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Sterilization (microbiology)
Sterilization or sterilisation is a term referring to any process that eliminates (removes) or kills all forms of life, including transmissible agents (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, spore forms, etc.) present in a specified region, such as a surface, a volume of fluid, medication, or in a compound such as biological culture media.[1][2] Sterilization can be achieved with one or more of heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure, and filtration.
One of the first steps toward sterilization was made by Nicolas Appert who discovered that thorough application of heat over a suitable period slowed the decay of foods and various liquids, preserving them for safe consumption for a longer time than was typical. Canning of foods is an extension of the same principle, and has helped to reduce food borne illness ("food poisoning"). Other methods of sterilizing foods include food irradiation[3] and high pressure (pascalization).[4]
Medicine and surgery[edit]
In general, surgical instruments and medications that enter an already aseptic part of the body (such as the bloodstream, or penetrating the skin) must be sterilized extremely well, to a low sterility assurance level (SAL). Examples of such instruments include scalpels, hypodermic needles and artificial pacemakers. This is also essential in the manufacture of parenteral pharmaceuticals.
Heat (flame) sterilization of medical instruments is known to have been used in Ancient Rome[citation needed], but it mostly disappeared throughout the Middle Ages, causing significant increases in disability and death following surgical procedures.
Preparation of injectable medications and intravenous solutions for fluid replacement therapy requires not only a low SAL, but also well-designed containers to prevent entry of adventitious agents after initial product sterilization.
Sterilization by definition terminates all life, whereas sanitization, pasteurization and disinfection do not kill all types of organism, or all those of each type, reducing pathogenic organisms to levels deemed acceptable for a given situation.
There are strict international rules to protect the contamination of Solar System bodies from biological material from Earth. Standards vary depending on both the type of mission and its 'destiny'; the more likely a planet is considered to bear life, the stricter the requirements are.
Many components of instruments used on spacecraft cannot withstand very high temperatures, so techniques not requiring excessive temperatures are used as tolerated, including heating to at least 120 °C, chemical sterilization, oxidization, ultraviolet, and irradiation.[5]
The aim of sterilization is the reduction of initially present microorganisms or other potential pathogens. The degree of sterilization is commonly expressed by multiples of the decimal reduction time denoting the time needed to reduce the initial number to one tenth () of its original value.[citation needed] Then the number of microorganisms after sterilization time is given by
- .
is a function of sterilization conditions and varies with the type of microorganism, temperature, water activity, pH etc.. For steam sterilization (see below) typically the temperature (in °Celsius) is given as index.
For sterilization a reduction by one million () is minimally required with six times . For transfusion or other venous injections is typically required to reduce infection risks. For disinfection is sufficient. Theoretically, the likelihood of survival of an individual microorganism is never zero.
Steam sterilization[edit]
A widely used method for heat sterilization is the autoclave, sometimes called a converter. Autoclaves use steam heated to 121–134 °C (250–273 °F) under pressure (100 °C (212 °F) is the maximum attainable at atmospheric pressure). To achieve sterility, a holding time of at least 15 minutes at 121 °C (250 °F) at 100 kPa (15 psi), or 3 minutes at 134 °C (273 °F) at 100 kPa (15 psi) is required[citation needed]. This is the time for which all the material being sterilised must be held at the specified temperature; additional time is required to heat the material, unless finely ground. Following sterilization, liquids in a pressurized autoclave must be cooled slowly to avoid boiling over when the pressure is released. This may be achieved by gradually depressurizing the sterilization chamber and allowing liquids to evaporate under a negative pressure, while cooling the contents.
Proper autoclave treatment will inactivate all resistant bacterial spores in addition to fungi, bacteria, and viruses.
Autoclaving is not expected to eliminate all prions, which vary in their resistance. For prion elimination, various recommendations state 121–132 °C (250–270 °F) for 60 minutes or 134 °C (273 °F) for at least 18 minutes. The 263K scrapie prion, a cause of the animal disease scrapie, is inactivated relatively quickly by such sterilization procedures; however, other strains of scrapie, and strains of CJD and BSE are more resistant. Using mice as test animals, one experiment showed that heating BSE positive brain tissue at 134–138 °C (273–280 °F) for 18 minutes resulted in only a 2.5 log decrease in prion infectivity. (The initial BSE concentration in the tissue was relatively low). For a significant margin of safety, removal of material by cleaning should reduce infectivity by 4 logs, and the sterilization method should reduce it a further 5 logs.
Most autoclaves have meters and charts that record or display information, particularly temperature and pressure as a function of time. Indicator tape is often placed on packages of products prior to autoclaving; the tape changes color when the appropriate conditions have been met. Some types of packaging incorporate indicators. The information is checked to ensure that the conditions required for sterilization have been met.
Biological indicators ("bioindicators") can also be used to independently confirm autoclave performance. Simple bioindicator devices are commercially available based on microbial spores. Most contain spores of the heat resistant microbe Geobacillus stearothermophilus (formerly Bacillus stearothermophilus), among the toughest organisms for an autoclave to destroy. Typically these devices have a self-contained liquid growth medium and a growth indicator. After autoclaving an internal glass ampule is shattered, releasing the spores into the growth medium. The vial is then incubated (typically at 56 °C (133 °F)) for 24 hours. If the autoclave destroyed the spores, the medium will retain its original color. If autoclaving was unsuccessful the G. sterothermophilus will metabolize during incubation, causing a color change during the incubation.
For effective sterilization, steam needs to penetrate the autoclave load uniformly, so an autoclave must not be overcrowded, and the lids of bottles and containers must be left ajar. Alternatively steam penetration can be achieved by shredding the waste in some Autoclave models that also render the end product unrecognizable. During the initial heating of the chamber, residual air must be removed. Indicators should be placed in the most difficult places for the steam to reach to ensure that steam actually penetrates there.
For autoclaving, as for all disinfection or sterilization methods, cleaning is critical. Extraneous biological matter or grime may shield organisms from the property intended to kill them, whether it physical or chemical. Cleaning can also remove a large number of organisms. Proper cleaning can be achieved by physical scrubbing. This should be done with detergent and warm water to get the best results. Cleaning instruments or utensils with organic matter, cool water must be used because warm or hot water may cause organic debris to coagulate. Treatment with ultrasound or pulsed air can also be used to remove debris.
Heat sterilization of foods[edit]
Although imperfect, cooking and canning are the most common applications of heat sterilization. Boiling water kills the vegetative stage of all common microbes. Roasting meat until it is well done typically completely sterilizes the surface. Since the surface is also the part of food most likely to be contaminated by microbes, roasting usually prevents food poisoning. Note that the common methods of cooking food do not sterilize food - they simply reduce the number of disease-causing micro-organisms to a level that is not dangerous for people with normal digestive and immune systems.
Pressure cooking is analogous to autoclaving and when performed correctly renders food sterile. However, some foods are notoriously difficult to sterilize with home canning equipment, so expert recommendations should be followed for home processing to avoid food poisoning.
Other heat sterilization methods[edit]
Other heat methods include flaming, incineration, boiling, tyndallization, and using dry heat.
Flaming is done to loops and straight-wires in microbiology labs. Leaving the loop in the flame of a Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp until it glows red ensures that any infectious agent gets inactivated. This is commonly used for small metal or glass objects, but not for large objects (see Incineration below). However, during the initial heating infectious material may be "sprayed" from the wire surface before it is killed, contaminating nearby surfaces and objects. Therefore, special heaters have been developed that surround the inoculating loop with a heated cage, ensuring that such sprayed material does not further contaminate the area. Another problem is that gas flames may leave residues on the object, e.g. carbon, if the object is not heated enough.
A variation on flaming is to dip the object in 70% ethanol (or a higher concentration) and merely touch the object briefly to the Bunsen burner flame, but not hold it in the gas flame. The ethanol will ignite and burn off in a few seconds. 70% ethanol kills many, but not all, bacteria and viruses, and has the advantage that it leaves less residue than a gas flame. This method works well for the glass "hockey stick"-shaped bacteria spreaders.
Incineration will also burn any organism to ash. It is used to sanitize medical and other biohazardous waste before it is discarded with non-hazardous waste.
Boiling in water for fifteen minutes will kill most vegetative bacteria and inactivate viruses, but boiling is ineffective against prions and many bacterial and fungal spores; therefore boiling is unsuitable for sterilization. However, since boiling does kill most vegetative microbes and viruses, it is useful for reducing viable levels if no better method is available. Boiling is a simple process, and is an option available to most people, requiring only water, enough heat, and a container that can withstand the heat; however, boiling can be hazardous and cumbersome.
Tindalization[6] /Tyndallization[7] named after John Tyndall is a lengthy process designed to reduce the level of activity of sporulating bacteria that are left by a simple boiling water method. The process involves boiling for a period (typically 20 minutes) at atmospheric pressure, cooling, incubating for a day, boiling, cooling, incubating for a day, boiling, cooling, incubating for a day, and finally boiling again. The three incubation periods are to allow heat-resistant spores surviving the previous boiling period to germinate to form the heat-sensitive vegetative (growing) stage, which can be killed by the next boiling step. This is effective because many spores are stimulated to grow by the heat shock. The procedure only works for media that can support bacterial growth - it will not sterilize plain water. Tindalization/tyndallization is ineffective against prions.
Dry heat can be used to sterilize items, but as the heat takes much longer to be transferred to the organism, both the time and the temperature must usually be increased, unless forced ventilation of the hot air is used. The standard setting for a hot air oven is at least two hours at 160 °C (320 °F). A rapid method heats air to 190 °C (374 °F) for 6 minutes for unwrapped objects and 12 minutes for wrapped objects.[8][9] Dry heat has the advantage that it can be used on powders and other heat-stable items that are adversely affected by steam (for instance, it does not cause rusting of steel objects).
Prions can be inactivated by immersion in sodium hydroxide (NaOH 0.09N) for two hours plus one hour autoclaving (121 °C or 250 °F). Several investigators have shown complete (>7.4 logs) inactivation with this combined treatment. However, sodium hydroxide may corrode surgical instruments, especially at the elevated temperatures of the autoclave.
Glass bead sterilizer, once a common sterilization method employed in dental offices as well as biologic laboratories,[10] is not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to be used as inter-patients sterilizer since 1997.[11] Still it is popular in European as well as Israeli dental practice although there are no current evidence-based guidelines for using this sterilizer.[10]
Bunsen burner is a common sterilization method employed in laboratory that produces a single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The laboratory equipment is named after Robert Bunsen. The gas used in Bunsen burner can be natural gas (methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both.
Chemical sterilization[edit]
Chemicals are also used for sterilization. Although heating provides the most reliable way to rid objects of all transmissible agents, it is not always appropriate, because it will damage heat-sensitive materials such as biological materials, fiber optics, electronics, and many plastics. Low temperature gas sterilizers function by exposing the articles to be sterilized to high concentrations (typically 5 - 10% v/v) of very reactive gases (alkylating agents such as ethylene oxide, and oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide and ozone). Liquid sterilants and high disinfectants typically include oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid and aldehydes such as glutaraldehyde and more recently o-phthalaldehyde. While the use of gas and liquid chemical sterilants/high level disinfectants avoids the problem of heat damage, users must ensure that article to be sterilized is chemically compatible with the sterilant being used. The manufacturer of the article can provide specific information regarding compatible sterilants. In addition, the use of chemical sterilants poses new challenges for workplace safety. The chemicals used as sterilants are designed to destroy a wide range of pathogens and typically the same properties that make them good sterilants makes them harmful to humans. American employers have a duty to ensure a safe work environment (Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, section 5 for United States) and work practices, engineering controls and monitoring should be employed appropriately.
Ethylene oxide[edit]
Ethylene oxide (EO or EtO) gas is commonly used to sterilize objects that are sensitive to temperatures greater than 60 °C and / or radiation such as plastics, optics and electrics. Ethylene oxide treatment is generally carried out between 30 °C and 60 °C with relative humidity above 30% and a gas concentration between 200 and 800 mg/l, and typically lasts for at least three hours. Ethylene oxide penetrates well, moving through paper, cloth, and some plastic films and is highly effective. EtO can kill all known viruses, bacteria and fungi, including bacterial spores and is compatible with most materials (e.g. of medical devices), even when repeatedly applied. However, it is highly flammable, toxic and carcinogenic with a potential to cause adverse reproductive effects. Ethylene oxide sterilizers requires biological validation and testing of every load, after sterilization installation, repairs or process failure. Biological testing or spore testing are paper filter saturated in millions of Bacillus atropheus known as Bacillus subtilis.
A typical process consists of a preconditioning phase, the actual sterilization run and a period of post-sterilization aeration to remove toxic residues, such as ethylene oxide residues and by-products such ethylene glycol (formed out of EtO and ambient humidity) and ethylene chlorohydrine (formed out of EtO and materials containing chlorine, such as PVC). Besides moist heat and irradiation, ethylene oxide is the most common sterilization method, used for over 70% of total sterilizations, and for 50% of all disposable medical devices.
The two most important ethylene oxide sterilization methods are: (1) the gas chamber method and (2) the micro-dose method. To benefit from economies of scale, EtO has traditionally been delivered by flooding a large chamber with a combination of EtO and other gases used as dilutants (usually CFCs or carbon dioxide). This method has drawbacks inherent to the use of large amounts of sterilant being released into a large space, including air contamination produced by CFCs and/or large amounts of EtO residuals, flammability and storage issues calling for special handling and storage, operator exposure risk and training costs.
Ethylene oxide is still widely used by medical device manufacturers for larger scale sterilization (e.g. by the pallet), but while still used, EtO is becoming less popular in hospitals. Since EtO is explosive from its lower explosive limit of 3% all the way to 100%, EtO was traditionally supplied with an inert carrier gas such as a CFC or halogenated hydrocarbon. The use of CFCs as the carrier gas was banned because of concerns of ozone depletion [12] and halogenated hydrocarbons are being replaced by so-called 100% EtO systems because of the much greater cost of the blends. In hospitals, most EtO sterilizers use single use cartridges (e.g. 3M's Steri-Vac line,[13] or Steris Corporation's Stericert sterilizers[14]) because of the convenience and ease of use compared to the former plumbed gas cylinders of EtO blends. Another 100% method is the so-called micro-dose sterilization method, developed in the late 1950s, using a specially designed bag to eliminate the need to flood a larger chamber with EtO. This method is also known as gas diffusion sterilization, or bag sterilization. This method minimizes the use of gas.[15]
Another reason for the decrease in use of EtO are the well known health effects. In addition to being a primary irritant, EtO is now classified by the IARC as a known human carcinogen.[16] The US OSHA has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) at 1 ppm calculated as an eight hour time weighted average (TWA) [29 CFR 1910.1047] and 5 ppm as a 15 minute TWA. The NIOSH Immediately dangerous to life and health limit for EtO is 800 ppm.[17] The odor threshold is around 500 ppm[18] and so EtO is imperceptible until concentrations well above the OSHA PEL. Therefore, OSHA recommends that some kind of continuous gas monitoring system be used to protect workers using EtO for sterilization.[19] While the hazards of EtO are generally well known, it should be noted that all chemical sterilants are designed to kill a broad spectrum of organisms, by exposing them to high concentrations of reactive chemicals. Therefore, it is no surprise that all the common chemical gas sterilants are toxic and adequate protective measures must be taken to protect workers using these materials.
Employees health records must be maintained during employment and after termination of employment for 30 years.
Nitrogen dioxide[edit]
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas is a rapid and effective sterilant for use against a wide range of microorganisms, including common bacteria, viruses, and spores. The unique physical properties of NO2 gas allow for sterilant dispersion in an enclosed environment at room temperature and ambient pressure. The mechanism for lethality is the degradation of DNA in the spore core through nitration of the phosphate backbone, which kills the exposed organism as it absorbs NO2. This degradation occurs at even very low concentrations of the gas.[20] NO2 has a boiling point of 21 °C at sea level, which results in a relatively high saturated vapor pressure at ambient temperature. Because of this, liquid NO2 may be used as a convenient source for the sterilant gas. Liquid NO2 is often referred to by the name of its dimer, dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). Additionally, the low levels of concentration required, coupled with the high vapor pressure, assures that no condensation occurs on the devices being sterilized. This means that no aeration of the devices is required immediately following the sterilization cycle.[21] NO2 is also less corrosive than other sterilant gases, and is compatible with most medical materials and adhesives.[21]
The most-resistant organism (MRO) to sterilization with NO2 gas is the spore of Geobacillus stearothermophilus, which is the same MRO for both steam and hydrogen peroxide sterilization processes. The spore form of G. stearothermophilus has been well characterized over the years as a biological indicator in sterilization applications. Microbial inactivation of G. stearothermophilus with NO2 gas proceeds rapidly in a log-linear fashion, as is typical of other sterilization processes. Noxilizer, Inc. has commercialized this technology to offer contract sterilization services for medical devices at its Baltimore, MD facility.[22] This has been demonstrated in Noxilizer's lab in multiple studies and is supported by published reports from other labs. These same properties also allow for quicker removal of the sterilant and residuals through aeration of the enclosed environment. The combination of rapid lethality and easy removal of the gas allows for shorter overall cycle times during the sterilization (or decontamination) process and a lower level of sterilant residuals than are found with other sterilization methods.[21]
Ozone is used in industrial settings to sterilize water and air, as well as a disinfectant for surfaces. It has the benefit of being able to oxidize most organic matter. On the other hand, it is a toxic and unstable gas that must be produced on-site, so it is not practical to use in many settings.
Ozone offers many advantages as a sterilant gas; ozone is a very efficient sterilant because of its strong oxidizing properties (E = 2.076 vs SHE, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 76th Ed, 1995–1996) capable of destroying a wide range of pathogens, including prions without the need for handling hazardous chemicals since the ozone is generated within the sterilizer from medical grade oxygen. The high reactivity of ozone means that waste ozone can be destroyed by passing over a simple catalyst that reverts it back to oxygen and also means that the cycle time is relatively short. The downside of using ozone is that the gas is very reactive and very hazardous. The NIOSH immediately dangerous to life and health limit for ozone is 5 ppm, 160 times smaller than the 800 ppm IDLH for ethylene oxide. Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): NIOSH Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95)[23] and OSHA has set the PEL for ozone at 0.1 ppm calculated as an 8 hour time weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1). The Canadian Center for Occupation Health and Safety provides an excellent summary of the health effects of exposure to ozone. The sterilant gas manufacturers include many safety features in their products but prudent practice is to provide continuous monitoring to below the OSHA PEL to provide a rapid warning in the event of a leak and monitors for determining workplace exposure to ozone are commercially available.
Chlorine bleach is another accepted liquid sterilizing agent. Household bleach consists of 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. It is usually diluted to 1/10 immediately before use; however to kill Mycobacterium tuberculosis it should be diluted only 1/5, and 1/2.5 (1 part bleach and 1.5 parts water) to inactivate prions. The dilution factor must take into account the volume of any liquid waste that it is being used to sterilize.[24] Bleach will kill many organisms immediately, but for full sterilization it should be allowed to react for 20 minutes. Bleach will kill many, but not all spores. It is also highly corrosive.
Bleach decomposes over time when exposed to air, so fresh solutions should be made daily.[25]
Glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde[edit]
Glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde solutions (also used as fixatives) are accepted liquid sterilizing agents, provided that the immersion time is sufficiently long. To kill all spores in a clear liquid can take up to 22 hours with glutaraldehyde and even longer with formaldehyde. The presence of solid particles may lengthen the required period or render the treatment ineffective. Sterilization of blocks of tissue can take much longer, due to the time required for the fixative to penetrate. Glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde are volatile, and toxic by both skin contact and inhalation. Glutaraldehyde has a short shelf life (<2 weeks), and is expensive. Formaldehyde is less expensive and has a much longer shelf life if some methanol is added to inhibit polymerization to paraformaldehyde, but is much more volatile. Formaldehyde is also used as a gaseous sterilizing agent; in this case, it is prepared on-site by depolymerization of solid paraformaldehyde. Many vaccines, such as the original Salk polio vaccine, are sterilized with formaldehyde.
Ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA) is a chemical sterilizing agent that received US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) clearance in late 1999. Typically used in a 0.55% solution, OPA shows better myco-bactericidal activity than glutaraldehyde. It also is effective against glutaraldehyde-resistant spores. OPA has superior stability, is less volatile, and does not irritate skin or eyes, and it acts more quickly than glutaraldehyde. On the other hand, it is more expensive, and will stain proteins (including skin) gray in color. Some side effects from equipment sterilized using this reagent have been reported. For example, two cases of anaphylaxis following cystoscopy with endoscopes sterilized with OPA were reported by Cooper, et al., (J Endourol. 2008 Sep;22(9):2181-4), and four cases of ortho-phthalaldehyde-induced anaphylaxis after laryngoscopy with the detection of specific IgE in serum were reported by Suzukawa, et al., (Allergol Int. 2007 Sep;56(3):313-6. Epub 2007 Jul 1; J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Jun;117(6):1500-1. Epub 2006 Mar 31).
Hydrogen peroxide[edit]
Hydrogen peroxide is another chemical sterilizing agent. It is relatively non-toxic when diluted to low concentrations, such as the familiar 3% retail solutions although hydrogen peroxide is a dangerous oxidizer at high concentrations (> 10% w/w). Hydrogen peroxide is strong oxidant and these oxidizing properties allow it to destroy a wide range of pathogens and it is used to sterilize heat or temperature sensitive articles such as rigid endoscopes. In medical sterilization hydrogen peroxide is used at higher concentrations, ranging from around 35% up to 90%. The biggest advantage of hydrogen peroxide as a sterilant is the short cycle time. Whereas the cycle time for ethylene oxide (discussed above) may be 10 to 15 hours, the use of very high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide allows much shorter cycle times. Some hydrogen peroxide modern sterilizers, such as the Sterrad NX have a cycle time as short as 28 minutes.
Hydrogen peroxide sterilizers have their drawbacks. Since hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidant, there are material compatibility issues and users should consult the manufacturer of the article to be sterilized to ensure that it is compatible with this method of sterilization. Paper products cannot be sterilized in the Sterrad system because of a process called cellulostics, in which the hydrogen peroxide would be completely absorbed by the paper product.[citation needed] The penetrating ability of hydrogen peroxide is not as good as ethylene oxide and so there are limitations on the length and diameter of lumens that can be effectively sterilized and guidance is available from the sterilizer manufacturers.
While hydrogen peroxide offers significant advantages in terms of throughput, as with all sterilant gases, sterility is achieved through the use of high concentrations of reactive gases. Hydrogen peroxide is primary irritant and the contact of the liquid solution with skin will cause bleaching or ulceration depending on the concentration and contact time. The vapor is also hazardous with the target organs being the eyes and respiratory system. Even short term exposures can be hazardous and NIOSH has set the Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Level (IDLH) at 75 ppm.[17] less than one tenth the IDLH for ethylene oxide (800 ppm). Prolonged exposure to even low ppm concentrations can cause permanent lung damage and consequently OSHA has set the permissible exposure limit to 1.0 ppm, calculated as an 8 hour time weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000 Table Z-1). Employers thus have a legal duty to ensure that their personnel are not exposed to concentrations exceeding this PEL. Even though the sterilizer manufacturers go to great lengths to make their products safe through careful design and incorporation of many safety features, workplace exposures of hydrogen peroxide from gas sterilizers are documented in the FDA MAUDE database.[26] When using any type of gas sterilizer, prudent work practices will include good ventilation (10 air exchanges per hour), a continuous gas monitor for hydrogen peroxide as well as good work practices and training. Further information about the health effects of hydrogen peroxide and good work practices is available from OSHA[27] and the ATSDR.[28]
Hydrogen peroxide can also be mixed with formic acid as needed in the Endoclens device for sterilization of endoscopes. This device has two independent asynchronous bays, and cleans (in warm detergent with pulsed air), sterilizes and dries endoscopes automatically in 30 minutes. Studies with synthetic soil with bacterial spores showed the effectiveness of this device.
Vaporized hydrogen peroxide (VHP) is used to sterilize large enclosed and sealed areas such as entire rooms and aircraft interiors.
Dry sterilization process[edit]
Dry sterilization process (DSP) uses hydrogen peroxide at a concentration of 30-35% under low pressure conditions. This process achieves bacterial reduction of 10−6...10−8. The complete process cycle time is just 6 seconds, and the surface temperature is increased only by 10-15 °C (18 to 27 °F). Originally designed for the sterilization of plastic bottles in the beverage industry, because of the high germ reduction and the slight temperature increase the dry sterilization process is also useful for medical and pharmaceutical applications.
Peracetic acid[edit]
Peracetic acid (0.2%) is used to sterilize instruments in some STERIS Corporation systems.
Silver ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi, typical of heavy metals like lead or mercury, but without the high toxicity to humans that is normally associated with these other metals. Its germicidal effects kill many microbial organisms in vitro, but testing and standardization of silver products is yet difficult.[29] In the antique Greek Hippocratic Corpus it is written that silver has beneficial healing and anti-disease properties,[30] and the Phoenicians used to store water, wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early 1900s people would put silver dollars in milk bottles to prolong the milk's freshness.[31] The exact process of silver's germicidal effect is still not well understood. One of the explanations is the oligodynamic effect, which accounts for the effect on microorganisms but not on viruses.
Silver compounds were used to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of antibiotics. Silver nitrate solution was a standard of care but was largely replaced by silver sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream),[32] which was generally the "standard of care" for the antibacterial and antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s.[33] Now, other options, such as silver-coated dressings (activated silver dressings), are used in addition to SSD cream. However, the evidence for the use of such silver-treated dressings is mixed and although the evidence on if they are effective is promising, it is marred by the poor quality of the trials used to assess these products.[34] Consequently a major systematic review by the Cochrane Collaboration found insufficient evidence to recommend the use of silver-treated dressings to treat infected wounds.[34]
The widespread use of silver went out of fashion with the development of antibiotics. However, recently there has been renewed interest in silver as a broad-spectrum antimicrobial. In particular, silver is being used with alginate, a naturally occurring biopolymer derived from seaweed, in a range of products designed to prevent infections as part of wound management procedures, particularly applicable to burn victims.[35] In 2007, AGC Flat Glass Europe introduced the first antibacterial glass to fight hospital-caught infection: it is covered with a thin layer of silver.[36] In addition, Samsung has introduced washing machines with a final rinse containing silver ions to provide several days of antibacterial protection in the clothes.[37] Kohler has introduced a line of toilet seats that have silver ions embedded to kill germs. A company called Thomson Research Associates has begun treating products with Ultra Fresh, an anti-microbial technology involving "proprietary nano-technology to produce the ultra-fine silver particles essential to ease of application and long-term protection."[38] The FDA in 2007 approved an endotracheal breathing tube with a fine coat of silver for use in mechanical ventilation, after studies found it reduced the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia.[39]
It has long been known that antibacterial action of silver is enhanced by the presence of an electric field. Applying a few volts of electricity across silver electrodes drastically enhances the rate that bacteria in solution are killed. It was found recently that the antibacterial action of silver electrodes is greatly improved if the electrodes are covered with silver nanorods.[40] Note that enhanced antibacterial properties of nanoparticles compared to bulk material is not limited to silver, but has also been demonstrated on other materials such as ZnO[41]
Potential for chemical sterilization of prions[edit]
Prions are highly resistant to chemical sterilization. Treatment with aldehydes such as formaldehyde have actually been shown to increase prion resistance. Hydrogen peroxide (3%) for one hour was shown to be ineffective, providing less than 3 logs (10−3) reduction in contamination. Iodine, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde and peracetic acid also fail this test (one hour treatment). Only chlorine, phenolic compounds, guanidinium thiocyanate, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) reduce prion levels by more than 4 logs; chlorine (too corrosive to use on certain objects) and NaOH are the most consistent. Many studies have shown the effectiveness of sodium hydroxide.[42]
Radiation sterilization[edit]
Sterilization can be achieved using electromagnetic radiation such as electron beams, X-rays, gamma rays, or irradiation by subatomic particles.[43] Electromagnetic or particulate radiation can be energetic enough to ionize atoms or molecules ionizing radiation), or less energetic (non-ionizing radiation).
Non-ionizing radiation sterilization[edit]
Ultraviolet light irradiation (UV, from a germicidal lamp) is useful for sterilization of surfaces and some transparent objects. Many objects that are transparent to visible light absorb UV, glass for example completely absorbs all UV light. UV irradiation is routinely used to sterilize the interiors of biological safety cabinets between uses, but is ineffective in shaded areas, including areas under dirt (which may become polymerized after prolonged irradiation, so that it is very difficult to remove). It also damages some plastics, such as polystyrene foam if exposed for prolonged periods of time.
UV light is also used to disinfect water and wastewater.[44]
Ionizing radiation sterilization[edit]
The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory Commissions. The incidents that have occurred in the past are documented by the agency and thoroughly analyzed to determine root cause and improvement potential. Such improvements are then mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design.
Gamma radiation is very penetrating, and is commonly used for sterilization of disposable medical equipment, such as syringes, needles, cannulas and IV sets, and food. It is emitted by a radioisotope, usually Cobalt-60(60Co) or caesium-137 (137Cs). Caesium-137 is used in small hospital units to treat blood before transfusion to prevent graft-versus-host disease.
Use of a radioisotope requires shielding for the safety of the operators while in use and in storage. With most designs the radioisotope is lowered into a water-filled source storage pool (water absorbs gamma radiation) to allow maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. One variant keeps the radioisotope under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated into the water towards the source in hermetic bells; no further shielding is required for such designs. Other uncommonly used designs use dry storage, providing movable shields that reduce radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber. An incident in Decatur Georgia, USA, where water soluble caesium-137 leaked into the source storage pool requiring NRC intervention[45] has led to use of this radioisotope being almost entirely discontinued in favour of the more costly, non-water soluble cobalt-60. Cobalt-60 gamma photons have about twice the energy, and hence greater penetrating range, of Caesium-137 radiation.
Electron beam processing is also commonly used for sterilization. Electron beams use an on-off technology and provide a much higher dosing rate than gamma or x-rays. Due to the higher dose rate, less exposure time is needed and thereby any potential degradation to polymers is reduced. A limitation is that electron beams are less penetrating than either gamma or x-rays. Facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.
X-rays: high-energy X-rays (produced by bremsstrahlung) allow irradiation of large packages and pallet loads of medical devices. They are sufficiently penetrating to treat multiple pallet loads of low-density packages with very good dose uniformity ratios. X-ray sterilization does not require chemical or radioactive material: high-energy X-rays are generated at high intensity by an X-ray generator that does not require shielding when not in use. X-rays are generated by bombarding a dense material (target) such as tantalum or tungsten with high-energy electrons in a process known as bremsstrahlung conversion. These systems are energy-inefficient, requiring much more electrical energy than other systems for the same result.
Irradiation with X-rays or gamma rays, electromagnetic radiation rather than particles, does not make materials radioactive. Irradiation with particles may make materials radioactive, depending upon the type of particles and their energy, and the type of target material: neutrons and very high-energy particles can make materials radioactive, but have good penetration, whereas lower energy particles (other than neutrons) cannot make materials radioactive, but have poorer penetration.
Sterilization by irradiation with gamma rays may however in some cases affect material properties.[46]
Irradiation is used by the United States Postal Service to sterilize mail in the Washington, D.C. area. Some foods (e.g. spices, ground meats) are sterilized by irradiation.
Subatomic particles may be more or less penetrating, and may be generated by a radioisotope or a device, depending upon the type of particle.
Sterile filtration[edit]
Fluids that would be damaged by heat (such as those containing proteins like large molecule drug products, but also wine and beer) irradiation or chemical sterilization, can be only sterilized by microfiltration using membrane filters.[citation needed] This method is commonly used for heat labile pharmaceuticals and protein solutions in medicinal drug processing. A microfilter with pore size 0.2 µm will usually effectively remove microorganisms.[47] In the processing of Biologics, viruses must be removed or inactivated. Nanofilters with a smaller pore size of 20 -50 nm (nanofiltration) are used. The smaller the pore size the lower the flow rate. To achieve higher total throughput or to avoid premature blockage, pre-filters might be used to protect small pore membrane filters.
Membrane filters used in production processes are commonly made from materials such as mixester cellulose or polyethersulfone (PES). The filtration equipment and the filters themselves may be purchased as pre-sterilized disposable units in sealed packaging, or must be sterilized by the user, generally by autoclaving at a temperature that does not damage the fragile filter membranes. To ensure proper functioning of the filter, the membrane filters are integrity tested post-use and in occasions pre-use. The non-destructive integrity test assures the filter is undamaged, it also is a regulatory requirement enforced by agencies like FDA, EMA etc. For best results, final or terminal pharmaceutical sterile filtration is performed in cleanroom classes A.
Cleaning methods that do not achieve sterilization[edit]
This is a brief list of cleaning methods that may be thought to "kill germs" but do not achieve sterilization. Washing in a dishwasher: Dishwashers often only use hot tap water or heat the water to between 49 and 60 °C (120 and 140 °F),[citation needed] which is not hot enough to kill some bacteria on cooking or eating utensils. Bathing can not sterilize skin, even using antibacterial soap. Disinfectants (for non-living objects) or antiseptics (for living objects such as skin) can kill or remove bacteria and viruses, but not all. Pasteurization of food also kills some bacteria and viruses, but not all.
Preservation of sterility[edit]
Instruments that have undergone sterilization can be maintained in such condition by containment in sealed packaging until use.
Aseptic technique is the act of maintaining sterility during procedures.
See also[edit]
- Antibacterial soap
- Asepsis
- Aseptic processing
- Contamination control
- Electron irradiation
- Food and Bioprocess Technology
- Food chemistry
- Food engineering
- Food microbiology
- Food packaging
- Food preservation
- Food rheology
- Food safety
- Food storage
- Food technology
- ^ WHO Glossary
- ^ UCLA Dept. Epidemiology: Definitions
- ^ Molins, Ricardo A. (2001). Food irradiation: principles and applications. Wiley-IEEE. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-471-35634-9.
- ^ Brown, Amy Christian (2007). Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation (3 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 546. ISBN 978-0-495-10745-3.
- ^ "No bugs please, this is a clean planet!". European Space Agency. 30 July 2002. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
- ^ Mesquita, J. a. m.; Teixeira, M.A. and Brandao, S. C. C. (1998). "Tindalization of goats' milk in glass bottles". J. Anim. Sci. /J. Dairy Sci. 76, Suppl. 1 / Vol. 81, Suppl. 1/: 21. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
- ^ Thiel, Theresa (1999). "http://www.umsl.edu/~microbes/pdf/tyndallization.pdf" (PDF). Science in the Real World. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
- ^ "– Alberta Health and Wellness". Health.gov.ab.ca. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ Dental Volume 1 - Dentist training manual for military dentists
- ^ a b Zadik Y, Peretz A (Apr 2008). "The effectiveness of glass bead sterilizer in the dental practice". J Isr Dent Assoc 25 (2): 36–9. PMID 18780544.
- ^ http://www.CDC.gov/OralHealth/InfectionControl/faq/bead.htm 2008-09-11
- ^ "Substitute Sterilants under SNAP as of September 28, 2006" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ "Sterilization/Aeration Equipment". Solutions.3m.com. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ "Unique solutions for infection control, sterile processing, SPD, and sterilization: EtO Sterilization Solutions". SteriCert. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ Micro-dose sterilization method
- ^ "IARC Vol 60" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ a b "NIOSH: Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH) / NIOSH Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95) - intridl4". Cdc.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ "ATSDR - MMG: Ethylene Oxide". Atsdr.cdc.gov. 2007-09-24. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ "Hospital eTool: Central Supply Module". Osha.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ Görsdorf S, Appel KE, Engeholm C, Obe G.; Nitrogen dioxide induces DNA single-strand breaks in cultured Chinese hamster cells: Carcinogenesis. 1990.
- ^ a b c "Mechanism Overview, June 2012". noxilizer.com. Noxilizer, Inc. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
- ^ "Noxilizer Contract Sterilization Services". noxilizer.com. Noxilizer, Inc. Retrieved 2 July 2013.
- ^ http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/intridl4.html
- ^ Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Biosafety Manual (2004 edition)
- ^ Office of Health and Safety (2007). Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) (5th ed.). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
- ^ "MAUDE - Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience". Accessdata.fda.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ "Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Hydrogen Peroxide". Osha.gov. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ "ATSDR - MMG: Hydrogen Peroxide". Atsdr.cdc.gov. 2007-09-24. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
- ^ Chopra I (April 2007). "The increasing use of silver-based products as antimicrobial agents: a useful development or a cause for concern?". The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy 59 (4): 587–90. doi:10.1093/jac/dkm006. PMID 17307768.
- ^ "Hippocrates on Ulcers".
- ^ "Antibacterial effects of silver".
- ^ Chang TW, Weinstein L (December 1975). "Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits By Silver Sulfadiazine". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 8 (6): 677–8. doi:10.1128/AAC.8.6.677. PMC 429446. PMID 1211919.
- ^ Atiyeh BS, Costagliola M, Hayek SN, Dibo SA (March 2007). "Effect of silver on burn wound infection control and healing: review of the literature". Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries 33 (2): 139–48. doi:10.1016/j.burns.2006.06.010. PMID 17137719.
- ^ a b Lo SF, Hayter M, Chang CJ, Hu WY, Lee LL (August 2008). "A systematic review of silver-releasing dressings in the management of infected chronic wounds". Journal of clinical nursing 17 (15): 1973–85. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02264.x. PMID 18705778.
- ^ Hermans MH (December 2006). "Silver-containing dressings and the need for evidence". The American journal of nursing 106 (12): 60–8; quiz 68–9. doi:10.1097/00000446-200612000-00025. PMID 17133010.
- ^ "AGC Flat Glass Europe launches world's first antibacterial glass". 2007-09-04.
- ^ "Samsung laundry featuring SilverCare Technology". Samsung. Archived from the original on 2006-05-31. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
- ^ "Ultra-Fresh technology is based on the power of silver to fight bacteria". Express Textile.
- ^ "FDA Clears Silver-Coated Breathing Tube For Marketing". 2007-11-08. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
- ^ Akhavan, O.; Ghaderi, E. (2009). "Enhancement of antibacterial properties of Ag nanorods by electric field". Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater 10: 015003.
- ^ Padmavathy, N. et al. (2007). "Enhanced bioactivity of ZnO nanoparticles—an antimicrobial study". Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater 9: 035004. Bibcode:2008STAdM...9c5004P. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/3/035004.
- ^ Bauman, PA; Lawrence LA, Biesert L, Dichtelmüller H, Fabbrizzi F, Gajardo R, Gröner A, Jorquera JI, Kempf C, Kreil TR, von Hoegen I, Pifat DY, Petteway SR Jr, Cai K (July 2006). "Critical factors influencing prion inactivation by sodium hydroxide.". Vox Sang 91 (1): 34–40. doi:10.1111/j.1423-0410.2006.00790.x. PMID 16756599.
- ^ Trends in Radiation Sterilization of Health Care Products, IAEA, Vienna,24 September 2008
- ^ Chang (1985). "UV Inactivation of pathogenic and indicator organisms". Applied Environmental Microbiology 49 (6): 1361.
- ^ Information Notice No. 89-82: RECENT SAFETY-RELATED INCIDENTS AT LARGE IRRADIATORS
- ^ Bharati, S; Soundrapandian C; Basu D; Datta S (2009). "Studies on a novel bioactive glass and composite coating with hydroxyapatite on titanium based alloys: Effect of γ-sterilization on coating". J Eur. Ceram. Soc. 29 (12): 2527–35. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2009.02.013.
- ^ "Guidance for Industry, Sterile Drug Products Produced by Aseptic Processing — Current Good Manufacturing Practice". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2004
Other references[edit]
- WHO - Infection Control Guidelines for Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies. Retrieved Jul 10, 2010
- Ninemeier J. Central Service Technical Manual (6th ed.). International Association of Healthcare Central Service Materiel Management.
- Control of microbes
- Raju GK, Cooney CL (1993). "Media and air sterilization". In Stephanopoulos G. Biotechnology, 2E, Vol. 3, Bioprocessing. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 157–84. ISBN 3-527-28313-7.
- Innovative Technologies for the Biofunctionalisation and Terminal Sterilisation of Medical Devices
- Pharmaceutical Filtration - The Management of Organism Removal, Meltzer TH, Jornitz MW, PDA/DHI 1998
- "Association for Advancement of Medical Instrumentation ANSI/AAMI ST41-Ehylene Oxyde Sterilization in Healthcare facilities: Safety and Effectiveness. Arlington,VA:Association for Advancement of Medical Instrumentation ;2000."ISBN 1-57020-420-9
- "US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration.29 CFR 1910.1020. Access to Employee Medical Records." .October 26, 2007.
- Perioperative Standards and Recommended Practices, AORN 2013,ISBN 978-1-888460-77-3


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Mast Electric, LLC an Info-Link Company
Mast Electric L.L.C provides commercial, industrial and residential electrical services to the Central Ohio area.
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Cancer patients in need of surgery, including pediatric neurosurgery, at Dana-Farber/Boston Children's Cancer and Blood Disorders Center have access to world-class pediatric surgical oncologists, state-of-the-art facilities, and a dedicated anesthesiology department for pre-, peri- and postoperative care.
Working alongside patient care teams, our pediatric surgical oncologists are able to quickly and effectively respond to the needs of our patients when surgery is required. Our clinical resources, such as our anesthesiology department, medical subspecialty programs, intensive care units, and radiological capabilities provide families and patients with convenience during what can be a very stressful time.
Working together with treatment teams from all of our pediatric cancer and blood disorders centers, our surgical oncologists are prepared at all times for surgical intervention as a primary or complimentary component of a patient's treatment plan.
Surgery can be required for multiple reasons:
One of the many benefits we offer patients is a state-of-the-art anesthesiology department available for all peri-operative care and needs (preoperative evaluation, postoperative intensive care unit medicine, pain management, etc.). Prior to surgery, the surgeon and anesthesiologist will visit with the child and her parents to discuss the surgical procedure and answer any questions they may have regarding the pre-, peri-, and postoperative care. After surgery, patients go to a post-anesthesia care unit or the intensive care unit (ICU) depending on the type of surgery and medical complexity involved. Generally, you and your child will experience one of several options after a surgical procedure:
In some cases, children can go home the same day they have a minor surgical procedure. After major surgery, however, the child may need to stay in the hospital for a few days or sometimes longer. When the surgeon determines the child can be discharged, the medical team and your surgeon will discuss home care and provide parents with clear instructions for care and any prescriptions that are needed.
Our pediatric neurosurgeons have one of the nation's few operating rooms with an MRI inside, which means they can simultaneously perform surgery and obtain detailed images to ensure maximum removal of your child's tumor.
Learn more about pediatric neurosurgery at Dana-Farber/Boston Children's.
Our orthopedic surgeons explain how allografts and rotationplasty are used to surgically treat a solid tumor.
A genetic test can explain why a child or young adult developed cancer or a blood disorder and can help predict whether he/she is at risk for other conditions.


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Syracuse, NY.---Last year's violence which prompted organizers to end the Juneteenth Festival in Clinton Square seems to be affecting the prospect of hosting the festival this summer.
Nearly two months before the festival, organizers say they're having trouble raising the estimated $60,000 to $90,000 to put on the festival. Here's staff writer Renee Gadoua's story in Tuesday's Post-Standard.
Tuesday evening, I attended a meeting at Living Water Church of God in Christ where about 40 people gathered to raise money for the festival. Some in the crowd said the community needs to take ownership of the festival by investing in it.
"If every black person contributed to this, we wouldn't have to ask anybody for anything,'' said the Rev. Nonnie Holliman, pastor of Faith Tabernacle Church of God in Christ on South State Street. The appeal has to go to ourselves.''
One by one, people got up and pledged a donation.
Walter Dixie pledged $1,000 from three organizations he's affiliated with----$500 from Jubilee Homes; $250 from the Alliance Network; and $250 from the National Action Network. The Rev. David Tannyhill, pastor of Bellgrove Missionary Baptist Church pledged $1,000. At the end of the meeting, about $8,000 was raised.
Read my story in today's Post-Standard.
JPMorgan Chase, one of the festival's major contributors, did not renew its sponsorship this year. In the last two years, the bank has donated $15,000 to the festival which commemorates June 19, 1865, the day the last American slaves----heard the news of their freedom after the civil war ended.
I was at the festival last year when several fights broke out, prompting organizers to end the event several hours early. I did a series of follow-up stories which sparked a lot of chatter on this blog.
After the incident, the city and organizers vowed to keep the festival downtown.
While the economy may have contributed to the decline in corporate sponsorship, there's a sense that the violence played a role.
Parents can help stop the violence if more of them volunteer to patrol the festival, said Kitty Rice, the board's treasurer. The disturbance could have been avoided if 100 parents were there to work the crowd, she said.
With just two months before the festival, can the community raise enough money for the event? What are the plans to prevent violence from occurring?
What do you think? Post a comment.


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Written by O. Deus, edited by Steve Krutzler
"The Crossing"
Summary: Spectral aliens try to take over the Enterprise crew when their own spaceship breaks down.
STAR TREK has done many alien possession episodes and "The Crossing" is another one of them. It's not the worst of them but it's certainly not the best of them either. Based on yet another story by Berman and Braga it rehashes TREK formulas without adding anything to them. Over a decade ago, TNG aired "Lonely Among Us" in its first season. Like "The Crossing," the Enterprise runs into a spectral alien that takes possession of members of the crew and Picard to further its goals. Somewhat later TNG aired "Power Play," in which more spectral aliens take over members of the Enterprise crew also as a means of transport. Unlike "The Crossing," "Lonely Among Us" and "Power Play" both used the theme of possession as a means of exploring how the familiar Enterprise crew could become both alien and menacing. "The Crossing," though, focuses on gags about Trip stuffing his face and Reed trying to mate with any available female with only Hoshi displaying any sense of unnatural menace. Nor does the episode offer anything as memorable as a possessed O'Brien trying to silence his child or a possessed Picard contemplating exploring the universe in non-corporeal form.
And for an Invasion of the Body Snatchers storyline, "Crossing" can't even manage to generate much suspense, which should be a snap. Instead, aside from some bad behavior by Hoshi and Trip, all the possessed crewmembers allow themselves to be locked up without any trouble. Rather than trying to take over the ship they seem to be a lot more interested in having some fun in their new bodies in between brief lectures to Archer on how much he'll enjoy being non-corporeal, a state of being Archer would obviously have little interest in unless the aliens also offered to make Porthos non-corporeal too. Despite the fact that the Enterprise crew has no thought out plan for containing the threat, the aliens are themselves in no hurry to take over the Enterprise crew and don't bother to do anything as simple as taking over the command crew or security first or hopping from the bodies of locked up crewmembers to ones that aren't locked up. Even the funny hatted aliens in Voyager's "Displaced" had a better plan and a better twist to their plot.
The aliens' reason for trying to take over the Enterprise crew is rather mundane. Apparently it's easier for them to take possession of some human bodies than repair their own starship. That's the trouble with all those spectral aliens who've evolved to a higher plane of being. They're not willing to pull up their non-existent shirtsleeves and do the dirty work of maintaining their own starship. Apparently spectral aliens residing on a higher plane of being don't just evolve beyond corporeal bodies but also evolve beyond the timeless values of hard work and self-discipline. Unfortunately many spectral aliens would rather just take the easy way out and take possession of any available humanoid without thinking the consequences through and it always ends in tears.
"The Crossing" does, however, do a better job of using the ensemble cast with Hoshi, Phlox and Mayweather getting something to do, instead of the entire episode focusing on just Archer, T'Pol and Trip as far too many have. Indeed John Billingsley's ability to make even Phlox's most routine tasks and dialogue seem extraordinary and entertaining is really the only thing that makes this story watchable. There's no other actor or character on the cast that could make pulling open a panel seem more interesting than half the rest of the cast being possessed by aliens put together. Even with Phlox playing a crucial role in saving the ship, the final act still isn't particularly gripping but it is watchable.
David Livingston returns yet again to ENTERPRISE and does his usual good work directing the episode, though he has little enough to work with. The script by Berman, Braga and Andre Bormanis based on a story by Berman and Braga serves as yet another demonstration of why the exec producers should leave the writing to the writers they've hired instead of coming up with original stories any random viewer could also come up with by watching STAR TREK reruns. Only the use of the catwalk is a nice touch of continuity that seems to suggest that we'll be seeing the nacelle catwalks used as a kind of makeshift auxiliary bridge on Enterprise in the future.
Next week: Captain Archer faces the Klingon justice of STAR TREK VI.
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Posted: November 01, 2013
Medicine in the information age
IT industry steps up to curb health care inefficiencies
Eric PetersonThe Institute of Medicine found that 30 percent of U.S. health care spending in 2009 was waste. That's $765 billion. And skyrocketing costs have ballooned at a rate that's more than triple that of wages over the past decade.
Many believe information technology is health care's last hope for reducing waste and capping costs. With more than a trillion dollars worth of fruit hanging from branches of all heights, health care most definitely has the tech world's full attention, and there are a host of federal financial incentives set to go into effect soon.
Amid this landscape, it's no surprise Colorado is home to a notable and growing cluster of health care IT companies. Some provide tools to the masses to help manage their own care, some are aimed squarely at health care professionals, and others still look to bridge the often unwieldy gap between the two.
"Ultimately, information has been underutilized in health care," says Evan Marks, vice president of informatics and strategy at Denver-based HealthGrades. "It's been used by pharma and device manufacturers, but in terms of the broad application of informatics, health care has really lagged."
Marks says the reticence of the industry to adopt new technologies led to numerous mandates and incentives in the Affordable Care Act (ACA). "Efficiency in other businesses is really rewarded, but in health care, the sloppier your business was, the more money you made. With the ACA, a lot of the disincentives have changed. Hospitals are no longer rewarded for bad behavior."
According to Marks, the health care industry needs to self-assess with the tools afforded by modern IT. "Just like every other business, whether they're an assembly line or a bank."
HealthGrades has been doing just that since 1998. With about 200 of its 600 Denver-based employees, the formerly publicly traded company was taken private in 2010, but its core business remains the same: to offer consumers information on practitioners and hospitals.
The company evaluates health care providers on 35 procedures and practice areas from hip replacement to neurosurgery and delivers the results to the public via HealthGrades.com and BetterMedicine.com.
Marks says the company helps cut costs by allowing for analytics-based targeted marketing campaigns, rather than billboards and direct mail. "When those campaigns are ill-informed, the costs associated with producing materials and reaching a largely inappropriate audience are high," he says.
More importantly, the rankings help guide patients to hospitals where outcomes are best, lending to lower incidence of mortality and malpractice. Patients can have up to 10 times higher mortality rates at the lowest-ranked facilities.
"Consumers can evaluate hospitals based on positive outcomes," Marks says. "These outcomes are typically associated with lower costs."
Traditionally, this information has been unavailable, but not anymore. Still, the public has a learning curve to climb. Using outcome-based data "is not how people typically choose their doctors," says Marks. "Consumers haven't been trained; that's part of our mission."
And likewise it is part of WellTok's mission. The Denver-based company has about 50 employees after closing on $18.7 million in Series B funding in April.
"WellTok is at this very interesting intersection between health care and the cutting edge of social media and technology," said former VP of Communications and Marketing Brad Samson. "The big problem with health care is getting people to engage with their own health."
Samson says the ACA assumes people want to be engaged, but he doesn't think that's necessarily the case. "A lot of the things the government is doing are 'step two' engagement levels," he explains. "It's ignoring the reality that there are a lot of people sitting on the couch ignoring their health."
WellTok is starting with a "step one" engagement model. "What motivates people?" says Samson. "It comes down to very traditional kinds of appeal: fear, greed, hunger."
To this end, WellTok incentivizes people to actively participate in various health care programs or take specific actions with free pedometers and financial rewards. "You get them in the door with greed," says Samson. "Every activity in CafeWell earns you coins and then every month your coins are tallied up into entries for a gift card."
But social rewards quickly supplant financial ones – such as walking competitions. "People get very motivated by having this new social circle," says Samson.
Indeed individuals have grown accustomed to receiving financial rewards for completing health risk assessments (HRA), but social rewards can be effective as well. "We had one client program that got 25 or 30 percent of members (completing an HRA) who were just as happy," says Samson. "It's a complete change of how we look at things."
Feedback has included comments such as, "Thanks for getting this fat, old man out of his armchair," says Samson. "People see it as a lifeline. That's where these technologies are making a difference – changing behaviors people have today."
Founded in 2008 by Peter Hudson and Wayne Guerra, both medical doctors, iTriage is also trying to help consumers make better health care decisions. The 100-employee company was acquired by Aetna in 2011 and its app has been downloaded more than 8 million times, garnering testimonials from users who credit it with saving their lives.
Guerra says unnecessary care adds up to more than $100 billion annually. "When a lower-cost option is available, our users are selecting emergency departments 40 percent less. That's huge," he says.
A beta release of iTriage Trends went live Sept. 27, allowing site visitors to click on a map and see the top medical conditions searched in the vicinity.
Hudson – who received the Entrepreneur of the Year Award from the Colorado Technology Association Sept. 10 at the APEX 2013 Conference awards dinner – says the big trinity of health care is payers, providers and patients. "If you don't have that third party – the patient – involved, you're not going to succeed," he says. "There's a lot of things that need to occur, but having an engaged, informed population is really important."
Beyond an active, engaged public, doctors must change their ways, and companies like Aventura are attempting to help. The Denver-based company's genesis stemmed from an initiative in 2008 to virtualize clinicians' desktops at Denver Health, and it spun off as an independent company in 2009.
"The desktop is the last frontier for virtualization," says CEO and president John Gobron. The 32-employee Aventura, which closed on $4.3 million in new funding in September, aims to solve this problem. "We can deliver a virtual desktop to a clinician anywhere."
The status quo involves nurses and paper notepads. "When their pad gets full, they go to their nursing station and input vitals and other data," says Gobron. "It's as inefficient as it gets."
Denver-based writer Eric Peterson is the author of Frommer's Colorado, Frommer's Montana & Wyoming, Frommer's Yellowstone & Grand Teton National Parks and the Ramble series of guidebooks, featuring first-person travelogues covering everything from atomic landmarks in New Mexico to celebrity gone wrong in Hollywood. Peterson has also recently written about backpacking in Yosemite, cross-country skiing in Yellowstone and downhill skiing in Colorado for such publications as Denver's Westword and The New York Daily News. He can be reached at email@example.com


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March 6 2015 Latest news:
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Also, from an accuracy point of view, it's drivel that gets spouted, dribble just sort of dribbles out.
Sunday, December 30, 2012


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There are tons of great management and leadership books out there, from Jack Welch's iron fist rule to Stephen Covey and his eight handy habits. It seems I get through about half of each book, then move on to the next great leader with even more insightful nuggets into human behavior.
I recently found a book buried deep in the bowels of a used bookstore called Managing to Have Fun by Matt Weinstein. It goes back a few years, but it brings to light one simple concept – if you're not having a good time doing something that eats up 40, 50 sometimes 60 hours per week, what's the point? And why can't you have fun at work?
I say, yes we can!
Spring is always interesting at ACE because it's the time of year when the rubber meets the road. Everything has to get put back together after a winter of projects from new bathhouses and ACE Lake renovations to repairs and road construction. And this year is no exception. We set some pretty big goals this year, and several of them are landing squarely in the lap of our beloved reservation manager, Brandi.
Her shoulders are broad this year with planning a move to a new building (the Welcome Center), setting up a new reservation system, learning a new phone system, training new Adventure Consultants and ensuring our guests get the same great assistance when they call. Granted, she isn't alone in all this, but that's a lot of change for one department.
Here enters Bob the Clown. On page 58 of Managing to Have Fun, the writer points out a great example of how to reduce stress in an office environment. This particular company provided a "stress-reduction dummy" with a bottom filled with sand and that staff could pummel when things got to be too much.
Well, I e-mailed Brandi and suggested this tactic may be good for her as well. When things got to be too overwhelming and her brain hurt from all the new logistics that have to be worked out, she may enjoy hitting something – like Bob the Clown.
Of course, she got a chuckle, but this is the best part, Brandi's reply. Read on.
"Laughed out loud on that one. You want to know why? My kids have one. Whenever they get mad, I suggest they go whack the doll. It seems to work. At first, I was afraid they may think it's OK to hit people. However, my fears were put aside when Autumn had a friend over. Her friend was mad at her for not sharing a certain Barbie.
"I heard Autumn tell her, "If you're mad at me, just punch Bob (the inflatable punching person), and you won't be mad anymore." Of course, her friend told her, "Well, I'm not mad at Bob – I'm mad at you because you won't share." Autumn sat there for a second, and then told her friend, "Here, you can have the doll, and I'll just go punch Bob."
So Bob works.
Don't tell Brandi, but we're getting her a Bob the Clown punching bag.


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Aqua Santa, Santa Fe, New Mexico
451 W. Alameda Avenue
Santa Fe , New Mexico
Tel: 505 982 6297
Santa Fe , New Mexico
Tel: 505 982 6297
Concierge.com's insider take:
This place follows the credo (one that came relatively late to these parts) of everything local and seasonal. Owner and chef Brian Knox changes the menu every few days to keep up with the supply—which he cooks in an open kitchen. A spicy, braised smoked shoulder of lamb with chard is one such dish; appetizers will include heirloom tomatoes every which way, when they're available. His ideas are as simple and pleasing as the decor in this spare, clean room. With only 12 interior tables (and an additional dozen on the patio), reservations are strongly advised.
Open Tuesdays and Saturdays 5:30 to 9 pm; Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays noon to 2 pm and 5:30 to 9 pm.


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Saint Amasius of Teano
Forced into exile in Italy for his opposition to the Arian heresy. Bishop of Teano, Italy in 346.
- 356 of natural causes
Additional Information
- Book of Saints, by the Monks of Ramsgate
- Catholic Online
- Our Sunday Visitor's Encyclopedia of Saints
- Santi e Beati
MLA Citation
- "Saint Amasius of Teano". Saints.SQPN.com. 23 January 2014. Web. 3 March 2015. <>


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@Soulfox -- that is not always practical. For example, what if there is an application you must use and it won't run under the operating system you have determined is the safest? Do you abandon the operating system you need for that application for the sake of being more secure?
That would probably be a mistake as even the operating systems that have a dubious reputation for security have third-party programs available that will address those issues. Again, research and see what is available, but the chances are good you can find a solution to address security problems regardless of what operating system you have.


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R360/0051 Rights Managed
530 pixels on longest edge, watermarked
Request/Download high-res file
Uncompressed file size: 51.1MB
Downloadable file size: 2.7MB
This image is part of the feature Mars/viking1 Anniv
Credit: NASA/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
Release details: Model release not required. Property release not required.
Keywords: astronomy, cosmology, first panorama, mars, mars panorama, martian surface, panoramic, planet, planetary, science, surface, viking 1, viking 1 image, viking lander, viking lander imagery
High-resolution files: Approved customers can download high-resolution files directly from the site. A licence fee will be charged for the images used in your project.


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Somerset Lake Point
Categories: Apartments > Serviced apartments
Address: 41 Soi Sukhumvit 16, Sukhumvit Rd., Khlong Toei, Klong Toey, Bangkok 10110 Thailand See map
0 reply, 5,952 viewed
Somerset Lake Point is located in the Khlong Toei district of Bangkok on Sukhumvit Soi 16. This high end luxury serviced apartment complex offers studios, 1, 2, 3 bedroom units. All units are fully furnished and come equipped with the following: internet, fully equipped kitchen, home entertainment system, IDD telephone, washing machine & dryer and many other conveniences. The facilities of the building consist of: 24 hour reception, maintenance & security, babysitting service, tuk-tuk shuttle service, convenience store, daily maid service, bar, cafe, restaurant and a long list of other amenities.
- Open days
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday
Service hours
08:00 to 17:30
Input price range
40,000 - 147,000 Baht/Day or 1,333 - 4,900 USD/Day
- Address
41 Soi Sukhumvit 16, Sukhumvit Rd., Khlong Toei, Klong Toey, Bangkok 10110 Thailand
- Phone number
+66 (0) 2676 4670
- Fax number
+66 (0) 2676 4600
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Consider a Career with a Dynamic, Successful Organization
Covenant HealthCare is a regional health care leader that offers a dynamic and supportive working atmosphere. Our workforce is comprised of a highly professional, diverse group of more than 4,000 individuals.
The common bond which holds us together, promotes high standards of patient care, and supports our organization's success are the Values which we have identified as being appropriate and necessary for achieving our mission, vision and goals. Our Human Resources offices are located at 1020 Almira Street, Saginaw, MI 48602. Click here for Google Map directions.
If you would like to view our open positions and conveniently apply on-line, please click on the Continue button below. *Please note: Currently, the Covenant Talent Acquisition site is not compatible with Internet Explorer 11 and Safari. At this time we recommend you apply utilizing one of the following web browsers: Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, or Internet Explorer version 10 or below. We apologize for any inconvenience. If you need further assistance, please contact Human Resources at 989.583.4080 or email@example.com


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Understanding the Current Crisis - IAS Lecture Series Closing SeminarDate: 3 July 2009 Time: 9.30am-4.30pm pm Venue: Infolab room 60 b/c The current crisis has undermined everything that was taken for granted a few months ago: The self-confidence of the economic and political elites has received a staggering blow; protagonists of the neoliberal belief and a "new" capitalism like New Labour in Britain have already been routed at the polls, or are facing certain defeat at the next elections. Even Pope Benedict XVI has come up with a new encyclical, condemning the vile practices of globalised and financialised capitalism while the global financial crisis has not only shattered the economic foundations of such venerable institutions like Oxbridge and Harvard, but of the Vatican itself. A new right is rising throughout Europe. Meanwhile, the public debate rages on - all over the planet. Whether we are already headlong into a worldwide depression which will last for many years, or whether it will all be over by Christmas is heavily debated at the moment. The battle of ideas, of interpretations, of statistical artefacts is on. We are in the middle of a world historical event - and we are trying to come to grips with it. What is the use-value of the concepts and theories we cherish in the different disciplines of the social sciences when confronted with such an event? Programme: http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ias/lectureseries/Closingseminar3july.htm Registration: Places are limited so please email Anne-Marie Mumford with your name and department, any dietary requirements and whether you will be attending dinner as soon as possible. Closing date for registration: Tuesday 30 June 2009 Event website: http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ias/lectureseries/Closingseminar3july.htm Contact: Who can attend: Anyone Further informationOrganising departments and research centres: Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Institute for Advanced Studies, Sociology |
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Kryptonite Transit H-Bar Carrier / Bracket for U-locks
0 Reviews | Write a Review
Patent-pending, 2-point lock holder offers an easy way to carry a lock when in transit.
- Hook-n-Loop straps stabilize the crossbar and shackle of the u-lock or a locking head of a key cable or combo cable
- 2 in 1 convertible system provides a, one size fits all, functionality
- Removable adapter allows the carrier to fit the larger size u-locks
- Fits handlebars sizes 22 - 32mm
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More reviews by hasnijabosnia777
The smell of this product might be one of it's best qualities, it's just so nice! I notice it makes my hair shinier and really makes my hair styling regiment complete! It's a bit pricey, but worthwhile as it does it's job as a finishing spray! I use this after blow drying to set my style and don;t feel complete without this product in my hair. My only complaint is with the packaging...the bottle I bought does not spray very easily and I really have to fight with the can to have it disperse the product. But regardless, I love this
shine Spray!!
1 out of 1 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
Wow this is an amazing product! I have dry, damaged, bleached, frizzy hair with terrible split ends. My hair is also a little fine/ normal in texture and where I would usually over do oils and end up with a greasy mess this product is different. I do 2-3 short sprays on the ends of my long hair and it makes my hair look healthy and soft. I have been using the same can for over a year now. I am not longer on a search of a light hair oil! It also smells amazing.
I managed to snag this shine on spray at Winners (love that store) based on the reviews here. I was expecting my hair to be all super shiny (not greasy) after using this spray and it's not quite the result.
Does it add shine to my hair?
Yes, but in a subtle way. I think my highlights end up being more noticeable (in a good way) when I use this spray and a few people at work asked if I had gotten my hair coloured recently. (I had highlights done two weeks prior to using this product)
I agree with the other reviewers about using it sparingly, otherwise you'll end up with a greasy look. Consequently, I can't use this every day, otherwise I'll need to wash my hair more often. Less is definitely more with this product.
I would repurchase although I think the large can will last me quite some time.
MUA'ers do it again with their reviews!
2 out of 3 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
More reviews by fashionfreak678
This spray is excellent! Really does give hair a super-shiny apperance, and it actually lasts. Use it sparingly to avoid a greasy look. Has a nice scent too. Recommended!
Use it on special occasions (sparingly) especially around the hairline, to get a "halo glow". Since I have silver hair, it livens it up, and makes it shimmer in the light. Go easy on it, though, you don't want a heavy greasy look , just a light pshhhht here and there, and you're good to go. Very light fragrance which dissipates quickly.
If you're going to a glam occasion in the evening, use this spray, and light-enhancing earrings (I'm suggesting simple pearl or diamond-like pave earrings) to make you glow. Also, if like me, you have clip earrings, tuck a 2nd (extra) pair in your evening purse, in case one earring falls off during the course of the evening.
I'm over 60 yo and with this Biosilk spray, along with silver-enhancing shampoo, I get compliments all the time about my hair. I blush modestly and say it's genetics, but you know the secret.....
Have a happy and long life!
27 out of 27 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
Only shine spray I've ever used which actually adds shine. It does make your hair feel greasy when sprayed too much or near the root area. So don't overdo the spraying; a little goes a long way with this product!
5 out of 5 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
HG alert!!!!Wow, I love shine sprays and have been pretty happy with my sprays, but I was not expecting to be blown away by this. I have thinner bleached blonde hair and I need an aeorsal type from a can or else it weighs me down. This is aeorsal type, does not weigh my hair down and gives me at least 3x more the shine than any other product to date. So far, my HG
5 out of 5 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
I have to admit, I'm not a fan of the silk therapy oil, but I love this spray! When I'm done straightening my hair, I spray this all over my hair & it adds incredible shine. If you spray too much or too close to the roots, it will get greasy. When I want to add a little more shine in my hair after styling, this is my go to:) I would definitely repurchase.
3 out of 3 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
More reviews by sugarbrokespice
Amazing, amazing stuff. I have fine hair that tends to get frizzy. When I use this product in conjunction with a good conditioner, it gets rid of nearly all of my frizz and adds loads of shine too. Whenever I don't use this product, I can really tell the difference...my hair just doesn't look as good without it.
The only thing to be careful of is that too much of this product tends to make hair look greasy. It's best to use a light touch and spray a little at a time until you figure out what the right amount for your hair is. Since my hair is fine, I really don't need to use much of this product at all to get results. The plus side is that since I don't need to use a lot, my bottle has lasted me a looong time.
Scent wise, it's nothing amazing. Nothing strong or over-powering, just your typical "hairspray" type smell.
If you have a problem with frizzy or staticy hair, I highly recommend this product.
7 out of 7 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No


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A Moon 3D Study
3D The moon: In this study: 3D The moon.
Are exhibited, each and every one of its components, functions, activities, types, textures, 3D views and inside information on the 3D The moon.
In 3D, you can see the moon from all angles, digitized, with each of its parts. Touching the pins, for specific information and focus on the part of the 3D The moon.
Click on these pins, you can focus specifically on the part you want to study, and this information is accompanied by illustrations, graphics, photos and detailed information about this area of study.
You can rotate each part of the 3D The moon in all directions, may also be able to zoom in or zoom out to see specific parts, textures, colors, dimensions and shape of the structure.
This application focuses on the fields of study, general education, students.
Made for all levels of study in schools or universities in general.
And, interactively, you will study and learn the parts of the 3D Solar System.
With a wealth of information, graphics, and certainly the support objects with 3D views.
Of course, you can study within the family, children or friends to interact and learn.
We have a wide repertoire and many other great 3D applications, which can be accessed through a search on this store, placing the word:
Or visit our web sites of our partners.
Share with Others
- Last changed:
- Feb 21, 2012
- Category:
- Education
- Developer:
- usamau04 melambe
- Version:
- 1.0
- Size:
- Current Version Average Rating:
- No data
- All Versions Average Rating:
- No data
- Other Apps By This Developer
• 3D Chest Bones
• 3D Digestive System
• 3D Pharynx Posterior
• 3D Reproductive System
• 3D Respiratory System
• 3D Respiratory System Pns
• 3D Tooth R
• A study Anatomy Skeletal Muscle
• Anatomia de la espina dorsal
• Anatomia de la Piel
• Anatomy a Bird
• Anatomy Digestive 3D Organs
• Anatomy Heart info
• Anatomy Spine
• Anatomy Spine 3D
• Articulation Neck Muscles
• Brain Section 3D
• Christian Games : Jonas
• Flowers of the world
• Hair encyclopedia
• Happy Gunner
• Head Muscles 3D
• HIV 3D study
• Human Brain Pins 3D
• Human Cell 3D
• List of Spiders
• Open Heart 3D
• Open Heart 3D St
• Respiratory System H
• Section du Cerveau
• Skull Bones
• Tank Approach
• Tank Approach HD
• Tank Approach TG
• Urinary System 3D pins
• UterusInsideOutside
• Vitamins and Minerals GB
• Vitamins and Minerals St


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Kevin Cyr's Vehicle Series
March 24th, 2011 // Posted by Dan in Blog, Inspiration, PaintingI've been meaning to post these for a while now. I keep running into them on inspiration sites and have always been in awe. Do you ever drive past an old van or truck and wish you could have gotten a cool vibrant photo of it's side and start a collection. No? Well, I do all the time, and seeing …
Hydro74 vs. Vahalla Studios
March 21st, 2011 // Posted by Dan in Blog, Music, Poster, Process, VideoThe little video before you is what happens when one of the top illustrators sends his most recent creation to Vahalla Studios to get printed. Be sure to check out all the great work from Joshua M. Smith, aka Hydro74.
What is that amazing song in the video? The name is 'Static' by Kansas City's very own Maps …
3/16-20/11 – Flatstock 29 @ SXSW, Austin, TX
March 8th, 2011 // Posted by Dan in Blog, DKNG News, EventsYeeeha! Strap on 'dem boots and join us at this year's FLATSTOCK poster show in Austin, Texas for SXSW.
The FLATSTOCK poster shows are presented by the American Poster Institute (API). It is an ongoing series of exhibitions featuring the work of many of the most popular concert poster artists working today.
DKNG will be there with a double …
True Blood – A Poster to Sink Your Teeth Into
March 8th, 2011 // Posted by Dan in Blog, DKNG Work, Poster, Process, Television↳ Click on the image above for a higher res version (to blog!)
Above is our latest poster creation for the hit HBO series True Blood. The print was commissioned by Gallery 1988 for PaleyFest 2011, an annual event celebrating TV's best shows. Not only were we lucky enough to create the poster for True Blood's showcase on March …
Mear One – LA Fonderie [Joker & Flux Pavillion]
March 1st, 2011 // Posted by Dan in Blog, Illustration, Music, Painting, Process, Stop Motion, VideoStop motion video of Mear One painting a ~15'x30′ mural on the LA Fonderie rooftop. Filmed and produced by Roger L. Griffith.
LA Fonderie
1755 Glendale Blvd.
Los Angeles, CA 90026
music by
Joker – Psychedelic Runway
Flux Pavillion – Show Off…


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Following signals from the U.S. Federal Reserve that American interest rates may be increased sooner then expected, the U.S. Dollar got a significant boost in trading last night and in the early morning today. Today, a full set of Dollar related news events will likely determine the direction the greenback goes for the rest of the week.
The U.S. Federal Reserve (FED) left interest rates unchanged following their policy meeting on Wednesday, but an overall tone of optimism left the door open to an increase in the near future. The Dollar reacted to the news by shooting up to a near 6-month high against the Euro. The pair was trading as low as 1.3994 on Wednesday, before rebounding to its current level of 1.4020.
Today, the forex news cycle will be dominated by Dollar events. Core Durable Goods Orders, the latest Unemployment Claims report, as well as the Senate vote to reappoint Ben Bernanke as chairman of the FED, are all likely to create heavy market volatility.
Analysts are generally optimistic about today's Dollar news, with unemployment forecasted to drop and the Core Durable Goods Orders in positive territory. Traders can expect the Dollar to make further gains today providing the news comes in as predicted. This will likely be especially true against the Euro, which is still reeling from Greek debt concerns.