text:
Northwest Territory
Latest Reviews
Hiking Boot
Best boots I've ever owned. Kept my feet warm and dry in Alaska, Minnesota, and now Oregon! Wish I could find another pair like I have right now. Absolutely the BEST boots I've ever owned! Full review
Sierra Dome Backpack Tent 9' x 7'
Held up in a storm that was raining 2 inches an hour for a whole night. I got this tent for a week of camping with my buddy. Four days in my camping trip one night at 11pm until 12 pm the next day it rains 2 inches an hour with 20mph winds. No rain came it at all. The only drawback and I knew better was to let anything touch the walls of the tent. Well the foot of my sleeping bag was wet because it was drawing the moisture of the rain. There were no puddles or seam leackage in the tent. We did not… Full review
Kmart model
Very nice tent for the price, easy setup and tear down with two or more people. Overall a very great tent with ease of setup and tear down. Other campers are in awe of the space inside and the look of the windows. Full review
16' x 14' Extreme Vacation Home
I've owned this tent for almost 8 years! Never once have I had a problem with it. My kids and grandkids enjoy it every summer, camping most of the summer! Not sure what else to say other than the tent is GREAT! Maybe the bad reviews are from those who require more detailed instructions! Full review
Family Cabin 8-Person Tent 14' x 14'
Love this tent. Hate that the zippers and hooks are corroding and falling apart. They should be made of something besides what they are made of. Awesome concept otherwise. This tent is easy to set up and take down. Packs up nicely! Big plus there! Plenty of room. Tall enough for my tall boyfriend! Love this tent. Trying to repair the breaking hooks and preserve the zippers. Don't want to lose this awesome tent. Full review
Trailspace.com is not affiliated with Northwest Territory in any way and cannot provide customer service for your Northwest Territory gear.
Trailspace does not make, sell, or service any of the products that are reviewed or featured on this web site. Contact the manufacturer or retailer of your gear for customer service.
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Saint CroixSaint Croix (sānt kroi) [key], island (2010 pop. 50,601), 80 sq mi (207 sq km), the largest of the U.S. Virgin Islands, in the West Indies. Christiansted, on the northeast coast, is the island's leading town. A campus of the Univ. of the Virgin Islands is located at Golden Grove, midway between Christiansted and Frederiksted. Buck Island Reef National Monument is off the island's NE coast. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Caribbean Political Geography |
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Current Residence: Scotland Favourite genre of music: mostly grunge/emo/punk MP3 player of choice: Zen micro! Favourite cartoon character: Cosmo from the fairly odd parents! :] Personal Quote: Warg. x] |
My Suicidal Enzyme.obnoxious,My Suicidal Enzyme. by coolcucumber
clinging onto my inevitable destruction,
my best kept secret,
the flicker of an eyelash,
cold agaisnt my skin,
a tawny gene,
is all i have to certify,
to signify,
my doubtfall existance.
my surface,
until i bleed irony.
I love my redneck wit,
convincing me into apoptosy,
you always had been,
my suicidal enzyme
Lose Yourself in the MusicLose Yourself in the Music by coolcucumber
You underestimate the power of words.
I suppose it has never occured to you,
that communication is not only spoken;
bitter crotchets regurgitating my life, my emotions, my thoughts.
A single letter could deprive you of your soul.
An insignificant movement of a lip,
could lead you to disastor.
It is unnescessary to be afraid.
Fear only hinders us from our dreams.
And dreams become relaity in our imagination.
We must embrace impossibilities and produce our own perspective.
A perspective that is true to yourself.
Because only you can change your world.
Only you can achieve your desires,
all you need,
is one simple thing;
being to open your eyes.
ConcussionEvery scrape of skin,Concussion by coolcucumber
our skin bonded by bone,
all the dust peel off us,
and fall into a column,
of sin, desire but death.
Every root of scalp,
blinded by a fringe,
all my eyelashes crack,
resting on your tongue,
upon concusion of confess.
Every cell of blood,
escaping from our skin,
crawling down our spines,
closing our perspective;
putting us to rest.
Billie's last breath.With this razor, i slit my throat, as you wrapped your noose of lies around my neck. The blood dripped, as the angels tightened the rope, restricting my airflows, platelets, soul.Billie's last breath. by coolcucumber
How i dreamt of this moment, so many times before, only to find a hand ceasing my blade.
Yet this time there is no one.
For i am no one.
I was no one.
And as I feel a sudeen drip of blood linger down my throat, i embrace the rush of carbon choking my insides; my guardian angel kissing me softly.
Although my vision is blurred, everything remains clear.
A soft caress from death,
squeezing my life from me.
I had no home.
I had my dream.
I was never sufficient.
mother and childMother and dying childmother and child by blackdav666
7th October,
room ??
and every time I float on a lung of mute it still betrays me,
to reside in the dark undercover tones of a computer world.
Without eye and as thin as sheet ice.
It still looks back at me spiting a warm glue.
Even when I cry my glass tears I see no glint in it's eye.
Feel no part of it in me.
Its display case coffin, sleeps with me, but I could never dream.
Only images and sounds of no valour or honour.
It leaves me burning spirals into my skull, now a maze for the flies to endure and a tattoo for a mind of Braille.
To be indulged in by the blind.
The kind of blind that look at me and whisper.
An unknown hand rests on my shoulder, a patronising sympathetic hand.
Crippling itself in my dreams, my dead hand meets it.
Inviting her into a bedlam.
Blanks paper and a patchwork of cards litter the room. Mocking me with their pleasant nature and crude rhetoric.
This pristine smell fades.
And makes me wretch.
All the impersonal linen
Current Residence: Scotland Favourite genre of music: mostly grunge/emo/punk MP3 player of choice: Zen micro! Favourite cartoon character: Cosmo from the fairly odd parents! :] Personal Quote: Warg. x] |


text:
[quote]Sure it does. this issue is a contributing factor to why you think he is the worse president ever (why else would that have been the one and only comment you would leave in your first post on the issue.
And when i asked you to elaborate you stated that this is "too far reaching" and not what executive orders are supposed to be for.
So i would only imagine that means you have the knowledge to explain to me how other presidents did not do this.
Emma 08/31/01
Aodhan 07/24/03
Lillian 03/04/05
Nathalie 07/01/07
Cecilia Marie 1/10/10
Photo By Anne Schmidt Photography
I am all for people getting paid what they work for. I feel it would be disheartening to those outside the thresh hold though. $455 a week is not a lot of salary, particularly when you're trying to raise a family with it. It seems though it'd be more worthwhile not to climb the ranks and just work more in lower rank....you'd earn more with likely similar hours as the paygrade ahead or so. It's kind of demoralizing to those who get promoted. Who wants just a title, with that much more responsibility when there is no extra compensation. At the end of the day, the paychecks will be what people see and care about because that's what's going to feed their family or not. I hope I've worded this right. I think there will be quite a lot of resentment among workers.
So I am for people getting what they work for, no doubt. But I don't think in this said scenario it's very good...at all.
[QUOTE=KimPossible;9118247]It is in this situation more about how I think forcing companies to pay over time to salary workers is a horrible idea than it was done by EO, however the fact that it was done by EO just adds to the situation. There are many, many things that contribute to why I think Pres. Obama is a poor president. This is just a drop in an already full bucket.
Sure it does. this issue is a contributing factor to why you think he is the worse president ever (why else would that have been the one and only comment you would leave in your first post on the issue.
And when i asked you to elaborate you stated that this is "too far reaching" and not what executive orders are supposed to be for.
So i would only imagine that means you have the knowledge to explain to me how other presidents did not do this.
To be completely honest, when I first posted this article I missed the $445 per week cap and was thinking it applied to all salaried workers. Even still after I realised I mis read the article, I still think it is a bad policy. While I disagree with someone paying someone for 40 hours a week and making them work 80 hours a week, I do not believe this kind of a rule is the answer. I would have to go back and research more how it works.
That does not change how I feel about Pres. Obama, but I think that you would find the vast majority of Republicans my age would feel the same way. An interesting read (Not related to the debate, but I found it very interesting) on how the different presidents compair in Gallop polls to each other. I was very surprised by some of them. Presidential Job Approval Center
I read an article about raising the minimum wage recently. Bill Gates was cautioning our leaders that making wages to high will lead to employers automating or using substitutions instead of workers. I dont believe that salaried employees should be paid overtime. There may need to be adjustments in what is considered salaried or not. I personally love being a salaried employee. Most weeks I do put in more hours then what I am contracted, but on occasion I do cut out early and no one says a thing
Here is the article
Bill Gates: Raising Minimum Wage 'Does Cause Job Destruction' | CNS News
Molly, Morgan, Mia and Carson
WOW how interesting considering that Bill Gates wants unlimited visas for workers to come from abroad....which is chopping salaries by a third. Is he really interested in our job destruction? And if it's destructed where shall the jobs go, to outside people who are willing to work hard with much less pay and complications like rights and all.
I think it's sound and it protects workers who need the protection. There will be some cases where the numbers are juggled and it's unfair, but in the majority of cases, it will help those who have no protection and are being exploited.
I'm not an economist; I can't tell you the exact salary cap that will work. But these are low income people who are being pushed to work hours far beyond what is reasonable for their pay; if it breaks a company to pay a decent wage then they shouldn't be in business, because they can't afford it. You don't get to run a business by breaking the backs of your employees. There are creative ways to avoid paying overtime if it's that big of a deal, like having your salaried worker go home and adding someone else on an hourly basis to make up the time.


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ND rancher to plead guilty in mortgage fraud case
Published 09/17/2011, The Jamestown Sun
A North Dakota rancher says he will plead guilty to selling mortgaged cattle, horses and vehicles and keeping the money.
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A neutral Arch-Lock® provides a snug fit in a breathable, lightweight running shoe designed with an HRC Strobel Board for increased cushion and responsiveness. A Comfortride insole and Hydrator collar lining combine for superior moisture wicking, antimicrobial protection, while an XT-900™ carbon rubber outsole creates exceptional, durable traction.
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When I met George W. Bush...PLEASE READ
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(I got saved at about 4am on 9/11/2001, but that is a different story)
Apparently it's an important part of the story or you wouldn't have mentioned it. How does one happen to get saved at 4am on 9/11/2001... what were the circumstances???
What religion are your parents???
Anonymous Coward 1148772
Well, I guess it all ties in, but not necessarily directly related. My mom was/is a kind of gnostic type "I believe in God", but only accepts the parts of the Bible she wants to accept (my older brother is gay so anything in Scripture opposed to that lifestyle was added after the fact). My dad is still an atheist, and when I say we were raised to be militant atheists, I mean it. Dawkins-style. I would go to party's and find the Christians just to make them look stupid by asking the hard questions and logically arguing them into holes they couldn't get out of. I would do the same thing in school. I refused to do the Pledge of Allegiance until God was taken out of it and would regularly burn Bibles and get sent to the principles office for making fun of "moments of silence" in school. The night I got saved is nothing short of miraculous. I have only heard a few other stories of how people got saved that even come close to it and I was planning on typing it all out in another thread, but I just don't have the time right now, kids just got up from nap and we gotta get on the road for Thanksgiving dinner. I will try to get on later tonight and explain it all, but I am guessing it will have to wait until tomorrow. Have a Happy Thanksgiving everyone and God Bless!
Secret service agents eventually retire someday and have to be replaced. And because of all those years of service your father is a trusted man by the white house. Every father talks about their kids somehow and when they heard about you, they saw potential in you. You were raised by your father so you will be someone they can trust. You were raised as a militant atheist so you fit the requirement to perhaps be a secret service agent someday. So that may be why Bush was so interested in you. But when he looked at you he indeed recognized a child of God.
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Found: Early Black Hole 12 Billion Times More Massive Than Our Sun
Chemicals From Beauty Products Have Migrated To Antarctica
New Mysterious Craters Found In Siberia
Human Head Transplants Will Not Be Possible By 2017
How Many Constitutional Rights Have We Lost?
North Carolina Legalizes Prostitutes For Politicians
KFC to Serve Edible Coffee Cups
Google wants to rank websites based on facts not links
Eleventh Hour Drama For Net Neutrality
Cyber Bullying Legislation Passes PA House. House Bill 229 would make cyber harassment of a child a punishable offense
DNA Activation for the Golden Age
Are We Living In A Holographic Universe?
Scientists Fear CIA Funding Geoengineering to Control 'Weaponized Weather'
IBM Watson Dehumanizing Veterans Care
Max Keiser: Welcome to the New World Order
Forced Adult Vaccinations at Federal Levels
The Media Is "Run By A Tiny Group Of Politically Motivated Moguls", And "Controlled By The CIA"
Inside The Food Industry: The Surprising Truth About What You Eat
Monday Feb 23 Will Be GLPVCs TheRawFeedLive's Last Show
Hollywood Studio Caught Producing ISIS Videos
A meteor going 45,000 MPH lit up the sky in western PA. You could see it from Ohio and New York!
America : Freedom to Fascism
Rapper Afroman Caught On Video Punching Woman At Nightclub
USDA Approves First GMO Apple For Planting
US Senator used old photos of Russian troops to push Ukraine war propaganda


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Copyright © 2012 All rights reserved. Dundalk Maryland Chapter SPEBSQSA, Inc
Comments contact firstname.lastname@example.com
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The Chorus of the Chesapeake
We meet Tuesdays at 7:30p at the North Point Government Center Merritt Boulevard & Wise Avenue
Dirty Job's Mike Rowe
Talks about his experience
with Fred King
Member Sign-
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The Chorus of the Chesapeake CD
… for Auld Lang Syne
Ridin' On The Melody Line
A 'Woodsheder's dream collection of old time lyrics and melodies.
Click here to preview book. Click here to order
The Dundalk Chapter
Wishes you a Very Harmonious
and Happy
Why not make a New Years resolution to come and join us in 2015? Our chorus has
qualified to compete in the Mid-
We meet every Tuesday night at 7:30p at the North Point Government Center.
Dundalk Chapter Snow Policy
If BALTIMORE COUNTY Schools are closed or close early, then our rehearsal will be cancelled.


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Vitriol and venom in political encounters? You bet. Sad to admit though; it seems that whether long past, or in recent times, biting rhetoric and bitterness have been present to some degree in most races for public...
The Race Between Chris McDaniel and Thad Cochran for U.S. senator is crystallizing Mississippi's great political irony.
Mississippi is one of the most conservative states in the nation, yet it receives the most federal aid. We...
People t hear the puerile rantings of People today hear the puerile rantings of Jackson's city council members, as well as the vitriol spewed across the aisles in our Legislature, and wonder how much worse it can possibly get. The answer...
- Marketing
- Board rethinks raising MCEDA's debt limit
- More downtown apartments planned
- County working to get state-aid money back
- Miss Steen and Avalon to wed February 22 at St. Peter Church
- New inductees
- Miss Blackstone, Love to exchange vows in Baton Rouge service
- Movie theater planned as part of the District at Eastover
- PTO board
- Colonial Club Rezoning Meeting Postponed
- Secrecy on selections should end
- Miss Ratcliff and Hayes planning March 28 wedding at First Baptist in Canton
- Privatize the VA
- Dr. Wyatt stitched hundreds during turn of century
- Mississippi Power wants top court to rehear case
- Keeton and White exchange wedding vows December 13 in Ridgeland
- Should elderly keep driving cars forever?
- Little dribblers
- Eagle Scouts
- Tech competition
- Planning board directs developer and neighbors to work out agreement
- PTO board
- Online Registration Dies
- Lease signed to begin next phase of work at Lost Rabbit
- UPDATE: Crews Assessing Main Break
- Customers pay for Jackson water woes
- A good beginning
- Jackson crime
- Still no lease signed on Lost Rabbit South land
- Making Plans: New airport CEO hopes to develop additional air services along with other improvementrs
- In memoriam
- Miss Waterer and Gilmer announce plans to wed March 21 at Providence Hill
- Marketing
- Board rethinks raising MCEDA's debt limit
- PTO board
- Judge by day, alligator slayer by night
- Proposed landfill permit denied by state board
- More downtown apartments planned
- Teddy Roosevelt quotes worth remembering
- Board luncheon
- Homecoming queen
- Historic Places, Meeting scheduled to inform Belhaven residents about National Register application
- Miss Steen and Avalon to wed February 22 at St. Peter Church
- County working to get state-aid money back
- In memoriam | 02/27/2015 - 7:30am
- HR contract renewed | 02/25/2015 - 4:43pm
- County money should cover Hoy Road | 02/25/2015 - 4:39pm
- County hires consultant to respond to MDEQ | 02/25/2015 - 4:36pm
- Madison crime increases in 2014; aggravated assaults decrease | 02/25/2015 - 4:34pm
- A conversation with Russell Bozeman on Mississippi Forestry Commission | 02/25/2015 - 4:30pm
- R'land delays decision on Baymeadows' petitions | 02/25/2015 - 4:28pm
- New Town? Gluckstadt residents prepare map for proposed incorporation | 02/25/2015 - 4:26pm
- N'sider frustrated with lack of response from city | 02/25/2015 - 2:00pm
- Schools all have disaster plans in place | 02/25/2015 - 1:56pm
- City considers abatements to attract more businesses to County Line Road | 02/25/2015 - 1:55pm
- Urban Warrior: Good develops online tutorial to help residents understand new water meters | 02/25/2015 - 1:54pm
- Matthew Arnold
8 weeks 17 min ago - Percy Monument Poem
8 weeks 1 day ago - Thank you for article re development trip to Israel
12 weeks 6 hours ago - Yandell Road
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OU Printing Services recently converted to a process-free lithographic plate where there are no chemicals or water washes discharged into the waste stream. Previously pre-press films and plates required significant filtering of waste to remove silver and other harmful chemicals before disposal. Now our pre-press waste stream is at zero discharge. OU is leading the way with this technology, with one of very few printers in Oklahoma using a process-free lithographic plate.
University printing inks now emit zero volatile organic compounds (VOC's) into the air. For the past decade, all printing inks have been certified soy-based formulas. In addition, the use of recycled paper continues to be a preferred practice for OU Printing Services. Official University stationary is printed on recycled paper.


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These strings are manufactured with D-75 material. |
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Replacement blades for Magnus Bullhead. |
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The Chair take the popular "Bat Wing" cut to a new level. The big brother to the Cyanide, It is the same aggressive turkey call as its little brother, but with more muscle to reach out and touch'em. This is an excellent call for cuttin' and runnin', or windy days. |


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Happy New Year and welcome to 2015! We're kicking off this month with a list of some great activities that everyone can enjoy (even in the midst of winter). Break out that new calendar and pencil in these dates for some free or inexpensive events happening in a town near you.
Saturday, January 3: Sing along to the classic 1939 film, Wizard of Oz, starring Judy Garland, Ray Bolger, Bert Lahr, Jack Haley and Frank Morgan. Come dressed as your favorite character and be a part of the costume parade on the Count Basie stage (Red Bank). Enjoy an afternoon of fantasy and song on the big screen as we travel with Kansas farm girl Dorothy down the yellow brick road to the magical land of Oz. A fun event for the whole family for just $15 a ticket! For more information, call 732-842-9000.
Friday, January 9 – Sunday, January 11: t's a new year and now is the time to begin planning that home renovation or home improvement project you've dreamed of. Get started at the 25th Annual Jersey Shore Home Show on planning the home of your dreams now at Brookdale Community College (Lincroft)! From basic home improvements and maintenance projects, to major renovations and new construction, the Jersey Shore Home Show can help you find the right home professional to get the job done right as well as save you time and money. Tickets are just $8 for adults, and children 17 and under are FREE! For more information, call 732-449-4004. *Check out the 12th Annual Ocean County Home Show from 1/23-1/25 at Pine Belt Arena (Toms River). Click here for more details.
Saturday, January 10 – Sunday, February 1: Two River Theater (Red Bank) presents Absurd Person Singular, a laugh-out-loud, satirical look at how three English couples deal with their relationships, social standings, and the pressures of three successive Christmas gatherings. During the Broadway run, statisticians counted 504 chuckles, roll-em in the aisles, and belly laughs! Don't miss this perfect opportunity to unwind from the holiday madness. Various dates and times with tickets starting at just $20 per person. For more information, call 732-345-1400.
Thursday, January 15 – Sunday, January 18: The NJ Repertory Company (Long Branch) presents Swimming at the Ritz for a limited time! Pamela Churchill Hayward Harriman, the ultimate party girl, has been living an idyllic life at the luxurious Ritz in Paris for the past several years accompanied by her young Italian valet, and has been spending her and her stepchildren's vast inheritance on paintings, clothing, jewels, furs, champagne (her day-to-day necessities). But her stepchildren's attorneys are about to shut her down. On the verge of losing everything, with the creditors literally at her door, Pamela reveals her journey in a funny, poignant tour-de-force. Times: 1/15 & 1/16 at 8pm, 1/17 at 3pm & 8pm, and 1/18 at 2pm. For more information, call 732-229-3166.
Wednesday, January 21: Do you have your own business and looking to measure your marketing efforts and other investments? Join us at 8:30am at our Wall Headquarters for our FREE "Marketing Analytics and How to Measure ROI for Your Business" seminar, presented by Stephanie Shaffery, President of Flair Marketing Group. Space and time is limited – for more information, call 866-750-0100.
Tuesday, January 27: If you want to get your finances on the right track for the new year, attend our upcoming seminar, "I Bought What? How to Not Be Afraid When You Open Your Bills and Stick to a Budget" at 6pm in Toms River. The event is brought to you by the experts at First Financial – space and time is limited, register today! For more information, call 866-750-0100.
Wishing you a great 2015!


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Iron-Catalyzed Synthesis of Cyclopropyl Halides
Article first published online: 4 JAN 2013
DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201200740
Copyright © 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Additional Information
How to Cite
Grupe, S. and Jacobi von Wangelin, A. (2013), Iron-Catalyzed Synthesis of Cyclopropyl Halides. ChemCatChem, 5: 706–710. doi: 10.1002/cctc.201200740
Publication History
- Issue published online: 22 FEB 2013
- Article first published online: 4 JAN 2013
- Manuscript Received: 21 OCT 2012
Funded by
- Deutsche Forschungsgemein-schaft (DFG)
- cross-coupling;
- small ring systems;
- grignard reaction;
- iron;
- reduction
Under a halo: Selective iron-catalyzed hydrodehalogenations of dibromo- and dichlorocyclopropanes are effectively realized with tBuMgCl as the reductant. The reactions proceed under mild conditions and exhibit superior selectivities to iron-free protocols, as no allenes are formed. The sequential combination of base-mediated dihalocyclopropanation and this mono-dehalogenation provides straightforward access to substituted monohalocyclopropanes.


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HOME & TRAVEL Rough Cut: Woodworking With Tomm
A production ofRecent Episodes
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The Season 1 finale explains how to build a trellis.
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This time, on Rough Cut, Tommy takes on an Arts and Crafts-Style Chair. This episode will demonstrate how to make the legs, arms and back, mostly through standard mortise and tenon joinery.
The Road Trip brings Tommy out to Alta Loma, California, where he visits the home of one of the biggest names in chair making: the late, great Samuel Maloof. There, Tommy visits with Samuel's wife Beverly as well as a curator. Back in the studio, Tommy is joined by master furniture maker Chuck Bender of The Acanthus Workshop in Pennsylvania.
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Mohawk Home Kaleidoscope Magma Contemporary Rug, 8 x 10'
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Kaleidoscope Magma Contemporary Rug from Mohawk Home. Small details can really wake up a room.
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VIEWS: 19 PAGES: 52 CATEGORY: Education POSTED ON: 4/8/2012
An expert system is a set of programs that manipulate encoded knowledge to solve problems in a specialized domain that normally requires human expertise. An expert system's knowledge is obtained from expert sources and coded in a form suitable for the system to use in its inference or reasoning processes.
INTRODUCTION TO EXPERT SYSTEM Page | 1 EXPERT SYSTEM Overview of an Expert System: An expert system is a set of programs that manipulate encoded knowledge to solve problems in a specialized domain that normally requires human expertise. An expert system's knowledge is obtained from expert sources and coded in a form suitable for the system to use in its inference or reasoning processes. The expert knowledge must be obtained from specialists or other sources of expertise such as texts, journals, articles and databases. An expert system is software that attempts to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted. Expert systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and are a traditional application and/or subfield of artificial intelligence. A wide variety of methods can be used to simulate the performance of the expert however common to most or all are 1) the creation of a so-called "knowledgebase" which uses some knowledge representation formalism to capture the Subject Matter Expert's (SME) knowledge and 2) a process of gathering that knowledge from the SME and codifying it according to the formalism, which is called knowledge engineering. Expert systems may or may not have learning components but a third common element is that once the system is developed it is proven by being placed in the same real world problem solving situation as the human SME, typically as an aid to human workers or a supplement to some information system. Page | 2 Characteristic features of Expert Systems: Expert Systems use knowledge rather than data to control the solution process. The knowledge is encoded and maintained as an entity separate from the control program. It is not compiled together with the control program itself. This permits the incremental addition and modification of the knowledge base without recompilation of the control programs. Expert systems are capable of explaining how a particular conclusion was reached. Expert systems use symbolic representations for knowledge and perform their inference through symbolic computations. Expert systems often reason with Meta knowledge. Expert System Architecture: Figure shows the most important modules that make up a rule-based expert system. The user interacts with the system through a user interface which may use menus, natural language or any other style of interaction). Then an inference engine is used to reason with both the expert knowledge (extracted from our friendly expert) and data specific to the particular problem being solved. The expert knowledge will typically be in the form of a set of IF-THEN rules. The case specific data includes both data provided by the user and partial conclusions (along with certainty measures) based on this data. In a simple forward chaining rule-based system the case specific data will be the elements in working memory. Page | 3 Almost all expert systems also have an explanation subsystem, which allows the program to explain its reasoning to the user. Some systems also have a knowledge base editor which helps the expert or knowledge engineer to easily update and check the knowledge base. One important feature of expert systems is the way they (usually) separate domain specific knowledge from more general purpose reasoning and representation techniques. The general purpose bit (in the dotted box in the figure) is referred to as an expert system shell. As we see in the figure, the shell will provide the inference engine (and knowledge representation scheme), a user interface, an explanation system and sometimes a knowledge base editor. Given a new kind of problem to solve (say, car design), we can usually find a shell that provides the right sort of support for that problem, so all we need to do is provide the expert knowledge. There are numerous commercial expert system shells, each one appropriate for a slightly different range of problems. (Expert systems work in industry includes both writing expert system shells and writing expert systems using shells.) Using shells to write expert systems generally Page | 4 greatly reduces the cost and time of development (compared with writing the expert system from scratch). Example of Expert System: MYCIN was an early expert system developed over five or six years in the early 1970s at Stanford University. It was written in Lisp as the doctoral dissertation of Edward Shortliffe under the direction of Bruce Buchanan, Stanley N. Cohen and others. It arose in the laboratory that had created the earlier Dendral expert system, but emphasized the use of judgmental rules that had elements of uncertainty (known as certainty factors) associated with them. This expert system was designed to identify bacteria causing severe infections, such as bacteremia and meningitis, and to recommend antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for patient's body weight — the name derived from the antibiotics themselves, as many antibiotics have the suffix "-mycin". The Mycin system was also used for the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases. Applications of Expert System: The spectrum of applications of expert systems technology to industrial and commercial problems is so wide as to defy easy characterization. The applications find their way into most areas of knowledge work. They are as varied as helping salespersons sell modular factory-built homes to helping NASA plan the maintenance of a space shuttle in preparation for its next flight. Applications tend to cluster into seven major classes. Page | 5 Diagnosis and Troubleshooting of Devices and Systems of All Kinds: This class comprises systems that deduce faults and suggest corrective actions for a malfunctioning device or process. Medical diagnosis was one of the first knowledge areas to which ES technology was applied (for example, see Shortliffe 1976), but diagnosis of engineered systems quickly surpassed medical diagnosis. There are probably more diagnostic applications of ES than any other type. The diagnostic problem can be stated in the abstract as: given the evidence presenting itself, what is the underlying problem/reason/cause? Planning and Scheduling Systems that fall into this class analyze a set of one or more potentially complex and interacting goals in order to determine a set of actions to achieve those goals, and/or provide a detailed temporal ordering of those actions, taking into account personnel, materiel, and other constraints. This class has great commercial potential, which has been recognized. Examples involve airline scheduling of flights, personnel, and gates; manufacturing job-shop scheduling; and manufacturing process planning. Configuration of Manufactured Objects from Subassemblies Configuration, whereby a solution to a problem is synthesized from a given set of elements related by a set of constraints, is historically one of the most important of expert system applications. Configuration applications were pioneered by computer companies as a means of facilitating the manufacture of semi-custom minicomputers (McDermott 1981). The technique has found its way into use in many different industries, for example, modular home building, manufacturing, and other problems involving complex engineering design and manufacturing. Page | 6 Financial Decision Making The financial services industry has been a vigorous user of expert system techniques. Advisory programs have been created to assist bankers in determining whether to make loans to businesses and individuals. Insurance companies have used expert systems to assess the risk presented by the customer and to determine a price for the insurance. A typical application in the financial markets is in foreign exchange trading. Knowledge Publishing This is a relatively new, but also potentially explosive area. The primary function of the expert system is to deliver knowledge that is relevant to the user's problem, in the context of the user's problem. The two most widely distributed expert systems in the world are in this category. The first is an advisor which counsels a user on appropriate grammatical usage in a text. The second is a tax advisor that accompanies a tax preparation program and advises the user on tax strategy, tactics, and individual tax policy. Process Monitoring and Control Systems falling in this class analyze real-time data from physical devices with the goal of noticing anomalies, predicting trends, and controlling for both optimality and failure correction. Examples of real-time systems that actively monitor processes can be found in the steel making and oil refining industries. Page | 7 Design and Manufacturing These systems assist in the design of physical devices and processes, ranging from high- level conceptual design of abstract entities all the way to factory floor configuration of manufacturing processes. Chaining: Two methods of reasoning when using inference rules are backward chaining and forward chaining. Forward chaining starts with the data available and uses the inference rules to conclude more data until a desired goal is reached. An inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference rules until it finds one in which the if clause is known to be true. It then concludes the then clause and adds this information to its data. It would continue to do this until a goal is reached. Because the data available determines which inference rules are used, this method is also called data driven. Backward chaining starts with a list of goals and works backwards to see if there is data which will allow it to conclude any of these goals. An inference engine using backward chaining would search the inference rules until it finds one which has a then clause that matches a desired goal. If the if clause of that inference rule is not known to be true, then it is added to the list of goals. Page | 8 Types of Expert Systems: There are many different types of expert systems. The following list describes the various types. Diagnosis. Diagnosis types of expert systems are used to recommend remedies to illnesses, trouble-shoot electronic or mechanical problems or as debugging tools. Repair. Expert systems that define repair strategies are also very common. As well as diagnosing the problem they can suggest a plan for the repair of the item. The repair plan typically contains a scheduling structure and some control structure to validate the repair process. Such systems have been employed in the automotive repair field and similar areas. Instruction. Instructional expert systems have been used for individualized training or instruction in a particular field. The system presents material in an order determined by its evaluation of the user's ability and current knowledge and monitor's the progress of the student, altering the sequence depending on this progress. Interpretation. Interpretive expert systems have the ability to analyze data to determine its significance or usefulness. The knowledge base often contains models of real world situations which it compares to its data. These are often used in exploration for mineral, gas and oil deposits as well as in surveillance, image analysis and speech understanding. Page | 9 Prediction. Predictive expert systems are used as a method to "guess" at the possible outcomes of observed situations, usually providing a probability factor. This is used often in weather forecasting. Design and Planning. This allows experts to quickly develop solutions that save time. These systems do not replace experts but act as a tool by performing tasks such as costing, building design, material ordering and magazine design. Monitoring and Control. In certain applications expert systems can be designed to monitor operations and control certain functions. These are particularly useful where speed of decision making is vitally important, for example in the nuclear energy industry, air traffic control and the stock market. Classification/Identification. These systems help to classify the goals in the system by the identification of various features (these can by physical or non-physical) For example various types of animals are classified according to attributes such as habitat, feeding information, colour, breeding information, relative size etc. These systems can be used by bird watchers, fishing enthusiasts, animal rescue shelters (to match animals to prospective owners) to name a few Expert System and Artificial Intelligence: Expert Systems are computer programs that are derived from a branch of computer science research called Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI's scientific goal is to understand intelligence by building computer programs that exhibit intelligent behavior. Page | 10 It is concerned with the concepts and methods of symbolic inference, or reasoning, by a computer, and how the knowledge used to make those inferences will be represented inside the machine. Of course, the term intelligence covers many cognitive skills, including the ability to solve problems, learn, and understand language; AI addresses all of those. But most progress to date in AI has been made in the area of problem solving -- concepts and methods for building programs that reason about problems rather than calculate a solution. AI programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving problems in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks are called knowledge- based or expert systems. Often, the term expert systems is reserved for programs whose knowledge base contains the knowledge used by human experts, in contrast to knowledge gathered from textbooks or non-experts. More often than not, the two terms, expert systems (ES) and knowledge-based systems (KBS), are used synonymously. Taken together, they represent the most widespread type of AI application. The area of human intellectual endeavor to be captured in an expert system is called the task domain. Task refers to some goal-oriented, problem-solving activity. Domain refers to the area within which the task is being performed. Typical tasks are diagnosis, planning, scheduling, configuration and design. Building an expert system is known as knowledge engineering and its practitioners are called knowledge engineers. The knowledge engineer must make sure that the computer has all the knowledge needed to solve a problem. The knowledge engineer must choose one or more forms in which to represent the required knowledge as symbol patterns in the memory of the computer -- that is, he (or she) must choose a Page | 11 knowledge representation. He must also ensure that the computer can use the knowledge efficiently by selecting from a handful of reasoning methods. The practice of knowledge engineering is described later. We first describe the components of expert systems. The Building Blocks of Expert Systems: Every expert system consists of two principal parts: the knowledge base; and the reasoning, or inference, engine. The knowledge base of expert systems contains both factual and heuristic knowledge. Factual knowledge is that knowledge of the task domain that is widely shared, typically found in textbooks or journals, and commonly agreed upon by those knowledgeable in the particular field. Heuristic knowledge is the less rigorous, more experiential, more judgmental knowledge of performance. In contrast to factual knowledge, heuristic knowledge is rarely discussed, and is largely individualistic. It is the knowledge of good practice, good judgment, and plausible reasoning in the field. It is the knowledge that underlies the "art of good guessing." Knowledge representation formalizes and organizes the knowledge. One widely used representation is the production rule, or simply rule. A rule consists of an IF part and a THEN part (also called a condition and an action). The IF part lists a set of conditions in some logical combination. The piece of knowledge represented by the production rule is relevant to the line of reasoning being developed if the IF part of the rule is satisfied; consequently, the THEN part can be concluded, or its problem-solving action taken. Expert systems whose knowledge is represented in rule form are called rule-based systems. Page | 12 Another widely used representation, called the unit (also known as frame, schema, or list structure) is based upon a more passive view of knowledge. The unit is an assemblage of associated symbolic knowledge about an entity to be represented. Typically, a unit consists of a list of properties of the entity and associated values for those properties. Since every task domain consists of many entities that stand in various relations, the properties can also be used to specify relations, and the values of these properties are the names of other units that are linked according to the relations. One unit can also represent knowledge that is a "special case" of another unit, or some units can be "parts of" another unit. The problem-solving model, or paradigm, organizes and controls the steps taken to solve the problem. One common but powerful paradigm involves chaining of IF- THEN rules to form a line of reasoning. If the chaining starts from a set of conditions and moves toward some conclusion, the method is called forward chaining. If the conclusion is known (for example, a goal to be achieved) but the path to that conclusion is not known, then reasoning backwards is called for, and the method is backward chaining. These problem-solving methods are built into program modules called inference engines or inference procedures that manipulate and use knowledge in the knowledge base to form a line of reasoning. The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. Presumably the more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis. Page | 13 Though an expert system consists primarily of a knowledge base and an inference engine, a couple of other features are worth mentioning: reasoning with uncertainty, and explanation of the line of reasoning. Knowledge is almost always incomplete and uncertain. To deal with uncertain knowledge, a rule may have associated with it a confidence factor or a weight. The set of methods for using uncertain knowledge in combination with uncertain data in the reasoning process is called reasoning with uncertainty. An important subclass of methods for reasoning with uncertainty is called "fuzzy logic," and the systems that use them are known as "fuzzy systems." Because an expert system uses uncertain or heuristic knowledge (as we humans do) its credibility is often in question (as is the case with humans). When an answer to a problem is questionable, we tend to want to know the rationale. If the rationale seems plausible, we tend to believe the answer. So it is with expert systems. Most expert systems have the ability to answer questions of the form: "Why is the answer X?" Explanations can be generated by tracing the line of reasoning used by the inference engine (Feigenbaum, McCorduck et al. 1988). The most important ingredient in any expert system is knowledge. The power of expert systems resides in the specific, high-quality knowledge they contain about task domains. AI researchers will continue to explore and add to the current repertoire of knowledge representation and reasoning methods. But in knowledge resides the power. Because of the importance of knowledge in expert systems and because the current knowledge acquisition method is slow and tedious, much of the future of expert systems depends on breaking the knowledge acquisition bottleneck and in codifying and representing a large knowledge infrastructure. Page | 14 Knowledge engineering: It is the art of designing and building expert systems, and knowledge engineers are its practitioners. Gerald M. Weinberg said of programming in The Psychology of Programming: "'Programming,' -- like 'loving,' -- is a single word that encompasses an infinitude of activities" (Weinberg 1971). Knowledge engineering is the same, perhaps more so. We stated earlier that knowledge engineering is an applied part of the science of artificial intelligence which, in turn, is a part of computer science. Theoretically, then, a knowledge engineer is a computer scientist who knows how to design and implement programs that incorporate artificial intelligence techniques. The nature of knowledge engineering is changing, however, and a new breed of knowledge engineers is emerging. We'll discuss the evolving nature of knowledge engineering later. Today there are two ways to build an expert system. They can be built from scratch, or built using a piece of development software known as a "tool" or a "shell." Before we discuss these tools, let's briefly discuss what knowledge engineers do. Though different styles and methods of knowledge engineering exist, the basic approach is the same: a knowledge engineer interviews and observes a human expert or a group of experts and learns what the experts know, and how they reason with their knowledge. The engineer then translates the knowledge into a computer-usable language, and designs an inference engine, a reasoning structure, that uses the knowledge appropriately. He also determines how to integrate the use of uncertain knowledge in the reasoning process, and what kinds of explanation would be useful to the end user. Next, the inference engine and facilities for representing knowledge and for explaining are programmed, and the domain knowledge is entered into the program piece by piece. It may be that the inference engine is not just right; the form of Page | 15 knowledge representation is awkward for the kind of knowledge needed for the task; and the expert might decide the pieces of knowledge are wrong. All these are discovered and modified as the expert system gradually gains competence. The discovery and cumulation of techniques of machine reasoning and knowledge representation is generally the work of artificial intelligence research. The discovery and cumulation of knowledge of a task domain is the province of domain experts. Domain knowledge consists of both formal, textbook knowledge, and experiential knowledge -- the expertise of the experts. Inference rule: An understanding of the "inference rule" concept is important to understand expert systems. An inference rule is a statement that has two parts, an if clause and a then clause. This rule is what gives expert systems the ability to find solutions to diagnostic and prescriptive problems. An example of an inference rule is: If the restaurant choice includes French, and the occasion is romantic, Then the restaurant choice is definitely Paul Bocuse. An expert system's rule base is made up of many such inference rules. They are entered as separate rules and it is the inference engine that uses them together to draw conclusions. Because each rule is a unit, rules may be deleted or added without affecting other rules (though it should affect which conclusions are reached). One advantage of inference rules over traditional programming is that inference rules use reasoning which more closely resemble human reasoning. Page | 16 Thus, when a conclusion is drawn, it is possible to understand how this conclusion was reached. Furthermore, because the expert system uses knowledge in a form similar to the expert, it may be easier to retrieve this information from the expert. Individuals involved with expert systems: There are generally three individuals having an interaction with expert systems. Primary among these is the end-user; the individual who uses the system for its problem solving assistance. In the building and maintenance of the system there are two other roles: the problem domain expert who builds and supplies the knowledge base providing the domain expertise, and a knowledge engineer who assists the experts in determining the representation of their knowledge, enters this knowledge into an explanation module and who defines the inference technique required to obtain useful problem solving activity. Usually, the knowledge engineer will represent the problem solving activity in the form of rules which is referred to as a rule-based expert system. When these rules are created from the domain expertise, the knowledge base stores the rules of the expert system. Expert systems versus problem-solving systems: The principal distinction between expert systems and traditional problem solving programs is the way in which the problem related expertise is coded. In traditional applications, problem expertise is encoded in both program and data structures. In the expert system approach all of the problem related expertise is encoded in data structures only; no problem-specific information is encoded in the program structure. This organization has several benefits. Page | 17 An example may help contrast the traditional problem solving program with the expert system approach. The example is the problem of tax advice. In the traditional approach data structures describe the taxpayer and tax tables, and a program in which there are statements representing an expert tax consultant's knowledge, such as statements which relate information about the taxpayer to tax table choices. It is this representation of the tax expert's knowledge that is difficult for the tax expert to understand or modify. In the expert system approach, the information about taxpayers and tax computations is again found in data structures, but now the knowledge describing the relationships between them is encoded in data structures as well. The programs of an expert system are independent of the problem domain (taxes) and serve to process the data structures without regard to the nature of the problem area they describe. For example, there are programs to acquire the described data values through user interaction, programs to represent and process special organizations of description, and programs to process the declarations that represent semantic relationships within the problem domain and an algorithm to control the processing sequence and focus. The general architecture of an expert system involves two principal components: a problem dependent set of data declarations called the knowledge base or rule base, and a problem independent (although highly data structure dependent) program which is called the inference engine. Types of problems solved by expert systems: Expert systems are most valuable to organizations that have a high-level of know- how experience and expertise that cannot be easily transferred to other members. They Page | 18 are designed to carry the intelligence and information found in the intellect of experts and provide this knowledge to other members of the organization for problem-solving purposes. Typically, the problems to be solved are of the sort that would normally be tackled by a medical or other professional. Real experts in the problem domain (which will typically be very narrow, for instance "diagnosing skin conditions in human teenagers") are asked to provide "rules of thumb" on how they evaluate the problems, either explicitly with the aid of experienced systems developers, or sometimes implicitly, by getting such experts to evaluate test cases and using computer programs to examine the test data and (in a strictly limited manner) derive rules from that. Generally, expert systems are used for problems for which there is no single "correct" solution which can be encoded in a conventional algorithm — one would not write an expert system to find shortest paths through graphs, or sort data, as there are simply easier ways to do these tasks. Simple systems use simple true/false logic to evaluate data. More sophisticated systems are capable of performing at least some evaluation, taking into account real- world uncertainties, using such methods as fuzzy logic. Such sophistication is difficult to develop and still highly imperfect Advantages: Provides consistent answers for repetitive decisions, processes and tasks Holds and maintains significant levels of information Encourages organizations to clarify the logic of their decision-making Always asks a question, that a human might forget to ask Page | 19 Can work continuously (no human needs) Can be used by the user more frequently A multi-user expert system can serve more users at a time Disadvantages: Lacks common sense needed in some decision making Cannot respond creatively like a human expert would in unusual circumstances Domain experts not always able to explain their logic and reasoning Errors may occur in the knowledge base, and lead to wrong decisions Cannot adapt to changing environments, unless knowledge base is changed Benefits to End Users: Primarily, the benefits of ES's to end users include: A speed-up of human professional or semi-professional work -- typically by a factor of ten and sometimes by a factor of a hundred or more. Within companies, major internal cost savings. For small systems, savings are sometimes in the tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars; but for large systems, often in the tens of millions of dollars and as high as hundreds of millions of dollars. These cost savings are a result of quality improvement, a major motivation for employing expert system technology. Improved quality of decision making. In some cases, the quality or correctness of decisions evaluated after the fact show a ten-fold improvement. Page | 20 Preservation of scarce expertise. ES's are used to preserve scarce know-how in organizations, to capture the expertise of individuals who are retiring, and to preserve corporate know-how so that it can be widely distributed to other factories, offices or plants of the company. Introduction of new products. A good example of a new product is a pathology advisor sold to clinical pathologists in hospitals to assist in the diagnosis of diseased tissue. Expert Systems in Education: In education field, many of the expert system's application are embedded inside the Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) by using techniques from adaptive hypertext and hypermedia. Most of the system usually will assist student in their learning by using adaptation techniques to personalize with the environment, prior knowledge of student and student's ability to learn. In term of technology used, expert system in education has expanded very consistently from microcomputer to web based (Woodin D.E, 2001) and agent-based expert system (Vivacqua A., and Lieberman H., 2000). By using web-based expert system, it can provide an excellent alterative to private tutoring at anytime from anyplace (Markham H.C, 2001) where Internet is provided. Also, agent based expert system surely will help users by finding materials from the web based on the user's profile. Supposedly, agent expert system should have capability to diagnose the users and giving the results according to the problems. Page | 21 Besides technology used, expert system also had a tremendous changes in the applying of methods and techniques. Starting from a simple rule based system; currently expert system techniques had adapted a fuzzy logic (Michael Starek, Mukesh Tomer, Krishna Bhaskar, and Mario Garcia ,2002) and hybrid based technique (Jim Prentzas, Ioannis Hatzilygeroudis, C. Koutsojannis , 2001). Needs for Expert Systems in Education: According to Markham H.C (2001), expert system are beneficial as a teaching tools because it has equipped with the unique features which allow users to ask question on how, why and what format. When it used in the class environment, surely it will gave many benefit to student as it prepare the answer without referring to the teacher. Beside that, expert system is able to a give reasons towards the given answer. This features is really great as it can make students more understand and confident with the answer. Ability of expert system to adaptively adjust the training for each particular student on the bases of his/her own pace of learning is another feature that makes expert system more demanding for students. This feature is used in (Zorica Nedic, Vladimir Nedic and Jan Machotka, 2002) for teaching engineering students. It should be able to monitor student's progress and make a decision about the next step in training. Page | 22 Knowledge Acquisition in Expert System: The system must liaise with people in order to gain knowledge and the people must be specialized in the appropriate area of activity. For example medical doctors, geologists or chemists. The knowledge engineer acts as an intermediary between the specialist and the expert system. Typical of the information that must be gleaned is vocabulary or jargon, general concepts and facts, problems that commonly arise, the solutions to the problems that occur and skills for solving particular problems. This process of picking the brain of an expert is a specialized form of data capture and makes use of interview techniques. Page | 23 LANGUAGE DESCRIPTION Page | 24 PROLOG Prolog is a general purpose logic programming language associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Prolog has its roots in formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: The program logic is expressed in terms of relations, represented as facts and rules. Execution is triggered by running queries over these relations. Prolog was one of the first logic programming languages, and remains among the most popular such languages today, with many free and commercial implementations available. While initially aimed at natural language processing, the language has since then stretched far into other areas like theorem proving, expert systems, games, automated answering systems, ontologies and sophisticated control systems. Modern Prolog environments support the creation of graphical user interfaces, as well as administrative and networked applications. Programming in Prolog: In Prolog, program logic is expressed in terms of relations, and execution is triggered by running queries over these relations. Relations and queries are constructed using Prolog's single data type, the term. Relations are defined by clauses. Given a query, the Prolog engine attempts to find a resolution refutation of the negated query. If the negated query can be refuted, i.e., an instantiation for all free variables is found that makes the union of clauses and the singleton set consisting of the negated query false, it follows that the original query, with the found instantiation applied, is a logical consequence of the program. This makes Prolog (and other logic programming Page | 25 languages) particularly useful for database, symbolic mathematics, and language parsing applications. Because Prolog allows impure predicates, checking the truth value of certain special predicates may have some deliberate side effect, such as printing a value to the screen. This permits the programmer to use some amount of conventional imperative programming when the logical paradigm is inconvenient. It has a purely logical subset, called "pure Prolog", as well as a number of extralogical features. Data types: Prolog's single data type is the term. Terms are atoms, numbers, variables or compound terms. An atom is a general-purpose name with no inherent meaning. Examples of atoms include x, blue, 'Taco', and 'some atom'. Numbers can be floats or integers. Variables are denoted by a string consisting of letters, numbers and underscore characters, and beginning with an upper-case letter or underscore. Variables closely resemble variables in logic in that they are placeholders for arbitrary terms. A compound term is composed of an atom called a "functor" and a number of "arguments", which are again terms. Compound terms are ordinarily written as a functor followed by a comma-separated list of argument terms, which is contained in parentheses. The number of arguments is called the term's arity. An atom can be regarded as a compound term with arity zero. Special cases of compound terms: Page | 26 A List is an ordered collection of terms. It is denoted by square brackets with the terms separated by commas or in the case of the empty list, []. For example [1,2,3] or [red,green,blue]. Strings: A sequence of characters surrounded by quotes is equivalent to a list of (numeric) character codes, generally in the local character encoding or Unicode if the system supports Unicode. For example, "to be, or not to be". Rules and facts: Prolog programs describe relations, defined by means of clauses. Pure Prolog is restricted to Horn clauses, a Turing-complete subset of first-order predicate logic. There are two types of clauses: Facts and rules. A rule is of the form Head :- Body. and is read as "Head is true if Body is true". A rule's body consists of calls to predicates, which are called the rule's goals. The built-in predicate ,/2 (meaning a 2-arity operator with name ,) denotes conjunction of goals, and ;/2 denotes disjunction. Conjunctions and disjunctions can only appear in the body, not in the head of a rule. Clauses with empty bodies are called facts. An example of a fact is: cat(tom). which is equivalent to the rule: cat(tom) :- true. The built-in predicate true/0 is always true. Page | 27 Given the above fact, one can ask: is tom a cat? ?- cat(tom). Yes what things are cats? ?- cat(X). X = tom Due to the relational nature of many built-in predicates, they can typically be used in several directions. For example, length/2 can be used to determine the length of a list (length(List, L), given a list List) as well as to generate a list skeleton of a given length (length(X, 5)), and also to generate both list skeletons and their lengths together (length(X, L)). Similarly, append/3 can be used both to append two lists (append(ListA, ListB, X) given lists ListA and ListB) as well as to split a given list into parts (append(X, Y, List), given a list List). For this reason, a comparatively small set of library predicates suffices for many Prolog programs. All predicates can also be used to perform unit tests: Queries can be embedded in programs and allow for automatic compile-time regression testing. As a general purpose language, Prolog also provides various built-in predicates to perform routine activities like input/output, using graphics and otherwise communicating with the operating system. These predicates are not given a relational meaning and are only useful for the side-effects they exhibit on the system. For example, the predicate write/1 displays a term on the screen. Page | 28 Examples: likes(mary,food). likes(mary,wine). likes(john,wine). likes(john,mary). The following queries yield the specified answers. | ?- likes(mary,food). yes. | ?- likes(john,wine). yes. | ?- likes(john,food). no. Data Structures and Syntax: We have already seen how prolog programs consist of facts, rules and questions. Facts declare things that are always true. Rules declare things that are true depending on some conditions. They consist of a head and a body. For example the rule ``a(X) :- b(X), c(X).'' has head ``a(X)'' and body ``b(X), c(X)''. Its head is true if the goals in its body are all true. (Facts can be viewed as rules without a body). Facts and/or rules can be used to define relations (or predicates). These can be of different arities (ie, have different numbers of arguments). For example, lectures/2 is the binary relation lectures, and might be defined Page | 29 by the three facts lectures(alison, ai), tt lectures(phil, databases), and lectures(gilbert, hci). Questions are used to find out if something is true (and what the associated variable bindings would be to make it true). Facts, rules and questions are all prolog clauses and must end with a full stop. The fundamental data structure in Prolog is the term. Prolog terms include: Atoms : such as sparrow, x, 'Alison Cawsey', a102, -. These generally represent specific single entities in the world and cannot be separated into parts. They normally begin with a lower-case letter, but arbitrary characters can be used if they are quoted. Symbols (such as ``-'') and sequences of symbols (e.g., ``:-'') are also atoms. Numbers: such as 29, 1.2, 3000, -2. Variables: such as X, Person, _Var. Variables begin either with a capital letter or an underline character. Prolog Matching: As we have seen, Prolog tries to prove (answer) a query by looking for facts which match that query, or rules whose heads match the query and whose body can be proved. The way prolog matches terms is therefore crucial. Page | 30 We have already seen how simple expressions such as lectures(alison,Course) can be matched to facts such as lectures(alison, ai) resulting in bindings such as Course=ai. In the above section we saw examples of a slightly more complex match, where terms with complex arguments were matched against each other, so book(title(Name), author(Author)) matches: book(title(lord_of_the_rings), author(tolkien)) with bindings: Name = lord_of_the_rings Author = tolkien Prolog matches expressions in a purely structural way, with no evaluation of expressions, so: ?- 1+2 = 3 no [Note: In prolog ``='' means ``matches with''. You can test matches by typing in queries such as the one above.] Similarly the following won't match, as the two expressions have different structures: Page | 31 ?- X + 2 = 3 * Y. no However, the following match as they have the same structure: ?- X+Y = 1+2. X=1 Y=2 ?- 1+Y = X + 3. X=1 Y=3 Note that there can be variables in both sides of a matched expression, as in the second example above. For non-arithmetic examples, we have: ?- lectures(X, ai) = lectures(alison, Y). X = alison Y = ai ?- book(title(X), author(Y)) = book(Z, author(tolkien)). Z = title(X) Y = tolkien Page | 32 Backtracking: At this point we should go through in more detail how Prolog answers queries (and therefore runs programs). Given a query to prove (answer), Prolog goes down its list of facts and rules, from top to bottom, looking for facts or rule heads which match the query (given any existing variable bindings). When it finds one, it stores the place in the fact/rule base it had got to in its search, so if the first match it finds is no good it can carry on and look for more possibilities. So, suppose we have the facts: bird(type(sparrow), name(steve))). bird(type(penguin), name(tweety))). bird(type(penguin), name(percy)). and give the query ?- bird(type(penguin), name(X)). Prolog will first try matching the query with the first fact, but fail because sparrow doesn't match penguin. It will then try matching with the second fact, and succeed with X = tweety. However, it will put a pointer to the place it got to, so if it turns out that a later query/subgoal fails, it will go back to the saved position, and look for more solutions (ie, X = percy). So, if we had a fact/rule base such as: animal(leo). animal(tweety). animal(percy). animal(peter). has_feathers(percy). Page | 33 has_feathers(peter). tame(peter). bird(X) :- animal(X), has_feathers(X). tame_bird(X) :- bird(X), tame(X). and gave the query bird(Bird) , then Prolog would go down the facts and rules until it reached the first rule, and would match bird(Bird) against bird(X). The variable Bird would then be instantiated to the variable X. Prolog then tries to prove the body of the rule. The subgoal animal(X) succeeds with X=leo. Prolog keeps a pointer of how far its got in checking for animal(X), and tries has_feathers(leo). It goes down the facts/rules looking for one that matches, but doesn't find anything. It therefore goes back to the last thing it tried to match (animal(X)), starts from where it left off, and matches with animal(tweety). But has_feathers(tweety) still doesn't match. So it goes back again and finds animal(percy). has_feathers(percy) matches, so the whole thing succeeds, with final bindings Bird = percy. Now, if we give the query tame_bird(B), things get a little more complex. Prolog first tries to satisfy bird(X) as above. But then tame(percy) fails. It therefore has to try to resatisfy bird(X). It will do this by first trying to resatisfy has_feathers(percy) as that was the last goal it tried. But there is no other way of satisfying it. So it goes back yet again to animal(X), finding X = peter. has_feathers(peter) succeeds, so bird(X) can succeed a second way with X = peter. tame(peter) succeeds, so tame_bird(B) succeeds with B = peter. In the above example, prolog is just bactracking through facts. But in general there may be more than one rule which prolog could try, for example: Page | 34 animal(percy). % fact1 has_feathers(percy). % fact2 penguin(tweety). % fact3 penguin(peter). % fact4 tame(peter). % fact5 bird(X) :- % rule1 penguin(X). bird(X) :- % rule2 animal(X), has_feathers(X). tame_bird(X) :- % rule3 bird(X), tame(X). Given a query bird(B) prolog would first use the first rule (and third fact) and get B=tweety. If it then had to backtrack it would match penguin(X) with the fourth fact to get B = peter. If it bactracks again it will run out of penguin clauses so have to try the second bird rule, and (using the first and second fact) get B = percy. So, remembering that you can type a ``;'' (or click on ``next'') to force backtracking, we get: ?- bird(B). B = tweety ; B = peter ; B = percy ; No Page | 35 Declarative and Procedural Views of Programs: At this point it is worth thinking a bit about what Prolog programs mean. There are generally two ways to look at any Prolog rule - as a declarative statement about what is true, or as a procedural statement about how to do something. One of the claimed advantages of Prolog is that it is often possible to think of programs purely declaratively. How Prolog proves things should be of less concern. However, for any reasonably complex program, as we discussed earlier, it often becomes important to think about how it executes the program. For example, the order of subgoal execution may be crucial to the efficiency of the program, and variables may be used in a way that does not have a simple declarative reading. Prolog also allows non-logical statements, like write statements and assertions. When these are included in a program it becomes even more important to think about what Prolog is doing. To state a bit more clearly what we mean by declarative and procedural readings of programs, if we have a rule: p :- q, r. The declarative reading is: ``p is true if q is true and r is true''. The procedural reading can be stated as ``to solve problem p, first solve problem q and then solve problem r'', or alternatively ``to satisfy p, first satisfy q and then r''. Recursion: The recursion in any language is a function that can call itself until the goal has been succeed. In Prolog, recursion appears when a predicate contain a goal that refers to itself. Page | 36 As we have seen in the earlier chapters when a rule is called Prolog create a new query with new variables. So it makes no difference whether a rule calls another rule or call itself. . In Prolog and in any language, a recursive definition always has at least two parts. A first fact that act like a stopping condition and a rule that call itself simplified. At each level the first fact is checked. If the fact is true then the recursion ends. If not the recursion continue. A recursive rule must never call itself with the same arguments ! If that happens then the program will never end. Example: Factorial The best way in Prolog to calculate a factorial is to do it recursivelly. Here is an example of how it can be done : factoriel(0,1). factoriel(X,Y) :- X1 is X - 1, factoriel(X1,Z), Y is Z*X,!. Note that in this case the cut is not necessary, it means that there is only one solution. The message ''Out of local stack'' may appear if you press ';' after the first solution. Now if you enter : ?- factoriel(5,X). X = 120 Yes Page | 37 In this example Prolog will try to calculate 5! then 4! then 3! until it has to calculate 0!, then the result will be 0!*1*2*3*4*5. Prolog will respond 120. Prolog's Advantages: It has built-in list handling, very useful for representing sequences, trees, and so on. It is easy to read and write programs which build structures. add( complex(A,B), complex(C,D), complex(E,F) ) :- E is A+C, F is B+D. Most Prologs nowadays should be able to handle structures of at least 30Kbytes in size. Although Prolog is not a complete implementation of logic, it is much closer to it than C, and is more like mathematical notation. It is easy to build tables and databases while a program is running, as I did with memo_fib. You don't need a lot of programming effort. You can reason about programs as algebraic objects. When writing a predicate, begin with a definition that is obviously correct, but inefficient. Then apply transformations that preserve its effect while making it more efficient. Page | 38 Prolog's Disadvantages: It tempts you to write things that look logically correct, but that won't run. The obvious way to write a predicate is unlikely to be efficient. You must know when a predicate needs to be optimised. Because it lacks functional notation, predicates can become cumbersome. f( N, F ) :- N1 is N - 1, f( N1, F1 ), F is N * F1. It would be much nicer to write f( N ) = N * f(N-1). Input and output is not always easy. There are some features which have not been standardised, and differ between implementations. For example: formatted input and output, file-handling, sorting predicates. You can't re-assign to parts of data structures. This makes it impossible to implement arrays. However, functional programmers have developed a number of fast-access data structures which do almost as good a job. Accumulators: Accumulators are the variables used to store intermediate values may be integer or list. Page | 39 Advantages: It is useful if we need to inspect some intermediate results. It avoids wasteful joining of structures during concatenation, thus making the operation less expensive. It increases the efficiency of the program. Disadvantage: It always produces in list in reverse order. Difference list: It is a technique or method in which we represent the list as a difference of two incomplete lists or list having holes. Advantages: It improves the efficiency of the program. It avoids the wasteful joining of structure. It produces the list in same order as the original list. Disadvantages: It is not so flexible. It is complex as compared to the accumulators. Page | 40 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT Page | 41 Introduction to 'Car Failure Diagnosis':- Fault diagnosis has become a very important area of research during the last decade due to the advancement of mechanical and electrical systems. The automobile is a crucial field where fault diagnosis is given a special attention. Due to the increasing complexity and newly added features in vehicles, a comprehensive study has to be performed in order to achieve an appropriate diagnosis model. A diagnosis system is capable of identifying the faults of a system by investigating the observable effects (or symptoms).Expert System is a branch of artificial intelligence, which studies the field of developing and implementing computer programs that can act and work on the lines of human brain which can acquire knowledge and develop intelligence of its own to act accordingly in situations that may be entirely or partially new to it. "Car Failure Diagnosis" is a project which is made in PROLOG, which is a computer programming language used for symbolic representations and non-numeric computations. It is a project which is used to diagnose a faults in car. It asks the user a series of yes/no questions to decide what the issue is and then goes on to suggest various methods to work out a solution. This project aims to provide an aid to anyone who is facing some problems in computer functionality. Following are the four domains of problems addressed:- Car Ignition Problems Engine Problems after Ignition Mechanical Part Working Other Problems Page | 42 The information from the user is gathered by the means of a yes/no questionnaire. It starts with asking the user whether his/her car starts or not. If it does not start, the user enters 'n' and he is guided about various ways to deal with the problem. After each step the user is asked whether his problem has been resolved. If at any step user declares that his problem has been solved the troubleshooter terminates. If after all suggestions the problem yet remains unresolved then the troubleshooter fails. It gives out a message of apology and halts. If the user problem is about some other issue than the above mentioned domain then the troubleshooter goes on to question the user about the remaining domains sequentially. Page | 43 SNAP SHOTS Page | 44 Page | 45 ^Turbo Prolog Version 1.1 Page | 46 ^Car does not start Page | 47 ^Engine Problem After Ignition Page | 48 ^Mechanical Parts Working Issue Page | 49 ^Other Problems ^Troubleshooter Fails !!! Page | 50 LAB REQUIREMENTS Hardware Requirements:- It is recommended that the minimum configuration for clients is as appended below:- Suggested Configuration of Windows clients:- Microprocessor - Pentium-4 class processor or above, 450 megahertz (MHz) RAM - 256 MB of RAM Hard Disk - 5 gigabytes (GB) on installation CD ROM Drive – 16x CD-ROM Drive Software requirements: Windows 98 / XP operating system PROLOG Page | 51 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFRENCES Programming in PROLOG by W.F Clocksin C.S Mellish. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Expert System by Dan W.Patterson. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog. http:// google.com. Page | 52


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- Full-grain leather
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Board Meeting Minutes Summary
Executive Staff Meeting Summary
February 5, 2007
Chair Esther Vassar called the meeting to order at 9:00 a.m.
Present: Commissioner Esther Vassar, Commissioner Susan Swecker, Commissioner Pam Evans, Curtis Coleburn, Nancy Arnold, Becky Gettings, Janet Lawson, Shawn Walker (for Frank Monahan), Bob Moore, Robert O'Neal, Jeff Painter, Robert Southall, Craig Vanderland, John Wszelaki and Joan Stromberg.
Absent: Frank Monahan and Virginia Adams.
Commissioner (Chair) Vassar made the motion, Commissioner Evans moved, Commissioner Swecker seconded, and the motion carried to approve the January 22, 2007 minutes.
Chair's Comments:
Nothing to report.
Unfinished Business:
There was no old business to discuss.
New Business:
Commissioner Vassar motioned, Commissioner Evans moved, Commissioner Swecker seconded and the motion carried to approve the following for the record.
- Approval (for the record) of a new lease for Store 033 (Prince William County) - Revision - Esther Vassar
- Approval (for the record) to renew the lease for Store 281 (Madison Heights) - Esther Vassar
- Approval (for the record) to renew the lease for Store 182 (Richmond) - Esther Vassar
With no further business, the meeting adjourned at approximately 9:35 a.m.


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