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A project of People For the American Way dedicated to monitoring and exposing the activities of the right-wing movement. Learn More >
Institute for Justice
The Institute for Justice (IJ) sees itself as the Right Wing's preeminent public interest law firm, committed to "challenging government's control over our lives." Unlike other such groups on the Right, IJ says it does not engage in "compromise" but rather advances "a tactically and philosophically consistent, long-term strategy" that allows it to "succeed on principle" rather than "fail on politics."
Institute for Justice
901 N. Glebe Road - Suite 900
Arlington, VA 22203
Website: www.ij.org
Founded: 1991 by Clint Bolick and Chip Mellor
President/General Counsel: William "Chip" Mellor III
Board of Directors: David Kennedy (chairman) - President Emeritus, Earhart Foundation; Mark Babunovic - Vice President, Bank of New York; Arthur Dantchik, Partner, Susquehanna Investment Group; Robert A. Levy - Senior Fellow in Constitutional Studies, Cato Institute; Jim Lintott - Principal, Freedom Management Group LLC; Chip Mellor - President and General Counsel, Institute for Justice; Stephen Modzelewski - Managing Member, Maple Engine L.L.C.; Abigail Thernstrom - Commissioner, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, and Senior Fellow, Manhattan Institute; Gerrit Wormhoudt - Attorney-at-Law, Fleeson, Gooing, Coulson and Kitch.
Finances: $7,507,175 (2005 revenue)
Publications: Liberty & Law, a bimonthly newsletter, Carry the Torch, a report on IJ, law review articles, also publishes reports on a variety of issues.
Affiliate Groups: The Institute for Justice has affiliate offices located in Arizona, Minnesota, and Washington; The IJ also created the Castle Coalition, a "nationwide grassroots property rights activism project" that "teaches home and small business owners how to protect themselves and stand up to the greedy governments and developers who seek to use eminent domain to take private property for their own gain."
Principal Issues
- Self-described as "America's premier libertarian public interest law firm."
- IJ provides pro bono legal advice and representation on conservative legal cases.
- Strong supporter of "school choice" and vouchers. Includes high profile litigation in Cleveland and Milwaukee.
- Opposes affirmative action policies, refers to them as "racial preferences" and "reverse discrimination"—in an opinion piece for the Wall Street Journal, Clint Bolick criticized President Clinton's nominee of Lani Guinier, a former lawyer for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, calling her "Clinton's Quota Queen" because of her idea to draw more racially-conscious districts with the hope of having greater racially-proportionate representation in the legislature and the courts.
- Supports government-subsidized, faith-based social service programs.
- IJ has an extensive training program for young lawyers and law students and sponsors an annual Policy Activists Conference on their issues.
- The Institute for Justice's School Choice Research Center provides pro-voucher research.
- IJ is active in defending private property and opposing what it considers abuse of the government's power of eminent domain.
- IJ has an annual Policy Activist Conference on Public Interest Litigation that trains conservative activists to use litigation as an advocacy tool.
- IJ holds conservative lawyer conferences to train them to identify potential cases and create highly visible lawsuits, as well as other litigation tactics.
- IJ's grassroots work is performed by their Human Action Network (HAN), which is made up of lawyers who have attended their conferences. The HAN is a network of hundreds of lawyers that IJ organizes to match with pro bono cases, give legal advice, and work together on their issues. These lawyers also serve to inform IJ on grassroots activities.
- Clint Bolick, formerly of right-wing Landmark Legal Foundation, and Chip Mellor, former president of right-wing Pacific Research Institute, founded the organization. Bolick has since gone on to become the president of the Alliance for School Choice.
- Grants and contributions from major right-wing foundations include: Olin Foundation, Bradley Foundation, Sarah Scaife Foundation, Kirby Foundation, Donner Foundation, and the Claude R. Lambe Foundation.
Updated: September 2006
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Nuclear watchdog chief: Inspections in Iran to be ''decisive''
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Create alert for TehranTehran
, Create alert for ViennaVienna
, Create alert for Agency for IranAgency for Iran
, Create alert for United NationsUnited Nations
, Create alert for United Nations AgencyUnited Nations Agency
, Create alert for International Atomic Energy AgencyInternational Atomic Energy Agency
The United Nations nuclear watchdog Head said on Tuesday that inspections to be carried out in the Islamic Republic of Iran would be "decisive" in verifying allegations that Tehran is covertly developing nuclear weapons.
"I think this is a decisive moment in our work in verifying Iran's nuclear program," Mohamed El-Baradei, chief of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) told reporters.
He added the inspectors would be leaving the Austrian capital of Vienna for Iran on Wednesday.
An October 31 deadline has been set by the United Nations Agency for Iran to prove that it is not secretly developing nuclear weapons - a charge that Tehran has denied. (Albawaba.com)
© 2003 Al Bawaba (www.albawaba.com)
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Easter devotions are here! Sign up for our Lent and Easter email devotions.
1:35 Israel and . . . Judah. Although made up of twelve tribes, the nation was composed of two major units, Israel in the north and Judah in the south. When David became king, he had to command assent from both Judah (2 Sam. 2:4) and Israel (2 Sam. 5:3). As heir to the Davidic dynasty, Solomon became king of both areas at once.


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Andrew Harrison
Andrew Harrison is Technical Editor at PC Advisor, responsible for writing and editing product reviews as well as overseeing the testing of PCs and laptops for the magazine's monthly charts section. When not at his office desk, Andrew can be found probing the latest tech in the IDG test lab, devising novel ways to evaluate products.
He has a broad interest and experience in computer technology from routers and networking to open-source, Macintosh and Windows systems. Prior to PC Advisor, Andrew worked in technical editing positions in specialist hi-fi and music publications.
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US 4172379 A Abstract A method and apparatus for automatically adjusting the gain of an ultrasonic device for inspecting a pipeline for leaks. The ultrasonic device is designed to pass through the interior of a pipeline and record noise produced by fluids leaking from the pipeline. The response of the device is adjusted automatically by controlling the gain of the amplification in response to the strength of a signal received from an ultrasonic generator positioned outside the pipeline.
Claims(4) 1. An improved apparatus for inspecting a pipeline for leaks, said apparatus being adapted to be transported through the pipeline by fluid flow to detect, amplify and record ultrasonic vibrations caused by fluid leaking from the pipeline, the improvements comprising:
an amplifier, said amplifier having a variable gain; circuit means disposed on the apparatus to receive and detect a frequency modulated coded acoustical signal, said coded acoustical signal being supplied from an external source acoustically coupled to said pipeline; and additional circuit means coupled to said circuit means and responsive to the amplitude of said coded acoustic signal to adjust the gain of said amplifier. 2. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said amplifier has a variable gain of at least 50 dB.
3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said circuit means comprises a filter disposed to pass the carrier frequency of the coded signal, a detector-rectifying circuit disposed to detect the code signal in the signal passed by the filter and a second filter disposed to pass the frequency of the code signal.
4. The apparatus of claim 3 and in addition said carrier frequency being in the ultrasonic range and said code signal being in the sonic range.
Description The present invention is related to the pipeline inspection apparatus disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,409,897 and 3,462,240. The invention relates to an apparatus for inspecting a pipeline for leaks particularly an apparatus is one that can be carried through the pipeline with the stream of matter flowing through that pipeline. The apparatus includes equipment for detecting, amplifying, selecting and recording acoustic signals received from leaks or external coded sources of vibration. The outward appearance of such an apparatus may resemble a cylindrical housing with a smaller diameter than the internal diameter of the pipeline, and equipped with flanges which do not touch the inner wall of the pipeline and wheels rolling along that inner wall. A small leak in a pipeline, in particular in a pipeline for liquids such as oil or oil products, causes a hissing sound, which is readily perceptible in the pipeline in the proximity of that leak. For this purpose the apparatus is equipped with a microphone or hydrophone attached to the outside of the cylindrical housing. The sound produced includes both audible and ultrasonic vibrations. As it travels through the pipeline the apparatus detects a rise in sound intensity when approaching a leak and a fall when the leak has been passed. The recitified signal is peak-shaped and the peak is recorded as a function of time it is possible to determine the position of the leak with the aid of the flow schedule of the pipeline. It is sufficient to print the time on the record sheet when a leak is being passed. Favorable results are obtained when the apparatus is designed for the detection and processing of vibrations in the range of 20-40 kHz. Besides establishing the presence and location of a leak, it is at least as important to be able to establish the absence of leaks. To this end there must be certainty that on its trip through the pipeline the apparatus was operating properly. For this purpose sources of vibration may be attached to the outer wall of the pipeline. Such external sources preferably give an acoustic signal within the range of the amplifier setting, for instance 35 kHz. This signal has been coded, for instance by modulation with a low-frequency vibration, so that, by filtering, it can be recognized as originating from an external source of vibration and be recorded with its own code. If the vibrations from all external sources are recorded, there is a high degree of certainty that the apparatus has been operating properly. It has been found, however, that the observation of the signals from the external sources of vibration is not always sufficiently reliable and the invention indicates how this can be improved. The invention therefore relates to an apparatus as described in the preamble, carrying an amplifier with variable amplification factor for the acoustic signals detected. The amplifier the input for setting the amplification factor is connected to the output of the selector for the signal from an external coded source of vibration. The amplifier output is connected with further processing and recording apparatus. The external coded sources of vibration are acoustically coupled to the pipe wall. The intensity of the source of vibration is chosen such as to produce sufficient vibrational energy inside the pipeline for adequate detection by the passing pig. Naturally, the vibrational energy that is present inside the pipe and originates from the external source is partly determined by the acoustic coupling between the external source and the pipe wall. This coupling will vary with time because of corrosion, mechanical forces and changes in the geometry of the pipe. As a consequence, the intensity of the acoustic signal in the pipeline may vary in an unpredictable and highly irregular way. With the apparatus according to the invention the amplification factor of the amplifier is adapted to the intensity of the signal from an external source of vibration in the pipeline at the moment of detection. Obviously, the amplification factor increases as that intensity decreases. The intensity of the external source of vibration will be chosen high, i.e., so high that in the case of optimum coupling the intensity in the pipeline will be too high. The adverse effect of too high an intensity is to overload of the amplifiers, which may lead to erroneous recordings. Moreover, at too high an intensity the number of recordings obtained is unnecessarily large. This is compensated for by a decrease of the amplification factor. As the coupling deteriorates, a strong external source can be used longer than a weak source. The ratio of the maximum to the minimum amplification factor may be 50 dB. When the apparatus is not in the proximity of an external source, the selector for the signal from an external source does not give a signal. The amplification factor is then automatically at its maximum. This means that the signal from a leak is always processed with a maximum amplification factor. This is a favorable circumstance, since the leak signal may be weak. Weak and strong leak signals can be distinguished on the record sheet by the number of prints made, and this indication is desired. The invention will now be described with reference to the attached drawing showing a block diagram of part of an apparatus according to the invention for the detection, amplification and selection of the acoustic signals. Hydrophone 1 is connected to pre-amplifier 2 with a high input impedance. This amplifier has a constant amplification factor of about 3 dB. Its output is connected to an active filter element 3 having a frequency range is 20-40 kHz, and constant amplification factor about 17 dB. Its output is connected to an amplifier 4 with variable amplification factor have a maximum amplification of 50 dB. The amplification factor is set automatically by the output signal from a filter element 11 to be discussed hereinafter. The output of amplifier 4 is connected to a rectifier 5. The rectifier output signal goes to an integrator 6, where the signal is integrated for about two seconds. If the output signal exceeds a certain set value, comparator 7 changes its output signal which goes via connection 8 to the recording unit not further represented here. The output of amplifier 4 is also connected to the input of an active filter element 9. This element is tuned in to the frequency of the external coded sources of vibration, for instance 35 kHz and has a constant amplification factor of about 4 dB. The signal from this filter element goes to a detector 10 where the high-frequency signal is rectified. The rectified signal goes to a low-frequency filter 11, tuned in to the modulation of the external sources of vibration, which functions as code of the signals from these sources. This low frequency may for instance be 72 Hz. The constant amplification factor is about 15 dB. If a signal passes through this filter element 11, the signal received by hydrophone 1 came from an external coded source of vibration. Thus, double filtering takes place, so that any low-frequency signal that happens to be present in the pipeline and includes 72 Hz cannot interfere. The output of low-frequency filter 11 is connected with the input for setting the amplification factor of amplifier 4. A weak signal from filter 11 will lead to a high amplification factor of amplifier 4 and conversely. The output of filter 11 is also connected with rectifier 12, which is followed by an integrator 13, a comparator 14 and a connection 15. They have the same function for the signal from an external source as the chain 5, 6, 7 and 8 for a leak signal. The two integrators 6 and 13 are set in the initial position every two seconds by clock-pulse generator 16. This can be done from outside via connection 17. If desired, the pulse of the clock is delayed by the signal to connection 15 for the time required by integrator 6 to give a signal to connection 8. Patent Citations
Referenced by
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Microplane Gourmet Coarse Grater
Easily grates hard cheeses such as Parmesan and Romano, as well as wide range of fruits and vegetables, from pears, apples, and coconut to fresh carrots, peppers and ginger. All Microplane 45000 Gourmet Series graters are dishwasher-safe, featuring all stainless steel frame and blade construction, non-slip rubber feet, and charcoal black, ergonomic, soft touch handles for a more comfortable, sure grip.
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Weights & Dimensions
Product Type: Grater and zester | Finish: Stainless Steel; Black |
Base Material: Stainless steel | Handle Material: Plastic |
Number of Items Included: 2 | Pieces Included: Grater and cover |
Operation: Manual | Food Compatibility: Vegetable; Fruit; Cheese |
Item Type: Handheld | Soft-Grip Handle: Yes |
Dishwasher Safe: Yes | Country of Manufacture: United States |
About the Manufacturer
It started out in 1990, merely as a new type of woodworking tool. The Microplane® rasp was first invented in 1990 by brothers Richard and Jeff Grace at their jointly owned contract manufacturing facility, Grace Manufacturing Inc., in Russellville, Arkansas, USA. The company already had almost 20 years of photochemical machining experience making parts for the high tech printer industry, but it had never really produced any parts of its own design.Microplane Gourmet Coarse Grater
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5 star | 9 | |
4 star | 0 | |
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Good tool Phi from lake forest, CA– Verified Buyer I went with this one because it has decent reviews and is a little on the high price but I was hoping higer price means higher quality. I was not dissapointed at all. I'm glad people write reviews so i'm doing the same things hoping consumers will read and buy good products |
Great Grater! Dawn from Red Hook, NY– Verified Buyer Excellent for small jobs or when you just want a quick grate in a pan or skillet. Very good quality, light weight, doesn't slip and the cutting edges don't clog! |
Must have kitchen tool Sally from Brentwood, CA– Verified Buyer This micro plane is excellent. Grates with almost no effort and clean up is a breeze. A must have tool in my kitchen! |
grater Thomas from Harrison Township, MI– Verified Buyer coarse grater is easy to use and looks like a very well built kitchen tool |
Works Great Sare from Bay Area, CA– Verified Buyer This hand grater/zester is very sharp. I love that it has a guard to cover the blades when storing (avoids the blades getting dull). Works great with hard cheeses, chocolate, and zesting citrus fruits. |
Valued Customer from Texas |
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Gourmet Coarse Grater is also sometimes listed under the following manufacturer numbers: 45000


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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
Galileo spacecraft true-color image of Io. The dark spot just left of the center is the erupting volcano Prometheus. The whitish plains on either side of it are coated with volcanically deposited sulfur dioxide frost, whereas the yellower regions contain a higher proportion of sulfur. | |||||||||
Discovery | |||||||||
Discovered by | Galileo Galilei | ||||||||
Discovery date | 8 January 1610[1] | ||||||||
Designations | |||||||||
Jupiter I | |||||||||
Adjectives | Ionian | ||||||||
Orbital characteristics | |||||||||
Periapsis | 420000 km (0.002807 AU) | ||||||||
Apoapsis | 423400 km (0.002830 AU) | ||||||||
Mean orbit radius | 421700 km (0.002819 AU) | ||||||||
Eccentricity | 0.0041 | ||||||||
1.769137786 d (152853.5047 s, 42.45930686 h) | |||||||||
Average orbital speed | 17.334 km/s | ||||||||
Inclination | 2.21° (to the ecliptic) 0.05° (to Jupiter's equator) | ||||||||
Satellite of | Jupiter | ||||||||
Physical characteristics | |||||||||
Dimensions | 3,660.0 × 3,637.4 × 3,630.6 km[2] | ||||||||
Mean radius | 1821.6±0.5 km (0.286 Earths)[3] | ||||||||
41910000 km2 (0.082 Earths) | |||||||||
Volume | 2.53×1010 km3 (0.023 Earths) | ||||||||
Mass | (8.931938±0.000018)×1022 kg (0.015 Earths)[3] | ||||||||
Mean density | 3.528±0.006 g/cm3[3] | ||||||||
1.796 m/s2 (0.183 g) | |||||||||
2.558 km/s | |||||||||
synchronous | |||||||||
Equatorial rotation velocity | 271 km/h | ||||||||
Albedo | 0.63±0.02[3] | ||||||||
| |||||||||
5.02 (opposition)[4] | |||||||||
Atmosphere | |||||||||
Surface pressure | trace | ||||||||
Composition | 90% sulfur dioxide | ||||||||
Galileo spacecraft true-color image of Io. The dark spot just left of the center is the erupting volcano Prometheus. The whitish plains on either side of it are coated with volcanically deposited sulfur dioxide frost, whereas the yellower regions contain a higher proportion of sulfur. | |||||||||
Discovery | |||||||||
Discovered by | Galileo Galilei | ||||||||
Discovery date | 8 January 1610[1] | ||||||||
Designations | |||||||||
Jupiter I | |||||||||
Adjectives | Ionian | ||||||||
Orbital characteristics | |||||||||
Periapsis | 420000 km (0.002807 AU) | ||||||||
Apoapsis | 423400 km (0.002830 AU) | ||||||||
Mean orbit radius | 421700 km (0.002819 AU) | ||||||||
Eccentricity | 0.0041 | ||||||||
1.769137786 d (152853.5047 s, 42.45930686 h) | |||||||||
Average orbital speed | 17.334 km/s | ||||||||
Inclination | 2.21° (to the ecliptic) 0.05° (to Jupiter's equator) | ||||||||
Satellite of | Jupiter | ||||||||
Physical characteristics | |||||||||
Dimensions | 3,660.0 × 3,637.4 × 3,630.6 km[2] | ||||||||
Mean radius | 1821.6±0.5 km (0.286 Earths)[3] | ||||||||
41910000 km2 (0.082 Earths) | |||||||||
Volume | 2.53×1010 km3 (0.023 Earths) | ||||||||
Mass | (8.931938±0.000018)×1022 kg (0.015 Earths)[3] | ||||||||
Mean density | 3.528±0.006 g/cm3[3] | ||||||||
1.796 m/s2 (0.183 g) | |||||||||
2.558 km/s | |||||||||
synchronous | |||||||||
Equatorial rotation velocity | 271 km/h | ||||||||
Albedo | 0.63±0.02[3] | ||||||||
| |||||||||
5.02 (opposition)[4] | |||||||||
Atmosphere | |||||||||
Surface pressure | trace | ||||||||
Composition | 90% sulfur dioxide | ||||||||
Io /ˈaɪ.oʊ/[6] is the innermost of the four Galilean moons of the planet Jupiter. It is the fourth-largest moon, has the highest density of all the moons, and is the driest known object in the Solar System. It was named after the mythological character Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of Zeus's lovers.
With over 400 active volcanoes, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System.[7][8] This extreme geologic activity is the result of tidal heating from friction generated within Io's interior as it is pulled between Jupiter and the other Galilean satellites—Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Several volcanoes produce plumes of sulfur and sulfur dioxide that climb as high as 500 km (300 mi) above the surface. Io's surface is also dotted with more than 100 mountains that have been uplifted by extensive compression at the base of Io's silicate crust. Some of these peaks are taller than Mount Everest.[9] Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System, which are mostly composed of water ice, Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core. Most of Io's surface is composed of extensive plains coated with sulfur and sulfur dioxide frost.
Io's volcanism is responsible for many of its unique features. Its volcanic plumes and lava flows produce large surface changes and paint the surface in various subtle shades of yellow, red, white, black, and green, largely due to allotropes and compounds of sulfur. Numerous extensive lava flows, several more than 500 km (300 mi) in length, also mark the surface. The materials produced by this volcanism make up Io's thin, patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere. Io's volcanic ejecta also produce a large plasma torus around Jupiter.
Io played a significant role in the development of astronomy in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei, along with the other Galilean satellites. This discovery furthered the adoption of the Copernican model of the Solar System, the development of Kepler's laws of motion, and the first measurement of the speed of light. From Earth, Io remained just a point of light until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when it became possible to resolve its large-scale surface features, such as the dark red polar and bright equatorial regions. In 1979, the two Voyager spacecraft revealed Io to be a geologically active world, with numerous volcanic features, large mountains, and a young surface with no obvious impact craters. The Galileo spacecraft performed several close flybys in the 1990s and early 2000s, obtaining data about Io's interior structure and surface composition. These spacecraft also revealed the relationship between Io and Jupiter's magnetosphere and the existence of a belt of radiation centered on Io's orbit. Io receives about 3,600 rem (36 Sv) of radiation per day.[10]
Further observations have been made by Cassini–Huygens in 2000 and New Horizons in 2007, as well as from Earth-based telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope as technology has advanced.
Although Simon Marius is not credited with the sole discovery of the Galilean satellites, his names for the moons were adopted. In his 1614 publication Mundus Iovialis anno M.DC.IX Detectus Ope Perspicilli Belgici, he proposed several alternative names for the innermost of the large moons of Jupiter, including "The Mercury of Jupiter" and "The First of the Jovian Planets".[11] Based on a suggestion from Johannes Kepler in October 1613, he also devised a naming scheme whereby each moon was named for a lover of the Greek mythological Zeus or his Roman equivalent, Jupiter. He named the innermost large moon of Jupiter after the Greek mythological figure Io.[11][12] Marius' names were not widely adopted until centuries later, and in much of the earlier astronomical literature, Io was generally referred to by its Roman numeral designation (a system introduced by Galileo) as "Jupiter I",[13] or as "the first satellite of Jupiter".[14][15]
Features on Io are named after characters and places from the Io myth, as well as deities of fire, volcanoes, the Sun, and thunder from various myths, and characters and places from Dante's Inferno: names appropriate to the volcanic nature of the surface.[16] Since the surface was first seen up close by Voyager 1, the International Astronomical Union has approved 225 names for Io's volcanoes, mountains, plateaus, and large albedo features. The approved feature categories used for Io for different types of volcanic features include patera ("saucer"; volcanic depression), fluctus ("flow"; lava flow), vallis ("valley"; lava channel), and active eruptive center (location where plume activity was the first sign of volcanic activity at a particular volcano). Named mountains, plateaus, layered terrain, and shield volcanoes include the terms mons, mensa ("table"), planum, and tholus ("rotunda"), respectively.[16] Named, bright albedo regions use the term regio. Examples of named features are Prometheus, Pan Mensa, Tvashtar Paterae, and Tsũi Goab Fluctus.[17]
The first reported observation of Io was made by Galileo Galilei on 7 January 1610 using a 20x-power, refracting telescope at the University of Padua. However, in that observation, Galileo could not separate Io and Europa due to the low power of his telescope, so the two were recorded as a single point of light. Io and Europa were seen for the first time as separate bodies during Galileo's observations of the Jupiter system the following day, 8 January 1610 (used as the discovery date for Io by the IAU).[1] The discovery of Io and the other Galilean satellites of Jupiter was published in Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius in March 1610.[18] In his Mundus Jovialis, published in 1614, Simon Marius claimed to have discovered Io and the other moons of Jupiter in 1609, one week before Galileo's discovery. Galileo doubted this claim and dismissed the work of Marius as plagiarism. Regardless, Marius' first recorded observation came from 29 December 1609 in the Julian calendar, which equates to 8 January 1610 in the Gregorian calendar, which Galileo used.[19] Given that Galileo published his work before Marius, Galileo is credited with the discovery.[20]
For the next two and a half centuries, Io remained an unresolved, 5th-magnitude point of light in astronomers' telescopes. During the 17th century, Io and the other Galilean satellites served a variety of purposes, including early methods to determine longitude,[21] validating Kepler's Third Law of planetary motion, and determining the time required for light to travel between Jupiter and Earth.[18] Based on ephemerides produced by astronomer Giovanni Cassini and others, Pierre-Simon Laplace created a mathematical theory to explain the resonant orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede.[18] This resonance was later found to have a profound effect on the geologies of the three moons.
Improved telescope technology in the late 19th and 20th centuries allowed astronomers to resolve (that is, see as distinct objects) large-scale surface features on Io. In the 1890s, Edward E. Barnard was the first to observe variations in Io's brightness between its equatorial and polar regions, correctly determining that this was due to differences in color and albedo between the two regions and not due to Io being egg-shaped, as proposed at the time by fellow astronomer William Pickering, or two separate objects, as initially proposed by Barnard.[14][15][22] Later telescopic observations confirmed Io's distinct reddish-brown polar regions and yellow-white equatorial band.[23]
Telescopic observations in the mid-20th century began to hint at Io's unusual nature. Spectroscopic observations suggested that Io's surface was devoid of water ice (a substance found to be plentiful on the other Galilean satellites).[24] The same observations suggested a surface dominated by evaporates composed of sodium salts and sulfur.[25] Radio telescopic observations revealed Io's influence on the Jovian magnetosphere, as demonstrated by decametric wavelength bursts tied to the orbital period of Io.[26]
The first spacecraft to pass by Io were the twin Pioneer 10 and 11 probes on 3 December 1973 and 2 December 1974 respectively.[27] Radio tracking provided an improved estimate of Io's mass, which, along with the best available information of Io's size, suggested that Io had the highest density of the four Galilean satellites, and was composed primarily of silicate rock rather than water ice.[28] The Pioneers also revealed the presence of a thin atmosphere at Io and intense radiation belts near the orbit of Io. The camera on board Pioneer 11 took the only good image of Io obtained by either spacecraft, showing its north polar region.[29] Close-up images were planned during Pioneer 10's encounter with Io, but those observations were lost because of the high-radiation environment.[27]
When the twin probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 passed by Io in 1979, their more advanced imaging system allowed for far more detailed images. Voyager 1 flew past Io on 5 March 1979 from a distance of 20,600 km (12,800 mi).[30] The images returned during the approach revealed a strange, multi-colored landscape devoid of impact craters.[31][32] The highest-resolution images showed a relatively young surface punctuated by oddly shaped pits, mountains taller than Mount Everest, and features resembling volcanic lava flows.
Shortly after the encounter, Voyager navigation engineer Linda A. Morabito noticed a plume emanating from the surface in one of the images.[33] Analysis of other Voyager 1 images showed nine such plumes scattered across the surface, proving that Io was volcanically active.[34] This conclusion was predicted in a paper published shortly before the Voyager 1 encounter by Stan Peale, Patrick Cassen, and R. T. Reynolds. The authors calculated that Io's interior must experience significant tidal heating caused by its orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede (see the "Tidal heating" section for a more detailed explanation of the process).[35] Data from this flyby showed that the surface of Io is dominated by sulfur and sulfur dioxide frosts. These compounds also dominate its thin atmosphere and the torus of plasma centered on Io's orbit (also discovered by Voyager).[36][37][38]
Voyager 2 passed Io on 9 July 1979 at a distance of 1,130,000 km (702,000 mi). Though it did not approach nearly as close as Voyager 1, comparisons between images taken by the two spacecraft showed several surface changes that had occurred in the four months between the encounters. In addition, observations of Io as a crescent as Voyager 2 departed the Jovian system revealed that seven of the nine plumes observed in March were still active in July 1979, with only the volcano Pele shutting down between flybys.[39]
The Galileo spaceprobe arrived at Jupiter in 1995 after a six-year journey from Earth to follow up on the discoveries of the two Voyager probes and ground-based observations taken in the intervening years. Io's location within one of Jupiter's most intense radiation belts precluded a prolonged close flyby, but Galileo did pass close by shortly before entering orbit for its two-year, primary mission studying the Jovian system. Although no images were taken during the close flyby on 7 December 1995, the encounter did yield significant results, such as the discovery of a large iron core, similar to that found in the rocky planets of the inner Solar System.[40]
Despite the lack of close-up imaging and mechanical problems that greatly restricted the amount of data returned, several significant discoveries were made during Galileo's primary mission. Galileo observed the effects of a major eruption at Pillan Patera and confirmed that volcanic eruptions are composed of silicate magmas with magnesium-rich mafic and ultramafic compositions.[41] Distant imaging of Io was acquired for almost every orbit during the primary mission, revealing large numbers of active volcanoes (both thermal emission from cooling magma on the surface and volcanic plumes), numerous mountains with widely varying morphologies, and several surface changes that had taken place both between the Voyager and Galileo eras and between Galileo orbits.[42]
The Galileo mission was twice extended, in 1997 and 2000. During these extended missions, the probe flew by Io three times in late 1999 and early 2000 and three times in late 2001 and early 2002. Observations during these encounters revealed the geologic processes occurring at Io's volcanoes and mountains, excluded the presence of a magnetic field, and demonstrated the extent of volcanic activity.[42] In December 2000, the Cassini spacecraft had a distant and brief encounter with the Jupiter system en route to Saturn, allowing for joint observations with Galileo. These observations revealed a new plume at Tvashtar Paterae and provided insights into Io's aurorae.[43]
Following Galileo's planned destruction in Jupiter's atmosphere in September 2003, new observations of Io's volcanism came from Earth-based telescopes. In particular, adaptive optics imaging from the Keck telescope in Hawaii and imaging from the Hubble telescope have allowed astronomers to monitor Io's active volcanoes.[44][45] This imaging has allowed scientists to monitor volcanic activity on Io, even without a spacecraft in the Jupiter system.
The New Horizons spacecraft, en route to Pluto and the Kuiper belt, flew by the Jupiter system and Io on 28 February 2007. During the encounter, numerous distant observations of Io were obtained. These included images of a large plume at Tvashtar, providing the first detailed observations of the largest class of Ionian volcanic plume since observations of Pele's plume in 1979.[46] New Horizons also captured images of a volcano near Girru Patera in the early stages of an eruption, and several volcanic eruptions that have occurred since Galileo.[46]
There are currently two forthcoming missions planned for the Jupiter system. Juno, launched on 5 August 2011, has limited imaging capabilities, but it could monitor Io's volcanic activity using its near-infrared spectrometer, JIRAM. The Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) is a planned European Space Agency mission to the Jupiter system that is intended to end up in Ganymede orbit.[47] JUICE has a launch scheduled for 2022, with arrival at Jupiter planned for January 2030.[48] JUICE will not fly by Io, but it will use its instruments, such as a narrow-angle camera, to monitor Io's volcanic activity and measure its surface composition during the two-year Jupiter-tour phase of the mission prior to Ganymede orbit insertion. The Io Volcano Observer was a proposal for a Discovery-class mission that would launch in 2015. It involved multiple flybys of Io while in orbit around Jupiter; however this mission was not selected for Phase A study by NASA, and remains just a concept.[49]
Io orbits Jupiter at a distance of 421,700 km (262,000 mi) from Jupiter's center and 350,000 km (217,000 mi) from its cloudtops. It is the innermost of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter, its orbit lying between those of Thebe and Europa. Including Jupiter's inner satellites, Io is the fifth moon out from Jupiter. It takes 42.5 hours to complete one orbit (fast enough for its motion to be observed over a single night of observation). Io is in a 2:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Europa and a 4:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Ganymede, completing two orbits of Jupiter for every one orbit completed by Europa, and four orbits for every one completed by Ganymede. This resonance helps maintain Io's orbital eccentricity (0.0041), which in turn provides the primary heating source for its geologic activity (see the "Tidal heating" section for a more detailed explanation of the process).[35] Without this forced eccentricity, Io's orbit would circularize through tidal dissipation, leading to a geologically less active world.
Like the other Galilean satellites and the Moon, Io rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face nearly pointed toward Jupiter. This synchronicity provides the definition for Io's longitude system. Io's prime meridian intersects the equator at the sub-Jovian point. The side of Io that always faces Jupiter is known as the subjovian hemisphere, whereas the side that always faces away is known as the antijovian hemisphere. The side of Io that always faces in the direction that Io travels in its orbit is known as the leading hemisphere, whereas the side that always faces in the opposite direction is known as the trailing hemisphere.[50]
Io plays a significant role in shaping the Jovian magnetic field, acting as an electric generator that can develop 400,000 volts across itself and create an electric current of 3 million amperes, releasing ions that give Jupiter a magnetic field more than twice the size it would otherwise have.[52] The magnetosphere of Jupiter sweeps up gases and dust from Io's thin atmosphere at a rate of 1 tonne per second.[53] This material is mostly composed of ionized and atomic sulfur, oxygen and chlorine; atomic sodium and potassium; molecular sulfur dioxide and sulfur; and sodium chloride dust.[53][54] These materials originate from Io's volcanic activity, but the material that escapes to Jupiter's magnetic field and into interplanetary space comes directly from Io's atmosphere. These materials, depending on their ionized state and composition, end up in various neutral (non-ionized) clouds and radiation belts in Jupiter's magnetosphere and, in some cases, are eventually ejected from the Jovian system.
Surrounding Io (at a distance of up to six Io radii from its surface) is a cloud of neutral sulfur, oxygen, sodium, and potassium atoms. These particles originate in Io's upper atmosphere and are excited by collisions with ions in the plasma torus (discussed below) and by other processes into filling Io's Hill sphere, which is the region where Io's gravity is dominant over Jupiter's. Some of this material escapes Io's gravitational pull and goes into orbit around Jupiter. Over a 20-hour period, these particles spread out from Io to form a banana-shaped, neutral cloud that can reach as far as six Jovian radii from Io, either inside Io's orbit and ahead of it or outside Io's orbit and behind it.[53] The collision process that excites these particles also occasionally provides sodium ions in the plasma torus with an electron, removing those new "fast" neutrals from the torus. These particles retain their velocity (70 km/s, compared to the 17 km/s orbital velocity at Io), and are thus ejected in jets leading away from Io.[55]
Io orbits within a belt of intense radiation known as the Io plasma torus. The plasma in this doughnut-shaped ring of ionized sulfur, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine originates when neutral atoms in the "cloud" surrounding Io are ionized and carried along by the Jovian magnetosphere.[53] Unlike the particles in the neutral cloud, these particles co-rotate with Jupiter's magnetosphere, revolving around Jupiter at 74 km/s. Like the rest of Jupiter's magnetic field, the plasma torus is tilted with respect to Jupiter's equator (and Io's orbital plane), so that Io is at times below and at other times above the core of the plasma torus. As noted above, these ions' higher velocity and energy levels are partly responsible for the removal of neutral atoms and molecules from Io's atmosphere and more extended neutral cloud. The torus is composed of three sections: an outer, "warm" torus that resides just outside Io's orbit; a vertically extended region known as the "ribbon", composed of the neutral source region and cooling plasma, located at around Io's distance from Jupiter; and an inner, "cold" torus, composed of particles that are slowly spiraling in toward Jupiter.[53] After residing an average of 40 days in the torus, particles in the "warm" torus escape and are partially responsible for Jupiter's unusually large magnetosphere, their outward pressure inflating it from within.[56] Particles from Io, detected as variations in magnetospheric plasma, have been detected far into the long magnetotail by New Horizons. To study similar variations within the plasma torus, researchers measure the ultraviolet light it emits. Although such variations have not been definitively linked to variations in Io's volcanic activity (the ultimate source for material in the plasma torus), this link has been established in the neutral sodium cloud.[57]
During an encounter with Jupiter in 1992, the Ulysses spacecraft detected a stream of dust-sized particles being ejected from the Jupiter system.[58] The dust in these discrete streams travels away from Jupiter at speeds upwards of several hundred kilometres per second, has an average particle size of 10 μm, and consists primarily of sodium chloride.[54][59] Dust measurements by Galileo showed that these dust streams originate from Io, but exactly how these form, whether from Io's volcanic activity or material removed from the surface, is unknown.[60]
Jupiter's magnetic field lines, which Io crosses, couple Io's atmosphere and neutral cloud to Jupiter's polar upper atmosphere by generating an electric current known as the Io flux tube.[53] This current produces an auroral glow in Jupiter's polar regions known as the Io footprint, as well as aurorae in Io's atmosphere. Particles from this auroral interaction darken the Jovian polar regions at visible wavelengths. The location of Io and its auroral footprint with respect to the Earth and Jupiter has a strong influence on Jovian radio emissions from our vantage point: when Io is visible, radio signals from Jupiter increase considerably.[26][53] The Juno mission, planned for the next decade, should help to shed light on these processes. The Jovian magnetic field lines that do get past Io's ionosphere also induce an electric current, which in turn creates an induced magnetic field within Io's interior. Io's induced magnetic field is thought to be generated within a partially molten, silicate magma ocean 50 kilometers beneath Io's surface.[61] Similar induced fields were found at the other Galilean satellites by Galileo, generated within liquid water oceans in the interiors of those moons.
Io is slightly larger than the Moon. It has a mean radius of 1,821.3 km (1,131.7 mi) (about 5% greater than the Moon's) and a mass of 8.9319×1022 kg (about 21% greater than the Moon's). It is a slight ellipsoid in shape, with its longest axis directed toward Jupiter. Among the Galilean satellites, in both mass and volume, Io ranks behind Ganymede and Callisto but ahead of Europa.
Composed primarily of silicate rock and iron, Io is closer in bulk composition to the terrestrial planets than to other satellites in the outer Solar System, which are mostly composed of a mix of water ice and silicates. Io has a density of 3.5275 g/cm3, the highest of any moon in the Solar System; significantly higher than the other Galilean satellites and higher than the Moon.[62] Models based on the Voyager and Galileo measurements of Io's mass, radius, and quadrupole gravitational coefficients (numerical values related to how mass is distributed within an object) suggest that its interior is differentiated between a silicate-rich crust and mantle and an iron- or iron-sulfide-rich core.[40] Io's metallic core makes up approximately 20% of its mass.[63] Depending on the amount of sulfur in the core, the core has a radius between 350–650 km (220–400 mi) if it is composed almost entirely of iron, or between 550–900 km (340–560 mi) for a core consisting of a mix of iron and sulfur. Galileo's magnetometer failed to detect an internal, intrinsic magnetic field at Io, suggesting that the core is not convecting.[64]
Modeling of Io's interior composition suggests that the mantle is composed of at least 75% of the magnesium-rich mineral forsterite, and has a bulk composition similar to that of L-chondrite and LL-chondrite meteorites, with higher iron content (compared to silicon) than the Moon or Earth, but lower than Mars.[65][66] To support the heat flow observed on Io, 10–20% of Io's mantle may be molten, though regions where high-temperature volcanism has been observed may have higher melt fractions.[67] However, re-analysis of Galileo magnetometer data in 2009 revealed the presence of an induced magnetic field at Io, requiring a magma ocean 50 km (31 mi) below the surface.[61] Further analysis published in 2011 provided direct evidence of such an ocean.[68] This layer is estimated to be 50 km thick and to make up about 10% of Io's mantle. It is estimated that the temperature in the magma ocean reaches 1,200 °C. It is not known if the 10–20% partial melting percentage for Io's mantle is consistent with the requirement for a significant amount of molten silicates in this possible magma ocean.[69] The lithosphere of Io, composed of basalt and sulfur deposited by Io's extensive volcanism, is at least 12 km (7 mi) thick, but is likely to be less than 40 km (25 mi) thick.[63][70]
Unlike Earth and the Moon, Io's main source of internal heat comes from tidal dissipation rather than radioactive isotope decay, the result of Io's orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede.[35] Such heating is dependent on Io's distance from Jupiter, its orbital eccentricity, the composition of its interior, and its physical state.[67] Its Laplace resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io's eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit. The resonant orbit also helps to maintain Io's distance from Jupiter; otherwise tides raised on Jupiter would cause Io to slowly spiral outward from its parent planet.[71] The vertical differences in Io's tidal bulge, between the times Io is at periapsis and apoapsis in its orbit, could be as much as 100 m (330 ft). The friction or tidal dissipation produced in Io's interior due to this varying tidal pull, which, without the resonant orbit, would have gone into circularizing Io's orbit instead, creates significant tidal heating within Io's interior, melting a significant amount of Io's mantle and core. The amount of energy produced is up to 200 times greater than that produced solely from radioactive decay.[7] This heat is released in the form of volcanic activity, generating its observed high heat flow (global total: 0.6 to 1.6×1014 W).[67] Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time; however, the current amount of tidal dissipation is consistent with the observed heat flow.[67][72] Models of tidal heating and convection have not found consistent planetary viscosity profiles that simultaneously match tidal energy dissipation and mantle convection of heat to the surface.[72][73]
Based on their experience with the ancient surfaces of the Moon, Mars, and Mercury, scientists expected to see numerous impact craters in Voyager 1's first images of Io. The density of impact craters across Io's surface would have given clues to Io's age. However, they were surprised to discover that the surface was almost completely lacking in impact craters, but was instead covered in smooth plains dotted with tall mountains, pits of various shapes and sizes, and volcanic lava flows.[31] Compared to most worlds observed to that point, Io's surface was covered in a variety of colorful materials (leading Io to be compared to a rotten orange or to pizza) from various sulfurous compounds.[74] The lack of impact craters indicated that Io's surface is geologically young, like the terrestrial surface; volcanic materials continuously bury craters as they are produced. This result was spectacularly confirmed as at least nine active volcanoes were observed by Voyager 1.[34]
Io's colorful appearance is the result of various materials produced by its extensive volcanism. These materials include silicates (such as orthopyroxene), sulfur, and sulfur dioxide.[75] Sulfur dioxide frost is ubiquitous across the surface of Io, forming large regions covered in white or grey materials. Sulfur is also seen in many places across Io, forming yellow to yellow-green regions. Sulfur deposited in the mid-latitude and polar regions is often radiation damaged, breaking up normally stable cyclic 8-chain sulfur. This radiation damage produces Io's red-brown polar regions.[14]
Explosive volcanism, often taking the form of umbrella-shaped plumes, paints the surface with sulfurous and silicate materials. Plume deposits on Io are often colored red or white depending on the amount of sulfur and sulfur dioxide in the plume. Generally, plumes formed at volcanic vents from degassing lava contain a greater amount of S2, producing a red "fan" deposit, or in extreme cases, large (often reaching beyond 450 km or 280 mi from the central vent) red rings.[76] A prominent example of a red-ring plume deposit is located at Pele. These red deposits consist primarily of sulfur (generally 3- and 4-chain molecular sulfur), sulfur dioxide, and perhaps Cl2SO2.[75] Plumes formed at the margins of silicate lava flows (through the interaction of lava and pre-existing deposits of sulfur and sulfur dioxide) produce white or gray deposits.
Compositional mapping and Io's high density suggest that Io contains little to no water, though small pockets of water ice or hydrated minerals have been tentatively identified, most notably on the northwest flank of the mountain Gish Bar Mons.[77] Io has the least amount of water of any known body in the Solar System.[78] This lack of water is likely due to Jupiter being hot enough early in the evolution of the Solar System to drive off volatile materials like water in the vicinity of Io, but not hot enough to do so farther out.[79]
The tidal heating produced by Io's forced orbital eccentricity has led it to become one of the most volcanically active worlds in the Solar System, with hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava flows. During a major eruption, lava flows tens or even hundreds of kilometres long can be produced, consisting mostly of basalt silicate lavas with either mafic or ultramafic (magnesium-rich) compositions. As a by-product of this activity, sulfur, sulfur dioxide gas and silicate pyroclastic material (like ash) are blown up to 200 km (120 mi) into space, producing large, umbrella-shaped plumes, painting the surrounding terrain in red, black, and white, and providing material for Io's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter's extensive magnetosphere.
Io's surface is dotted with volcanic depressions known as paterae.[80] Paterae generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls. These features resemble terrestrial calderas, but it is unknown if they are produced through collapse over an emptied lava chamber like their terrestrial cousins. One hypothesis suggests that these features are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills, and the overlying material is either blasted out or integrated into the sill.[81] Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars, these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are normally larger, with an average diameter of 41 km (25 mi), the largest being Loki Patera at 202 km (126 mi).[80] Whatever the formation mechanism, the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that these features are structurally controlled, with at least half bounded by faults or mountains.[80] These features are often the site of volcanic eruptions, either from lava flows spreading across the floors of the paterae, as at an eruption at Gish Bar Patera in 2001, or in the form of a lava lake.[8][82] Lava lakes on Io either have a continuously overturning lava crust, such as at Pele, or an episodically overturning crust, such as at Loki.[83][84]
Lava flows represent another major volcanic terrain on Io. Magma erupts onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae or on the plains from fissures, producing inflated, compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kilauea in Hawaii. Images from the Galileo spacecraft revealed that many of Io's major lava flows, like those at Prometheus and Amirani, are produced by the build-up of small breakouts of lava flows on top of older flows.[85] Larger outbreaks of lava have also been observed on Io. For example, the leading edge of the Prometheus flow moved 75 to 95 km (47 to 59 mi) between Voyager in 1979 and the first Galileo observations in 1996. A major eruption in 1997 produced more than 3,500 km2 (1,400 sq mi) of fresh lava and flooded the floor of the adjacent Pillan Patera.[41]
Analysis of the Voyager images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur. However, subsequent Earth-based infrared studies and measurements from the Galileo spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions. This hypothesis is based on temperature measurements of Io's "hotspots", or thermal-emission locations, which suggest temperatures of at least 1300 K and some as high as 1600 K.[86] Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2000 K[41] have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to model the temperatures.[86]
The discovery of plumes at the volcanoes Pele and Loki were the first sign that Io is geologically active.[33] Generally, these plumes are formed when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 km/s (0.6 mps), creating umbrella-shaped clouds of gas and dust. Additional material that might be found in these volcanic plumes include sodium, potassium, and chlorine.[87][88] These plumes appear to be formed in one of two ways.[89] Io's largest plumes are created when dissolved sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas are released from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes, often dragging silicate pyroclastic material with them. These plumes form red (from the short-chain sulfur) and black (from the silicate pyroclastics) deposits on the surface. Plumes formed in this manner are among the largest observed at Io, forming red rings more than 1,000 km (620 mi) in diameter. Examples of this plume type include Pele, Tvashtar, and Dazhbog. Another type of plume is produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost, sending the sulfur skyward. This type of plume often forms bright circular deposits consisting of sulfur dioxide. These plumes are often less than 100 km (62 mi) tall, and are among the most long-lived plumes on Io. Examples include Prometheus, Amirani, and Masubi.
Io has 100 to 150 mountains. These structures average 6 km (4 mi) in height and reach a maximum of 17.5 ± 1.5 km (10.9 ± 0.9 mi) at South Boösaule Montes.[9] Mountains often appear as large (the average mountain is 157 km or 98 mi long), isolated structures with no apparent global tectonic patterns outlined, as is the case on Earth.[9] To support the tremendous topography observed at these mountains requires compositions consisting mostly of silicate rock, as opposed to sulfur.[90]
Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance, nearly all its mountains are tectonic structures, and are not produced by volcanoes. Instead, most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere, which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io's crust through thrust faulting.[91] The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result of subsidence from the continuous burial of volcanic materials.[91] The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures; mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes and vice versa.[92] This suggests large-scale regions in Io's lithosphere where compression (supportive of mountain formation) and extension (supportive of patera formation) dominate.[93] Locally, however, mountains and paterae often abut one another, suggesting that magma often exploits faults formed during mountain formation to reach the surface.[80]
Mountains on Io (generally, structures rising above the surrounding plains) have a variety of morphologies. Plateaus are most common.[9] These structures resemble large, flat-topped mesas with rugged surfaces. Other mountains appear to be tilted crustal blocks, with a shallow slope from the formerly flat surface and a steep slope consisting of formerly sub-surface materials uplifted by compressive stresses. Both types of mountains often have steep scarps along one or more margins. Only a handful of mountains on Io appear to have a volcanic origin. These mountains resemble small shield volcanoes, with steep slopes (6–7°) near a small, central caldera and shallow slopes along their margins.[94] These volcanic mountains are often smaller than the average mountain on Io, averaging only 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 mi) in height and 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 mi) wide. Other shield volcanoes with much shallower slopes are inferred from the morphology of several of Io's volcanoes, where thin flows radiate out from a central patera, such as at Ra Patera.[94]
Nearly all mountains appear to be in some stage of degradation. Large landslide deposits are common at the base of Ionian mountains, suggesting that mass wasting is the primary form of degradation. Scalloped margins are common among Io's mesas and plateaus, the result of sulfur dioxide sapping from Io's crust, producing zones of weakness along mountain margins.[95]
Io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide (SO
2), with minor constituents including sulfur monoxide (SO), sodium chloride (NaCl), and atomic sulfur and oxygen.[96] The atmosphere has significant variations in density and temperature with time of day, latitude, volcanic activity, and surface frost abundance. The maximum atmospheric pressure on Io ranges from 3.3 × 10−5 to 3 × 10−4 pascals (Pa) or 0.3 to 3 nbar, spatially seen on Io's anti-Jupiter hemisphere and along the equator, and temporally in the early afternoon when the temperature of surface frost peaks.[96][97][98] Localized peaks at volcanic plumes have also been seen, with pressures of 5 × 10−4 to 40 × 10−4 Pa (5 to 40 nbar).[37] Io's atmospheric pressure is lowest on Io's night side, where the pressure dips to 0.1 × 10−7 to 1 × 10−7 Pa (0.0001 to 0.001 nbar).[96][97] Io's atmospheric temperature ranges from the temperature of the surface at low altitudes, where sulfur dioxide is in vapor pressure equilibrium with frost on the surface, to 1800 K at higher altitudes where the thinner atmospheric density permits heating from plasma in the Io plasma torus and from Joule heating from the Io flux tube.[96][97] The low pressure limits the atmosphere's effect on the surface, except for temporarily redistributing sulfur dioxide from frost-rich to frost-poor areas, and to expand the size of plume deposit rings when plume material re-enters the thicker dayside atmosphere.[96][97] The thin Ionian atmosphere also means any future landing probes sent to investigate Io will not need to be encased in an aeroshell-style heatshield, but instead require retrothrusters for a soft landing. The thin atmosphere also necessitates a rugged lander capable of enduring the strong Jovian radiation, which a thicker atmosphere would attenuate.
Gas in Io's atmosphere is stripped by Jupiter's magnetosphere, escaping to either the neutral cloud that surrounds Io, or the Io plasma torus, a ring of ionized particles that shares Io's orbit but co-rotates with the magnetosphere of Jupiter. Approximately one ton of material is removed from the atmosphere every second through this process so that it must be constantly replenished.[53] The most dramatic source of SO
2 are volcanic plumes, which pump 104 kg of sulfur dioxide per second into Io's atmosphere on average, though most of this condenses back onto the surface.[99] Much of the sulfur dioxide in Io's atmosphere sustained by sunlight-driven sublimation of SO
2 frozen on the surface.[100] The day-side atmosphere is largely confined to within 40° of the equator, where the surface is warmest and most active volcanic plumes reside.[101] A sublimation-driven atmosphere is also consistent with observations that Io's atmosphere is densest over the anti-Jupiter hemisphere, where SO
2 frost is most abundant, and is densest when Io is closer to the Sun.[96][100][102] However, some contributions from volcanic plumes are required as the highest observed densities have been seen near volcanic vents.[96] Because the density of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is tied directly to surface temperature, Io's atmosphere partially collapses at night or when Io is in the shadow of Jupiter. The collapse during eclipse is limited somewhat by the formation of a diffusion layer of sulfur monoxide in the lowest portion of the atmosphere, but the atmosphere pressure of Io's nightside atmosphere is two to four orders of magnitude less than at its peak just past noon.[97][103] The minor constituents of Io's atmosphere, such as NaCl, SO, O, and S derive either from: direct volcanic outgassing; photodissociation, or chemical breakdown caused by solar ultraviolet radiation, from SO
2; or the sputtering of surface deposits by charged particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere.[100]
High-resolution images of Io acquired when Io is experiencing an eclipse reveal an aurora-like glow.[88] As on Earth, this is due to particle radiation hitting the atmosphere, though in this case the charged particles come from Jupiter's magnetic field rather than the solar wind. Aurorae usually occur near the magnetic poles of planets, but Io's are brightest near its equator. Io lacks an intrinsic magnetic field of its own; therefore, electrons traveling along Jupiter's magnetic field near Io directly impact Io's atmosphere. More electrons collide with its atmosphere, producing the brightest aurora, where the field lines are tangent to Io (i.e. near the equator), because the column of gas they pass through is longest there. Aurorae associated with these tangent points on Io are observed to rock with the changing orientation of Jupiter's tilted magnetic dipole.[104] Fainter aurora from oxygen atoms along the limb of Io (the red glows in the image at right), and sodium atoms on Io's night-side (the green glows in the same image) have also been observed.[88]
Media related to Io at Wikimedia Commons


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Restoration of partially coherent images by use of a second-degree nonlinear filter
Applied Optics, Vol. 20, Issue 23, pp. 4089-4093 (1981)
Enhanced HTML Acrobat PDF (468 KB)
A partially coherent imaging system distorts images nonlinearly. We investigate the restoration of such images by use of a second-degree nonlinear filter which is optimum for low-contrast images. The performance of this filter is shown to be better than that of a linear inverse filter, especially as the imaging becomes more coherent.
© 1981 Optical Society of America
Original Manuscript: August 8, 1981
Published: December 1, 1981
Bahaa E. A. Saleh and Soheil I. Sayegh, "Restoration of partially coherent images by use of a second-degree nonlinear filter," Appl. Opt. 20, 4089-4093 (1981)
Sort: Year | Journal | Reset
- B. E. A. Saleh, Opt. Acta 26, 777 (1979). [CrossRef]
- R. K. Raney, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 59, 1149 (1969). [CrossRef]
- B. E. A. Saleh, Opt. Commun. 10, 247 (1974). [CrossRef]
- B. E. A. Saleh, Opt. Commun. 27, 13 (1978). [CrossRef]
- B. E. A. Saleh, W. C. Goeke, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 70, 506 (1980). [CrossRef]
- B. E. A. Saleh, Appl. Opt. 19, 3646 (1980). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- B. E. A. Saleh, M. Rabbani, "Bilinear Transformation in Optics. IV: Bayesian Restoration," U. Wisconsin, Technical Report ECE-80-40 (1980).
- M. Schetzen, IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. CS-23, 285 (1976). [CrossRef]
- M. Schetzen, The Volterra and Wiener Theories of Nonlinear Systems (Wiley, New York, 1980).
- G. W. Stroke, M. Halioua, Optik 35, 489 (1972).
- B. E. A. Saleh, Appl. Opt. 17, 3408 (1978). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- B. E. A. Saleh, "Bilinear Transformations in Optical Signal Processing," in Transformations in Optical Signal Processing, W. T. Rhodes, J. Fienup, B. E. A. Saleh, Eds., SPIE Advanced Institute Series, (SPIE, in press 1982).
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This delicious soup from Ronaldo's Cocina is perfect for the fall season. Get cooking!
This recipe comes from chef Ronaldo Linares, Executive Chef of Martino's Cuban restaurant in Somerville, NJ who has appeared on BBC America's Chef Race and Food Network's Chopped.


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5 Earnings Stocks Poised to Pop
Amtech Systems
My final earnings short-squeeze idea is semiconductor player Amtech Systems (ASYS - Get Report), which is set to release numbers on Thursday after the market close. This company engages in the design, assembly, sale, and installation of capital equipment and related consumables used in the manufacture of wafers, primarily for the solar and semiconductor industries. Wall Street analysts, on average, expect Amtech Systems to report revenue of $21.55 million on a loss of 22 cents per share.
This is another beaten-down heavily-shorted stock that could be worth a solid look for a short-squeeze rebound trade post-earnings. Shares of Amtech Systems have dropped a whopping 32% over the last six months. That massive move lower has this stock trading just 50 cents off its 52-week low of $6.84 as we approach its earnings report.
The current short interest as a percentage of the float for Amtech Systems is notable at 10.7%. That means that out of the 8.93 million shares in the tradable float, 954,642 shares are sold short by the bears. This stock has a decent short-interest and an extremely low float. A bullish report could easily set this stock off on a monster short-squeeze. From a technical perspective, ASYS is currently trading below both its 50-day and 200-day moving averages, which is bearish. This stock has been downtrending lower since its February high of $11.60 to its current price of $7.33 a share. During that downtrend, ASYS has consistently been making lower highs and lower lows, which is bearish technical price action. That said, the stock has just started to stabilize and find some buying interest just below $7 a share. If you're bullish on ASYS, I would wait until after its report and look for long-biased trades if this stock breaks out above some near-term overhead resistance at $7.54 and then its 50-day moving average of $7.86 a share with high-volume. Look for volume on that move that's near or well above its three-month average action of 118,998 shares. If we get that breakout, then look for ASYS to make a run at $9 to its 200-day moving average of $9.64 a share if the bulls gain full control of this stock post-earnings. I would simply avoid ASYS or look for short-biased trades if it fails to trigger that breakout, and then drops below some major near-term support levels at $6.87 to $6.84 a share with high-volume. If we get that action, then I would target a drop towards $5 a share if the bears dump this stock post-earnings. To see more potential earnings short squeeze plays, check out the Earnings Short Squeeze Plays portfolio on Stockpickr. -- Written by Roberto Pedone in Winderemere, Fla.Follow Stockpickr on Twitter and become a fan on Facebook.
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New WestJet Q400 departs RWY 15 on a test flight as BBA3
In this shot the Bank of Montreal & Scotia Bank towers looms large in the Downtown Toronto Financial District. The sky is an indication of smog & pollution due to the SW wind.
Aircraft 4457 performing engine test under the watchful eye of ground support. I admire the bravery and dedication of this engineer battling the cold north wind and with hand jesters communicate i... (more)
first shot of 5Y-BUW
Sad end of a 737! (1600px)
This 737 is the training object for the fire brigade at GVA.
EOS 50D + Sigma 50-500mm


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Crater Lake by Evening Fog
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The evenng or our arrival Crater Lake was fogged in and we were hopeful the fog would at least lift momentarily. Well at the second overlook the fog did lift temporarily.
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3/6/2015 - Baseball Baseball's Weekend Games at Delaware CancelledLafayette's weekend games with Delaware and Rider have been cancelled due to snow. 3/4/2015 - Baseball Lafayette Baseball Spring Trip TailgateBe a part of Lafayette Baseball's 2015 Spring Trip to beautiful Charleston, SC! 3/2/2015 - Baseball Cohen Named Patriot League Rookie of the WeekIn other news, Lafayette's previously cancelled game vs. Rider will be made up at Delaware's field this Sunday. 3/1/2015 - Baseball Bats come alive in loss to RichmondTyler Hudson hit two home runs, while Tim Lazor and Campbell Lipe each added one, in the Leopards' loss to Richmond on Sunday. 2/28/2015 - Baseball Baseball Picks Up First Victory of SeasonThe Leopards played a non-traditional doubleheader on Saturday, defeating UMBC 7-5 and losing to Richmond 9-0. |
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"Hard red spring wheat is in extremely short supply here in the domestic market because China's own production of high-quality wheat was not satisfactory despite higher output," said an analyst with an official think-tank who declined to be identified. More demand for high-protein wheat could bolster prices for spring wheat traded on the Minneapolis Grains Exchange, which have risen 2.2 percent this week, as well as supporting hard red winter wheat futures in Kansas, up 1.5 percent.
China has bought about 120,000 tonnes of hard wheat in the past few days, European traders said on Monday. The origin is unclear but may include some Australian and US wheat. "We are seeing more business being done to China in containers and bulk than we have seen in a long time," said one grains trader in Sydney. "The Australian dollar has weakened and it is attracting business," he added. The Aussie hit its lowest in over five years on Monday. "There is plenty of feed wheat or average quality around, but if you are looking for high-protein wheat you will have to pay a premium," said a Singapore-based trader.
KEEPING CONTROL China exerts control over import volumes by issuing quotas that limit how much wheat buyers can take from overseas. In the coming weeks, it is expected to issue a 2015 quota-level unchanged from last year's 9.6 million tonnes. Private mills are likely to bid keenly for the 10 percent they are expected to be allocated. China's overall wheat imports are forecast to fall by around 60 percent to about 3 million tonnes in 2014/15 from a year ago, China National Grain and Oils Information Centre has estimated, thanks to all-time high production.
In addition to higher output, China's overall appetite for wheat is likely to take a hit as authorities suspend buying for state reserves after a bumper harvest refilled stocks. China's wheat imports more than doubled to 6.77 million tonnes in 2013/14 from a year after adverse weather damaged crops in key producing regions. But the country is expected to churn out a record 126 million tonnes in 2014/15, up from 122 million tonnes a year ago, the National Bureau of Statistics has said. Beijing will offer 2 million tonnes of domestic wheat from state reserves this week.
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Analysts' Actions: Alcoa, Allscripts, Autodesk, Lumber Liquidators
NEW YORK (TheStreet) -- Alcoa (AA - Get Report) was upgraded at Morgan Stanley to overweight. Twelve-month price target is $18. Company can exceed consensus expectations in the upstream business, Morgan Stanley said.
Alcoa was upgraded to buy at TheStreet Ratings.
Autodesk (ADSK) was upgraded at Barclays to overweight from equal weight. Subscription model offers a multiyear revenue growth and margin expansion story, Barclays said. Twelve-month price target is $65.
Greenberg: No Surprise in Potbelly's Flop
Link: Waddell & Reed Offers Growth at a Nice Price A M Castle (CAS) was downgraded to sell at TheStreet Ratings. Lumber Liquidators (LL) was downgraded at Credit Suisse to neutral from outperform. Twelve-month price target is $65. Estimates were also cut, given both company and macro issues, Credit Suisse said. Allscripts (MDRX - Get Report) was upgraded at ISI Group to strong buy from buy. Twelve-month price target is $19. Company has sales momentum and management is focused on improving profits, ISI Group said. Tractor Supply (TSCO) was upgraded to outperform from neutral at Credit Suisse. Twelve-month price target is $70. Stock is attractive, after declining 25% year to date. Editor's note: To see analysts' stock comments and changes to price targets and earnings estimates, go to "Street Notes" which is available only to Real Money subscribers. To find out how to become a subscriber, please click here. Follow TheStreet on Twitter and become a fan on Facebook.Now let's look at TheStreet Ratings' take on some of these stocks: TheStreet Ratings team rates ALCOA INC as a Buy with a ratings score of B-. TheStreet Ratings Team has this to say about their recommendation:
"We rate ALCOA INC (AA) a BUY. This is driven by some important positives, which we believe should have a greater impact than any weaknesses, and should give investors a better performance opportunity than most stocks we cover. The company's strengths can be seen in multiple areas, such as its solid stock price performance, growth in earnings per share, good cash flow from operations and increase in net income. We feel these strengths outweigh the fact that the company has had somewhat disappointing return on equity."
Highlights from the analysis by TheStreet Ratings Team goes as follows:
- Powered by its strong earnings growth of 209.09% and other important driving factors, this stock has surged by 87.50% over the past year, outperforming the rise in the S&P 500 Index during the same period. Turning to the future, naturally, any stock can fall in a major bear market. However, in almost any other environment, the stock should continue to move higher despite the fact that it has already enjoyed nice gains in the past year.
- ALCOA INC reported significant earnings per share improvement in the most recent quarter compared to the same quarter a year ago. This company has reported somewhat volatile earnings recently. But, we feel it is poised for EPS growth in the coming year. During the past fiscal year, ALCOA INC swung to a loss, reporting -$2.15 versus $0.17 in the prior year. This year, the market expects an improvement in earnings ($0.48 versus -$2.15).
- Net operating cash flow has remained constant at $518.00 million with no significant change when compared to the same quarter last year. Along with maintaining stable cash flow from operations, the firm exceeded the industry average cash flow growth rate of -34.04%.
- AA, with its decline in revenue, slightly underperformed the industry average of 4.5%. Since the same quarter one year prior, revenues slightly dropped by 0.2%. The declining revenue has not hurt the company's bottom line, with increasing earnings per share.
- The company, on the basis of net income growth from the same quarter one year ago, has significantly underperformed compared to the Metals & Mining industry average, but is greater than that of the S&P 500. The net income increased by 216.0% when compared to the same quarter one year prior, rising from -$119.00 million to $138.00 million.
- You can view the full analysis from the report here: AA Ratings Report
TheStreet Ratings team rates LUMBER LIQUIDATORS HLDGS INC as a Buy with a ratings score of B. TheStreet Ratings Team has this to say about their recommendation:
"We rate LUMBER LIQUIDATORS HLDGS INC (LL) a BUY. This is driven by a few notable strengths, which we believe should have a greater impact than any weaknesses, and should give investors a better performance opportunity than most stocks we cover. The company's strengths can be seen in multiple areas, such as its revenue growth, notable return on equity, good cash flow from operations, expanding profit margins and largely solid financial position with reasonable debt levels by most measures. We feel these strengths outweigh the fact that the company has had lackluster performance in the stock itself."
Highlights from the analysis by TheStreet Ratings Team goes as follows:
- LL's revenue growth has slightly outpaced the industry average of 1.4%. Since the same quarter one year prior, revenues slightly increased by 6.9%. This growth in revenue does not appear to have trickled down to the company's bottom line, displayed by a decline in earnings per share.
- The return on equity has improved slightly when compared to the same quarter one year prior. This can be construed as a modest strength in the organization. Compared to other companies in the Specialty Retail industry and the overall market, LUMBER LIQUIDATORS HLDGS INC's return on equity exceeds that of both the industry average and the S&P 500.
- Net operating cash flow has significantly increased by 101.50% to $22.30 million when compared to the same quarter last year. In addition, LUMBER LIQUIDATORS HLDGS INC has also vastly surpassed the industry average cash flow growth rate of -3.80%.
- 41.12% is the gross profit margin for LUMBER LIQUIDATORS HLDGS INC which we consider to be strong. It has increased from the same quarter the previous year. Regardless of the strong results of the gross profit margin, the net profit margin of 5.56% trails the industry average.
- LL has no debt to speak of therefore resulting in a debt-to-equity ratio of zero, which we consider to be a relatively favorable sign. Although the company had a strong debt-to-equity ratio, its quick ratio of 0.72 is somewhat weak and could be cause for future problems.
- You can view the full analysis from the report here: LL Ratings Report
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32 Reported Dead In Storm On Portuguese Island
Posted: 02/20/2010 - Flooding and landslides swept away cars and knocked down houses as a violent storm killed at least 32 people Saturday on the Portuguese island of Madeira, a news agency reported.
Posted: 02/20/2010 - Flooding and landslides swept away cars and knocked down houses as a violent storm killed at least 32 people Saturday on the Portuguese island of Madeira, a news agency reported.
Updated: 02/20/2010 - A nation that had hoped to watch one of its most promising young athletes compete in the Olympics gathered instead Saturday to mourn him, more than a week after the luger was thrown to his death in a practice run at the Vancouver Games.
Posted: 02/20/2010 - Flooding and landslides swept away cars and knocked down houses as a violent storm killed at least 32 people Saturday on the Portuguese island of Madeira, a news agency reported.
Posted: 02/18/2010 - Oil prices fell to near $78 a barrel Friday in Asia after the U.S. Federal Reserve's unexpected hike to interest rates for emergency loans to banks boosted the dollar, making commodities less attractive to investors.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - Oil prices fell below $77 a barrel Thursday in Asia on signs gasoline and distillate demand in the U.S. remain sluggish.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - President Felipe Calderon promised federal investigations into all complaints of extortion and kidnapping in a Mexican border city overwhelmed by drug gang violence.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - Suspected Maoist rebels raided a village in eastern India early Thursday and killed at least 10 people in an apparent act of revenge after several guerrillas were captured and turned over to police.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - The U.S. Geological Survey reports that a 6.8 magnitude earthquake has struck the China-Russia-North Korea border region.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - A Haitian judge says he decided to free 8 of 10 Americans charged with child kidnapping after their parents testified they voluntarily handed their children over to the missionaries.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - British police say they have arrested a TV reporter on suspicion of murder after he claimed to have smothered his dying lover in an act of mercy.
Posted: 02/17/2010 - The White House is confirming for the first time the capture of the Afghan Taliban's leader in Pakistan.
Updated: 02/17/2010 - First it was gas pedals, then brakes. Now Toyota and the government are looking into complaints that the popular Corolla is difficult to steer straight, raising a new safety concern ahead of next week's congressional hearing about the automakers recalls.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - A Bolivian airline is giving free flights to a child born on one of its airliners.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - earch teams on Tuesday located one black box from the two trains that slammed into each other near Brussels, a find that could help reveal the cause of tragedy that killed 18 people and injured over 170.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - was convicted of a crime more than half a century ago, but what he did in 1959 - have consensual sex with another man - would be perfectly legal today.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - The hottest temperatures in five decades were melting Carnival revelry Tuesday after five days of dancing, drinking and smooching.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - Pope Benedict XVI told Irish bishops at a special summit meeting Tuesday to be courageous in confronting the pedophile priest scandal that has rocked that Catholic nation's church, but took no action on victims' demands the Vatican take some responsibility.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - An army of humanitarian organizations has been unable to end years of recurring hunger in conflict-torn Congo. Now a South American research group says it may have found another way to fill hungry bellies: with guinea pigs.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - A veteran British TV reporter has claimed on the air that he used a pillow to smother a lover who was dying of AIDS, adding a startling contribution to the country's debate on mercy killing.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - Mexican authorities have found the decapitated bodies of five men in a western state known for drug-gang violence.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - Police in the Greek capital say a bomb has exploded at the offices of American financial services firm JPMorgan Chase & Co., causing no injuries.
Posted: 02/16/2010 - Egypt's famed King Tutankhamun suffered from a cleft palate and club foot, likely forcing him to walk with a cane, and died from complications from a broken leg exacerbated by malaria, according to the most extensive study ever of his mummy.
Updated: 02/16/2010 - The White House's lead spokesman is declining to confirm the capture of the Taliban's top military commander.
Posted: 02/15/2010 - The incredible story of Baltic, the Polish pooch rescued from an ice sheet at sea, has struck a chord worldwide.
Posted: 02/15/2010 - Maoist rebels detonated land mines and set a security outpost ablaze in eastern India, killing at least 24 policemen in the worst-ever attack on police in the restive area.