulate appropriate recommendations. At the conclusion of the conference, a high level of agreement was reached on many subjects, and an additional two sessions were planned before the summer of 1994 to allow fulfillment of the mandate.
World fish-meal production, which had risen to 6.9 million metric tons by the end of the 1980s, fell dramatically from the 1990 figure of 6.3 million metric tons to 6.1 million metric tons in 1992. The world's major producers of fish meal were Chile, Peru, Japan, and the Scandinavian countries. All those countries, with the exception of Japan, were major exporters. Japan suffered a major drop in its output, producing more than one million tons at the end of the 1980s and dropping consistently from that time to 430,000 metric tons in 1992--a decline of 60%.
At the end of 1992 Peru experienced a remarkable increase in fish-meal production, resulting in an increase during that year to 1,370,000 metric tons, compared with 1,310,000 in 1991. This unexpected rise resulted in a dramatic downturn in the price of fish meal, which fell from $500 per metric ton on the Hamburg (Germany) market in June 1992 to $350 per metric ton in June 1993. The pattern of fish-meal imports also had changed over the past decade. In 1983 Europe dominated the import trade with more than 50% of the total imports. In 1992, however, Europe represented less than one-third of the imports, with nearly two-thirds being imported by the Far East. This dramatic change was caused largely by a rapid rise of fish-meal consumption in China.
In the late 1980s the total world production of fish oil was about 1.6 million metric tons, a figure that dropped during the early 1990s to 1,370,000 metric tons in 1990 and 1,050,000 in 1992. This decrease was principally caused by a dramatic decline in production in Japan, Peru, and Chile. The major producers and exporters of fish oil were Japan, Scandinavia, the U.S., and Chile. Exports during 1992 fell by more than 25% compared with 1989. The major importing countries remained the U.K., Germany, and The Netherlands.
Fish oil is mainly used in the production of foods such as margarine. In recent years, however, it was being used increasingly by the fish-farming industry, resulting in an estimated usage of fish oil in fish feed at about one-third of total world production. Fish-oil production by the major exporting countries during the first half of 1993 rose by about 30% compared with the same period in 1992. Peru was the main reason for this dramatic rise. Fish-oil prices varied during 1992 in response to fluctuating prices of competing vegetable oils. In June 1992 the price of fish oil in the Rotterdam market was about $375 per ton.
This updates the article commercial fishing.
In 1993 consumers took more care in selecting their food purchases, sought more value for their money, and resented obscure label information. Any product that reduced the trouble of preparation was popular. Brand loyalty declined; in the U.S. sales of private-label products grew twice as fast as sales of national brands.
Genetic manipulation aroused ethical concerns. Environmental and religious groups were offended by the prospect of the implantation of animal genes into plants to enhance various properties and of the introduction of human genes into cows to bring the composition of their milk nearer to that of human milk. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November approved a genetically engineered hormone to raise milk productivity. In December the Union of Concerned Scientists asked the FDA to delay approval of two genetically altered vegetable varieties scheduled to come onto the market in early 1994. Also at the end of the year, the FDA adopted new regulations that would require manufacturers of dietary supplements to adhere to the same strict labeling requirements as were applied to food products. The move was intended to eliminate false or exaggerated claims about the health benefits of such products.
The incidence of food poisoning rose throughout the world. The World Health Organization estimated that in 1992 some 6.5 million cases of food-borne illnesses occurred in the U.S. alone, with approximately 9,000 fatalities. The newly appointed secretary of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Mike Espy, announced plans for new meat-inspection programs and said that irradiation might be used to destroy harmful bacteria in beef. In the U.K. one person in 20 claimed to have suffered from food poisoning during 1992.
Food company profits fell during the year, especially in the U.S. Restructuring was common throughout the food industry.
U.S. processors continued to invest large sums in developing substitutes for natural fats. Food processors had anticipated that sales of fat substitutes would have reached $1 billion a year by 1993, but actual sales were less than half of that because the industry failed to develop sufficiently palatable products.
The British Soft Drinks Association (BSDA) warned that brand pirating was a growing problem in the U.K. soft drink trade. Of total U.K. soft drink consumption of about 8 billion litres, dispensers accounted for some 420 million litres, and the BSDA estimated that 10% of the latter were pirated, a figure rising to 30% in some areas.
Foreign investment in Eastern Europe was stimulated by the provision of favourable credit facilities, with Hungary, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, and Poland in the forefront. London financial analysts Coopers & Lybrand found that the former Eastern-bloc countries were in a much better position to do business than had been believed in the West. But the war in the former Yugoslavia badly hurt Bulgarian state-owned food-processing companies, which were expected to lose more than $81 million in 1993 because of lost business resulting from sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro.
China continued the rapid development of its fast-food industry. As of late 1993 the country had more than 300 instant-noodle lines producing over 200,000 metric tons per year and 60 bread lines producing 100,000 metric tons per year. Development remained at a very early stage, however.
Western Australia aimed to become a major supplier of high-quality processed foods for the rapidly growing Asian market, where consumption per head was likely to match that of Australia by the year 2000. Annual growth rates of processed food imports reached 18% in South Korea, 14% in Japan, and 12% in Hong Kong.
Interest in high-pressure technology (HPT) for sterilizing food products grew; Japan was the world leader. HPT jam and grapefruit juice were on the market there, and the Wakayama company started work on an HPT system for bulk pasteurization of fresh orange juice. The French government funded an HPT development program involving three large companies: Bongrain, BSN, and Pernod Ricard; 15 partners in Belgium, Germany, France, Spain, and the U.K. jointly proposed a three-year study of HPT. In the U.S. a pilot system was installed by ABB Autoclave Systems Inc. at Columbus, Ohio, and the same company supplied a mobile system for testing at food-plant sites in Sweden and started building a pilot plant for a European customer.
Vending-machine technology advanced with the appearance of machines incorporating freezing systems coupled with microwave cookers so that the products were heated and ready to eat. Major U.S. processors were developing complete semiautomatic restaurants. Machines were being tested that cooked ready-to-eat meals and accepted debit cards. Processors agreed that vending was poised to grow rapidly into an industry that would provide high-quality food wherever people were--at work, at play, or traveling.
Developed by Niro of Denmark, a commercial freeze concentration system was installed by a dairy in Wisconsin. The process partially converted the water content of dairy products into ice crystals, which were then removed by a centrifuge machine; it was cheaper than thermal concentration and did not degrade flavour or aroma.
Many new products were in the "health" category, and the main focus was on reduced fat and calorie content and increased dietary fibre. European food companies followed the lead of those in the U.S. and launched products based on olive oil, examples being a low-fat spread from Golden Vale of Ireland, a self-basting chicken product from Moy Park of the U.K., and a low-fat milk from Farmer's Best Milk of Australia.
A recent marketing trend in the U.S. was clear beverages, which appeared and were promoted as more refreshing and lower in calories than coloured drinks. American brewers introduced "clear beer," and Coca-Cola Co. and PepsiCo introduced clear versions of their traditional cola soft drinks.
First patented by the USDA, "Oatrim," a fat substitute made from oat flour and oat bran treated with enzymes, was launched in the U.S. jointly by Quaker Oats Co. and Rhône-Poulenc. A new development in which Oatrim played a part was the appearance of beverages containing soluble dietary fibre. A process for producing a liquid fibre ingredient from Oatrim was developed by the USDA, and the ingredient, suitable for incorporation into beverages without affecting flavour, was launched commercially by ConAgra and the joint Quaker Oats/Rhône-Poulenc venture.
Ahold of The Netherlands introduced thin-sliced technology (TST) meat products. These were ready-to-eat fresh meat slices formed from cheap cuts or trimmings and hardly distinguishable from sliced muscle meat. They were being sold in several countries.
Significant growth in modified-atmosphere packaging, consisting of a flexible film pack enclosing the product in an inert gas, took place in Europe, where 14 different types of system were in use. Another fast-growing packaging material was polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a major market for which was transparent bottles for mineral water.
The world packaging industry perceived its biggest challenge as the protection of the environment and made intense efforts to develop products that would be environmentally sound. Continental PET Technologies of Florence, Ky., developed a process for incorporating layers of recycled plastic into soft-drink bottles and plastic food containers and teamed with Husky Injection Molding Systems Ltd. of Ontario to develop a molding system that would produce bottles with up to 50% recycled content. British Steel Tinplate of the U.K. launched its "ultimate can" (UC) project to achieve a 30% weight reduction of steel beverage cans by using a new steel alloy and produced 3,000 UC prototypes.
PepsiCo of the U.S. acquired two Spanish beverage companies for $320 million, the centrepiece of a $1 billion five-year investment plan that was expected to double PepsiCo's share of Spain's carbonated-drinks market. The Anglo-Dutch group Unilever bought the U.S. ice cream business of Kraft General Foods for an estimated $400 million, doubling the size of the group's operation in the U.S. Unilever also acquired two companies in Chile and established a joint venture in Beijing (Peking). Philip Morris, Inc., owners of Kraft General Foods, merged the latter's European operations with Jacobs Suchard to create one of the biggest food groups in Europe, worth $9 billion and employing 32,000 people.
Cadbury Schweppes of the U.K. asked its stockholders for nearly $500 million to fund the acquisition of A&W Brands of the U.S. The company also announced its entry into a joint venture to establish Cadbury as a leading chocolate confectionery brand in China, with an initial investment of $30 million to create Cadbury Beijing.
The European Community (EC) failed to achieve fully its aim of becoming an area without inner frontiers. Some, but not all, objectives were attained. An unexpected result was that food could be moved across frontiers without any inspections, and to counter this the EC announced the establishment of a food health inspectorate.
The FDA published regulations implementing the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act. Estimates of the cost of compliance to the U.S. food industry varied widely between $1.4 billion and $10.3 billion over 20 years. The FDA also issued standards and proposals for bottled water, setting limits for some 40 possible contaminants.
See also Environment; Health and Disease; Industrial Review: Beverages; Textiles; Tobacco.
This updates the article food preservation.


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Got this in an e-mail claiming that the sender was an officer of some kind and that a man with a badly gashed up face brought this into his department for disposal, said he was trying a new load out....... What a moron....
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I had a 6" 629, it handled anything I fed it without a glitch. That guy must be a moron.
Thought I saw those pics before:http://www.firearmstalk.com/forums/f30/safety-first-19498/
Nice, that m1 picture makes me want to cry......
That sucks. Double charge maybe? -Fred
"Breathe when you can, shoot when you should." -Rob LeathamΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ! "Qui desiderat pacem, bellum praeparat; nemo provocare ne offendere audet quem intelliget superiorem esse pugnaturem"
would love to see down the barrel. could be light load in one bullet lodged and next shot *BOOM*. thats always my fear of revolvers. semi-autos a light load wont cycle the weapon with a bullet lodged. had that happen on my sig once. had to pound the bullet out of the barrel with a punch. next shot woulda blew the gun up. but if the weapon doesnt cycle i check the barrel.
I had a rem 45 colt that blew the top strap off.welded a piece of carbon steel on and shot it for long time.had a 32/20 S&W that had a chamber blown welded the chamber and cut new locking notch shot it with 5 shot.
Hmm...I wonder how that S&W lifetime guarantee would handle this one.
I just bought a 629....remind me not to shoot his loads.
If the pain is lacking so is the discipline... "the only 911 call I need is chambering a round" - Mr. Muller, MO car dealer

subset: commoncrawl


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Function: Downhill, Cruising, Carving Diameter: 73mm Hardness: 81a Width: 54mm Contact Patch Width: 52mm Hub: Offset Lip: Squared Surface: Smooth Weight Set Of Four: 27 oz
OUT OF STOCKThis item is currently out of stock. CLICK HERE to be notified when it is back in stock.
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UPDATED: Sunday, November 24, 2013 - 10:22pm
BRYAN, Tx (KYLE) — A Bryan man accused of beating his girlfriend is sentenced to eight years in prison.
25-year-old Preston Flores was arrested back in September and charged with assault after police say he used a curtain rod and hair brush to beat his girlfriend during an argument.
Flores pled guilty this week and agreed to the prison term.
He could have faced up to ten years for violating his probation and one year for the assualt because he has two previous felony convictions for theft and possession of marijuana.


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Mount Pleasant police have detained two people following a report of a home invasion off Mathis Ferry Road.
Authorities were notified about the incident shortly after 12:30 p.m. Thursday, according to Charleston County dispatchers.
Officers saw a suspect vehicle on Mathis Ferry and a chase ensued, police said. The chase ended when the suspects crashed into a median on a roundabout, police said.
Officers briefly chased the suspects on foot before they were taken into custody, police said.
Highway Patrol is investigating the wreck.
Anyone who witnessed the incident can contact police at 884-4176.
This is a developing story. Check back with postandcourier.com as more details become available.
Reach Christina Elmore at 937-5908 or at Twitter.com/celmorePC.
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Took this infront of a bus stop, as the bus pulls in to
pick up passengers. and yes, they all looked at me weird. This is one of my first photos that i uploaded here, and was featured right away by red bubble! :D3
my very first site feature here. October, 2009
- sorry I wasn't able to keep a record of the exact date.. perhaps it would be in the site archive somewhere
Location : East Broadway, at some bus stop,
Vancouver BC, Canada
Congratulations….cool shot!!!!
thank you :)
Congratulations on your feature. This is a great shot!
"Took this in front of a bus stop, as the bus pulls in to
pick up passengers. and yes, they all looked at me weird" -
so glad to hear you say that. I knew I wasn't the only one to
experience that, but it's reassuring to hear someone say it! :) :)
hahaha for sure. it's totally worth it. i'm sure a lot of us experience that once in a while, if not quite often. but my biggest fear is getting my pocket picked as i take pictures. many thanks again Dane ! wasn't totally aware that my work was being featured just because it was in the front page. at deviantart.com, they usually put everyone's work in the front page as a new submission haha. i totally had no idea.
Simply beauty!!Congratulations, you deserve it,Adrian!!
thanks Nonnie. that's very sweet of you.
simple yet amazing
thanks !
– adriangeronimo
excellent work!
cheers !!
– adriangeronimo
very attractive image! great job :)
thanks Nancy
– adriangeronimo
I had lots of weird looks yesterday when I was out doing TTV shots! It just makes me laugh :) This shot was so worth the weird looks! Great POV, and the leaf is so beautiful and vibrant.
never actually heard of ttv before, my knowledge of manipulations are so limited. so used to keeping my work close to stock as possible. but i am gonna try it. thanks again Ursula!
– adriangeronimo


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Zooey Deschanel featured in Marie Claire. Dior hires Raf Simons to replace John Galliano. Fresno is obsessed with beauty. And more.
read more
The waiting game is finally over. Raf Simons will succeed John Galliano as the creative director of Dior, the New York Times is reporting. "The first time I heard about the Dior position, I thought, 'This feels right'" Simons told C... Read Post
News just broke that Raf Simons, who showed his last collection for Jil Sander this past February, will be replacing John Galliano at Dior. More details to come, but for now, check out Raf's last collection for Jil Sander in the sli... Read Post


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With Michael Saunders likely out until around the All-Star break with a torn meniscus in his left knee, left field is open to competition at camp. More
Be sure to be on hand to see and enjoy the Blue Jays in action at Rogers Centre this season. Single-game tickets are on sale. Buy tickets now
Two-time Cy Young Award winner Johan Santana -- who last pitched in the Majors in 2012 -- is restarting his comeback attempt with Toronto. More
See every out-of-market regular-season game plus more than 250 Spring Training games. More
Russell Martin and R.A. Dickey shared mutual respect in their first workout together. More
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- Now reporting for Spring Training: At Bat App
- Maddon binge-watching 'The Office' at Spring Training


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Chelsea v STOKE: Tony Pulis could receive timely boost with return of Kenwyne Jones
Stoke striker Kenwyne Jones could return to action against Barclays Premier League champions Chelsea after missing last weekend's defeat to Tottenham with an ankle injury. Jones, who sustained the problem on the opening day of the season at Wolves, has what Potters boss Tony Pulis describes as an 'outside chance' of featuring at Stamford Bridge. Little action: Jones (left) has had minimal playing time, limping off after 14 minutes against Wolves Pulis also hopes Liam Lawrence will have recovered from his groin injury, while Mamady Sidibe is a long-term absentee having ruptured his Achilles tendon. Team (from): Begovic, Huth, Shawcross, Higginbotham, Delap, Whelan, Whitehead, Etherington, Lawrence, Jones, Fuller, Tuncay, Soares, Pugh, Faye, Collins, Wilkinson, Sorensen, Walters. CLICK HERE for all the rest of this weekend's Barclays Premier League team news
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X-ray astronomy A scope named Chandra Black holes revealed Dark matter detailed Neutron stars Inspectors checking out Chandra's largest mirror; the eight-part nested mirror weighs more than one ton. Photo courtesy of Hughes Danbury Optical Systems and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. |
New toys = new science
Over the past few decades, a progression of ever-better telescopes has fostered a golden age in astronomy. Many advances stemmed from putting telescopes in space, like the Hubble Space Telescope, to avoid the atmosphere's obscuring effects (some people compare ground-based astronomy to watching birds from the bottom of a full swimming pool). Other advances have come from investigating new areas of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as the infrared or ultraviolet.
By observing X-rays from above the atmosphere, Chandra combines both advances, providing a new peephole on weird stuff like black holes, neutron stars and dark matter, and perhaps to the fate of the universe itself. The name honors Subrahmanyan (Chandra) Chandrasekhar, an Indian-American physicist whose theories predict what will happen to stars after they run out of fuel.
One small ruse for starkind
The field of X-ray astronomy can date its beginnings to a report on that mission (see "Evidence for X Rays..." in the bibliography). Progress accelerated with the launch of ever-better telescopes:
With no chance to repair the telescope in space, engineers on the $1.5 billion project skirted some of the design hassles that faced Hubble. The physics of X-rays, however, raised enormous technical challenges of their own. Since X-rays have a short wavelength, small distortions on the mirror would cause huge errors. These boo-boos are measured with a yardstick called the Angstrom -- one ten-billionth of a meter, or a few times the diameter of an atom. "A rough patch only 10 Angstroms high -- 1/500 the wavelength of visible light -- would look like a mountain to a 2-Angstrom X-ray and scatter it way off course," wrote Martin Elvis, head of Chandra's science data group (see "NASA's Chandra... " in the bibliography). To avoid a repeat of Hubble, which was, embarrassingly enough, launched with a flawed mirror, the Chandra team extensively tested the mirrors, which are made of glass coated with iridium. They say the mirrors are accurate enough to read one-centimeter newspaper type from 12 miles away (assuming anybody prints X-ray newspapers...). The NASA crew claims that if Colorado were as smooth as Chandra's mirrors, Pike's Peak would be 1 inch high. These mirrors are extraordinarily smooth, and also extraordinarily odd in appearance. That's because X-rays reflect differently than visible light. Think of an X-ray image of a broken leg, taken by shining a ray directly on the leg. The ray is either absorbed by the bone or allowed to pass through the muscles undisturbed. It's not reflected. Similarly, X-rays would be absorbed, not reflected, by a conventional telescope mirror. But at a very shallow angle -- say 1 degree or so - the rays would reflect. Chandra's peculiar nested-lens design takes advantage of this type of reflection, but because the bounce barely changes the ray's direction, the distance to the detector is quite long, explaining the telescope's 45-foot end-to-end dimension. Chandra is long, but lean. The $1.5 billion observatory has the light-gathering power of a 15-inch telescope - something amateur astronomers might use here on Earth. The massive expectations for such a midget telescope "tells you the power of the field," says astrophysicist Richard Mushotzky of Goddard Space Flight Center. "Nature has been very kind to X-ray astronomy." |
There are 1 2 3 4 5 pages in this feature. Bibliography | Credits | Feedback | Search ©1999, University of Wisconsin, Board of Regents. |


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Doctor Who. No contest.Jul 17, 2001 (Updated Feb 6, 2007)
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The Bottom Line The diverse range of styles and authors make the Doctor Who New Adventures a constantly exciting range of novels that improve vastly even on the original television show.
From $12
Once upon a time, there was a unique television hero. A man who believed that he could change the world without being cruel or cowardly. A man of peace who just happened to be surrounded by violence. And because there were a lot of things that needed changing, the man travelled through both time and space, in a London police telephone box that was much larger on the inside. And on the way, he made a lot friends. But then the BBC cancelled Doctor Who in 1989, and for a while, fans everywhere were faced with the nasty realisation that they might soon have to grow up. And the prospect appalled us all because, as the Doctor once said: 'What's the point of growing up if you can't be childish sometimes?' Luckily, almost all of the Doctor's travels had been novelised over the years, and the publishers concerned had made an obscene amount of money from the show and built a virtual monopoly on children's publishing in the UK. The novelisations were not of fantastic literary quality, but they were hugely vivid and entertaining retellings of televised episodes that unleashed the reader's imagination to create worlds unfettered by the demands of being filmed in a BBC basement. Unsurprisingly, this gave the publishers a fairly sentimental approach to their favourite cashcow. And so they got a license from the BBC to produce original novels to continue the Doctor's adventures. Originally featuring the last television line-up of Sylvester McCoy's 7th Doctor and Sophie Aldred's Ace, and carrying on from the last television adventure, the books were aimed at a slightly older market than the novelisations, with pretentious titles and bright covers. The surprising thing is that Doctor Who - The New Adventures actually turned out to be brilliant. Oh, the first few books were nothing special. In order to build up a readership, Virgin Publishing decided to kick off with a linked series of four novels, about a super-monster called the Timewyrm. Note the silly spelling. The Timewyrm started as a snake-shaped cyborg, but then turned into a demi-God at the end of the first novel. The first three books in the series were deeply unsatisfying adventures by former novelisation writers which did little to embrace the potential afforded by Doctor Who's change of medium to the printed page. The only innovation was to introduce lashings of fan-pleasing continuity references and guest appearances from old characters, and fan-annoying juvenile sex and swearing. It's difficult to see who was supposed to be buying these earliest efforts. Then everything changed. Virgin took what must have been a tremendous risk by commissioning unpublished fan writer Paul Cornell to conclude the Timewyrm saga. In Timewyrm: Revelation, Cornell produced the first true Doctor Who novel. In a riot of distorted realities and symbolism, Paul still managed to maintain an astonishing degree of emotional realism in his characters. The plot seemed designed to defy summary. The Timewyrm has invaded the Doctor's mind. In order to defeat it, he sacrifices Ace, who battles her way through his invaded subconscious to release his conscience, which he has bizarrely chained to a tree. The novel's action was divided roughly equally between the Doctor's mind and a sentient church which had been transported to the moon. Constant references to popular culture and an emphasis on strong characterisation anchored this fantastic plot in plausibility. This single novel set the direction for the New Adventures. The second year was also mixed. A second linked series was published, this time concerning the Doctor's efforts to repair the TARDIS, which was in danger of dying. The range's style had already become extremely diverse. Marc Platt's Time's Crucible was in much the same vein as Revelation, with its epic tale of the TARDIS destroyed and the Doctor's stolen identity. Andrew Cartmel's Warhead was a much darker, cyberpunkish techno-thriller, full of evil corporations and breaches of medical ethics. Andrew Hunt's Witch Mark was a pleasant if slightly uninspired fantasy tale. Then a rising star produced his first novel. Mark Gatiss is best known as one of the League of Gentlemen, but Doctor Who has always been a clear influence on their twisted brand of humour. Nightshade was Mark's first book, and it's uncomfortable reading. A disembodied alien entity that feeds on people's minds by exploiting their past regrets and disappointments provided a great deal of chilling imagery as war veterans start rising from their graves and a demonic Christ sucks the life from an abbot who'd lost his faith. But at the same time, this grimness is offset by the presence of an elderly actor from a 50s sci-fi show, haunted by rubber suit monsters. Paul Cornell became the first writer to return to the range with Love and War. Here Ace was written out for a while and a new companion introduced. Professor Bernice Summerfield was a headstrong female archaeologist a good few years before Core Design thought of making a computer game along the same lines. She quickly became the most popular original character in the range, and even starred in her own series of novels when Virgin eventually lost the licence to produce Doctor Who fiction. Themes and motifs from Cornell's first novel were added to and expanded upon. Certain phrases, many of them pinched from Excalibur, reappeared, and it became clear that Cornell was working to his own agenda within the Doctor Who universe. Later, this would become a problem, as other writers adopted this strategy with varying degrees of success. After a few novels, Ace returned as a combat-hardened space mercenary. She had grown independent from the Doctor, and this lead to some interesting conflicts, which only occasionally became tedious. Eventually she left for good, and so too did Bernice, with a pair of 30th century police officers seeing the Doctor virtually to the end of the series. A complete biography of this range would be far more work than I'm prepared to do for the seventy cents or so that I'll earn for this article. So I'll skip into summary mode. Some great books to look out for. No Future Paul Cornell's third novel provided the conclusion to another linked series, in which an unknown enemy was altering history. The final confrontation takes place in London, 1976. The novel starts with relations between the Doctor, Ace and Bernice strained almost to breaking point, and the book is almost more concerned with their relationship than it is with saving the universe. The book's principal theme, however, is that it is basically a punk manifesto. Not only is almost every influential punk act from the Pistols to the Preachers namechecked, but there are whole pages devoted to discussions of anarchist ideology. The novel restores the balance to one of the most misrepresented and misunderstood artistic movements ever. It deserves a much wider audience. Also, it sees the Doctor at his most blatantly left-wing and anarchistic. And he's not the only one. Even the suspiciously rightist UNIT get in on the mayhem towards the end, as Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart takes his best troops undercover to fight the fascist Vardans. One of the locations for the novel's incredibly convoluted climax is an international peace concert. In a moment loaded with symbolism, the Brigadier joins the Revolution as he orders his men to gun down Paul McCartney and Wings with stun darts before allowing punk band Plasticene to invade the stage. Return of the Living Dad One of many rather silly novels written for the range was Kate Orman's fourth effort. Bernice Summerfield, like Lara Croft this summer, had a father who went missing in action. This loss informed many of Bernice's actions during her time with the Doctor, and after her marriage (in another Paul Cornell novel), this unanswered question became her character's last loose end. Published after the screening of the Paul McGann TV Movie, the novel's gentle pace obscures some dark undercurrents, as the Doctor starts to come to terms with the fact that he will soon regenerate, that he will soon die. Falls the Shadow OK, this was written by the brother of a friend of mine, and that's probably the main reason why it's here. Daniel O'Mahony's single contribution to the New Adventures is still a colossally ambitious novel, however, full of dark Gods and mutiliation. In fact, it's extremely dark, especially when you happen to know that the guy who wrote it is a perfectly pleasant dude whose only discernable vice is the strange habit of wailing as he types in his attic room. Human Nature Yet another Paul Cornell novel, this landmark book saw the Doctor rewriting his genetic code and memory, in order to spend a month as a human. He settles down as a history teacher called John Smith at a quiet English private school, just before the outbreak of the First World War. Another gentle character-based tale ensues, as John Smith falls in love, and fights against a group of aliens who are searching for the Pod which contains the Doctor's identity. The stakes are raised by a sensitive schoolboy who is becoming affected by the Pod, and who is slowly turning into the Doctor. Pseudo-religious imagery, schoolboy brutality and the pathos of a man so world-weary that he deletes his own identity all add up to very nearly the perfect novel. When the Doctor eventually returns, the deceptive ease with which he resolves the situation is startling and obvious. One of the (many) twists and turns of the climax was also bizarrely stolen by John Woo for MI:2. If the grandaddy of action movie slickness can chow down for some bedtime TARDIS reading, why can't you? As with all Cornell novels, however, he undermines the omnipotence of the Doctor's monster-fighting abilities, by displaying his utter inability to deal with some of the messier emotions. The final conflict is not between Time Lord and Aubertide, but between the Doctor and John Smith's sweetheart, a woman he is no longer able to love. By again pinching dialogue from Excalibur, Cornell turns an almost unfathomable existential dilemna into a magically heart-rending scene of futile love. I'd go as far as to say this is the most satisfying novel I've ever read, and I do have a degree in French literature before anyone writes me off as a hopeless sci-fi junkie. Christmas on a Rational Planet One of the strengths of the New Adventures range was that the editors were really flexible. As well as encouraging unpublished writers (rejected mine though, didn't ya, ya b*st*rds), they were perfectly happy for a writer to come along with a book that totally subverted the entire series, and threw into question everything we thought we knew. Lawrence Miles was one of the worst offenders, and though he has since drifted somewhat up his own bottom, his debut novel suggested that damn near every piece of technobabble in the series was a blatant lie, and that the Time Lords were fascist slaves to technology and order. The carnival queen, with the unwitting help of new companion Chris Cwej, seeks to bring magic back into the world, creating absolute chaos in a small American village around the end of the year 1799. This novel was part of a linked series concerning psionic powers in human beings. To my delight, much of this sequence was heavily linked to France for some reason, so my studies enhanced my enjoyment possibly slightly more than the novelists realised. The Also People The best of these novels were definitely the more laidback. This is possibly because they seemed more like novels, rather than ideas people had had for televised Doctor Who adventures and then converted into novel form. Ben Aaronovitch, who had written one of the best-loved scripts of the show's final television years, wrote a story which, while a clear piece of theft from Iain M. Banks's Culture novels, still managed to be fresh, bold and very funny. The TARDIS lands inside a Dyson sphere belonging to the simply-named People, and the Doctor, Bernice, Cwej and Roz Forrester spend their time exploring, finding out about the magnificent culture that Aaronovitch had thought up. To justify their presence, they solve a murder, and there's a couple of action sequences, but this is essentially a preliminary attempt to set up a new power in the Doctor Who universe. The People (and the machines that were Also People, if you were wondering about the title) would later start a war with the Time Lords of Gallifrey in Bernice's solo adventures. It also concludes the development of a sub-plot that had been running through a few of the books about Kadiatu Lethbridge-Stewart, a genetically-engineered killing machine who had been adopted by the Brigadier's descendants. Kadiatu had independently invented time travel earlier in the range, but by this time had reverted to an animalistic state. The Doctor's other concern in the book is to rehabilitate her. It's just occurred to me that Buffy used a similar device when Angel returned in an animalistic state from Hell (or wherever), but Joss Whedon is a self-confessed Doctor Who fan, so what the hell. Obviously, there were a few duds in the range, even after Paul Cornell saved the Timewyrm sequence from unremitting mediocrity. Jim Mortimore wrote several grim and desperately self-important books in which everyone died, and then added really bizarre author's notes whining about how miserable he was. Simon Messingham wrote a very self-consciously clever novel in which the very act of the Doctor's arrival causes the problems. Clever but utterly forgettable. Neil Penswick wrote The Pit, a really strange voyage through time and space which paired the Doctor with poet William Blake and seemed to be setting up a big plot arc. Thankfully, it was so poor that subsequent authors utterly ignored the story, despite the fact that it featured a whole star system being destroyed. But overall, this was the strongest series of science-fiction novels I've ever encountered. For several years, until the BBC realised how much money they'd make if they took over the licensing themselves, Virgin churned out a great novel every month. It was a fine time. The earliest BBC novels were dreadful, but they later picked up beyond everyone's expectations. With Paul Cornell having virtually moved on, the driving visionaries were undoubtedly Lawrence Miles and Lance Parkin. The new publishers became very keen on lengthy plot arcs, the price we pay for Babylon 5, it seems. I'm a little behind on the BBC range, but with human TARDISes, an amnesiac Doctor and Time Lord wars, it's improved immensely in recent years. The best introduction is undoubtedly The Burning by Justin Richards, in which the Doctor (now Paul McGann's version) walks out from the wilderness without his memory. Another classic which needs no knowledge of the series is Lance Parkin's boldly experimental The Infinity Doctors, which takes place in an alternative universe where the Doctor stays on Gallifrey. You might find it difficult to get hold of the New Adventures now. Since the BBC took over, all the back stocks of Virgin novels have been pulped. There are still copies lying around, and you can probably pick them up quite cheaply. I may well write a second part to this guide, focussing on the new BBC novels, and the New Adventures sister range, the Missing Adventures, which provided a much more radical and nasty response to Virgin's loss of the licence. |


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Perry is out...endorses Gingrich
POSTED: Thursday, January 19, 2012 - 7:42pm
UPDATED: Friday, January 20, 2012 - 7:08am
Texas Governor Rick Perry made it official today.
He is out of the race for President.
The primary reason is fairly obvious.
Only 5% of Republicans seem to have any interest in a Perry White House.
But the endorsement of Newt Gingrich might surprise some folks.
Today, Governor Rick Perry bowed to the inevitable and dropped out of the race for President.
Everyone knew it was coming.
Especially after Perry's early debate performances.
And he today endorsed Newt Gingrich for the nomination.
That came before a network interview with Gingrich's second wife, and tough comments by Perry on the Speaker's marital history.
Smith County Republican party chair Ashton Oravetz says, it wasn't meant to be.
And some say, the debacle weakens Perry at home.
Comments News Comments
we neeed to require him to leave the governors office now being he is already receiving his retirement checks every month or stop his retirement check if he wants to keep receiving his pay check. NOT BOTH. HE ISN'T WORTH A WOODEN NICKEL MUCH LESS THE 1/4 MILLION A YEAR IN TAX DOLLARS WE ARE PAYING HIM ON TOP OF THAT 10 K A MONTH RENT HOUSE.


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Jomtien Park Villas
Categories: Houses > Provinces
Address: 17, Theprasit Rd., Nong Prue, Bang Lamung, Chonburi 20150 Thailand See map
0 reply, 4,543 viewed
Jomtien Park Villas is an exclusive community built to the highest European standard of quality for those who have achieved a stage in life where they can enjoy the very best. Only 800 metres from Jomtien Beach, with easy access to supermarkets, restaurants and entertainment areas. Each luxury villa is fully air-conditioned, has a private swimming pool with jacuzzi and fully landscaped garden.
- Open days
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday
- Address
17, Theprasit Rd., Nong Prue, Bang Lamung, Chonburi 20150 Thailand
- Phone number
+66 (0) 3830 3871-3
- Fax number
+66 (0) 3837 3794
- Email
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text:
Quoizel Lighting Collections
Quoizel Lighting Collections offer numerous lighting designs for every room of your home. No matter your budget or style preferences, from the contemporary Downtown collection to classic Tiffany lamps, the opportunities are nearly limitless. Encourage your imagination by dreaming of your ideals, then finding pieces to suit. Whether you're aiming for traditional or modern styles, you're sure to find enticing products here.
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Quoizel - GLN8407IB - Galen Imperial Bronze Outdoor Wall Sconce


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Matthew Tiffany has reviewed books for PopMatters, The Quarterly Conversation, AudioFile Magazine, Small Spiral Notebook, and others. He maintains a site about books at http://condalmo.wordpress.com and can be reached via Google Talk at condalmo.
Sunday, December 14 2008
Death with Interruptions by Jose Saramago
The church veers back and forth between explanations for the lack of death. The philosophers spin their wheels in the mud.
Wednesday, November 29 2006
The Exquisite by Laird Hunt
Does one narrative take place before the other, or are they happening at the same time? The game is afoot."
Sunday, July 16 2006
Yann Andrea Steiner by Marguerite Duras
'Like all men, every day, even if only for a few instants, you become a killer of women.' Whose rage is she describing? With outstanding writing like this, it doesn't matter.


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- dop(Noun)
- . A drink.
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