text: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Benito Mussolini Benito Mussolini Benito Mussolini Died Nationality Political party April 28, 1945 (aged 61) Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy Italian Republican Fascist Party (1943-1945) National Fascist Party (1921-1943) Italian Socialist Party (1901-1914) Rachele Mussolini Politician, Journalist Converted to Roman Catholicism in 1927, irreligious in earlier life. Spouse Profession Religion Amilcare Andrea Mussolini, KSMOM GCTE (July 29, 1883, Varano di Costa, Predappio, Forlì, Italy – April 28, 1945, Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy) was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism. He became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title Il Duce by 1925. After 1936, his official title was "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire".[1] Mussolini also 40th Prime Minister of Italy created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with In office October 31, 1922 – July 25, 1943 King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over Victor Emmanuel III Monarch the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in Luigi Facta Preceded by power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death he was Pietro Badoglio (Provisional Succeeded by Military Government) the leader of the Italian Social Republic. Mussolini was among the founders of ItaliFirst Marshal of the Empire an fascism, which included elements of naIn office tionalism, corporatism, national syndicalism, March 30, 1938 – July 25, 1943 expansionism, social progress and anti-communism in combination with censorship of Pietro Badoglio Succeeded by subversives and state propaganda. In the Duce of the Italian Social Republic years following his creation of the fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved In office September 23, 1943 – April 26, 1945 admiration from, a wide variety of political figures.[2] July 29, 1883(1883-07-29) Born Among the domestic achievements of MusVarano di Costa, Predappio, Forlì, solini from the years 1924–1939 were: his Italy public works programmes such as the taming of the Pontine Marshes, the improvement of Benito 1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia job opportunities, and public transport. Mussolini also solved the Roman Question by concluding the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. He is also credited with securing economic success in Italy's colonies and commercial dependencies.[3] Although he initially favoured siding with France against Germany in the early 1930s, Mussolini became one of the main figures of the Axis powers and, on 10 June 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II on the side of Axis. Three years later, Mussolini was deposed at the Grand Council of Fascism, prompted by the Allied invasion. Soon after his incarceration began, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the daring Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. Following his rescue, Mussolini headed the Italian Social Republic in parts of Italy that were not occupied by Allied forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape to Switzerland, only to be captured and summarily executed near Lake Como by Communist Italian partisans. His body was taken to Milan where it was hung upside down at a petrol station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Benito Mussolini while his mother Rosa Mussolini (née Maltoni) was a school teacher and a devout Catholic.[5] Owing to his father's political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican reformist President Benito Juárez, while his middle names Andrea and Amilcare were from Italian socialists Andrea Costa and Amilcare Cipriani.[6] Benito was the eldest of his parents' three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed.[7] As a young boy, Mussolini would spend time helping his father in his blacksmithing.[8] It was likely here that he was exposed to his father's significant political beliefs. Alessandro was a socialist and a republican, but also held some nationalistic views, especially in regards to some of the Italians who were living under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire,[8] which were not consistent with the internationalist socialism of the time. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptised at birth and would not be until much later in life. However, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. Mussolini was rebellious and was expelled after a series of behaviour related incidents, including throwing stones at the congregation after Mass, stabbing a fellow student in the hand and throwing an inkpot at a teacher.[8] After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901.[5][6] Early life Political journalist and soldier In 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland partly to avoid military service.[4] He worked as a stone mason and during this time studied the ideas of Nietzche, the sociologist Pareto and the syndicalist Sorel. Mussolini also, later in life, credited as influences on his thought the French Marxian Convert Charles Péguy who started a Socialist but became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and Hubert Lagardelle (also a French Syndicalist).[4] Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal Democracy and Capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, the general strike, and the use of neoMachiavellian appeals to emotion, impressed him deeply.[4] He was unable to find a permanent job in Switzerland, and was at one point arrested for vagrancy and jailed for one Birthplace of Benito Mussolini, today used as a museum. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in the province of Forlì in EmiliaRomagna in 1883. In the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed "Duce's town", and Forlì was "Duce's city". Pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. Mussolini was born into a working class background; his father Alessandro Mussolini was a blacksmith and an Anarchist activist,[4] 2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Benito Mussolini Socialists, and Mussolini with them, in Forlì, against the Italian war in Libya. He bitterly denounced the "imperialist war" to gain Tripoli, an action which earned him a five month jail term.[9] After his release he helped expel from the ranks of the Socialist party two 'revisionists' who had supported the war, Ivanhoe Bonimi, and leonida Bissolati. For that he was rewarded with the editorship of the Socialist party newspaper Avanti! Its circulation soon rose from 20,000 to 100,000.[10] During this time he had become important enough for the Italian police to write the following (excepts) police report prepared by the Inspector-General of Public Security in Milan, G. Gasti Break with Socialists The Inspector General wrote: Regarding Mussolini Professor Benito Mussolini,...38, revolutionary socialist, has a police record; elementary school teacher qualified to teach in secondary schools; former first secretary of the Chambers in in Cesena, Forli, and Ravenna; afte 1912 editor of the newspaper Avanti! to which he gave a violent suggestive and intransigent orientation. In October 1914, finding himself in opposition to the directorate of the Italian Socialist party because he advocated a kind of active neutrality on the part of Italy in the War of the Nations against the party's tendency of absolute neutrality, he withdrew on the twentieth of that month from the directorate of Avanti! Then on the fifteenth of November [1914], thereafter, he initiated publication of the newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia in which he supported -- in sharp contrast to Avanti! and amid bitter polemics against that newspaper and its chief backers -- the thesis of Italian intervention in the war against the militarism of the Central Empires. For this reason he was accused of moral and political unworthiness and the party thereupon decided to expel him. Thereafter he....undertook a very active campaign in behalf of Italian intervention, participating in Mussolini as an Italian soldier, 1917. night. While in Switzerland he picked up speaking knowledge of French and a smattering of German. Later, after becoming involved in the socialist movement, he was deported to Italy and volunteered for military service. After his two years of service he returned to teaching. Political journalist and Socialist Soon he joined the Marxian Socialist movement. In February 1908 in the city of Trento as secretary of the local chamber of labor, which was ethnically Italian but then under the control of Austria-Hungary. While there he wrote The Cardinal's Mistress which was bitterly anticlerical and years later had to be withdrawn from circulation after he made his truce with the Vatican [4] He did office work for the local socialist party and edited its newspaper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore ("The Future of the Worker"). By 1910 Mussolini returned to Forli where he edited the weekly Lotta di classe. He was now one of Italy's most prominent Socialists. In 1911 (September), there was a riot by 3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia demonstrations in the piazzas and writing quite violent articles in Popolo d'Italia.... [10] In his summary the Inspector also notes: "He was the ideal editor of Avanti! for the Socialists. In that line of work he was greatly esteemed and beloved. Some of his former comrades and admirers still confess that there was no one who understood better how to interpret the spirit of the proletariate and there was no one who did not observe his apostacy with sorrow. This came about not for reasons of self-interest or money. He was a sincere and passionate advocate, first of vigilant and armed neutrality, and later of war; and he did not believe that he was compromising with his personal and political honesty by making use of every means -- no matter where they came from or wherever he might obtain them -- to pay for his newspaper, his program and his line of action. This was his initial line. It is difficult to say to what extent his socialist convictions (which never did he either openly or privately abjure) may have been sacrificed in the course of the indispensable financial deals which were necessary for the continuation of the struggle in which he was engaged... But assuming these modifications did take place... he always wanted to give the appearance of still being a socialist, and he fooled himself into thinking that this was the case." [11] Benito Mussolini lack of concern for discomfort, his zeal and regularity in carrying out his assignments, where he was always first in every task involving labor and fortitude." [10] Mussolini's military experience is told in his work Diario Di Guerra. Overall he totalled about nine months of active, front-line trench warfare. During this time he contracted paratyphoid fever.[12] His military exploits ended in 1917 when he was wounded accidentally by the explosion of a mortar bomb in his trench. He was left with at least 40 shards of metal in his body[12] He was discharged from the hospital in August 1917 and resumed his editor-in-chief position at his new paper, Il Popolo d'Italia. On December 25, 1915, in Trevalglio, he contracted a marriage with his fellow countrywoman Rachele Guidi, who had already born him a daughter, Edda, at Forli in 1910. In 1915, he had a son with Ida Dalser, a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento.[5][6][13] He legally recognized this son on January 11, 1916. Creation of Fascism also Italian Fascism By the time Mussolini returned from Allied service in World War I, he had decided that socialism as a doctrine had largely been a failure. In early 1918, Mussolini called for the emergence of a man "ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep" to revive the Italian nation.[14] Much later in life Mussolini said he felt by 1919 "Socialism as a doctrine was already dead; it continued to exist only as a grudge".[15] On March 23, 1919, Mussolini reformed the Milan fascio as the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squad), consisting of 200 members.[14] An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages was the fact that claimed to oppose discrimination based on social class and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war.[16] Fascism instead supported nationalist sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great Roman past. The ideological basis for fascism came from a number of sources. Mussolini utilized works of Plato, Georges Sorel, Nietzsche, and the socialist and economic ideas of Service in World War I He became an ally with the irredentist politician and journalist Cesare Battisti, and like him he entered the Army and served in the war. "He was sent to the zone of operations where he was seriously injured by the explosion of a grenade."[10] The inspector continues: "He was promoted to the rank of corporal "for merit in war." The promotion was recommended because of his exemplary conduct and fighting quality, his mental calmness and 4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Vilfredo Pareto, to create fascism. Mussolini held great admiration for Plato's work, The Republic which he kept a copy and often read to gain inspiration.[17] The Republic held a number of ideas that fascism promoted such as rule by an elite promoting the state as the ultimate end, opposition to democracy, protecting the class system and promoting class collaboration, rejection of egalitarianism, promoting the militarization of a nation by creating a class of warriors, demanding that citizens perform civic duties in the interest of the state, and utilizing state intervention in education to promote the creation of warriors and future rulers of the state.[18] The Republic differed from fascism in that it did not promote aggressive war but only defensive war, unlike fascism it promoted very communistlike views on property, and Plato was an idealist focused on achieving justice and morality while Mussolini and fascism were realist, focused on achieving political goals.[19] Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist;[20][21] because this was vastly different to anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way".[22] The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called Blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, owing in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time.[6] In the meantime, from about 1911 until 1938, Mussolini had various affairs with the Jewish author and academic Margherita Sarfatti, called the "Jewish Mother of Fascism" at the time.[23] Benito Mussolini Mussolini and Fascist Blackshirts during the March on Rome in 1922. The March on Rome was a coup d'état by which Mussolini's National Fascist Party came to power in Italy and ousted Prime Minister Luigi Facta. The "march" took place in 1922 between October 27 and October 29. On October 28, King Victor Emmanuel III refused his support to Facta and handed over power to Mussolini. Mussolini was supported by the military, the business class, and the liberal right-wing. As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's rule were characterized by a rightwing coalition government composed of Fascists, nationalists, liberals and even two Catholic ministers from the Popular Party. The Fascists made up a small minority in his original governments. Mussolini's domestic goal, however, was the eventual establishment of a totalitarian state with himself as supreme leader (Il Duce) a message that was articulated by the Fascist newspaper Il Popolo, which was now edited by Mussolini's brother, Arnaldo. To that end, Mussolini obtained from the legislature dictatorial powers for one year (legal under the Italian constitution of the time). He favored the complete restoration of state authority, with the integration of the Fasci di Combattimento into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale) and the progressive identification of the party with the state. In political and social economy, he passed legislation that favored the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatisations, liberalisations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).[6] In 1923, Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade Corfu during the "Corfu Incident." In the end, the League of Nations proved March on Rome and early years in power Further information: March on Rome 5 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia powerless and Greece was forced to comply with Italian demands. Benito Mussolini Acerbo Law In June 1923, the government passed the Acerbo Law, which transformed Italy into a single national constituency. It also granted a two-thirds majority of the seats in Parliament to the party or group of parties which had obtained at least 25 percent of the votes. This law was punctually applied in the elections of April 6, 1924. The "national alliance", consisting of Fascists, most of the old Liberals and others, won 64 percent of the vote largely by means of violence and voter intimidation. These tactics were especially prevalent in the south. Squadristi violence The assassination of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who had requested the annulment of the elections because of the irregularities committed, provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. The murderer, a squadrista named Amerigo Dumini, reported to Mussolini soon after the murder. Mussolini ordered a cover-up, but witnesses saw the car used to transport Matteotti's body parked outside Matteotti's residence, which linked Dumini to the murder. The Matteotti crisis provoked cries for justice against the murder of an outspoken critic of Fascist violence. The government was shocked into paralysis for a few days, and Mussolini later confessed that a few resolute men could have alerted public opinion and started a coup that would have swept fascism away. Dumini was imprisoned for two years. On release he told others that Mussolini was responsible, for which he served further prison time. For the next 15 years, Dumini received an income from Mussolini, the Fascist Party, and other sources. The opposition parties responded weakly or were generally unresponsive. Many of the socialists, liberals and moderates boycotted Parliament in the Aventine Secession, hoping to force Victor Emmanuel to dismiss Mussolini. Despite the leadership of communists such as Antonio Gramsci, socialists such as Pietro Nenni and liberals such as Piero Gobetti and Giovanni Amendola, a mass antifascist movement never caught fire. The king, fearful of violence from the Fascist squadristi, kept Mussolini in office. Because A young Mussolini in his early years in power. of the boycott of Parliament, Mussolini could pass any legislation unopposed. The political violence of the squadristi had worked, for there was no popular demonstration against the murder of Matteotti. Within his own party, Mussolini faced doubts and dissension during these critical weeks. On December 31, 1924, 31 MVSN consuls met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum—crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, Mussolini decided to drop all trappings of democracy.[24] On January 3, 1925, Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti). He also promised a crackdown on dissenters. Before his speech, MVSN detachments beat up the opposition and prevented opposition newspapers from publishing. Mussolini correctly predicted that as soon as public opinion saw him firmly in control the "fence-sitters", the silent majority and the "place-hunters" would 6 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia all place themselves behind him. This is considered the onset of Mussolini's dictatorship. While failing to outline a coherent program, Fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined totalitarianism, nationalism, anti-communism, anticapitalism and anti-liberalism into a state designed to bind all classes together under a corporatist system (the "Third Way"). This was a new system in which the state seized control of the organisation of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesize the glorious Roman past with a futuristic utopia. Benito Mussolini April 7, 1926 by Violet Gibson, an Irish woman and daughter of Baron Ashbourne.[25] On October 31, 1926, 15-year-old Anteo Zamboni attempted to shoot Mussolini in Bologna. Zamboni was lynched on the spot.[26][27] Mussolini also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by anarchist Gino Lucetti,[28] and a planned attempt by American anarchist Michael Schirru, which ended with Schirru's capture and execution.[29] Members of TIGR, a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in Caporetto in 1938, but their attempt was unsuccessful. Building a dictatorship Assassination attempts Police state At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defense, and public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party and the armed local fascist militia, the MVSN or "Blackshirts," who terrorised incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. He would later form the OVRA, an institutionalised secret police that carried official state support. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival. Between 1925 and 1927, Mussolini progressively dismantled virtually all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power, thereby building a police state. A law passed on Christmas Eve 1925 changed Mussolini's formal title from "president of the Council of Ministers" to "head of the government." He was no longer responsible to Parliament and could only be removed by the king. While the Italian constitution stated that ministers were only responsible to the sovereign, in practice it had become all but impossible to govern against the express will of Parliament. The Christmas Eve law ended this practice, and also made Mussolini the only person competent to determine the body's agenda. Local autonomy was abolished, and podestas appointed by the Italian Senate replaced elected mayors and councils. All other parties were outlawed in 1928, though in practice Italy had been a one-party state since Mussolini's 1925 speech. In the same year, an electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. Instead, the Grand After taking power, Mussolini was often seen in military uniform. Mussolini's influence in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless, he was "slightly wounded in the nose" when he was shot on 7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Council of Fascism selected a single list of candidates to be approved by plebiscite. The Grand Council had been created five years earlier as a party body but was "constitutionalised" and became the highest constitutional authority in the state. On paper, the Grand Council had the power to recommend Mussolini's removal from office, and was thus theoretically the only check on his power. However, only Mussolini could summon the Grand Council and determine its agenda. In order to gain control of the South, especially Sicily, he appointed Cesare Mori as a Prefect of the city of Palermo, with the charge of eradicating the Mafia at any price. In the telegram, Mussolini wrote to Mori: "Your Excellency has carte blanche, the authority of the State must absolutely, I repeat absolutely, be re-established in Sicily. If the laws still in force hinder you, this will be no problem, as we will draw up new laws."[30] He did not hesitate laying siege to towns, using torture, and getting women and children as hostages to oblige suspects to give themselves up. These harsh methods earned him the nickname of "Iron Prefect". However, in 1927 Mori's inquiries brought evidence of collusion between the Mafia and the Fascist establishment, and he was dismissed for length of service in 1929. Mussolini nominated Mori as a senator, and fascist propaganda claimed that the Mafia had been defeated. Benito Mussolini Benito Mussolini visiting Alfa Romeo factories. economically viable crops. The huge tariffs associated with the project promoted widespread inefficiencies, and the government subsidies given to farmers pushed the country further into debt. Mussolini also initiated the "Battle for Land", a policy based on land reclamation outlined in 1928. The initiative had a mixed success; while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for agriculture were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the unemployed and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies, other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Grain (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production), and the Pontine Marsh was lost during World War II. Fewer than 10,000 peasants resettled on the redistributed land, and peasant poverty remained high. The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940. He also combated an economic recession by introducing the "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, by encouraging the public to voluntarily donate gold jewellery such as necklaces and wedding rings to government officials in exchange for steel wristbands bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". Even Rachele Mussolini donated her own wedding ring. The collected gold was then melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the national banks. Mussolini pushed for government control of business: by 1935, Mussolini claimed that three quarters of Italian businesses were Economic policy Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. His earliest, and one of the best known, was Italy's equivalent of the Green Revolution, known as the "Battle for Grain", in which 5,000 new farms were established and five new agricultural towns on land reclaimed by draining the Pontine Marshes. In Sardinia, a model agricultural town was founded and named Mussolinia, but has long since been renamed Arborea. This town was the first of what Mussolini hoped would have been thousands of new agricultural settlements across the country. This plan diverted valuable resources to grain production, away from other less 8 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under state control. That same year, he issued several edicts to further control the economy, including forcing all banks, businesses, and private citizens to give up all their foreign-issued stocks and bonds to the Bank of Italy. In 1938, he also instituted wage and price controls.[31] He also attempted to turn Italy into a self-sufficient autarky, instituting high barriers on trade with most countries except Germany. In 1943 he proposed the theory of economic socialization. Benito Mussolini property and virtually blackmailed the Vatican. Since 1927, and more even after 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-Communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him. In the encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno, Pope Pius XI attacked the Fascist regime for its policy against the Catholic Action and certain tendencies to overrule Catholic education morals. The law codes of the parliamentary system were rewritten under Mussolini. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini and no one who did not possess a certificate of approval from the fascist party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret; Mussolini thus skillfully created the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the "corporative" system. The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or "corporations", all of which were under clandestine governmental control. Large sums of money were spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the SS Rex Blue Riband ocean liner and aeronautical achievements such as the world's fastest seaplane the Macchi M.C.72 and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of Italo Balbo, who was greeted with much fanfare in the United States when he landed in Chicago. Government National Fascist Party of Italy's headquarters in Rome in 1934. As dictator of Italy, Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people and the use of propaganda to do so; whether at home or abroad, and here his training as a journalist was invaluable. Press, radio, education, films—all were carefully supervised to create the illusion that fascism was the doctrine of the twentieth century, replacing liberalism and democracy. The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by Giovanni Gentile and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the Enciclopedia Italiana. In 1929, a concordat with the Vatican was signed, the Lateran treaties, by which the Italian state was at last recognised by the Roman Catholic Church, and the independence of Vatican City was recognised by the Italian state; the 1929 treaty also included a legal provision whereby the Italian government would protect the honor and dignity of the Pope by prosecuting offenders.[32] In 1927, Mussolini was baptised by a Roman Catholic priest in order to take away certain Catholic opposition, who were still very critical of a regime which had taken away papal Role of education and youth organizations Benito Mussolini and Fascist Blackshirt youth in 1935. 9 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Nationalists in the years after the war thought of themselves as combating the both liberal and domineering institutions created by cabinets such as those of Giovanni Giolitti, including traditional schooling. Futurism, a revolutionary cultural movement which would serve as a catalyst for Fascism, argued for "a school for physical courage and patriotism", as expressed by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1919. Marinetti expressed his disdain for "the by now prehistoric and troglodyte Ancient Greek and Latin courses", arguing for their replacement with exercise modelled on those of the Arditi soldiers ("[learning] to advance on hands and knees in front of razing machine gun fire; to wait open-eyed for a crossbeam to move sideways over their heads etc."). It was in those years that the first Fascist youth wings were formed Avanguardie Giovanili Fasciste (Fascist Youth Vanguards) in 1919, and Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (Fascist University Groups), in 1922). After the March on Rome that brought Benito Mussolini to power, the Fascists started considering ways to ideologize the Italian society, with an accent on schools. Mussolini assigned former ardito and deputy-secretary for Education Renato Ricci the task of "reorganizing the youth from a moral and physical point of view". Ricci sought inspiration with Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting, meeting with him in England, as well as with Bauhaus artists in Germany.The Opera Nazionale Balilla was created through Mussolini's decree of April 3 1926, and was led by Ricci for the following eleven years. It included children between the ages of 8 and 18, grouped as the Balilla and the Avanguardisti. According to Mussolini: "Fascist education is moral, physical, social, and military: it aims to create a complete and harmoniously developed human, a fascist one according to our views". Mussolini structured this process taking in view the emotional side of childhood: "Childhood and adolescence alike (...) cannot be fed solely by concerts, theories, and abstract teaching. The truth we aim to teach them should appeal foremost to their fantasy, to their hearts, and only then to their minds". The "educational value set through action and example" was to replace the established approaches. Fascism opposed its version of idealism to prevalent rationalism, and used Benito Mussolini the Opera Nazionale Balilla to circumvent educational tradition by imposing the collective and hierarchy, as well as Mussolini's own personality cult. Foreign policy In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the pacifist anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power to an extreme form of aggressive nationalism. He dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923. Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in Libya, which had been loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean. However, his first 'baby steps' into foreign policy seemed to portray him as a 'statesman', for he participated in the Locarno Treaties of 1925 and the attempted Four Power Pact of 1933 was Mussolini's brainchild. Following the Stresa Front against Germany in 1935, however, Mussolini's policy took a dramatic turning point and revealed itself once again to be that of an aggressive nature. This domino-effect of war began with the Second ItaloAbyssinian War. Conquest of Ethiopia Il Duce standing on top of a tank. In an effort to realise an Italian Empire or the New Roman Empire as supporters called it,[33] Italy set its sights on Ethiopia with an invasion that was carried out rapidly. Italy's 10 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia forces were far superior to the Abyssinian forces, especially in regards to air power and were soon declared victors. Emperor Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country, with Italy entering the capital Addis Ababa to proclaim an Empire by May 1936, making Ethiopia part of Italian East Africa.[34] Although all of the major European powers of the time had also colonised parts of Africa and committed atrocities in their colonies, the Scramble for Africa had finished by the beginning of the twentieth century. The international mood was now against colonialist expansion and Italy's actions were condemned. Retroactively, Italy was criticised for its use of mustard gas and phosgene against its enemies and also for its zero tolerance approach to enemy guerrillas, allegedly authorised by Mussolini.[34] Benito Mussolini bombed their tents in areas of guerrillas military encampment; though Italy denied it had intended to, insisting that the rebels were targeted.[34] It was not until the East African Campaign's conclusion in 1941 that Italy lost its East African territories, after taking on a fourteen nation allied force. Spanish Civil War Italian military help to Nationalists against the anti-clerical and anti-Catholic atrocities committed by the Republican side worked well in Italian propaganda targeting Catholics. On July 27, 1936 the first squadron of Italian airplanes sent by Benito Mussolini arrived in Spain.[35] This active intervention in 1936–1939 on the side of Franco in the Spanish Civil War ended any possibility of reconciliation with France and Britain. As a result, his relationship with Adolf Hitler became closer, and he chose to accept the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939. At the Munich Conference in September 1938, he posed as a moderate working for European peace, helping Nazi Germany seize control of the Sudetenland. His "axis" with Germany was confirmed when he made the "Pact of Steel" with Hitler in May 1939, as the previous "Rome-Berlin Axis" of 1936 had been unofficial. Members of TIGR, a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in Kobarid in 1938, but their attempt was unsuccessful. Axis power Rome-Berlin relations The relationship between Mussolini and Adolf Hitler was a contentious one early on. While Hitler cited Mussolini as an influence, Mussolini had little regard for Hitler, especially after the Nazis had assassinated his friend and ally, Engelbert Dollfuss the Austrofascist dictator of Austria in 1933. With the assassination of Dollfuss, Mussolini attempted to distance himself from Hitler by rejecting the racialism and antiSemitism espoused by the German radical. Mussolini during this period rejected biological racism and instead emphasized "Italianising" the parts of the Italian Empire he had desired to build.[36] Mussolini claimed that cultural superiority of a nation was Spanish Republican poster against "the Italian invader". When Rodolfo Graziani the viceroy of Ethiopia was nearly assassinated at an official ceremony, with the guerrilla bomb exploding among the people there, a very stronghanded reaction followed against the guerrillas, including those who were prisoners according to the International Red Cross.[34] The IRC also alleged that Italy 11 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia possible but that a biologically-superior race was not.[36] The difference was that a culture can be learned, while a race cannot. " Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: " ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. [...] National pride has no need of the delirium of race. Benito Mussolini sent a letter to Mussolini protesting against the new laws.[41] Munich Conference, war looming —Benito Mussolini, 1933.[37] However Mussolini's rejection of both racialism and the importance of race in 1934 during the height of his antagonism towards Hitler contradicted his own earlier statements about race, such as in 1928 in which he emphasized the importance of race: " [When the] city dies, the nation—deprived of the young life—blood of new generations—is now made up of people who are old and degenerate and cannot defend itself against a younger people which launches an attack on the now unguarded frontiers[...] This will happen, and not just to cities and nations, but on an infinitely greater scale: the whole White race, the Western race can be submerged by other coloured races which are multiplying at a rate unknown in our race. " Chamberlain, Mussolini, Viscount Halifax and Ciano, at the Rome Opera House in 1939. Mussolini had imperial designs on Tunisia which had some support in that country.[42] In April 1939 with world focus on Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia, looking to restore honour from a much older defeat Italy invaded Albania. Italy defeated Albania within just five days forcing king Zog to flee, setting up a period of Albania under Italy. Until May 1939, the Axis had not been entirely official, however during that month the Pact of Steel treaty was made outlining the "friendship and alliance" between Germany and Italy, signed by each of its foreign ministers.[43] Italy's king Victor Emanuel III was also wary of the pact, favouring the more traditional Italian allies of Britain and France.[44] Hitler was intent on invading Poland, though Galeazzo Ciano warned this would likely lead to war with the Allies. Hitler dismissed Ciano's comment, predicting that instead the West would back down as in Czechoslovakia and suggested that Italy should invade Yugoslavia.[45] The offer was tempting to Mussolini, but at that stage world war would be a disaster for Italy as the armaments situation from building the Italian Empire thus far was lean. Most significantly, Victor Emmanuel had demanded neutrality in the dispute.[45] Thus when World War II in Europe began on September 1, 1939 with the German invasion of Poland eliciting the response of the United Kingdom and France declaring war on Germany, Italy remained nonbelligerent in the conflict.[45] —Benito Mussolini, 1928.[38] Though Italian Fascism variated its official positions on race from the 1920s to 1934, ideologically Italian fascism did not originally discriminate against the Italian Jewish community: Mussolini recognised that a small contingent had lived there "since the days of the Kings of Rome" and should "remain undisturbed".[39] There were even some Jews in the National Fascist Party, such as Ettore Ovazza who in 1935 founded the Jewish Fascist paper La Nostra Bandiera[40] ("Our Flag"). However by 1938, the enormous influence Hitler now had over Mussolini became clear with the introduction of the Manifesto of Race. The Manifesto, which was closely modeled on the Nazi Nuremberg laws,[24] stripped Jews of their Italian citizenship and with it any position in the government or professions. The German influence on Italian policy upset the established balance in Fascist Italy and proved highly unpopular to most Italians, to the extent that Pope Pius XII 12 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Benito Mussolini Graziani crossed from Italian Libya into Egypt where British forces were located; this would become the Western Desert Campaign. Advances were successful, but the Italians stopped at Sidi Barrani waiting for logistic supplies to catch up. During October 25, 1940, Mussolini sent the Italian Air Corps to Belgium, where the air force took part in the Battle of Britain for around two months.[49] In October, Mussolini also sent Italian forces into Greece starting the Greco-Italian War. After initial success, this backfired as the Greek counterattack proved relentless, resulting in Italy losing one quarter of Albania. Germany soon committed forces to the Balkans to fight the gathering Allies.[50] War declared As World War II began, Ciano and Viscount Halifax were holding secret phone conversations. The British wanted Italy on their side against Germany as it had been in World War I.[45] French government opinion was more geared towards action against Italy; they were itching to attack Italy in Libya. However, in September, 1939, France swung to the opposite extreme, offering to discuss issues with Italy, but as the French were unwilling to discuss Corsica, Nice and Savoy, Mussolini did not answer.[45] " So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims. " —Adolf Hitler, late November 1939.[45] Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler The Italian Empire in 1939. Convinced that the war would soon be over, with a German victory looking likely at that point, Mussolini decided to enter the war on the Axis side. Accordingly, Italy declared war on Britain and France on June 10, 1940.[46] Italy joined the Germans in the Battle of France, fighting the fortified Alpine Line at the border. Just eleven days later France surrendered to the Axis powers. Included in Italian-controlled France was most of Nice and other southeastern counties.[46] Meanwhile in Africa, Mussolini's Italian East Africa forces attacked the British in their Sudan, Kenya and British Somaliland colonies, in what would become known as the East African Campaign.[47] British Somaliland was conquered and became part of Italian East Africa on August 3, 1940, and there were Italian advances in Sudan and Kenya.[48] Just over a month later, the Italian Tenth Army commanded by General Rodolfo Events in Africa had changed by early 1941 as Operation Compass had forced the Italians back into Libya, causing high losses in the Italian Army.[51] Also in the East African Campaign, a three-pronged Allied invasion against Italian East Africa took place, though the Italians fought back hard, the multiplenation force they faced was too much, and after the Battle of Keren defense started to crumble with a final defeat in the Battle of Gondar. However, when addressing the Italian public on the events, he was completely open about the situation saying "We call bread bread and wine wine, and when the enemy wins a battle it is useless and ridiculous to seek, as the English do in their incomparable hypocrisy, to deny or diminish it."[52] Part of his comment was in relation to earlier success the Italians had in Africa, before being defeated by an Allied force later. In danger of loosing the control of all Italian possessions in North Africa, Germany finally sent the Afrika Korps to support Italy. Meanwhile Operation Marita took place in 13 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Yugoslavia to end the Greco-Italian War, resulting in an Axis victory and the Occupation of Greece by Italy and Germany.[53] With the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Mussolini declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941 and sent an army to fight there. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, he declared war on the United States.[50] Benito Mussolini Dismissed and arrested Marshal Pietro Badoglio succeeded Benito Mussolini as Prime Minister. strikes in the industrial north—the first largescale strikes since 1925.[55] Also in March, some of the major factories in Milan and Turin stopped production to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. The physical German presence in Italy had sharply turned public opinion against Mussolini; for example, when the Allies took Sicily, the public welcomed them as liberators.[56] Earlier, Mussolini had begged Hitler to make a separate peace with Stalin and send German troops to the west to guard against an expected Allied invasion of Italy. He feared that with the losses in Tunisia and North Africa, the next logical step for Dwight Eisenhower's armies would be to come across the Mediterranean and attack the peninsula. Within a few days of the Allied landings on Sicily, it was obvious Mussolini's army was on the brink of collapse. This led Hitler to summon Mussolini to a meeting in northern Italy on July 19. By this time, Mussolini was so shaken that he could no longer King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini and prisoned him on July 25, 1943. Italy's position became more and more untenable. After the defeat at El Alamein in 1942 the Axis troops had to retreat to Tunisia where they were finally defeated in the Tunisia Campaign. Also at the Eastern Front were major setbacks and the war had come to the nation's very doorstep with the Allied invasion of Sicily.[54] The home front was also in bad shape as the Allied bombings were taking their toll. The factories were ground to a virtual standstill due to a lack of raw materials, coal and oil. Additionally, there was a chronic shortage of food, and what food was available was being sold at nearly confiscatory prices. Mussolini's onceubiquitous propaganda machine lost its grip on the people; a large number of Italians turned to Vatican Radio or Radio London for more accurate news coverage. Discontent came to a head in March with a wave of 14 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia stand Hitler's boasting. His mood darkened further when that same day, the Allies bombed Rome—the first time that city had ever been the target of enemy bombing.[57] Some prominent members of the Italian Fascist government had turned against Mussolini by this point. Among them were Grandi and Mussolini's son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano. With several of his colleagues close to revolt, il Duce was forced to summon the Grand Council of Fascism on July 24, the first time that body had met since the start of the war. When he announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south, Grandi launched a blistering attack on him.[54] Grandi moved a resolution asking the king to resume his full constitutional powers, in effect, a vote of no confidence in Mussolini. This motion carried by a 19–7 margin. Despite this sharp rebuke, Mussolini showed up for work the next day as usual. He allegedly viewed the Grand Council as merely an advisory body and did not think the vote would have any substantive effect.[55] That afternoon, he was summoned to the royal palace by King Victor Emmanuel III, who had been planning to oust Mussolini earlier. When Mussolini tried to tell the king about the meeting, Victor Emmanuel cut him off and told him that he was being replaced by Marshal Pietro Badoglio.[55] After Mussolini left the palace, he was arrested on the king's orders.[58] By this time, discontent with Mussolini was such that when the news of his ouster was announced on the radio, there was no resistance.[55] In an effort to conceal his location from the Germans, Mussolini was moved around before being sent to Campo Imperatore, a mountain resort in Abruzzo where he was completely isolated.[54] Given the large Nazi presence in Italy, Badoglio announced that "the war continues at the side of our Germanic ally" in the hopes that chaos and Nazi retaliation against civilians could be avoided.[54] Even as Badolglio was keeping up the appearance of loyalty to the Axis, he dissolved the Fascist Party two days after taking over. Also, his government was negotiating an armistice with the Allies, which was signed on September 3, 1943. Its announcement five days later threw Italy into chaos, a civil war of sorts. Badoglio and the king fled Rome, leaving the Italian Army without orders. After a period of anarchy, Italy finally declared war on Nazi Germany on October Benito Mussolini 13 from Malta; thousands of troops were supplied to fight against the Germans, others refused to switch sides and had joined the Germans. The Badoglio government held a social truce with the leftist partisans for the sake of Italy and to rid the land of the Nazis.[54] Italian Social Republic Benito Mussolini reviewing adolescent RSI soldiers, 1944. Meanwhile, only two months after Mussolini had been dismissed and arrested, he was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by a special Fallschirmjäger unit on September 12, 1943; present was Otto Skorzeny.[58] The rescue saved Mussolini from being turned over to the Allies, as per the armistice.[54] Hitler had made plans to arrest the king, Crown Prince Umberto, Badoglio and the rest of the government and restore Mussolini to power in Rome, but the government's escape south likely foiled those plans.[57] By this time, Mussolini was in very poor health and wanted to retire. However, he was immediately taken to Germany for an audience with Hitler in his East Prussia hideaway. There, Hitler told him that unless he agreed to return to Italy and set up a new fascist state, the Germans would destroy Milan, Genoa and Turin. Feeling that he had to do what he could to blunt the edges of Nazi repression, Mussolini agreed to set up a new regime, the Italian Social Republic.[54] informally known as the Salò Republic because of its administration from the town of Salò. Mussolini lived in Gargnano on Lake Garda in Lombardy during this period, but he was little more than a puppet ruler under the protection of his German liberators. After yielding to pressures from Hitler and the remaining loyal fascists who formed the government of the Republic of Salo, Mussolini helped orchestrate a series of executions of 15 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia some of the fascist leaders who had betrayed him at the last meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. One of those executed included his son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano. As Head of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini used much of his time to write his memoirs. Along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings would be combined and published by Da Capo Press as My Rise and Fall. " Yes, madam, I am finished. My star has fallen. I work and I try, yet know that all is but a farce.... I await the end of the tragedy and -- strangely detached from everything -- I do not feel any more an actor. I feel I am the last of spectators. " Benito Mussolini Cross marking the place in Mezzegra where Mussolini was shot. —Benito Mussolini, interviewed in 1945 by Madeleine Mollier.[59] Personal life Mussolini was first married to Ida Dalser in Trento in 1914.[13]The couple had a son one year later and named him Benito Albino Mussolini. In December 1915, Mussolini married Rachele Guidi, his mistress since 1910, and with his following political ascendency the information about his first marriage was suppressed and both, his first wife and son were later persecuted.[13] With Rachele, Mussolini had two daughters, Edda (1910-1995) and Anna Maria (Forlì, Villa Carpena, 3 September 1929 - Rome, 25 April 1968), married in Ravenna on June 11, 1960 to Nando Pucci Negri, and three sons Vittorio (1916-1997), Bruno (1918-1941), and Romano (1927-2006). Mussolini had a number of mistresses among them Margherita Sarfatti and his final companion, Clara Petacci. Further Mussolini had innumerable brief sexual encounters with adoring female supporters as reported by his biographer Nicholas Farrell. [60] Play video American newsreel coverage of the death of Mussolini in 1945 Claretta's brother even posed as a Spanish consul (The Last 100 Days, John Toland). Mussolini had been traveling with retreating German forces and was apprehended while attempting to escape recognition by wearing a German military uniform. After several unsuccessful attempts to take them to Como they were brought to Mezzegra. They spent their last night in the house of the De Maria family. The next day, Mussolini and his mistress were both summarily executed, along with most of the members of their 15-man train, primarily ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The shootings took place in the small village of Giulino di Mezzegra. According to the official version of events, the shootings were conducted by "Colonel Valerio" (Colonnello Valerio). Valerio's real name was Walter Audisio. Audisio was the communist partisan commander who was reportedly given the order to kill Mussolini by Death Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci were stopped by communist partisans Valerio and Bellini and identified by the Political Commissar of the partisans' 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, Urbano Lazzaro, on April 27, 1945, near the village of Dongo (Lake Como), as they headed for Switzerland to board a plane to escape to Spain. During this time 16 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia the National Liberation Committee. When Audisio entered the room where Mussolini and the other fascists were being held, he reportedly announced: "I have come to rescue you!... Do you have any weapons?" He then had them loaded into transports and driven a short distance. Audisio ordered "get down"; Petacci hugged Mussolini and refused to move away from him when they were taken to an empty space. Shots were fired and Petacci fell down. Just then Mussolini opened his jacket and screamed "Shoot me in the chest!". Audisio shot him in the chest. Mussolini fell down but he did not die; he was breathing heavily. Audisio went near and he shot one more bullet in his chest. Mussolini's face looked as if he had significant pain. Audisio said to his driver "Look at his face, the emotions on his face don't suit him". The other members were also lined up before a firing squad later the same night.[61] Benito Mussolini democracy—the Duce's body was finally 'recaptured' in August, hidden in a small trunk at the Certosa di Pavia, just outside Milan. Two Fransciscan brothers were subsequently charged with concealing the corpse, though it was discovered on further investigation that it had been constantly on the move. Unsure what to do, the authorities held the remains in a kind of political limbo for 10 years, before agreeing to allow them to be re-interred at Predappio in Romagna, his birth place, after a campaign headed by Leccisi and the Movimento Sociale Italiano. Leccisi, a fascist deputy, went on to write his autobiography, With Mussolini Before and After Piazzale Loreto. Adone Zoli, the Prime Minister of the day, contacted Donna Rachele, the former dictator's widow, to tell her he was returning the remains, as he needed the support of the far-right in parliament, including Leccisi himself. In Predappio the dictator was buried in a crypt (the only posthumous honour granted to Mussolini). His tomb is flanked by marble fasces and a large idealised marble bust of himself sits above the tomb. Mussolini's body On April 29, 1945, the bodies of Mussolini and his mistress were taken to the Piazzale Loreto (in Milan) and hung upside down on meathooks from the roof of a gas station, then stoned by civilians from below. This was done both to discourage any fascists from continuing the fight and as an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader became subject to ridicule and abuse. After being captured and sentenced to death, Fascist loyalist Achille Starace was taken to the Piazzale Loreto and shown the body of Mussolini. Starace, who once said of Mussolini "He is a God",[62] saluted what was left of his leader just before he was shot. The body of Starace was subsequently strung up next to the body of Mussolini. After his death and the display of his corpse in Milan, Mussolini was buried in an unmarked grave in Musocco, the municipal cemetery to the north of the city. On Easter Sunday 1946 his body was located and dug up by Domenico Leccisi and two other neoFascists. Making off with their hero, they left a message on the open grave: "Finally, O Duce, you are with us. We will cover you with roses, but the smell of your virtue will overpower the smell of those roses." On the loose for months—and a cause of great anxiety to the new Italian Legacy Mussolini was survived by his wife, Donna Rachele Mussolini, two sons, Vittorio and Romano Mussolini, and his daughter Edda, the widow of Count Ciano and Anna Maria. A third son, Bruno, was killed in an air accident while flying a P108 bomber on a test mission, on August 7, 1941.[63] Sophia Loren's sister, Anna Maria Scicolone, was formerly married to Romano Mussolini, Mussolini's son. Mussolini's granddaughter Alessandra Mussolini is currently a member of the European Parliament for the extreme right-wing party Alternativa Sociale; other relatives of Edda (Castrianni) moved to England after World War II. Mussolini's National Fascist Party was banned in the postwar Constitution of Italy, but a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Alessandra Mussolini runs one of the primary neo-fascist parties in modern Italy, Azione Sociale. Historically, the strongest neo-fascist party was MSI (Movimento Sociale Italiano), which was declared dissolved in 1995 and replaced by the National Alliance, which in the meanwhile has distanced itself from Fascism (its leader Gianfranco Fini once declared that 17 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Fascism was "an absolute evil"). These parties were united under Silvio Berlusconi's House of Freedoms coalition and the leader of the National Alliance, Gianfranco Fini, was one of Berlusconi's most trusted advisors. In 2006, the House of Freedoms coalition was narrowly defeated by Romano Prodi's coalition, L'Unione. Benito Mussolini teacher days to the beginning of World War I, before his rise as dictator. Mussolini is also depicted in the films Tea with Mussolini and Lion of the Desert. Also in The Time Tunnel, in the episode called "The Ghost of Nero", when the protagonists Doug and Tony were rescued by some Italian soldiers during the First World War, the "ghost" of Nero inhabits a soldier, which is revealed to be Mussolini. Mussolini has been referenced less seriously in television episodes of The Simpsons, The X-Files and The Young Ones, as well as in the song "Cult of Personality" by the rock band Living Colour. Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's novel Inferno, a 1976 modern take on Dante's Inferno, has the protagonist being guided by an analog of Virgil who is ultimately revealed to be Mussolini. In the sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond, Ray described life growing up with his father as "growing up with Benito Mussolini." In the American version of The Office, Jim gives Dwight points for his speech based on a speech made by Mussolini. In popular culture See also • • • • Faisceau Clara Petacci Margherita Sarfatti Squadrismo References American wartime comic showing Mussolini and Hitler beaten by superheroes. Charlie Chaplin's 1940 film The Great Dictator satirizes Mussolini as "Benzino Napaloni", portrayed by Jack Oakie. More serious biographical depictions include a look at the last few days of Mussolini's life in Carlo Lizzani's movie Mussolini: Ultimo atto (Mussolini: The last act, 1974) and George C. Scott's portrayal in the 1985 television mini-series Mussolini: The Untold Story. Another 1985 movie was Mussolini: The Rise and Fall of Il Duce, in which Bob Hoskins plays the dictator (with Susan Sarandon as his daughter Edda and Anthony Hopkins as Count Ciano). Actor Antonio Banderas also played the title role in Benito - The Rise and Fall of Mussolini in 1993, which covered his life from his school [1] Image Description: Propaganda poster of Benito Mussolini, with caption "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Leader of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire...". [2] Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6. [3] Warwick Palmer, Alan (1996). Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day. Routledge. ISBN 0415131618. http://books.google.com/ books?id=YdMWTvXhVlUC&pg=PA259&lpg=PA259 [4] ^ Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 3 [5] ^ "Benito Mussolini". Grolier.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.grolier.com/ wwii/wwii_mussolini.html. 18 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [6] ^ Living History 2; Chapter 2: Italy under Fascism - ISBN 1-84536-028-1 [7] "Alessandro Mussolini". GeneAll.net. 8 January 2008. http://www.geneall.net/I/ per_page.php?id=283037. [8] ^ "Benito Mussolini". HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 8 January 2008. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ benito_mussolini.htm. [9] Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, bottom of page 3 [10] ^ Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 4 [11] Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945 Edited by Charles F. Delzel, Harper Rowe 1970, page 6 [12] ^ Mussolini: A Study In Power, Ivone Kirkpatrick, Hawthorne Books, 1964. ISBN 0-837-18400-2 [13] ^ "Power-mad Mussolini sacrificed wife and son". Times Online. 2005-01-13. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/ world/article411675.ece. Retrieved on 2009-05-14. [14] ^ "The Rise of Benito Mussolini". 8 January 2008. http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/ ww2timeline/Prelude05.html. [15] ""We're all fascists now"". Salon.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.salon.com/ news/feature/2008/01/11/goldberg/ print.html. [16] "Flunking Fascism 101". WND.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.wnd.com/ news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=39164. [17] Moseley, Ray. Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade Publications, 2004. P. 39 [18] Sharma, Urmila. Western Political Thought. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd, 1998. P. 66 [19] Sharma, Urmila. Western Political Thought. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd, 1998. P. 66-67. [20] "Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary". Roland Sarti. 8 January 2008. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1852268. [21] "Mussolini's Italy". Appstate.edu. 8 January 2008. http://www.appstate.edu/ ~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html. [22] Macdonald, Hamish (1999). Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. Benito Mussolini ISBN 0748733868. http://books.google.com/ books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT17&lpg=PT17&dq [23] "Ha'aretz Newspaper, Israel, 'The Jewish Mother of Fascism". Haaretz.com. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=735492. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. [24] ^ Paxton, Robert (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. New York City: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4094-9. [25] The Times, Thursday, April 8, 1926; pg. 12; Issue 44240; col A [26] Cannistraro, Philip (March 1996). "Mussolini, Sacco-Vanzetti, and the Anarchists: The Transatlantic Context". The Journal of Modern History (The University of Chicago Press) 68 (1): 55. doi:10.1086/245285. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2124332. Retrieved on 2008-09-06. [27] "FATHER INSPIRED ZAMBONI.; But Parent of Mussolini's Assailant Long Ago Gave Up Anarchism. BLOOD SHED IN RIOTS THROUGHOUT ITALY". The New York Times. 1926-11-03. http://www.proquest.com. Retrieved on 2008-09-06. [28] "The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome". Libcom.org. http://libcom.org/history/ 1926-attempted-assassination-mussolini. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. [29] "1931: The murder of Michael Schirru". Libcom.org. http://www.libcom.org/ history/articles/murder-michael-schirru. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. [30] Arrigo Petacco, L'uomo della provvidenza: Mussolini, ascesa e caduta di un mito, Milano, Mondadori, 2004, p. 190 [31] The Vampire Economy: Italy, Germany, and the US, Jeffrey Herbener, Mises Institute, October 13, 2005 [32] Comic escapes prosecution for insulting pope(Oddly Enough) Reuters-(Fri Sep 19, 2008 1:15pm EDT)By Phil Stewart [33] "A Brief History of Italy: From the Etruscans to today". LifeinItaly.com. 8 January 2008. http://www.lifeinitaly.com/ history/. [34] ^ "Ethiopia 1935-36". icrc.org. 8 January 2008. http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/ siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/ 5RUHGM?OpenDocument&View=defaultBody&style 19 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Benito Mussolini [35] Speech delivered by Premier Benito International Library of Colonial History. Mussolini. Rome, Italy, February 23, I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 0415265975. 1941 http://www.amazon.co.uk/Britain-African[36] ^ "Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Campaign-International-Colonial/dp/ Fascist or Nationalist?". 1845110404. jch.sagepub.com. 8 January 2008. [48] "1940 World War II Timeline". http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/ WorldWarIIHistory.info. 8 January 2008. 115. http://www.worldwariihistory.info/ [37] Montagu, Ashley (1997). Man's Most 1940.html. Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. [49] Mollo, Andrew (1987). The Armed Forces Rowman Altamira. ISBN 0803946481. of World War II. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. http://books.google.com/ ISBN 978-0517544785. books?id=tkHqP3vgYi4C&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187&dq=%22+Nothing+will+ever+make+me+believe http://www.amazon.com/Armed-Forces[38] Griffen, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford World-War-Organization/dp/ University Press, 1995. Pp. 59. 0517544784. [39] Hollander, Ethan J (1997) (PDF). Italian [50] ^ "Chronology of the Second World Fascism and the Jews. University of War". Spartacus.SchoolNet.co.uk. 8 California. ISBN 0803946481. January 2008. http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/ http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/ Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF. 2WWchron.htm. [40] "The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an [51] "World War II: Operation Compass". Assimilated Jewish Community". About.com. 8 January 2008. ACJNA.org. 8 January 2008. http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/ http://www.acjna.org/acjna/ worldwarii/p/compass.htm. articles_detail.aspx?id=300. [52] "Speech Delivered by Premier Benito [41] "Mussolini and the Roman Catholic Mussolini". IlBiblio.org. 8 January 2008. Church". HistoryLearningSite.co.uk. 8 http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/ January 2008. 410223a.html. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ [53] "The Invasion and Battle for Greece mussolini_roman_catholic.htm. (Operation Marita)". Feldgrau.com. [42] Lowe, CJ (1967). Italian Foreign Policy 2008-01-08. http://www.feldgrau.com/ 1870-1940. Routledge. ISBN greecewar.html. 0415265975. http://books.google.com/ [54] ^ Moseley, Ray (2004). Mussolini: The books?id=5Cfuax6XHF0C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=irredentism&source=web&ots=Kg9o1ECiRf&s Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade. [43] "The Italo-German Alliance, May 22, ISBN 1589790952. 1939". astro.temple.edu. 8 January 2008. http://books.google.com/ http://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/ books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq= Italo_German_alliance_1939.htm. [55] ^ Whittam, John (2005). Fascist Italy. [44] "Victor Emanuel III". Questia.com. 8 Manchester University Press. ISBN January 2008. http://www.questia.com/ 0719040043. http://books.google.com/ library/encyclopedia/ books?id=hHgMm6APG_0C&dq=%22Vatican+Radio victor_emmanuel_iii.jsp. [56] "Modern era". BestofSicily.com. 8 [45] ^ Knox, MacGregor (1986). Mussolini January 2008. Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and http://www.bestofsicily.com/ Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. history3.htm. Cambridge University Press. ISBN [57] ^ Shirer, William (1960). The Rise and 0521338352. http://books.google.com/ Fall of the Third Reich. New York City: books?id=_PwCu_DSimon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-72868-7. HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non- Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid [58] ^ belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43, to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. ISBN [46] ^ "Italy Declares War". ThinkQuest.org. 978-0-306-81396-2. 8 January 2008. http://www.amazon.com/Hitlers-Raidhttp://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212881/ Save-Mussolini-Operation/dp/ italdewa.html. 0306813963. [47] Samson, Anne (1967). Britain, South [59] "The twilight of Italian fascism". Africa and East African Campaign: EnterStageRight.com. 8 January 2008. 20 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/ articles/0105/0105mussolini.htm. [60] Peter York. Dictator Style.. Chronicle Books, San Francisco (2006), ISNB-10:0-8118-5314-4. p. 17-18. [61] "Benito Mussolini". Celebritymorgue.com. 1945-04-28. http://www.celebritymorgue.com/benitomussolini/. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. [62] Quoted in "Mussolini: A New Life" - Page 276 - by Nicholas Burgess Farrell – 2004 [63] Jim Heddlesten. "''Commando Supremo: Events of 1941". Comandosupremo.com. http://www.comandosupremo.com/ 1941.html. Retrieved on 2009-03-13. Benito Mussolini • Europe 1870-1991 by Terry Morris and Derrick Murphy • Il Duce - Christopher Hibbert • The Last Centurion by Rudolph S.Daldin www.benito-mussolini.com ISBN 0-921447-34-5 • Hitler and Mussolini. The Secret Meetings by Santi Corvaja translated by Robert L. Miller Enigma 2001 ISBN1-929631-00-6 • Mussolini. The Secrets of his Death by Luciano Garibaldi Enigma 2004 ISBN1-929631-23-5 • L'archivio segreto di Mussolini, Arrigo Petacco (ed.), Mondadori, 1998, ISBN: 8804449144 Bibliography • Mussolini. Bosworth, R.J.B., London, Hodder, 2002 (hardback ISBN 0340731443); (paperback ISBN 0340809884). • "Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship 1915-1945". Bosworth, R.J.B., London, Allen Lane, 2006 (hardback ISBN 0713996978, paperback 2006 ISBN 0141012919). • The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution, Zeev Sternhell, with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, trans. by David Maisel, Princeton University Press, NJ, 1994. pg 214. • Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930-1939, Cambria Press: 2007 • Mussolini's Rome: rebuilding the Eternal City, Borden W. Painter, Jr., 2005 • Mussolini: A biography, Denis Mack Smith ,New York: Random House 1982 • Mussolini, Renzo De Felice, Torino : Einaudi, 1995. • Mussolini: A New Life, Nicholas Farrell, London: Phoenix Press, 2003, ISBN 1842121235. • Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce, Ray Moseley, Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2004. • Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist. O'Brien, Paul. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2004 (hardback, ISBN 1-84520-051-9; (paperback, ISBN 1-84520-052-7). • Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe "Italy, 1918-1945: the first appearance of fascism. Writings of Mussolini • Giovanni Hus (Jan Hus), il veridico Rome (1913) Published in America under John Hus (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929) Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) under John Hus, the Veracious. • The Cardinal's Mistress (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928) • There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to Benito Mussolini but ghost written by Giovanni Gentile that appeared in the 1932 edition of the Enciclopedia Italiana, and excerpts can be read at Doctrine of Fascism. There are also links to the complete text. • La Mia Vita ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Arnaldo Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian Politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925). • From 1951 to 1962 Edoardo and Duilio Susmel worked for "La Fenice" publisher in order to print opera omnia (all the works) of Mussolini in 35 volumes. External links • Benito Mussolini in pictures • Commando Supremo: Benito Mussolini 21 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Political offices Preceded by Luigi Facta Preceded by Carlo Schanzer Preceded by Dino Grandi Preceded by Galeazzo Ciano Preceded by Paolino Taddei Preceded by Luigi Federzoni Preceded by New Title Preceded by New Title Preceded by New Title Prime Minister of Italy 1922 – 1943 Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1922 – 1929 Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1932 – 1936 Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1943 Italian Minister of the Interior 1922 – 1924 Italian Minister of the Interior 1926 – 1943 Benito Mussolini Succeeded by Pietro Badoglio Succeeded by Dino Grandi Succeeded by Galeazzo Ciano Succeeded by Raffaele Guariglia Succeeded by Luigi Federzoni Succeeded by Bruno Fornaciari Head of the Fascist Grand Coun- Succeeded by Pietro Badoglio cil 1928 – 1944 Head of State of the Italian Social Republic 1943 – 1945 Succeeded by End Title Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Succeeded by End Title Italian Social Republic 1943 – 1945 • Did Mussolini really make the trains run • "Il Duce 'sought Hitler ban'". BBC News. on time? 2003-09-27. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ • Is Mussolini quote on corporatism europe/3144984.stm. Retrieved on accurate? 2008-08-10. • Mussolini comemoration in Latvia Persondata • Mussolini's War Statement - Declaration NAME Mussolini, Benito Amilcare of War against USA, December 11, 1941 Andrea • Declaration of War on France and England ALTERNATIVE Mussolini, Benito • Benito Mussolini Speeches NAMES • . http://books.google.com/ books?q=mussolini+%22my+autobiography%22&. SHORT Prime-Minister and fascist Click on the result titled "My Rise and DESCRIPTION dictator of Italy Fall" (usually the top result). Then use the DATE OF July 29, 1883(1883-07-29) search form in the left column titled BIRTH "search within this book." PLACE OF Dovia di Predappio, Italy • The 1928 autobiography of Benito BIRTH Mussolini. Online. My Autobiography. DATE OF April 28, 1945 Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles DEATH Scribner's Sons, 1928. • Michael Schirru's failed attempt on Mussolini's life • The Jewish mother of Fascism Haaretz article on Margherita Sarfatti by Saviona Mane PLACE OF DEATH Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" 22 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Benito Mussolini Categories: Converts to Roman Catholicism, European dictators, Executed Italian people, Executed politicians, Fascist era scholars and writers, Field Marshals of Italy, Italian fascists, Dictatorship, Italian military personnel of World War I, Italian Ministers of the Interior, Italian Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Italian people of World War II, Italian newspaper founders, Italian anti-communists, Italian Roman Catholics, Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Knights of Malta, Members of the Italian Socialist Party, People executed by firing squad, People from the Province of Forlì-Cesena, Prime Ministers of Italy, World War II political leaders, 1883 births, 1945 deaths This page was last modified on 18 May 2009, at 19:25 (UTC). 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Greater Flamingos
Posted by Gautam Chakrabarti on September 11, 2013 at 11:27 pm
Viewed 338 times
Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus) – @ Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary – Andhra Pradesh, India.
Camera Canon EOS 7D
Lens Model EF100-400mm f/4.5-5.6L IS USM
Exposure 0.002 sec (1/640)
Aperture f/9.0
Focal Length 400 mm
ISO Speed 100
The Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) is the most widespread species of the flamingo family. It is found in parts of Africa, southern Asia (coastal regions of Pakistan and India), and southern Europe (including Spain, Albania, Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, Portugal, Italy and the Camargue region of France). Some populations are short distance migrants, and sightings north of the breeding range are relatively frequent; however, given the species' popularity in captivity, whether or not these are truly wild individuals is a matter of some debate. A single bird was seen on North Keeling Island (Cocos (Keeling) Islands) in 1988.
This is the largest species of flamingo, averaging 110–150 cm (43–60 in) tall and weighing 2–4 kg (4.4–8.8 lbs). The largest male flamingos have been recorded at up to 187 cm (74 in) tall and 4.5 kg (10 lbs). It is closely related to the American Flamingo and Chilean Flamingo, with which it has sometimes been considered conspecific, but that treatment is now widely seen (e.g., by the American and British Ornithologists' Union) as incorrect and based on insufficient evidence.
Like all flamingos, this species lays a single chalky-white egg on a mud mound. Most of the plumage is pinkish-white, but the wing coverts are red and the primary and secondary flight feathers are black. The bill is pink with a restricted black tip, and the legs are entirely pink. The call is a goose-like honking. Sub-adult flamingos are whitish-grey and only attain the pink coloration several years into their adult life. The coloration comes from the carotenoid pigments in the organisms that live in their feeding grounds.
The bird resides in mudflats and shallow coastal lagoons with salt water. Using its feet, the bird stirs up the mud, then sucks water through its bill and filters out small shrimp, seeds, blue-green algae, microscopic organisms and mollusks. The Greater Flamingo feeds with its head down and its upper jaw is movable and not rigidly fixed to its skull.
Source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Flamingo
Pulicat lake bird sanctuary is a saline backwater lake lying along the T.N.-A.P coast; part extending to Chengalpattu district of T.N. It has an area of 481 sq.KM and it is the 2nd largest brackish water lagoon in India after Chilka lake in Orissa. The area on the TN side is 153.67 sq.km.
The Pulicat sanctuary is drained by Arni river while the Buckingham canal brings in the city's drainage water. At the southern end is an opening on to Bay of Bengal through a shallow mouth of 200 m in width. The rest of the lake is closed by a sand bar running parallel to the Bay of Bengal in the form of the Sriharikota island.
The sanctuary has an area of 321 Sq. KM with 108 sq.KM of National Park area.
It lies within 11o 30' N to 11o 42' N and 76o 30' E to 76o 45' E.
Rainfall ranges from 800 – 2000mm. Temperature varies from 14o C to 33o C.
Altitude ranges from 100' MSL to 1200' MSL.
The wetlands eco system are considered as among the richest areas of bio diversity. Pulicat, by virtue of the mixing of fresh water with sea water is found to be an ideal habitat for diverse life-forms. 160 species of fish, 25 species of polychaete worms, 12 species of prawn, 19 species of mollusk and 100 speceis of birds are well documented apart from a number of other aquatic flora and fauna.
Among the most spectacular is the flamingo-a tall gaunt, white-coloured bird with a touch of pink on the wings, pink beak and legs, seen feeding in shallow water. The squat, large-billed grey pelican with gular pouch and a number of ducks are commonly seen. Flocks of sea gulls and terns circling in the sky or bobbing up and down on the water are an added attraction at pulicat. Besides, there are a number of waterside birds and waders such as curlews, stilts, plovers, sand pipers, lapwings, redshank. Egrets, herons, kites etc. are some other birds found here. The lake is also home to crabs, clams, mussels, oysters, snails, fish worms, insects, spiders, sponges, anemone, prawns, plankton and so on including rare endemic species like gilled leech, an unidentified bloodred fish, etc., Rapid siltation has caused loss of bio diversity. It is seen that mangrove opllen is found on Sriharikota Island indicating their existence some years back. Loss of mangroves may be one of the resons hastening siltation, reducing biodiversity and hence depriving fisherfolk of their livelihood.
Source : www.forests.tn.nic.in/wildbiodiversity/bs_plbs.html

subset: commoncrawl


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I have an old ~ Pilot's Cap ~ / I don't know to much about the item, except that its
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Replica of the Budweiser Beer can. Comes apart to be used as 6 coasters the puzzle in it is that you have to place the coasters back on top of each other to make the can. Official Budweiser Gear..
San Diego Padres - National League Champions - 1984 - 33 1/3 LP -
In mint condition.
Lite Beer from Miller and The Padres Present - "A Dedicated Season".
Jerry Coleman, 76 KFMB, Dave Campbell, Bob Chandler, Ted Leitner and more.
BEAUTIFUL Male Diamondback Terrapin. 3 years old. With 20 gallon fish tank with 75 watt heater and internal fluval canister filter.
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I have a ~ 1:24 Dragster Diecast Replica / Championship NHRA Drag Racing /
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I also think I payed $50. for it 13-yrs.
3 scalloped vintage rainbow glass food serving bowls, in excellent perfect condition. like new condition although this matching set is from the 30's 40's era. No damage at all, mostly been packed up and stored.
Adorable Duck House brand 18" porcelain Victorian doll from the Heirloom Edition series. Her name is Cheri. Limited Edition series which closed production after 15,000 pieces (as stated on Certificate of Authenticity), and this one is number 3619.
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Superbowl tickets for every year poster very much collectible asking $50 for both.
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Coca Cola Classic Original 6 Pack - Sealed and full bottles.
See photos.
These are vintage 1970's Coca Cola bottles.
From my collection to yours..
Collection of Crystal Coffee Table Decor
Circa 1980s
Total of 4
1 lighter - Butane
1 cigarette holder
1 ashtray
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New in box 1/400 scale United Airlines Boeing 747-122 in Stars and Bars livery. Made by Gemini Jets.
Made by ~ "Life Like" ~ / Measurements ~ 5 1/2" Long x 1 3/4" Tall
x 1 1/2" Dept. / Writing on the Cargo Hauler ~ (Left-Side) ~ L & N 46244
Pool Al / (writing inside the very small box) When Empty Return to Nashville, Tn.
New in box 1/400 scale Aerolineas Argentinas Boeing 747SP. Produced by Gemini Jets. Rare LV-OHV. To see other classic airliners for sale type "airlines" in the search box..
pre 1940's Germany ceramic jar w/ needlepoint pattern lid. Adorable, in excellent condition, no damage at all, perfect. No fading, excellent colors with a gold band trim. A good size measures 6" in diameter and 3" high.
New in box 1/400 scale British Caledonian DC-10-30. G-BHDI. Rare. Produced by Gemini Jets. To see other classic airliners type "airlines" in the search box.
show contact info
Smurfs Lunch Box from 1982 just the lunch pale does not come with the thermos..
Tree features a mixture of white and pink tips that are lightly flocked for a wintry effect .Tree is about 3 feet high....In excellent condition only use once...(Ornaments lights Not included ) $40.
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Selling my classic football game asking $50 or best offer. Selling online right now for $100.
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text: Roger and Theodicy 2009-06-17 by David von Schlichten I am grateful for our guest blogger's reflections on Job. Scroll down to read Roger Gustafson's insightful posts. He is right that, when someone suffers, she or he does not really want to know why. The person just wants the suffering to stop. That's a helpful point that I will probably take with me into the pulpit this Sunday. Many people derive comfort from the belief that "Everything happens for a reason," but I find more comforting and more sound biblically and logically the belief that "Some things just happen, but God never forsakes us." Why do people cling to the "Everything happens for a reason" theology? What's good and bad about it? Yours in Christ, David von Schlichten, Lectionary Blog Moderator 'Now my eye sees you' 2009-06-16 by Roger Gustafson Job asked for it, a reckoning, an explanation for his suffering. No secret sin burdens his conscience; he has nothing to fear because his record is clean. So bring it on. "Let the Almighty answer me!" (31:35b) In good rabbinic fashion, God responds to Job's question with a question. "Why do I suffer?", Job asks. "Who are you?", God responds. "Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge?" Job has been wearing not simply blinders but a blindfold. The Lord speaks out of the chaos of the whirlwind. While the appointed reading encompasses 11 verses, God goes on for four chapters, recounting God's own activity throughout the grand sweep of creation. God's view is cosmic; Job's view has been pitifully myopic and immediate. As God speaks, God inserts an invitation to Job to respond (40:1-5), and by then his response amounts to wide-eyed surrender in the face of God's majesty: "I am of small account … I lay my hand on my mouth. I have spoken once, and I will not answer; twice, but will proceed no further." (40:4-5). What accounts for Job's shift in perspective? "I had heard of you by the hearing of the ear," he says in 42:5-6, "but now my eye sees you; therefore I despise myself, and repent in dust and ashes." Job had known God by reputation only; now, he had a vital, personal experience of the Almighty that gave his circumstance wider perspective. Job stops asking for an answer that fits within his framework of justice because he has encountered God in all of God's glory and power. It's an encounter that has rearranged Job's priorities and given him new eyes. We don't really want answers, do we? When we suffer, we don't want to know why, not really. We simply want the suffering to stop. The weary, all-cried-out, puffy-eyed parents of a 19-year-old daughter who is dying of liver cancer come to you pleading for an answer to "Why?" But they're not really trying to understand the mechanics of the illness's origin, as if understanding will make it all better. They don't want information; they want the cancer gone. To use Craig Barnes' construct at the recent Festival of Homiletics, the question is the text, the pain is the subtext. The subtext is where those parents deeply live. We can't give them what they want, but in time we can give them an awareness of the overwhelming, overpowering presence of the God who redeems even the very worst thing. We can invite the anger, the despair, the questioning; we can ride out the storm with them, contributing a generous amount of "I don't know" and putting up with their corresponding frustration with us. We can, if they allow, enter into that subtext and be present, announcing by our presence the God who redeems. God, got a minute? 2009-06-14 by Roger Gustafson Questions, questions, questions. Job has an abundance of them, all of which boil down to one: "Why me?" We know what's at work here, we in the gallery. We know that what's really happening is the playing out of a wager between God and Satan. Job, however, like a bewildered bystander caught in a drive-by, is left simply and profoundly slack-jawed by his sudden and drastic run of misfortune. His cattle, his servants, his children are ravaged and destroyed in an escalating tale of horror which, especially because of the death of his offspring, leaves him with no prospect of a future. And good Lord, that's only Chapter 1. I have to feel for Job. All his life he had been playing by the rules of a system that paid him handsome dividends. Retributive justice had been his ticket to prosperity: If you do good, you get good; if you do bad, you pay for it with illness and financial hardship, and worse. Job apparently had done only good, and had the goods to prove it. But now the system by which he made sense of the world, the structure which in the past had provided such security and guarantee of the good life, was producing no payoff; it was pointless, leading nowhere. In fact, Job would have welcomed a simple lack of abundance instead of the crushing harvest of pain that he was experiencing. And for no reason. Is there no justice? Robert never joined our parish, but near the end of his life he often sought out the early morning, middle-of-the-week quiet of our sanctuary. He was retired military, gruff on the exterior, a tough guy who had been caught in a drive-by of his own: though he had never smoked, he had lung cancer, and it was killing him. So he would ask permission to sit in the sanctuary, usually on Wednesdays, and read the Psalms. He wasn't a churchgoer, but he knew a few of those Psalms. He especially liked the one that talked about how those who wait on the Lord will mount up with wings like eagles. He used to sit in a sunbeam, silent, just breathing softly, reflecting on that psalm, waiting on the Lord. I asked him if he ever got angry with God, angry that he had cancer when there was no apparent reason for him to be suffering from it. "Nope," he said. "I know a lotta guys, in my shoes, they'd be mad. Not me. I never ask, 'Why me?', because I know the answer would probably be, 'Why not?'" Job is not Robert. Robert operates under a different system by which life makes sense. Call it chaos-in-a-box: Stuff happens, good stuff, bad stuff, and sometimes the bad stuff happens to you, but God makes it all work out, somehow. It's nothing personal, it's cancer. I imagine it took Robert a while to achieve that partnership of existential detachment and personal connection to the God at the center of the Psalms. With Job, however, life is a matter of straight-line justice. He suffers undeservedly, so it is personal; he is due an accounting. By the end of Chapter 37, when Job has pleaded his case to his friends and his friends have pleaded God's case to him, the stage is set for resolution, for a judgment. He's been asking, "Why me?", and God begins God's answer with, "Wrong question." Roger Gustafson Roger is a pastor in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, serving a congregation in the Kansas City suburb of Olathe, Kansas. He is a contributing writer for Lectionary Homiletics and The Living Pulpit preaching journals, and he is working on a book on the challenges of and unique opportunities inherent in second-career leadership in the church. He believes that the local parish and motorcycling are most excellent venues for learning. the young and the rested. 2009-06-13 by Maria Swearingen Ezekiel speaks of young twigs. The psalter speaks of old trees. The young and the old, doing things that seem out of the ordinary a bit. The young twigs in Ezekiel suddenly sprouting on high and lofty mountains. The old palms in the psalms bearing luscious fruit… strong, rested, proudly displaying their gifts to the world. The young and the old, both emblems of God-at-work. The newborn and the aging, both bearing the mark of God's presence. The young, providing reminders of God's infinite power. The old providing reminders of God's ability to make anything produce fruit. The young and the rested. The infinitely small that offers the infinitely big. The infinitely aging that offers the infinitely good. Christ, the infinitely young, the infinitely old, the infinitely infinite. A Peruvian theologian I've met here pointed out a few days ago that Acts 2 (quoted from Joel) says that the young will prophecy and the old will dream dreams. How strange. The young proclaiming and the old dreaming up God's world. How strange indeed. Body, Soul and Flesh 2009-06-11 by David von Schlichten To add to our guest blogger's posting about that frustrating old body/soul dualism, the Greek work for "human point of view" in 2 Corinthians 5 is "sarks," which, of course, means "flesh." So in this passage we have body and flesh. In Paul's theology, the body is good, and the flesh is a metonymy for human sinfulness. We may long to be free from the present body so we can be with God, but the body is not bad. The flesh, though, is sinfulness. Further, as our guest notes, someday we will have new bodies. God unites body and soul while also calling us to reject the flesh. See, all things have been made new! Yours in Christ, David von Schlichten, Lectionary Blog Moderator [First Page] [Prev] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 [Next] [Last Page] Login - (This login is for administrators and bloggers. 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