text:
Murray retains winning touch in Rome
Comment on this storyRome - Monte Carlo champion Stanislas Wawrinka joined fellow Swiss Roger Federer on the scrapheap at the ATP-WTA Rome Masters on Thursday as back pain resulted in a 5-7, 6-2, 6-3 loss to 15th seed Tommy Haas.
The 36-year-old has now won both of his matches with Wawrinka, a 2008 finalist at the Foro Italico.
Andy Murray, who quit the event with back problems a year ago and eventually required surgery, closed out a welcome win over Jurgen Melzer with his sixth ace for a 7-6 (7/1), 6-4 result which puts him into his second straight clay quarter-final after Madrid a week ago.
Germany's Haas ended with seven aces to eight for Wawrinka, who could not hold onto leads throughout the two-hour contest. The winner produced 32 winners while Wawrinka struck 40 unforced errors.
Haas broke in the third set for 5-3, then finished with an ace a game later on his first match point.
Wawrinka said that after playing a match in the chill two days earlier, he started having back problems.
But experience told him that he worry is not serious and should not affect his chances for Roland Garros starting in 10 days.
"It was difficult to give the intensity. I know my back, I just need some rest - maybe two days is enough - But I'm not worried about it," he said.
"I played because I wanted to try. It was not easy to put all energy onto my game. I won first set even if I was not playing my best.
"Even though, I still thought I had a chance to win it. He was more aggressive in the second set and was doing more things on the court."
Murray now owns a perfect 7-0 record over Austrian Melzer, who is back on court after shoulder problems,
The winner spent just under one and three-quarter hours on the clay as his confidence on his least favourite surface starts to improve.
Canadian eighth seed Milos Raonic reached his first Rome quarter-final with a defeat of French 11th seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 7-6 (7/5), 6-4. Jeremy Chardy, who beat Federer 24 hours earlier, kept up his momentum by defeating Ivan Dodig 6-3, 6-2.
In women's play, Chinese second seed Li Na defeated Samantha Stosur 6-3, 6-1 to reach the quarter-finals, turning the momentum in a long-running rivallry.
Stosur, a 2010 Roland Garros finalist, had beaten world number two Li in all six of their previous meetings going back to 2007.
The victory was her second straight over an Aussie opponent after defeating qualifier Casey Dellacqua in the previous round.
But China's top female athlete made inroads against Stosur's one-way scoreline with her first victory, achieved in 68 minutes with five breaks of the 30-year-old Australian.
"Today I was very focused on what I had to do on the court to put pressure on her," said Li. "Putting on pressure was the key to the match, otherwise she can totally control you.
"I now feel I'm playing high quality matches."
Li will play a quarter-final against Italian tenth seed Sara Errani, who beat Czech Petra Cetkovska 6-3, 7-6 (7/3).
Li finished Rome runner-up in 2012, holding a match point against eventual champion Maria Sharapova.
Australian Open champion Li is looking for her third trophy of the season as she prepares for the French Open, which she won in 2011.
Third-seeded Pols Agnieszka Radwanska put out Italian veteran Francesca Schiavone, the 2010 French Open winner, 6-4, 6-1.
Ana Ivanovic handed Maria Sharapova her first loss of the spring clay season as she beat the Russian eighth seed 6-1, 6-4.
Sharapova had won back-to-back titles in Stuttgart and Madrid, compiling a dozen straight victories.
Ivanovic, the 2008 Roland Garros winner and world number one, had won just two of 10 previous meetings with the four-time grand slam champion, the last seven years ago at a Roland Garros semi-final.
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On the surface, it would seem that high availability (HA) and disaster recovery (DR) for file transfer processes would have always been a top priority. While true for some organizations, not everyone has considered it an essential component. It seems that's changing, as secure file transfer systems become critical to […]
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If 2011 was "The Year of the Pitcher," 2012 has been "The Year of the No-Hitter." Felix Hernandez recorded a perfect game against the Tampa Bay Rays yesterday, marking the sixth no-no to have been thrown this season and the third bout of perfection. The six no-hitters marks the most in the MLB since 1886, when eight was the benchmark. Besides Hernandez, the Giants' Matt Cain and White Sox' Philip Humber have achieved perfection this season. Johan Santana, Jered Weaver, and a combined effort from the Los Angeles Dodgers' pitching staff round out the no-nos. That's half the amount there has been since Mark Buehrle's outstanding effort in 2009, quite a high number for a single season. And it's only August! I find it amazing that no-hitters have become seemingly a regularity in the majors, especially considering how rare they were in the early 2000′s when the steroid era was in full swing. It appears that the pitchers have adjusted, and adjusted very well. With drug tests much more strict nowadays, this doesn't come as much of a surprise. But then again, hitters have adjusted to pitchers using steroids as well. Those on the mound seem simply to have gotten the best of batters as of late, using more off-speed and breaking pitches to mix up at-bats. I tip my cap to their efforts, and I hope the rest of the season brings more terrific performances to us baseball fans who have nothing left worth watching until football starts.
-Ryan Hartley
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
Soybean | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
(unranked): | Angiosperms |
(unranked): | Eudicots |
(unranked): | Rosids |
Order: | Fabales |
Family: | Fabaceae |
Subfamily: | Faboideae |
Genus: | Glycine |
Species: | G. max |
Binomial name | |
Glycine max (L.) Merr. | |
Synonyms[1] | |
Soybean | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
(unranked): | Angiosperms |
(unranked): | Eudicots |
(unranked): | Rosids |
Order: | Fabales |
Family: | Fabaceae |
Subfamily: | Faboideae |
Genus: | Glycine |
Species: | G. max |
Binomial name | |
Glycine max (L.) Merr. | |
Synonyms[1] | |
The soybean (US) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max)[2] is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant is classed as an oilseed rather than a pulse by the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).
Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many prepackaged meals; soy vegetable oil is another product of processing the soybean crop. For example, soybean products such as textured vegetable protein (TVP) are ingredients in many meat and dairy analogues.[3] Soybeans produce significantly more protein per acre than most other uses of land.[4]
Traditional nonfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, and from the latter tofu and tofu skin. Fermented foods include soy sauce, fermented bean paste, natto, and tempeh, among others. The oil is used in many industrial applications. The main producers of soy are the United States (36%), Brazil (36%), Argentina (18%), China (5%) and India (4%).[5][6] The beans contain significant amounts of phytic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, and isoflavones.
The plant is known as the "large bean" in Chinese: (大豆; pinyin: dàdòu; Japanese daizu) or yellow bean, (Chinese: 黄豆; pinyin: huángdòu). Both the immature soybean and its dish are called edamame in Japan,[7][8] but in English, edamame refers only to a specific dish.[citation needed] The genus name, Glycine, is the same as a simple amino acid.
Since the early twentieth century soybeans have been called the 'golden bean' or 'miracle bean' in America.[9]
The genus Glycine Willd. is divided into two subgenera, Glycine and Soja. The subgenus Soja (Moench) F.J. Herm. includes the cultivated soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., and the wild soybean, Glycine soja Sieb. & Zucc. Both species are annuals. Glycine soja is the wild ancestor of Glycine max, and grows wild in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Russia.[10] The subgenus Glycine consists of at least 25 wild perennial species: for example, Glycine canescens F.J. Herm. and G. tomentella Hayata, both found in Australia and Papua New Guinea.[11][12] Perennial soybean {Neonotonia wightii} originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the Tropics.[13][14][15]
Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty. It is a cultural variety with a very large number of cultivars.[citation needed]
Soy varies in growth and habit. The height of the plant varies from less than 0.2 to 2.0 m (0.66 to 6.56 ft).
The pods, stems, and leaves are covered with fine brown or gray hairs. The leaves are trifoliolate, having three to four leaflets per leaf, and the leaflets are 6–15 cm (2.4–5.9 in) long and 2–7 cm (0.79–2.76 in) broad. The leaves fall before the seeds are mature. The inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers are borne in the axil of the leaf and are white, pink or purple.
The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is 3–8 cm long (1–3 in) and usually contains two to four (rarely more) seeds 5–11 mm in diameter.
Soybeans occur in various sizes, and in many hull or seed coat colors, including black, brown, blue, yellow, green and mottled. The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the cotyledon and hypocotyl (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not germinate. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the hilum (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the micropyle, or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting.
Remarkably, seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of protein can undergo desiccation, yet survive and revive after water absorption. A. Carl Leopold, son of Aldo Leopold, began studying this capability at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research at Cornell University in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble carbohydrates protecting the seed's cell viability.[16] Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting "biological membranes" and proteins in the dry state. Compare to tardigrades.
Many legumes (alfalfa, clover, lupins, peas, beans, lentils, soybeans, peanuts and others) contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within nodules of their root systems. These bacteria have the special ability of fixing nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3).[17] The chemical reaction is:
Ammonia is then converted to another form, ammonium (NH4+), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction:
This arrangement means that the root nodules are sources of nitrogen for legumes, making them relatively rich in plant proteins.
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
Energy | 1,866 kJ (446 kcal) |
30.16 g | |
Sugars | 7.33 g |
Dietary fiber | 9.3 g |
19.94 g | |
Saturated | 2.884 g |
Monounsaturated | 4.404 g |
Polyunsaturated | 11.255 g |
36.49 g | |
Tryptophan | 0.591 g |
Threonine | 1.766 g |
Isoleucine | 1.971 g |
Leucine | 3.309 g |
Lysine | 2.706 g |
Methionine | 0.547 g |
Cystine | 0.655 g |
Phenylalanine | 2.122 g |
Tyrosine | 1.539 g |
Valine | 2.029 g |
Arginine | 3.153 g |
Histidine | 1.097 g |
Alanine | 1.915 g |
Aspartic acid | 5.112 g |
Glutamic acid | 7.874 g |
Glycine | 1.880 g |
Proline | 2.379 g |
Serine | 2.357 g |
Vitamins | |
Vitamin A equiv. | (0%) 1 μg |
Thiamine (B1) | (76%) 0.874 mg |
Riboflavin (B2) | (73%) 0.87 mg |
Niacin (B3) | (11%) 1.623 mg |
(16%) 0.793 mg | |
Vitamin B6 | (29%) 0.377 mg |
Folate (B9) | (94%) 375 μg |
Vitamin B12 | (0%) 0 μg |
Choline | (24%) 115.9 mg |
Vitamin C | (7%) 6.0 mg |
Vitamin E | (6%) 0.85 mg |
Vitamin K | (45%) 47 μg |
Trace metals | |
Calcium | (28%) 277 mg |
Iron | (121%) 15.7 mg |
Magnesium | (79%) 280 mg |
Manganese | (120%) 2.517 mg |
Phosphorus | (101%) 704 mg |
Potassium | (38%) 1797 mg |
Sodium | (0%) 2 mg |
Zinc | (51%) 4.89 mg |
Other constituents | |
Water | 8.54 g |
| |
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database |
Together, soybean oil and protein content account for about 60% of dry soybeans by weight (protein at 40% and oil at 20%). The remainder consists of 35% carbohydrate and about 5% ash. Soybean cultivars comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% cotyledons and 2% hypocotyl axis or germ.
Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as tofu, soy milk and textured vegetable protein (soy flour) to be made.
The principal soluble carbohydrates of mature soybeans are the disaccharide sucrose (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide raffinose (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of galactose, and the tetrasaccharide stachyose (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose.[18] While the oligosaccharides raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, so contribute to flatulence and abdominal discomfort in humans and other monogastric animals, comparable to the disaccharide trehalose. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane.
Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the whey and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous bifidobacteria in the colon against putrefactive bacteria.
The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to dietary fiber.
Within soybean oil or the lipid portion of the seed is contained four phytosterols: stigmasterol, sitosterol, campesterol, and brassicasterol accounting for about 2.5% of the lipid fraction; and which can be converted into steroid hormones.[19]
Saponins, a class of natural surfactants (soaps), are sterols that are present naturally in a wide variety of food-plants: vegetables, legumes, and cereals–ranging from beans and spinach to tomatoes, potatoes and oats. Whole soybeans contain from 0.17 to 6.16% saponins, 0.35 to 2.3% in defatted soy flour and 0.06 to 1.9% in tofu. Legumes such as soybean and chickpeas are the major source of saponins in the human diet. Sources of non-dietary saponins include alfalfa, sunflower, herbs and barbasco.
Soy contains isoflavones like genistein and daidzein. It also contains glycitein, an O-methylated isoflavone which accounts for 5–10% of the total isoflavones in soy food products. Glycitein is a phytoestrogen with weak estrogenic activity, comparable to that of the other soy isoflavones.[20]
For human consumption, soybeans must be cooked with "wet" heat to destroy the trypsin inhibitors (serine protease inhibitors). Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to all monogastric animals.[21]
Soybeans are considered by many agencies to be a source of complete protein.[22] A complete protein is one that contains significant amounts of all the essential amino acids that must be provided to the human body because of the body's inability to synthesize them. For this reason, soy is a good source of protein, amongst many others, for vegetarians and vegans or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat. According to the US Food and Drug Administration:
Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because, unlike some other beans, soy offers a 'complete' protein profile. ... Soy protein products can replace animal-based foods—which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat, especially saturated fat—without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet.[22]
The gold standard for measuring protein quality, since 1990, is the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS) and by this criterion soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and casein for human growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a biological value of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97.[23]
Soy protein is essentially identical to the protein of other legume seeds and pulses.[24][25][26] Moreover, soybeans can produce at least twice as much protein per acre than any other major vegetable or grain crop besides hemp, five to 10 times more protein per acre than land set aside for grazing animals to make milk, and up to 15 times more protein per acre than land set aside for meat production.[4]
The following table shows the nutrient content of green soybean and other major staple foods, each in respective raw form. Raw soybeans, however, aren't edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table. The nutritional value of soybean and each cooked staple depends on the pre-processing and the method of cooking: boiling, frying, roasting, baking, etc.
STAPLE: | Maize / Corn[A] | Rice[B] | Wheat[C] | Potato[D] | Cassava[E] | Soybean (Green)[F] | Sweet potato[G] | Sorghum[H] | Yam[Y] | Plantain[Z] |
Component (per 100g portion) | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount | Amount |
Water (g) | 10 | 12 | 13 | 79 | 60 | 68 | 77 | 9 | 70 | 65 |
Energy (kJ) | 1528 | 1528 | 1369 | 322 | 670 | 615 | 360 | 1419 | 494 | 511 |
Protein (g) | 9.4 | 7.1 | 12.6 | 2.0 | 1.4 | 13.0 | 1.6 | 11.3 | 1.5 | 1.3 |
Fat (g) | 4.74 | 0.66 | 1.54 | 0.09 | 0.28 | 6.8 | 0.05 | 3.3 | 0.17 | 0.37 |
Carbohydrates (g) | 74 | 80 | 71 | 17 | 38 | 11 | 20 | 75 | 28 | 32 |
Fiber (g) | 7.3 | 1.3 | 12.2 | 2.2 | 1.8 | 4.2 | 3 | 6.3 | 4.1 | 2.3 |
Sugar (g) | 0.64 | 0.12 | 0.41 | 0.78 | 1.7 | 0 | 4.18 | 0 | 0.5 | 15 |
Calcium (mg) | 7 | 28 | 29 | 12 | 16 | 197 | 30 | 28 | 17 | 3 |
Iron (mg) | 2.71 | 0.8 | 3.19 | 0.78 | 0.27 | 3.55 | 0.61 | 4.4 | 0.54 | 0.6 |
Magnesium (mg) | 127 | 25 | 126 | 23 | 21 | 65 | 25 | 0 | 21 | 37 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 210 | 115 | 288 | 57 | 27 | 194 | 47 | 287 | 55 | 34 |
Potassium (mg) | 287 | 115 | 363 | 421 | 271 | 620 | 337 | 350 | 816 | 499 |
Sodium (mg) | 35 | 5 | 2 | 6 | 14 | 15 | 55 | 6 | 9 | 4 |
Zinc (mg) | 2.21 | 1.09 | 2.65 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.99 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.24 | 0.14 |
Copper (mg) | 0.31 | 0.22 | 0.43 | 0.11 | 0.10 | 0.13 | 0.15 | - | 0.18 | 0.08 |
Manganese (mg) | 0.49 | 1.09 | 3.99 | 0.15 | 0.38 | 0.55 | 0.26 | - | 0.40 | - |
Selenium (μg) | 15.5 | 15.1 | 70.7 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 1.5 | 0.6 | 0 | 0.7 | 1.5 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 19.7 | 20.6 | 29 | 2.4 | 0 | 17.1 | 18.4 |
Thiamin (mg) | 0.39 | 0.07 | 0.30 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.44 | 0.08 | 0.24 | 0.11 | 0.05 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 0.20 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.18 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.05 |
Niacin (mg) | 3.63 | 1.6 | 5.46 | 1.05 | 0.85 | 1.65 | 0.56 | 2.93 | 0.55 | 0.69 |
Pantothenic acid (mg) | 0.42 | 1.01 | 0.95 | 0.30 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.80 | - | 0.31 | 0.26 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 0.62 | 0.16 | 0.3 | 0.30 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.21 | - | 0.29 | 0.30 |
Folate Total (μg) | 19 | 8 | 38 | 16 | 27 | 165 | 11 | 0 | 23 | 22 |
Vitamin A (IU) | 214 | 0 | 9 | 2 | 13 | 180 | 14187 | 0 | 138 | 1127 |
Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg) | 0.49 | 0.11 | 1.01 | 0.01 | 0.19 | 0 | 0.26 | 0 | 0.39 | 0.14 |
Vitamin K1 (μg) | 0.3 | 0.1 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 0 | 1.8 | 0 | 2.6 | 0.7 |
Beta-carotene (μg) | 97 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 8 | 0 | 8509 | 0 | 83 | 457 |
Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg) | 1355 | 0 | 220 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 30 |
Saturated fatty acids (g) | 0.67 | 0.18 | 0.26 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.79 | 0.02 | 0.46 | 0.04 | 0.14 |
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g) | 1.25 | 0.21 | 0.2 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 1.28 | 0.00 | 0.99 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g) | 2.16 | 0.18 | 0.63 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 3.20 | 0.01 | 1.37 | 0.08 | 0.07 |
A corn, yellow | B rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched | ||||||||
C wheat, hard red winter | D potato, flesh and skin, raw | ||||||||
E cassava, raw | F soybeans, green, raw | ||||||||
G sweet potato, raw, unprepared | H sorghum, raw | ||||||||
Y yam, raw | Z plantains, raw |
All spermatophytes except for the grass/cereal family contain soybean-like 7S (vicilin) and/or 11S (legumin), {S denotes Svedberg, sedimentation coefficients} desiccation-tolerant seed storage globulin proteins. Oats and rice are anomalous in that they also contain a majority of soybean-like protein.[28] Cocoa, for example, contains the 7S globulin, which contributes to cocoa/chocolate taste and aroma;,[29][30][31] whereas coffee beans (coffee grounds) contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.[32][33]
Vicilin and legumin proteins, belong to the cupin superfamily, a large and functionally diverse 'superfamily' of proteins that have a common origin and whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants.[34]
2S albumins form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many dicot species and in some monocots but not in grasses (cereals).[35] Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein.[36][37][38] 2S albumin are grouped in the prolamin superfamily.[39] Other allergenic proteins included in this 'superfamily' are the non-specific plant lipid transfer proteins, alpha amylase inhibitor, trypsin inhibitors, and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses.[28]
Peanuts, for instance, contain 20% 2S albumin but only 6% 7S globulin and 74% 11S.[35] It is the high 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low quality (low lysine) of peanut protein compared to soy protein. Cereal storage prolamins are likewise low in lysine, the most important and first limiting amino acid. Peanut butter and wheat bread, therefore, do not complement each other as they each suffer from low lysine.
Top Soybean Producers in 2014 | |
(million metric tons) | |
Brazil | 90.0 |
United States | 89.5 |
Argentina | 52.6 |
China | 15.0 |
India | 9.8 |
Paraguay | 7.4 |
Canada | 4.3 |
Uruguay | 1.8 |
Ukraine | 1.68 |
Bolivia | 1.63 |
World Total | 249.0 |
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[1] |
Soybeans are a globally important crop, providing oil and protein. In the United States, the bulk of the harvest is solvent-extracted with hexane, and the "toasted" defatted soymeal (50% protein) then makes possible the raising of farm animals (e.g. chicken, hog, turkey) on an industrial scale never before seen in human history. A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly by humans.[citation needed] Soybean products do, however, appear in a large variety of processed foods.
During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. During World War II, the soybean was discovered as fertilizer by the United States Department of Agriculture. In the 1960–1 Dillon round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the United States secured tariff-free access for its soybeans to the European market. In the 1960s, the United States exported over 90% of the world's soybeans.[40][41] By 2005, the top soybeans exporters were Argentina (39% of world soybean exports), United States (37%) and Brazil (16%), while top importers were China (41% of world soybean imports), European Union (22%), Japan (6%) and Mexico (6%).[42]
Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F); temperatures of below 20 °C and over 40 °C (68 °F, 104 °F) stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist alluvial soils with a good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum; Jordan 1982). For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop cultivars generally reach a height of around 1 m (3.3 ft), and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting.
The U.S., Argentina, Brazil, China and India are the world's largest soybean producers and represent more than 90% of global soybean production.[43] The U.S. produced 75 million tons of soybeans in 2000, of which more than one-third was exported. In the 2010–2011 production year, this figure is expected to be over 90 million tons.[6]
The average worldwide yield for soybean crops, in 2010, was 2.5 tonnes per hectare. The three largest producers had an average nationwide soybean crop yields of about 3 tonnes per hectare. The most productive soybean farms in the world in 2010 were in Turkey, with a nationwide average farm yield of 3.7 tonnes per hectare.[44] The world record for soybean yield is 10.8 tonnes per hectare, demonstrated in 2010 by Kip Cullers, a farmer in Purdy, Missouri.[45] Kip Cullers claims the secret to his record breaking soybean crop yields year after year is attention to detail, proactive management style, irrigation, herbicides, keeping plants healthy and stress free for the entire growing season.
Environmental groups, such as Greenpeace and the WWF, have reported soybean cultivation and the probability of increased soybean cultivation in Brazil has destroyed huge areas of Amazon rainforest, and is encouraging further deforestation.[46][47]
American soil scientist Andrew McClung, who first showed that the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the Cerrado region of Brazil could grow profitable soybeans, was awarded the 2006 World Food Prize on October 19, 2006.[48][49]
Human sewage sludge can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals.[50][51] Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, viral diseases and parasites. One important pest is the corn earworm moth, which is the most common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia.[52] Soybeans can be grown organically, that is, without the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers.
Specialists say that in 2014 Brazil will overcome the United States on the soybean production.[citation needed]
Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began.[53] Their cultivation was long confined chiefly to China and Manchuria,[54] but gradually spread to other East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan. They are now a major crop in the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and China. Prior to fermented products such as fermented black soybeans (douchi), jiang (Chinese miso), soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in crop rotation. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent.
The closest living relative of the soybean is Glycine soja (previously called G. ussuriensis), a legume native to central China.[55] According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BCE, the legendary Emperor Shennong of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and millet.[56] Cultivation of soybeans was long confined chiefly to China, but gradually spread to other countries during the 20th century.[57]
The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. Recent research indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BCE) in multiple locations through China, Korea and Japan[58] Great Soviet Encyclopedia records soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago.[59] Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BCE.[60] The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in archaeological sites in Korea dated about 1000 BCE[61] Radiocarbon dating of soybean samples recovered through flotation during excavations at the Early Mumun period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BCE.[61] Soy bean from the Jomon period in Japan from 3000 BCE[58] are also significantly larger than wild varieties.[58] The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BCE, but is almost certainly much older. [62] It became an important crop by the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046 BCE–256 BCE) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood but archaeologically unsubstantiated source claims that soybean was domesticated "in ancient China perhaps 3000 to 5000 years ago". Soy bean was unknown in South China before the Han period[58] From about the first century CE to the Age of Discovery (15–16th century), soybeans were introduced into several countries, such as India, Japan,[63] Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Burma, Taiwan and Nepal. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), which was completed in 712 CE.
Many people have claimed soybeans in Asia were historically only used after a fermentation process, which lowers the high phytoestrogens content found in the raw plant. However, terms similar to "soy milk" have been in use since 82 CE,[64] and there is evidence of tofu consumption that dates to 220.[65]
Soybeans were first introduced to North America in 1765, by Samuel Bowen, a former East India Company sailor who had visited China in conjunction with James Flint.[66] Bowen grew soy near Savannah, Georgia, possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England.[67] The soybean was introduced into North America in 1765 but for the next 155 years the crop was grown primarily for forage.[68]
William Morse is considered the 'father' of modern soybean agriculture in America. He and Charles Piper, Dr. C.V. Piper, took what was an unknown Oriental peasant crop in 1910 and transformed it into a 'golden bean' for America becoming one of America's largest farm crops and its most nutritious.[69][70][71]
Prior to the 1920 in the USA, the soybean was mainly a forage crop, a source of oil, meal (for feed) and industrial products, with very little used as food. However, it took on an important role after World War I. During the Great Depression, the drought-stricken (Dust Bowl) regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands, and Henry Ford became a great leader in the soybean industry.
In 1931, Ford hired chemists Robert Boyer and Frank Calvert to produce artificial silk. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a formaldehyde bath, which was given the name Azlon. It was usable in the making of suits, felt hats, and overcoats. Though pilot production of Azlon reached 5000 pounds per day in 1940, it never reached the commercial market; Dupont's nylon was the winner in the quest to produce artificial silk. In 1932–33, the Ford Motor Company spent approximately $1,250,000 on soybean research. By 1935, every Ford car had soy involved in its manufacture. For example, soybean oil was used to paint the automobiles,[72] as well as fluid for shock absorbers. Ford's involvement with the soybean opened many doors for agriculture and industry to be linked more strongly than ever before.
Henry Ford promoted the soybean, helping to develop uses for it both in food and in industrial products, even demonstrating auto body panels made of soy-based plastics. Ford's interest led to two bushels (120 pounds)[73] of soybeans being used in each Ford car, as well as products like the first commercial soy milk, ice cream and all-vegetable nondairy whipped topping. The Ford development of so-called soy-based plastics was based on the addition of soybean flour and wood flour to phenol formaldehyde plastics.[74] A prototype vehicle, colloquially titled the "Soybean Car", was built in 1941 out of such plastics.[75]
The soybean first arrived in South America in Argentina in 1882.[76]
The soybean first arrived in Africa via Egypt in 1857.[77]
Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander. In 1804, the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in Sydney. In 1879, the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department, Japan.[78]
In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce]) arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at Ontario Agricultural College.[79]
The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there, but its uses for human food are growing steadily.[80]
The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans. This region has never been important for soybean production. A comprehensive history of soybeans and soyfoods in this region is available online.[81]
The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877.[82]
By the 13th century, the soybean had arrived in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier, carried by traders or merchants from southern China.[83]
By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across the region through the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The soybean probably arrived from southern China, moving southward into northern India.[84]
In 1873, Professor Friedrich J. Haberlandt first became interested in soybeans when he obtained the seeds of 19 soybean varieties at the Vienna World Exposition (Wiener Weltausstellung). He cultivated these seeds in Vienna, and soon began to distribute them throughout Central and Western Europe. Most of the farmers who received seeds from him cultivated them, then reported their results back to him. Starting in Feb. 1876, he published these results first in various journal articles, and finally in his magnus opum, Die Sojabohne ( The Soybean) in 1878.
In northern Europe lupin/lupine is known as the "soybean of the north"[85]
Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995, Monsanto Company introduced glyphosate-tolerant soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's glyphosate herbicides through substitution of the Agrobacterium sp. (strain CP4) gene EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to glyphosate.[86]
In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2010, the figure was 93%.[87] As with other glyphosate-tolerant crops, concern is expressed over damage to biodiversity.[88] A 2003 study[89] concluded the RR gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars, there had been little decline in genetic diversity, but "diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies".
The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the European Union, where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with coexistence and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.[90]
A 2006 United States Department of Agriculture report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of herbicides used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater conservation tillage, indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers (20%).[91]
In 2010, a team of American scientists announced they had sequenced the soybean genome – the first legume to be sequenced.[92][93]
Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and vegetable oil.[94] Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types. Tofu and soy milk producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity.
Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is preeminent for its high (38–45%) protein content as well as its high (approximately 20%) oil content. Soybeans are the second-most valuable agricultural export in the United States behind corn. The bulk of the soybean crop is grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.
Immature soybeans may be boiled whole in their green pods and served with salt, under the Japanese name edamame (枝豆 edamame?). In English, these soybeans are generally known as "edamame" or "green vegetable soybeans".
In China, Japan, and Korea, the bean and products made from it are a popular part of the diet. The Chinese invented tofu (豆腐 dòufu),[citation needed] and also made use of several varieties of soybean paste as seasonings. Japanese foods made from soya include miso (味噌), nattō (納豆), kinako (黄粉) and edamame (枝豆). Also many kinds of food are produced using tofu such as atsuage, aburaage, and so on. In Korean cuisine, soybean sprouts, called kongnamul (콩나물), are also used in a variety of dishes, and are also the base ingredient in doenjang, cheonggukjang and ganjang. In Vietnam, soybeans are used to make soybean paste- tương in the North with the most popular products are tương Bần, tương Nam Đàn, tương Cự Đà as a garnish for phở and gỏi cuốn dishes, tofu (đậu hũ or đậu phụ or tàu hũ), soya sauce (nước tương, literally: soya water), soya milk (nước đậu in the North or sữa đậu nành in the South), and đậu hũ nước đường (tofu sweet soup).
The beans can be processed in a variety of ways. Common forms of soy (or soya) include soy meal, soy flour, soy milk, tofu, textured vegetable protein (TVP, which is made into a wide variety of vegetarian foods, some of them intended to imitate meat), tempeh, soy lecithin and soybean oil. Soybeans are also the primary ingredient involved in the production of soy sauce (shoyu).
Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) is among the largest processors of soybeans and soy products. ADM, along with Dow Chemical Company, DuPont and Monsanto Company, support the industry trade associations United Soybean Board and Soyfoods Association of North America. These trade associations have increased the consumption of soy products dramatically in recent years.
Soybean seed contains about 19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil", or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean meal is used mainly as animal feed.[95]
Soybean meal is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is 'toasted' (a misnomer because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Soybean meal is an essential element of the American production method of growing farm animals, such as poultry and swine, on an industrial scale that began in the 1930s; and more recently the aquaculture of catfish. Ninety-eight percent of the U.S. soybean crop is used for livestock feed.[55] Soybean meal is also used in lower-end dog foods.[95]
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Soy flour refers to soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high protein dispersibility index, for uses such as food extrusion of textured vegetable protein. It is the starting material for production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.
Soy flour is made by roasting the soybean, removing the coat, and grinding into a flour. Soy flour is manufactured with different fat levels.[96] Alternatively, raw soy flour omits the roasting step.
Soy lecithin can be added (up to 15%) to soy flour to make lecithinated soy flour. It increases dispersibility and gives it emulsifying properties.[96]
Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than wheat flour. It does not contain gluten.[96] As a result, yeast-raised breads made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents staling in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness, moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture.[96]
Soy grits are similar to soy flour except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces.
Kinako is a soy flour used in Japanese cuisine.
Section reference: Smith & Circle (1972, p. 442)
Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is sometimes given to infants who are not being strictly breastfed; it can be useful for infants who are either allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins or who are being fed a vegan diet. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms.
Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants.[97] Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.[98][99][100] One of these studies, published in the Journal of Nutrition,[100] concludes that there are:
... no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.
Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many dairy product substitutes (e.g., soy milk, margarine, soy ice cream, soy yogurt, soy cheese, and soy cream cheese) and meat alternatives (e.g. veggie burgers). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible calcium. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well. Soy is also used in tempeh: the beans (sometimes mixed with grain) are fermented into a solid cake.
Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute in meat and poultry products.[101][102] Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such "extended" products. Extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute textured vegetable protein has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending ground beef without reducing its nutritional value.[3][4][103][104]
Soybeans with black hulls are used in Chinese fermented black beans, douchi, not to be confused with black turtle beans.
Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, resins, plastics, inks, crayons, solvents, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of biodiesel in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production.[105] Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of vodka.[106] In 1936, Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybeans and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts for their cars, from the distributor cap to knobs on the dash board. Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over five million acres (20,000 km2) was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States.[107]
Cattle are often fed soy. Spring grasses are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, whereas soy is predominantly omega-6.
Lunasin is a peptide found in soy and some cereal grains and has been the subject of research since 1996 focusing on cancer, cholesterol and cardiovascular disease and inflammation.
According to the American Cancer Society, "Studies in humans have not shown harm from eating soy foods. Moderate consumption of soy foods appears safe for both breast cancer survivors and the general population, and may even lower breast cancer risk." They caution however that soy supplements should be avoided.[108]
Recent studies have shown improvement in postmenopausal women's cognitive function, particularly verbal memory,[109] and in frontal lobe function[110] with the use of soy supplements.
Soybean oil is one of the vegetable oils that contain a significant amount of the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (18:3n−3, aLNA). Other plant oils containing aLNA (or ALA) include canola, walnut, hemp, and flax. Soybean oil has an omega-3:omega-6 ratio of 1:7. This is a significantly higher omega-3 content than in other vegetable cooking oils. While flaxseed is even higher with a ratio of 3:1, it is not practical for cooking. For more information on the health benefits of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, see Essential fatty acids.
Soybeans also contain the isoflavones genistein and daidzein, types of phytoestrogen, that are considered by some dietitians and physicians to be useful in the prevention of cancer and by others to be carcinogenic[111] and endocrine disruptive.[112] Soy's content of isoflavones are as much as 3 mg/g dry weight.[113] Isoflavones are polyphenol compounds, produced primarily by beans and other legumes, including peanuts and chickpeas. Isoflavones are closely related to the antioxidant flavonoids found in other plants, vegetables and flowers. Isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are found in only some plant families, because most plants do not have an enzyme, chalcone isomerase which converts a flavone precursor into an isoflavone.
In contradiction to well known benefits of isoflavones, genistein acts as an oxidant (stimulating nitrate synthesis),[114] and blocks formation of new blood vessels (antiangiogenic effect).[115] Some studies show that genistein acts as inhibitor of substances that regulate cell division and cell survival (growth factors).
A review of the available studies by the United States Health and Human Services Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found evidence of a decrease in LDL ("bad cholesterol"), but no substantial increase in HDL ("good cholesterol") as a result of soy isoflavone consumption. The authors found insufficient data among 200 studies to suggest that soy had an effect on bone health, cancer, kidney disease, endocrine function, reproductive health, neurocognitive function, or glucose metabolism, but noted that more research was needed to elucidate its potential impact upon other health conditions.[116]
Glyceollins are molecules belonging to the pterocarpans family. They are also found in the soybean and have been found to have an antifungal activity against Aspergillus sojae, the fungal ferment used to produce soy sauce.[117] They are phytoalexins with an antiestrogenic activity.[118]
The dramatic increase in soyfood sales is largely credited to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) approval of soy as an official cholesterol-lowering food, along with other heart and health benefits.[119] A 2001 literature review argued that these health benefits were poorly supported by the available evidence, and noted that disturbing data on soy's effect on the cognitive function of the elderly existed.[120] In 2008, an epidemiological study of 719 Indonesian elderly found that tofu intake was associated with worse memory, but tempeh (a fermented soy product) intake was associated with better memory.[121] This study replicated other studies.
In 1995, the New England Journal of Medicine (Vol. 333, No. 5) published "Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids",[122] financed in part by DuPont Protein Technologies International (PTI), which produces and markets soy through The Solae Company (see external links). The meta-analysis concluded that soy protein is correlated with significant decreases in serum cholesterol, LDL (bad cholesterol) and triglycerides. However, HDL (good cholesterol) did not increase by a significant amount. Soy phytoestrogens (isoflavones: genistein and daidzein) adsorbed onto the soy protein were suggested as the agent reducing serum cholesterol levels. On the basis of this research PTI filed a petition with FDA in 1998 for a health claim that soy protein may reduce cholesterol and the risk of heart disease.
The FDA granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease."[22] One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. Solae resubmitted their original petition, asking for a more vague health claim, after their original was challenged and highly criticized. Solae also submitted a petition for a health claim that soy can help prevent cancer. They quickly withdrew the petition for lack of evidence and after more than 1,000 letters of protest were received. On February 18, 2008 Weston A. Price Foundation submitted a petition for removal of this health claim.[123] 25 g/day soy protein was established as the threshold intake because most trials used at least this much protein and not because less than this amount is inefficacious. In fact, there is evidence suggesting that lower amounts are indeed efficacious.[124]
An American Heart Association review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits casts doubt on the FDA allowed "Heart Healthy" claim for soy protein and does not recommend isoflavone supplementation. The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post menopause "hot flashes" in women and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. However, AHA concludes that "many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of polyunsaturated fats, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat".[111]
Importantly, however, the AHA did not conduct a formal statistical analysis of the 22 studies upon which they based their estimate of the potency of soy protein. When such an analysis was conducted, Jenkins et al.[125] found that the AHA had considerably underestimated the hypocholesterolemic effects of soy protein. Further, when the analysis was limited to the 11 studies that provided evidence that the control and soy diets were matched, soy protein was found to lower LDL by 5.2 percent. This estimate is in line with the results of other recently published meta-analyses.[126][127][128] Furthermore, recent research suggests that soy protein decreases postprandial triglyceride levels, which is increasingly viewed as important for reducing CHD risk.[129]
Soybeans contain a high level of phytic acid, which has many effects including acting as an antioxidant and a chelating agent. The beneficial claims for phytic acid include reducing cancer,[130] minimizing diabetes,[131] and reducing inflammation.[132] However, phytic acid is also criticized for reducing vital minerals due to its chelating effect, especially for diets already low in minerals.[133]
Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions.[134] It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema, usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true anaphylaxis may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in allergy, are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish.[135] An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.
Soy can also trigger symptoms via food intolerance, a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and diarrhoea when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that may be bloody, anemia, weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger. The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. However it is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the toddler years.[136]
Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of phytoestrogens in the human diet. Because most naturally occurring estrogenic substances show weak activity, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.[137]
Plant lignans associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor secoisolariciresinol containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight.[138] Another phytoestrogen in the human diet with estrogen activity is coumestans, which are found in beans, split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. Coumestrol, an isoflavone coumarin derivative is the only coumestan in foods.[139][140]
Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total phytoestrogens (wet basis per 100g), which are present primarily in the form of the isoflavones daidzein and genistein.[141] When compared to human breast fed or cow milk formula fed diets, which contain isoflavone levels of 0.005-0.01 mg/day, soy-based infant formulas contain isoflavone levels of 6–47 mg/day that constitute several orders of magnitude greater than they receive from other sources of nutrition.[142]
A 2001 literature review suggested that women with current or past breast cancer should be aware of the risks of potential tumor growth when taking soy products, based on the effect of phytoestrogens to promote breast cancer cell growth in animals.[143] A 2006 commentary reviewed the relationship with soy and breast cancer. They stated that soy may decrease the risk of breast cancer, but cautioned that the impact of isoflavones on breast tissue needs to be evaluated at the cellular level in women at high risk for breast cancer.[144] A high consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are found in most types of vegetable oil including soybean oil, may increase the likelihood that postmenopausal women will develop breast cancer.[145] Another analysis suggests an inverse association between total polyunsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk.[146] A 2011 analysis of the literature said: "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in Western populations."[147]
In a recent (August 2011) trial the daily administration of tablets containing 200 mg of soy isoflavones for 2 years did not prevent bone loss or menopausal symptoms.[148][149]
Because of the phytoestrogen content, some studies have suggested that soybean ingestion may influence testosterone levels in men. However, a 2010 meta-analysis of 15 placebo controlled studies showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable testosterone or estrogen concentrations in men.[150] It has been hypothesized that soy foods and enterolactone may increase the development of prostate cancer although no significant associations were observed for the soy isoflavones.[151] Furthermore, soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of sperm.[152] A 2009 meta-analysis of the research on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that "consumption of soy foods is associated with a reduction in prostate cancer risk in men."[153]
Though there is some evidence that estrogen can help protect and repair the brain after injury in rats,[154] there is also evidence that phytoestrogens may be harmful for the recovery of rats in other situations[155] that have sustained brain injury.
Similarly, epidemiological evidence of humans eating soya products is currently divided: a study of Japanese men between 1965 and 1999 demonstrated a positive correlation between brain atrophy and consumption of tofu meals,[156] and a study on elderly Indonesian men and women found that high tofu intake was associated with poorer memory, but the consumption of tempeh was associated with better memory.[121]
So it may be that the type of soya bean used, or its preparation or additional ingredients are relevant factors, there is not yet definitive evidence known.[157]
Though raw soy flour is known to be correlated with pancreatic cancer in rats[158] the cooked flour has not been found carcinogenic.[159][160] Whether soy might promote pancreatic cancer in humans is unknown because studies have not yet attempted to single out soy intake and the incidence of pancreatic cancer in humans, and the amount of soy fed to the rats is proportionately far larger than what humans would normally consume. However, the soy isoflavone genistein has been suggested as a chemopreventive agent against pancreatic cancer, by interfering with the chemical pathways that promote the creation and growth of tumors.[161]
The Cancer Council of New South Wales, Australia has released a statement saying scientific research suggests that overall the moderate consumption of soy products does not appear to present a risk to women with breast cancer, and there is equivocal evidence that consuming large amounts of soy products may have a protective effect against developing breast and prostate cancer. However, the Council does not recommend taking soy dietary supplements as there is no evidence they are either effective or safe at preventing or treating cancers.
Soybeans and soy products contain significant amounts of purines, a class of organic compounds. For people who suffer from gout, eating foods containing moderate or high levels of purines may make the condition worse. The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommends that gout sufferers limit consumption of soy products (although also suggesting that soy may have health benefits by reducing the risk for heart disease).[162] However, other researchers have found little or no association between consumption of purine-rich vegetables (including beans) and gout.[163][164]
Soybean futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade and have delivery dates in January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X).
It is also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications:
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Like Ficarra and Requa's 2011 comedy Crazy Stupid Love, Focus begins promisingly and bops along enjoyably for a while, only to run out of steam…
Like Ficarra and Requa's 2011 comedy Crazy Stupid Love, Focus begins promisingly and bops along enjoyably for a while, only to run out of steam…
David Cronenberg's film of Bruce Wagner's Hollywood satire-nightmare turns ludicrous situations into operatic tragedy.
"The Ballad of Narayama" is a Japanese film of great beauty and elegant artifice, telling a story of startling cruelty. What a space it opens…
Patrice Leconte's "Monsieur Hire" is a tragedy about loneliness and erotomania, told about two solitary people who have nothing else in common. It involves a…
A review of Marquis Daisy's "Smile" by Chicago Urban League student Matthew Reilly.
A review of Marquis Daisy's "Smile" by Chicago Urban League student Brandon Towns.
Famous scenes from great movies, re-enacted with stick figures.
A review of Marquis Daisy's "Smile" by Chicago Urban League student Matthew Reilly.
An FFC looks at the "Taken" saga.
Writer/director Richard Linklater and editor Sandra Adair discuss "Boyhood" as part of the Film Independent Directors Close-Up series.
An analysis of Lawrence Michael Levine's "Wild Canaries" and its ties to classic rom-com capers.
A guide to the latest on Blu-ray and DVD, including "The Tale of the Princess Kaguya," "St. Vincent," and four fantastic Criterion releases.
Since he started as film critic for the Chicago Sun-Times in 1967, and began covering movies locally and at international film festivals, Roger Ebert has met and interviewed countless movie idols, artists and unknowns -- some of them even before they became famous. There's hardly a major figure in the history of movies, from the last part of the 20th century into the 21st, that he hasn't encountered.
The headline on the press release describes Peter Collinson as "the man who came from nowhere and is on his way to somewhere."
"Just precisely where, they don't say," Collinson grinned. "I'm not one of these directors with his life-span all mapped out, and a deep ponderous philosophy to put into my films. All I want to do is make movies as well as they can be made. Period. No philosophy."
Collinson, at 28, has made two movies: "The Penthouse" and "Up the Junction." Neither has been commercially released yet, but "Penthouse" got a warm reception at the Cannes and Berlin film festivals. Although almost nobody outside the movie business has even heard of him, Collinson is probably the hottest young director in England right now. Stories of his working methods in "The Penthouse" are related by other directors with a touch of awe. He made it in 24 days for less then $100,000, and supplied his studio with a finished print two days after shooting ended.
"That makes you popular at the front office," Collinson said, "but it doesn't mean a thing if the movie's no good. I don't cut corners to save anybody money. But I don't fool around. A lot of directors will shoot a scene from every conceivable angle, tying up actors, wasting time, spending a fortune on salaries and overhead. Then they get into the editing room and try to figure out which angle looks best. Not me. I figure the shot out in my head and shoot it just once or twice. I edit in the camera, you might say, so when the shooting's over I have a movie."
Collinson, enthroned at a corner table in a favorite London pub, The White Elephant, looked strangely out of place. It was a posh joint, with waiters in tuxedos, and he wore a pink paisley shirt, a white corduroy jacket and slacks. If anything, he looked younger than 28.
His story is unusual. The son of itinerant provincial actors, he was an orphan at 8 and a "street urchin," by his own admission, at 10. Through a series of improbable chances, including acting experience at an orphanage for the children of theater people, he gradually worked himself into the theater and then into television as a BBC director.
He got into movies rather casually, buying all option on Nell Dunn's best-selling "Up the Junction" for $1,000 and then proposing himself as its director. He was given the low-budget "Penthouse" to do first, as a warm-up, and produced a shocking thriller with a bizarre surprise ending.
The story concerns a real estate agent and his mistress, held captive in a penthouse by two very peculiar men named Tom and Dick. Their cohort, Harry, lingers offstage until the final incredible scenes. It is a suspense movie, "a thriller" Collinson says. The audiences at Cannes and Berlin found a psychological message in it, but Collinson doesn't care.
"I make movies to entertain," he said. "This may sound funny, but I don't have any desire to communicate my own opinions to anybody. I think the director should be the medium by which the audience gets the story, and that's all. A good director is a good storyteller."
Collinson's next film will be "The Italian Job," starring Michael Caine. The budget is $2,800,000, and Collinson noted wryly: "My salary will be bigger than the total cost of 'Penthouse.' But my methods won't change. I want my movies to be fun to watch because they challenge their audiences to keep up. Audiences aren't as stupid as many people believe. Orson Welles knew that, and it damned him in Hollywood for years."
He smiled. "That could happen to me, too," he said. "But I think times have changed, and there's an audience for a thoughtful movie now. Still, if I bomb as a director I've still got some other things to do. I barnstormed the country as a teenager, playing in second-rate variety shows. I can still do a mean turn as the back legs of a calico horse."
Next Article: Interview with John Wayne Previous Article: Interview with Warren Beatty
This message came to me from a reader named Peter Svensland. He and a fr...
On how Clint Eastwood's "American Sniper" examines evil.
The RogerEbert.com pick for the Best Director of 2014.
Glenn Kenny comments on awards season, Sean Penn, Neil Patrick Harris, and the actual Oscars.


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The conditions under which oilfields operate today are more challenging and complex than ever before, as they are now frequently situated in areas that are colder, deeper and more remote. Operating under these conditions means you must be able to make qualified decisions while maintaining maximum cost-efficiency with equipment you can rely on. There is no room for error, no time for compromise.
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Outbreak Causes Another Cruise to End Trip Early
Updated: 01/31/2014 - Federal health officials are investigating after an outbreak of illness has caused another cruise ship to ends its trip early.
Updated: 01/31/2014 - Federal health officials are investigating after an outbreak of illness has caused another cruise ship to ends its trip early.
Posted: 01/30/2014 - The Board of Education is mulling tighter rules on the citizen review panels that scrutinize proposed textbooks.
Posted: 01/30/2014 - A North Texas woman has been charged with murdering her 10-year-old son, whose body was found in a bathtub in the family's suburban Dallas home.
Posted: 01/30/2014 - In 2013 the Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS) recorded more than 1.6 million Texas registrants to the Glenda P. Dawson Donate Life Texas Registry, boosting the total registry to nearly five million individuals.
Posted: 01/30/2014 - BELTON, Texas (AP) - A Central Texas man has been sentenced to life in prison for the 2013 shooting deaths of his mother and his stepfather at their Bell County home.
Posted: 01/30/2014 - As football fans get ready to watch the Super Bowl with family and friends, the Texas Department of Transportation is urging them to plan for a sober ride while attending game-viewing events.
Posted: 01/29/2014 - Federal and state environmental officials have reached a deal on portions of the Texas clean air plan after years of contention.
Posted: 01/29/2014 - The husband of a Texas woman found by her son dead in a freezer has been charged with providing her with methamphetamine.
Posted: 01/29/2014 - Unlike other inmates in Texas' sprawling prison system, inmates who receive the ultimate punishment are automatically sent to solitary confinement. On Texas' death row, they spend 23 hours a day in their tiny cells. They can't work, watch television, have physical contact with family members who visit, or access educational or rehabilitative programs.
Posted: 01/29/2014 - Funeral services have been held for two young girls killed by their father at Fort Hood just hours before their mother returned from a deployment in Afghanistan.
Posted: 01/29/2014 - FORT WORTH, Texas (AP) - TCU defensive end Devonte Fields has declined to press charges after telling Fort Worth police that he was beaten and robbed by armed suspects.
Posted: 01/29/2014 - ABILENE, Texas (AP) - The prosecution has called its first witness in the child-injury trial of a West Texas woman in the death of her 22-month-old daughter.
Updated: 01/29/2014 - A North Texas woman has been accused of using duct tape and suffocating her fiance's 2-year-old daughter as the couple broke up.
Updated: 01/28/2014 - Rescuers recovered the body of a construction worker late Tuesday evening in the Brazos River in Waco.
Posted: 01/28/2014 - There was confusion in the Austin area Tuesday as a trio of school leaders decided to hold class as usual, amid icy road conditions, and then had to change their minds.
Updated: 01/28/2014 - A traffic stop on Interstate 35 in Central Texas has led to more than $155,000 found in the door panels of a vehicle.
Updated: 01/28/2014 - Tiffany Klapheke says her husband's deployment overseas left her too stressed to care for their three children, including a 22-month-old daughter who died..
Posted: 01/28/2014 - Officials in Southeast Texas are preparing for icy conditions as a cold front was expected to bring sleet, freezing rain and possibly snow.
Posted: 01/27/2014 - A judge has struck down an ordinance the Hill Country city of New Braunfels adopted that banned disposable food and beverage containers.
Posted: 01/27/2014 - The Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS) is encouraging Texans to prepare for another strong cold front expected to impact parts of Texas beginning tonight and continuing through Wednesday.
Updated: 01/27/2014 - The four Republican candidates vying to be Texas lieutenant governor - a post considered to be the most powerful in the state - got their first televised chance to win over voters.
Updated: 01/26/2014 - A Fort Worth Hospital has removed life support for a brain dead pregnant woman following a request from her family and a court order.
Posted: 01/25/2014 - Authorities testing a substantial backlog of DNA evidence compiled by Houston police have identified potential offenders in a third of the cases where sufficient samples were provided.
Updated: 01/25/2014 - A spokeswoman for a Texas hospital says it won't say Saturday whether it plans to appeal a judge's order to take a pregnant brain-dead woman off of life support.
Posted: 01/23/2014 - A former East Texas police chief has pleaded guilty to abusing access to a crime database at the request of a drug trafficking suspect.


text: Philadelphia mayor: $10,000 reward for suspect in attempted abductionBy Kristen Hamill, CNNUpdated 10:14 AM ET, Thu July 19, 2012Just WatchedAttempted child abduction caught on tapereplayMore Videos ...Attempted child abduction caught on tape 01:20Story highlightsMan tried to abduct girl, 10, while she was walking home, police sayThe attempted abduction is caught on surveillance videoVideo shows man fleeing after girl falls downPhiladelphia Mayor Michael Nutter has announced a $10,000 reward for the capture of a man who attempted to abduct a 10-year-old girl while she was walking home from a store with her 2-year-old brother on Tuesday. "It's a sick individual to do something like that," Nutter said Wednesday at a news conference. "I want this creep off our streets immediately." The attempted abduction was caught on surveillance video, which was released Wednesday on the Philadelphia Police Department's YouTube page. Video shows Georgia girl, 7, fighting off alleged kidnapperThe video shows a white car pulling up to the corner of Porter and Lee streets while the girl and her brother are walking home. As the children make a left onto Lee Street, a male gets out of the car and appears to follow the children. Just WatchedPhila. Mayor offers reward for suspectreplayMore Videos ...Phila. Mayor offers reward for suspect 01:31PLAY VIDEOThe video then switches to Lee Street as the suspect walks up behind the girl and grabs her, pulling her away from her little brother, whose hand she was holding. The girl falls to the ground moments after she is grabbed and the suspect then lets go and runs away, fleeing in the white car. Authorities say the man also put his hand over the girl's mouth, though that is unclear in the video.Police describe the suspect as a Hispanic male in his 30s or 40s who was last seen in a white, four-door midsize car.Neighbors told CNN affiliate KYW they are grateful the little girl is OK, but worried for children in the neighborhood while the man is on the loose."It's scary. It's making people nervous, making people think that they can't bring their kids outside, you know, and let them play outside by themselves, and that's not right," neighbor Kathleen McDowell told KYW.More from justiceTwo Ferguson police officers resign over racist emailsObama: We need to respect policeFeds prepare corruption charges against Sen. MenendezPowered by Livefyre


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US 6900970 B2 Abstract An ESD protection circuit (81) and a method for providing ESD protection is provided. In some embodiments, an N-channel transistor (24), which can be ESD damaged, is selectively turned on and made conducting. The purpose of turning on the N-channel transistor (24) is to maximize the Vt1 of the N-channel transistor (24). Vt1 is the drain-to-source voltage point at which the parasitic bipolar action of the N-channel transistor (24) first occurs. In some embodiments, the ESD protection circuit (81) includes a diode (64) which provides an additional current path from the I/O pad 31 to a first power supply node (76).
Claims(9) 1. An ESD circuit comprising:
an output terminal;
a resistive element having a first terminal coupled to the output terminal and a second terminal;
a transistor having a first current electrode coupled to the second terminal of the resistive element, a second current electrode coupled to a first voltage supply node, and a control electrode;
a first diode having a first terminal coupled to the second terminal or the resistive element and a second terminal coupled to a second voltage supply node; and
a biasing circuit coupled to the control electrode which, during an ESD event, applies a voltage to the control electrode of the transistor that is approximately equal to a voltage at a circuit node located between the first current electrode of the transistor and the second terminal of the resistive element.
2. The ESD circuit of
3. The ESD circuit of
4. The ESD circuit of
5. The ESD circuit of
6. The ESD circuit of
7. ESD circuit of
8. The ESD circuit of
9. The ESD circuit of
Description The present application is related to �ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE CIRCUIT AND METHOD THEREFOR�, invented by Michael G. Khazhinsky et al., Ser. No. 10/348,814 filed concurrently herewith, and assigned to the assignee hereof. The present invention generally relates to circuits, and more particularly, to a circuit and method for reducing potential damage to an integrated circuit during an electrostatic discharge. An integrated circuit can be damaged when subjected to a voltage that is higher than the design voltage of the integrated circuit. Electrostatic discharge (�ESD�), originating from such sources as a mechanical chip carrier, a plastic chip storage device, or even a human being can generate a voltage that is many times greater than the design voltage of the integrated circuit. For example, the typical human body can supply an electrostatic discharge of up to 4 kilovolts. For integrated circuits that operate at voltages of less than, for example, 5V (volts), an electrostatic discharge of such proportions can be devastating. In order to protect the internal circuitry from high voltage, or ESD, events, protection circuits are utilized, generally between the internal circuitry and the input/output (�I/O�) pins of the integrated circuit. One mechanism that can cause circuit failures during ESD events is a phenomenon known as �bipolar snapback�. During bipolar snapback, the parasitic bipolar device formed by an n+ diffusion coupled to the I/O pad (collector) and an n+ diffusion coupled to ground (emitter), can conduct large amounts of ESD discharge current by means of a self-biased mechanism through the inherent substrate resistance labeled �Rsub�. The self-biasing results from avalanche-breakdown at the collector-base (i.e. n+ drain to p-substrate) junction where avalanche-generated electron-hole pairs are created. The avalanche-generation source is shown schematically as current source Igen in One well-known solution to alleviate this parasitic bipolar problem is to add a ballast resistor connected between the drain of the N-channel MOS transistor and an output pin. This technique helps ensure some added measure of ESD protection in the event of bipolar conduction in the circuit by equally distributing any discharge current through the NMOS transistor (or several fingers forming a single NMOS transistor). The ballast resistor is added to ensure that the failure point at another collector-to-emitter voltage Vt2, is greater than the collector-to-emitter voltage, Vt1, where the current begins to flow in the parasitic bipolar transistor. The relationship between Vt1 and Vt2 is illustrated in FIG. 2. The general trend with semiconductor technology scaling has been a reduction in It2 for each new generation of technology. This is due to several factors such as the use of shallow, salicided source/drain junctions and the use of epitaxial layer on heavily doped p+ substrates. In addition to promoting poor width-scaling in multi-finger devices, the salicide layer also consumes a significant portion of the junction depth which is also known to reduce second breakdown failure current thresholds (It2). Epi-substrates exhibit a very low substrate resistance, which allows the substrate potential to be closely coupled to ground all over the chip. While this is desirable for avoiding latch-up, it severely impedes parasitic bipolar action since it becomes difficult to uniformly initiate and sustain bipolar action. The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not limited by the accompanying figures, in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which: Skilled artisans appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve the understanding of the embodiments of the present invention. While several embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail below, the present invention common to all embodiments lies in an ESD protection circuit and method for maximizing the effective Vt1 of the N-channel transistor to be protected. The present invention inhibits bipolar snapback in advanced semiconductor technologies where an almost instantaneous destruction of the device occurs once Vt1 has been exceeded (i.e., Vt2=Vt1). For these devices, it is not sufficient to ameliorate the effects of bipolar snapback once it has occurred, since a very low value of failure current, It2, is exhibited. Rather, for these technologies, it is desirable to avoid snapback altogether and care must be taken to increase the effective value of Vt1 so that the output buffer NMOS device does not snapback during an ESD discharge. This significantly differs from the conventional wisdom of trying to control parasitic bipolar action after snapback with well-known techniques such as ballasting. N-channel transistor 24 includes a gate region 20, a drain region 16, and a source region 18. Layer 19 is part of gate region 20 and is an oxide insulating layer. In some embodiments, a silicide layer 15 is formed overlying ohmic tie 22 to the body of transistor 24, a silicide layer 21 is formed overlying source 18, a silicide layer 17 is formed overlying drain 16, and a silicide layer 13 is formed overlying gate 20. N-channel transistor 24 includes a parasitic bipolar transistor 14, a current source Igen, and an inherent substrate resistance Rsub. Still referring to Although the term �resistor� has been used, it is well understood that the resistors illustrated in ESD rail clamp 70 is shown in The operation of the circuit 81 illustrated in The circuitry associated with Path 2 will be described next. During the ESD event described above, biasing circuit 12 provides a bias voltage on the gate of N-channel transistor 24. ESD current flow along Path 1 through diode 66, insures a significant potential difference between I/O pad 31 and node 74. If the I/O pad voltage exceeds the voltage at node 74 by greater than a P-channel transistor threshold voltage, P-channel transistor 54 will turn on and work to elevate node 55 to the I/O pad voltage. Resistor 60 is sufficiently resistive so that, once P-channel transistor 54 is turned on, it can easily elevate node 55 to near the I/O pad voltage. P-channel transistor 56 and N-channel transistor 58 form a CMOS inverter such that, when node 55 is elevated to the I/O pad voltage, the gate terminal of P-channel transistor 52 is pulled to near the first power supply voltage. This turns on P-channel transistor 52, which then pulls node 82 up to approximately the same voltage as node 80. In this manner, during an ESD event, biasing circuit 12 provides a bias voltage on the gate of N-channel transistor 24, which is substantially equal to the bias voltage at node 80. Node 80 is also the drain terminal of N-channel transistor 24. Therefore, during an ESD event detected by ESD event detection circuit 43, transistor 24 is biased such that its gate voltage (Vgate) is approximately equal to its drain voltage (Vdrain). Biasing circuit 12 also includes a transmission gate 50 which serves to decouple the gate of N-channel transistor 24 from other logic on IC 10 which may interfere with the operation of biasing circuit 12 during the ESD event. It is assumed that, during an ESD event, without biasing circuit 12 present, the other logic on IC 10 may hold or capacitively couple the gate of transistor 24 at or near the voltage of node 76. However, this is not required for proper function of circuit 81. During normal powered operation of IC 10, biasing circuit 12 should not interfere with normal operation of circuit 81. Since the I/O pad voltage typically only swings between the voltages on nodes 76 and 74 during normal circuit operation, P-channel transistor 54 should never turn on, except during an ESD event. Therefore, during all normal circuit operation, node 55 should remain at or near the node 76 potential. This insures that P-channel transistor 52 remains off. In addition, transmission gate 50 is turned on to couple the gate of N-channel transistor 24 to other logic on IC 10, as required for normal operation. In Curve 91, also labeled �Rs, Effective� will now be described. This curve shows the increase in effective Vt1 as the source side resistor Rs 26 is increased in magnitude from 0 ohms. Resistor Rd 28 is assumed equal to zero ohms in this case. The effective Vt1 is seen to increase from 7.4V with Rs=0 ohms up to 11.2V with Rs=1250 ohms. In contrast to Curve 94, Curve 93, also labeled �Rs Intrinsic,� is not horizontal, but exhibits an increase from 7.4V at Rs=O ohms to 8.3V at Rs=1250 ohms. This increase in the intrinsic Vt1 for the transistor with increasing resistance in Rs is due to de-biasing of the parasitic NPN bipolar transistor. Since the N-channel transistor 24 substrate is connected directly to node 76, while the source is connected to node 76 through resistor Rs 26, any Path 2 current flow through Rs will serve to elevate the source potential of the transistor above the substrate potential. This creates a reverse bias on the transistor source-substrate junction. Since the source of N-channel transistor 24 is also the emitter of the inherent parasitic NPN bipolar transistor, the emitter-base junction of the NPN is also reverse biased. This inhibits parasitic NPN snapback which, as was described earlier, is initiated by forward biasing of this emitter-base junction. The intrinsic Vt1 for N-channel transistor 24 increases, because higher avalanche current generation (Igen), and therefore a larger drain voltage, is needed before the local substrate potential is sufficiently elevated to forward bias the emitter-base junction of the bipolar transistor. The IR voltage drop across Rs 26 provides some reverse biasing of the bipolar transistor emitter-base junction, thereby inhibiting snapback. As can be seen from Curve 91 and Curve 93, the source side resistor (Rs 26) increases the effective Vt1 for transistor 24 in two ways. First there is the effective Vt1 increase due to IR voltage drop across resistor Rs 26. Second there is an intrinsic Vt1 increase due to the de-biasing effect on the NPN bipolar transistor. As can be seen in One embodiment of the present invention includes biasing circuit 12 which provides Vgate≈Vdrain bias conditions to N-channel transistor 24 in Any added source or drain side resistance in series with transistor 24 in The ESD circuitry associated with Path 3 will be explained next. As described above, during an ESD event, any current through resistor Rd 28 in The impact of the circuitry associated with Path 2 and Path 3 on the effective Vt1 of N-channel transistor 24 for some embodiments of the present invention is demonstrated with the SPICE simulation data shown in the table of FIG. 7. All simulations were performed assuming a 4.0A peak current positive ESD event applied to I/O pad 31, with respect to grounded node 76. For all simulations the diode 66 active perimeter was set to 300 microns, the diode 64 active perimeter was set to 30 microns, the rail clamp N-channel transistor 75 channel width was set to 2920 microns, the N-channel transistor 24 channel width was set to 150 microns, and Rd was set to 4 ohms. In addition, for all simulations Rs was set to 0 ohms. In The data for Case 1 will be discussed first. In Case 1, the I/O pad 31 and the node 74 voltages are 8V and 4.76V, respectively. Since there is no current flow through transistor 24, the voltage at node 80 is 8V, which is the same as the I/O pad 31. Note that the full I/O pad voltage (8V) is applied across transistor 24. In In Case 2 the I/O pad 31, node 80, and node 74 voltages are 7.6V, 6.56V, and 4.48V, respectively. Comparing this data to Case 1, it can be seen that while the voltage at the I/O pad 31 drops 0.4V, the voltage at node 80 drops 1.44V. Therefore transistor 24 is biased 1.44V below its failure threshold, and a significantly higher ESD current would be necessary to elevate I/O pad 31 to the effective Vt1 for transistor 24. It is clear that biasing circuit 12, resistor Rd 28, and transistor 24 (devices along Path 2) reduce the effective Vt1 of transistor 24. In Case 3 the I/O pad 31, node 80, and node 74 voltages are 7.87V, 7.03V, and 4.73V, respectively. Comparing these data to Case 1, it can be seen that while the I/O pad 31 voltage drops only 0.13V, the voltage at node 80 drops 0.97V. Therefore transistor 24 is biased 0.97V below its failure threshold, and a significantly higher ESD current would be necessary to elevate I/O pad 31 to the effective Vt1 for transistor 24. It is clear that diode 64 and resistor Rd 28 (devices along a portion of Path 3) reduce the effective Vt1 of transistor 24. In Case 4 the I/O pad 31, node 80, and node 74 voltages are 7.56V, 6.2V, and 4.48V, respectively. Comparing this data to Case 1, it can be seen that while the voltage at the I/O pad 31 drops 0.44V, the voltage at node 80 drops 1.8V. Therefore transistor 24 is biased 1.8V below its failure threshold, and a significantly higher ESD current would be necessary to elevate I/O pad 31 to the effective Vt1 for transistor 24. It is clear that biasing circuit 12, resistor Rd 28, and transistor 24 (devices along Path 2) along with diode 64 (device along a portion of Path 3) can work in combination to reduce the effective Vt1 of transistor 24. From the data in For all example simulation data shown in In one embodiment of the present invention, biasing circuit 12, in In some embodiments of the present invention, the intended purpose of biasing circuit 12 in For embodiments of circuit 81 in which the resistance of Rd 28 is non-zero, during at least 10% of a duration of an ESD event, the biasing circuit 12 applies a voltage to the control electrode of transistor 24 that is approximately equal to or substantially tracks a voltage at a circuit node 80 located between the first current electrode of transistor 24 and the second terminal of resistor Rd 28, inclusively. For alternate embodiments, the percentage is at least 50% instead of at least 10%. For embodiments in which the resistance of Rd 28 is zero, during at least 10% of a duration of an ESD event, the biasing circuit 12 applies a voltage to the control electrode of transistor 24 that is approximately equal to or substantially tracks a voltage at a circuit node 80 located between the first current electrode of transistor 24 and the I/O pad 31, inclusively. For alternate embodiments, the percentage is at least 50% instead of at least 10%. Although the invention has been described with respect to specific conductivity types or polarity of potentials, skilled artisans appreciated that conductivity types and polarities of potentials may be reversed. For example, the N-channel transistor 24 to be protected from ESD may be a P-channel transistor instead. Also, although specific voltages, resistances, dimensions, etc. have been used for selected examples described herein, these selected examples were for illustrative purposes only and in no way are intended to limit the scope of the present invention. In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments. However, one of ordinary skill in the art appreciates that various modifications and changes can be made without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims below. Accordingly, the specification and figures are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense, and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of present invention. Benefits, other advantages, and solutions to problems have been described above with regard to specific embodiments. However, the benefits, advantages, solutions to problems, and any element(s) that may cause any benefit, advantage, or solution to occur or become more pronounced are not to be construed as a critical, required, or essential feature or element of any or all the claims. As used herein, the terms �comprises,� �comprising,� or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion, such that a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements does not include only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus. Patent Citations
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