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Mount Tambora | |
Aerial view of the caldera of Mount Tambora, formed during the colossal 1815 eruption. | |
Elevation | 2,850 m (9,350 ft)[1][2] |
Prominence | 2,850 m (9,350 ft)[1][3] |
Listing | Ultra Ribu |
Location | |
Location in Indonesia | |
Location | Sumbawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia |
Coordinates | 8°14′48″S 117°57′30″E / 8.24667°S 117.95833°ECoordinates: 8°14′48″S 117°57′30″E / 8.24667°S 117.95833°E[2] |
Geology | |
Type | Stratovolcano/Caldera |
Age of rock | 57,000 years |
Last eruption | 1967 ± 20 years[1] |
Mount Tambora | |
Aerial view of the caldera of Mount Tambora, formed during the colossal 1815 eruption. | |
Elevation | 2,850 m (9,350 ft)[1][2] |
Prominence | 2,850 m (9,350 ft)[1][3] |
Listing | Ultra Ribu |
Location | |
Location in Indonesia | |
Location | Sumbawa, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia |
Coordinates | 8°14′48″S 117°57′30″E / 8.24667°S 117.95833°ECoordinates: 8°14′48″S 117°57′30″E / 8.24667°S 117.95833°E[2] |
Geology | |
Type | Stratovolcano/Caldera |
Age of rock | 57,000 years |
Last eruption | 1967 ± 20 years[1] |
Mount Tambora (or Tamboro) is an active stratovolcano which is a peninsula of the island of Sumbawa, Indonesia. Sumbawa is flanked both to the north and south by oceanic crust, and Tambora was formed by the active subduction zone beneath it. This raised Mount Tambora as high as 4,300 m (14,100 ft),[4] making it, in the 18th century, one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After a large magma chamber inside the mountain filled over the course of several decades, volcanic activity reached a historic climax in the eruption of 10 April 1815.[5] This eruption was about a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 7, the only eruption unambiguously confirmed of that size since the Lake Taupo eruption in about 180 CE.[6] (The Heaven Lake eruption of Baekdu Mountain around 969 CE may have also been VEI-7.)
With an estimated ejecta volume of 160 km3 (38 cu mi), Tambora's 1815 outburst was the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history. The explosion was heard on Sumatra island more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) away. Heavy volcanic ash falls were observed as far away as Borneo, Sulawesi, Java, and Maluku Islands. Most deaths from the eruption were from starvation and disease, as the eruptive fallout ruined agricultural productivity in the local region. The death toll was at least 71,000 people, of whom 11,000–12,000 were killed directly by the eruption;[6] the often-cited figure of 92,000 people killed is believed to be overestimated.[7]
The eruption caused global climate anomalies that included the phenomenon known as "volcanic winter": 1816 became known as the "Year Without a Summer" because of the effect on North American and European weather. Crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in the worst famine of the 19th century.[6]
During an excavation in 2004, a team of archaeologists discovered cultural remains buried by the 1815 eruption.[8] They were kept intact beneath the 3-m-deep pyroclastic deposits. At the site, dubbed the 'Pompeii of the East', the artifacts were preserved in the positions they had occupied in 1815.
Mount Tambora is located on Sumbawa Island, part of the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is a segment of the Sunda Arc, a string of volcanic islands that forms the southern chain of the Indonesian archipelago.[9] Tambora forms its own peninsula on Sumbawa, known as the Sanggar peninsula. At the north of the peninsula is the Flores Sea, and at the south is Saleh Bay, 86 km (53 mi) long and 36 km (22 mi) wide. At the mouth of Saleh Bay is a 30,000-hectare islet called Moyo (Indonesian: Pulau Moyo) which has a guest shelter or luxurious resort where celebrities such as Princess Diana once stayed.[10]
Besides its interest for seismologists and volcanologists, who monitor the mountain's activity, Mount Tambora is an area of scientific studies for archaeologists and biologists. The mountain also attracts tourists for hiking and wildlife activities.[11][12] The two nearest cities are Dompu and Bima. Three concentrations of villages are around the mountain slope. At the east is Sanggar village, to the northwest are Doro Peti and Pesanggrahan villages, and to the west is Calabai village.
Three ascent routes are used to reach the caldera. The first route starts from Doro Mboha village south of the mountain, and follows a paved road through a cashew plantation until it reaches 1,150 m (3,770 ft) above sea level. The end of this route is the southern part of the caldera at 1,950 m (6,400 ft), reachable by a hiking track.[13] This location is usually used as a base camp to monitor the volcanic activity, because it only takes one hour to reach the caldera. The second route is located in southwest of the mountain, starting from Doro Peti village; the Tambora volcanic monitoring station is located in this village. The third route starts from Pancasila village northwest of the mountain, and passes through a coffee plantation. Using the third route, the caldera is accessible only by foot.[13] The highest point of Tambora is located on a hill near the westen rim of the caldera.
In August 2011, the alert level for the volcano was raised from level I to level II after increasing activity was reported in the caldera, including earthquakes and smoke emissions.[14] In September 2011, the alert level was raised to level III after further increases in activity.[15]
Tambora is 340 km (210 mi) north of the Java Trench system and 180–190 km (110–120 mi) above the upper surface of the active north-dipping subduction zone. Sumbawa island is flanked to both the north and south by the oceanic crust.[16] The convergence rate is 7.8 cm (3.1 in) per year.[17] Tambora is estimated to have formed around 57,000 years ago.[5] Depositing its strata has drained off a large magma chamber inside the mountain. The Mojo islet was formed as part of this geological process in which Saleh Bay, collapsing into the caldera of the drained magma chamber, first appeared as a sea basin, about 25,000 years ago.[5]
According to a geological survey before the 1815 eruption, Tambora had the shape of a typical stratovolcano, with a high symmetrical volcanic cone and a single central vent.[18] The diameter at the base is 60 km (37 mi).[9] The central vent emitted lava frequently, which cascaded down a steep slope.
Since the 1815 eruption, the lowermost portion contains deposits of interlayered sequences of lava and pyroclastic materials. The 1- to 4-m-thick lava flows constitute about 40% of the layers' thickness.[18] Thick scoria beds were produced by the fragmentation of lava flows. Within the upper section, the lava is interbedded with scoria, tuffs, and pyroclastic flows and falls.[18] At least 20 subsidiary or parasitic cones are known.[17] Some of them have names: Tahe, 844 m (2,769 ft); Molo, 602 m (1,975 ft); Kadiendinae; Kubah, 1,648 m (5,407 ft); and Doro Api Toi. Most of these parasitic cones have produced basaltic lavas.
Use of the radiocarbon dating technique has established the dates of three of Mount Tambora's eruptions before the 1815 eruption. The magnitudes of these eruptions are unknown.[19] The estimated dates are 3910 BC ± 200 years, 3050 BC and 740 AD ± 150 years. They were all explosive central vent eruptions with similar characteristics, but the 740 AD eruption had no pyroclastic flows.
In 1812, Mount Tambora entered a period of high activity, with its climactic eruption being the catastrophic explosive event of April 1815.[19] The VEI-7 eruption had a total tephra ejecta volume of 160 km3 (38 cu mi).[19] It was an explosive central vent eruption with pyroclastic flows and a caldera collapse, causing tsunamis and extensive land and property damage. It had a long-term effect on global climate. This activity ceased on 15 July 1815.[19] Follow-up activity was recorded in August 1819 consisting of a small eruption (VEI = 2) with flames and rumbling aftershocks, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption sequence.[6] Around 1880 ± 30 years, Tambora went into eruption again, but only inside the caldera.[19] Small lava flows and lava dome extrusions were formed. This eruption (VEI = 2) created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera.[20]
Mount Tambora is still active. Minor lava domes and flows have been extruded on the caldera floor during the 19th and 20th centuries.[1] The last eruption was recorded in 1967.[19] However, it was a very small, non-explosive eruption (VEI = 0).
Mount Tambora experienced several centuries of inactive dormancy before 1815, as the result of the gradual cooling of hydrous magma in a closed magma chamber.[9] Inside the chamber at depths between 1.5 and 4.5 km (0.93 and 2.80 mi), the exsolution of a high-pressure fluid magma formed during cooling and crystallisation of the magma. Overpressure of the chamber of about 4,000–5,000 bar (58,000–73,000 psi) was generated, and the temperature ranged from 700 to 850 °C (1,300–1,600 °F).[9] In 1812, the caldera began to rumble and generated a dark cloud.[4]
On 5 April 1815, a moderate-sized eruption occurred, followed by thunderous detonation sounds, heard in Makassar on Sulawesi, 380 km (240 mi) away, Batavia (now Jakarta) on Java 1,260 km (780 mi) away, and Ternate on the Molucca Islands 1,400 km (870 mi) away. On the morning of 6 April, volcanic ash began to fall in East Java with faint detonation sounds lasting until 10 April. What was first thought to be sound of firing guns was heard on 10 April on Sumatra island more than 2,600 km (1,600 mi) away.[21]
At about 7 pm on 10 April, the eruptions intensified.[4] Three columns of flame rose up and merged.[21] The whole mountain was turned into a flowing mass of "liquid fire".[21] Pumice stones of up to 20 cm (7.9 in) in diameter started to rain down around 8 pm, followed by ash at around 9–10 pm. Pyroclastic flows cascaded down the mountain to the sea on all sides of the peninsula, wiping out the village of Tambora. Loud explosions were heard until the next evening, 11 April. The ash veil had spread as far as West Java and South Sulawesi. A "nitrous" odour was noticeable in Batavia and heavy tephra-tinged rain fell, finally receding between 11 and 17 April.[4]
The first explosions were heard on this Island in the evening of 5 April, they were noticed in every quarter, and continued at intervals until the following day. The noise was, in the first instance, almost universally attributed to distant cannon; so much so, that a detachment of troops were marched from Djocjocarta, in the expectation that a neighbouring post was attacked, and along the coast boats were in two instances dispatched in quest of a supposed ship in distress.
—Sir Stamford Raffles' memoir.[21]
The explosion is estimated to have been a VEI-7.[22] It had roughly four times the energy of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption, meaning it was equivalent to an 800 Mt (3.3×1012 MJ) explosion. An estimated 160 km3 (38 cu mi) of pyroclastic trachyandesite were ejected, weighing about 140 billion tonnes. This has left a caldera measuring 6–7 km (3.7–4.3 mi) across and 600–700 m (2,000–2,300 ft) deep.[4] The density of fallen ash in Makassar was 636 kg/m2 (130.3 lb/sq ft).[23] Before the explosion, Mount Tambora was about 4,300 m (14,100 ft) high,[4] one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. After the explosion, it measured only 2,851 m (9,354 ft).[24]
The 1815 Tambora eruption is the largest observed eruption in recorded history (see Table I, for comparison).[4][6] The explosion was heard 2,600 km (1,600 mi) away, and ash fell at least 1,300 km (810 mi) away.[4] Pitch darkness was observed as far away as 600 km (370 mi) from the mountain summit for up to two days. Pyroclastic flows spread at least 20 km (12 mi) from the summit. Due to the eruption, Indonesia's islands were struck by tsunami waves reaching heights up to 4 m (13 ft).
On my trip towards the western part of the island, I passed through nearly the whole of Dompo and a considerable part of Bima. The extreme misery to which the inhabitants have been reduced is shocking to behold. There were still on the road side the remains of several corpses, and the marks of where many others had been interred: the villages almost entirely deserted and the houses fallen down, the surviving inhabitants having dispersed in search of food.
Since the eruption, a violent diarrhoea has prevailed in Bima, Dompo, and Sang'ir, which has carried off a great number of people. It is supposed by the natives to have been caused by drinking water which has been impregnated with ashes; and horses have also died, in great numbers, from a similar complaint.—Lt. Philips, ordered by Sir Stamford Raffles to go to Sumbawa.[21]
All vegetation on the island was destroyed. Uprooted trees, mixed with pumice ash, washed into the sea and formed rafts up to 5 km (3.1 mi) across.[4] One pumice raft was found in the Indian Ocean, near Calcutta on 1 and 3 October 1815.[6] Clouds of thick ash still covered the summit on 23 April. Explosions ceased on 15 July, although smoke emissions were still observed as late as 23 August. Flames and rumbling aftershocks were reported in August 1819, four years after the event.
A moderate-sized tsunami struck the shores of various islands in the Indonesian archipelago on 10 April, with a height of up to 4 m (13 ft) in Sanggar around 10 pm.[4] A tsunami of 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in height was reported in Besuki, East Java, before midnight, and one of 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height in the Molucca Islands. The total death toll has been estimated to be around 4,600.[25]
The eruption column reached the stratosphere, an altitude of more than 43 km (27 mi).[6] The coarser ash particles fell one to two weeks after the eruptions, but the finer ash particles stayed in the atmosphere from a few months up to a few years at altitudes of 10–30 km (6.2–18.6 mi).[4] Longitudinal winds spread these fine particles around the globe, creating optical phenomena. Prolonged and brilliantly coloured sunsets and twilights were frequently seen in London between 28 June and 2 July 1815 and 3 September and 7 October 1815.[4] The glow of the twilight sky typically appeared orange or red near the horizon and purple or pink above.
The estimated number of deaths varies depending on the source. Zollinger (1855) puts the number of direct deaths at 10,000, probably caused by pyroclastic flows. On Sumbawa island, 38,000 deaths were due to starvation, and another 10,000 deaths occurred due to disease and hunger on Lombok island.[26] Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated about 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and Lombok, respectively.[27] Several authors use Petroeschevsky's figures, such as Stothers (1984), who cites 88,000 deaths in total.[4] However, Tanguy et al.. (1998) claimed Petroeschevsky's figures to be unfounded and based on untraceable references.[7] Tanguy revised the number solely based on two credible sources, q.e., Zollinger, who himself spent several months on Sumbawa after the eruption, and Raffles's notes.[21] Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on Bali and East Java because of famine and disease. Their estimate was 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic effects and 49,000 by posteruption famine and epidemic diseases.[7] Oppenheimer (2003) stated a modified number of at least 71,000 deaths in total.[6]
Eruptions | Country | Location | Year | Column height (km) | Volcanic Explosivity Index | N. Hemisphere summer anomaly (°C) | Fatalities |
Mount Vesuvius | Italy | Mediterranean | 79 | 30 | 5 | ? | >2,000 |
Hatepe (Taupo) | New Zealand | Pacific Ring of Fire | 186 | 51 | 7 | ? | ? |
Baekdu | China / North Korea | Pacific Ring of Fire | 969 | 25 | 6–7 | ? | ? |
Kuwae | Vanuatu | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1452 | ? | 6 | −0.5 | ? |
Huaynaputina | Peru | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1600 | 46 | 6 | −0.8 | ≈1,400 |
Tambora | Indonesia | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1815 | 43 | 7 | −0.5 | >71,000 |
Krakatoa | Indonesia | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1883 | 36 | 6 | −0.3 | 36,600 |
Santa María | Guatemala | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1902 | 34 | 6 | no anomaly | 7,000–13,000 |
Novarupta | USA, Alaska | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1912 | 32 | 6 | −0.4 | 2 |
Mt. St. Helens | USA, Washington | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1980 | 19 | 5 | no anomaly | 57 |
El Chichón | Mexico | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1982 | 32 | 4–5 | YES | >2,000 |
Nevado del Ruiz | Colombia | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1985 | 27 | 3 | no anomaly | 23,000 |
Pinatubo | Philippines | Pacific Ring of Fire | 1991 | 34 | 6 | −0.5 | 1,202 |
Source: Oppenheimer (2003),[6] and Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program for VEI.[28]
The 1815 eruption released sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the stratosphere, causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have estimated the ejected sulphur mass during the eruption: the petrological method; an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations; and the polar ice core sulfate concentration method, using cores from Greenland and Antarctica. The figures vary depending on the method, ranging from 10 to 120 million tonnes.[6]
In the spring and summer of 1815, a persistent "dry fog" was observed in the northeastern United States. The fog reddened and dimmed the sunlight, such that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Neither wind nor rainfall dispersed the "fog". It was identified as a stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil.[6] In summer 1816, countries in the Northern Hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions, dubbed the Year Without a Summer. Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4–0.7°C (0.7–1.3°F),[4] enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. On 4 June 1816, frosts were reported in Connecticut, and by the following day, most of New England was gripped by the cold front. On 6 June 1816, snow fell in Albany, New York, and Dennysville, Maine.[6] Such conditions occurred for at least three months and ruined most agricultural crops in North America. Canada experienced extreme cold during that summer. Snow 30 cm (12 in) deep accumulated near Quebec City from 6 to 10 June 1816.
The second-coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere since c.1400 was 1816, and the 1810s are the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's 1815 eruption and other suspected eruptions somewhere between 1809 and 1810 (see sulfate concentration figure from ice core data). The surface temperature anomalies during the summer of 1816, 1817, and 1818 were −0.51°C (−0.92°F), −0.44°C (−0.79°F) and −0.29°C (−0.52°F), respectively.[22] As well as a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter.
This climate anomaly has been blamed for the severity of typhus epidemics in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean between 1816 and 1819.[6] The climate changes disrupted the Indian monsoons, caused three failed harvests and famine contributing to the spread of a new strain of cholera originating in Bengal in 1816.[30] Many livestock died in New England during the winter of 1816–1817. Cool temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in Britain and Ireland. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat, and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply and demonstrations in front of grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson, and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.[6]
See Tambora culture for details about 2004 work on exploring for villages and people lost at the time of the major eruption.
A scientific team led by a Swiss botanist, Heinrich Zollinger, arrived on Sumbawa in 1847.[31] Zollinger's mission was to study the eruption scene and its effects on the local ecosystem. He was the first person to climb to the summit after the eruption. It was still covered by smoke. As Zollinger climbed up, his feet sank several times through a thin surface crust into a warm layer of powder-like sulphur. Some vegetation had re-established itself and a few trees were observed on the lower slope. A Casuarina forest was noted at 2,200–2,550 m (7,220–8,370 ft).[32] Several Imperata cylindrica grasslands were also found.
Rehabitation of the mountain began in 1907. A coffee plantation was started in the 1930s on the northwestern slope of the mountain, in the village of Pekat.[33] A dense rain forest, dominated by the pioneering tree, Duabanga moluccana, had grown at an altitude of 1,000–2,800 m (3,300–9,200 ft).[33] It covers an area up to 80,000 ha (200,000 acres). The rain forest was explored by a Dutch team, led by Koster and de Voogd in 1933.[33] From their accounts, they started their journey in a "fairly barren, dry and hot country", and then they entered "a mighty jungle" with "huge, majestic forest giants". At 1,100 m (3,600 ft), they entered a montane forest. Above 1,800 m (5,900 ft), they found Dodonaea viscosa dominated by Casuarina trees. On the summit, they found sparse Anaphalis viscida and Wahlenbergia.
In 1896, 56 species of birds were found, including the Crested White-eye.[34] Twelve further species were found in 1981. Several other zoological surveys followed, and found other bird species on the mountain, resulting in over 90 bird species discovered on Mount Tambora. Yellow-crested Cockatoos, Zoothera thrushes, Hill Mynas, Green Junglefowl and Rainbow Lorikeets are hunted for the cagebird trade by the local people. Orange-footed Scrubfowl are hunted for food. This bird exploitation has resulted in a decline in the bird population. The Yellow-crested Cockatoo is nearing extinction on Sumbawa island.[34]
Since 1972, a commercial logging company has been operating in the area, which poses a large threat to the rain forest. The logging company holds a timber-cutting concession for an area of 20,000 ha (49,000 acres), or 25% of the total area.[33] Another part of the rain forest is used as a hunting ground. In between the hunting ground and the logging area, there is a designated wildlife reserve where deer, water buffalos, wild pigs, bats, flying foxes, and various species of reptiles and birds can be found.[33]
Indonesia's population has been increasing rapidly since the 1815 eruption. As of 2006, the population of Indonesia has reached 222 million people,[35] of which 130 million are concentrated on Java.[36] A contemporary volcanic eruption as large as Tambora's 1815 eruption would cause catastrophic devastation with likely many more fatalities. Therefore, volcanic activity in Indonesia is continuously monitored, including that of Mount Tambora. Seismic activity in Indonesia is monitored by the Directorate of Vulcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Indonesia. The monitoring post for Mount Tambora is located at Doro Peti village.[37] They focus on seismic and tectonic activities by using a seismograph. Since the 1880 eruption, there has been no significant increase in seismic activity.[38] However, monitoring is continuously performed inside the caldera, especially around the parasitic cone Doro Api Toi.
The directorate has defined a hazard mitigation map for Mount Tambora. Two zones are declared: the dangerous zone and the cautious zone.[37] The dangerous zone is an area that will be directly affected by an eruption: pyroclastic flow, lava flow and other pyroclastic falls. This area, including the caldera and its surroundings, covers up to 58.7 km2 (22.7 sq mi). Habitation of the dangerous zone is prohibited. The cautious zone includes areas that might be indirectly affected by an eruption: lahar flows and other pumice stones. The size of the cautious area is 185 km2 (71 sq mi), and includes Pasanggrahan, Doro Peti, Rao, Labuan Kenanga, Gubu Ponda, Kawindana Toi and Hoddo villages. The river Guwu at the southern and northwest part of the mountain is also included in the cautious zone.[37]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mount Tambora. |
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Mount Tambora. |


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The hardiest and most wanted palm tree across North America, the Windmill Palm Tree has been and will be the trusted palm to endure the cold winter nights. The Windmill Palm Tree originates from the foothills of the Himalayan Mountains, which are known for its freezing temperatures.
In order for the Windmill palm Tree to resist the freeze, it grows a thick fibrous husk around its trunk. This fibrous husk keeps the heart of the Windmill Palm Tree from freezing.
With proper watering and fertilizing, the Windmill Palm Tree slowly matures to a height of 15 to 20 feet and can spread its frond to 3 to 5 feet.
Windmill Palm Tree Gallery!
Windmill Palms - Trachycarpus fortunei
One of my favorite palms. The windmill palm is readily used now in northern states. Seen in many hotels and resorts the Windmill Palm culd add that touch of the tropics to any garden. It is considered the hardiest and most wanted palm tree across North America. The Windmill Palm Tree Trachycarpus fortunei has not shown any sign of weakness here. The Chinese Windmill Palm is slow growing, especially when compared to the California Fan Palm that can be seen in the background. The Trachycarpus fortunei trunks are hairy and slender. The fronds are very close to being thorn free. This is a big plus if you work around many palms. Most palms make you pay in blood at one time or another. Trachycarpus fortunei is solitary. I have not seen a Windmill Palm put out pups. This makes maintenance much easier. Trachycarpus fortunei will grow a foot or less per year. At the beginning the seems like a detraction, but after a few years of trying to dispose load after load of fronds this can be a big plus in a hurry.
Windmill Palms are considered a more expensive palm because it is very slow growing. You may be able to see a foot of growth in a few years, which is really slow.
A Windmill palm of heights of 5-6 feet could take up to 15 years to grow.
Taller windmill palms could be as old as 30 years.BENEFITS OF WINDMILL PALMS:
The benefits of the Windmill Palm Tree are endless, whether its to add personality or the sense of the tropics. Some of the qualities that make the Windmill Palm Tree a favorite are:
- The Windmill Palm Tree's ability to withstand the cold.
- The Windmill Palm Tree's interesting fibrous husk.
- The Windmill Palm Tree's vibrant green crown.
- The Windmill Palm Tree's ability to withstand times of drought.
- The Windmill Palm Tree's ability to adapt to its new environment
- The Windmill Palm Tree's ability to withstand common diseases
- The Windmill Palm Tree's ability to withstand the cold.
- The Windmill Palm Tree's ability to continue growing upwards.
Botanical name: Trachycarpus fortunei
Common Names: Windmill Palm, Chusan Palm, Chinese Windmill Palm
Origin: Southeastern China, Taiwan and the Chusan Islands
Growth rate: The growth rate of the Windmill Palm Tree is slow, usually 6 inches a year.
Mature Height: The Windmill Palm Tree usually grows to a height between 15 to 20 feet.
Leaf Type: The Windmill Palm Tree has Pinnate Leaves. (Fan Leaves)
Maintenance: The Windmill Palm Tree is very easy to maintain.
Palm Tree can be potted: Yes, the Windmill Palm Tree can be potted
Trachycarpus fortunei:
Article by Wiki PediaTrachycarpus fortunei (Chusan Palm, Windmill Palm or Chinese Windmill Palm; syn. Chamaerops fortunei Hook., T. wagnerianus Becc.) is a palm native to central China (Hubei southwards), south to northern Burma.
It grows to 15 m tall on a single stem up to 20-35 cm diameter. The trunk is very rough with the persistent leaf bases clasping the stem as layers of coarse fibrous material. It is a fan palm (Arecaceae subfamily Coryphoideae, tribe Livistoneae, subtribe Rhapidinae), with the leaves with the long petiole bare except for two rows of small spines, terminating in a rounded fan of numerous leaflets; each leaf is 140-190 cm long, with the petiole 60-100 cm long, and the leaflets up to 90 cm long. it is a somewhat variable plant, especially as regards its general appearance and some specimens are to be seen with leaf segments having straight and others having drooping tips. The flowers are yellow (male) and greenish (female), about 2-4 mm across, borne in large branched panicles up to 1 m long in spring; it is dioecious, with male and female flowers produced on separate trees. The fruit is a yellow to blue-black, reniform (kidney-shaped) drupe 10–12 mm long, ripening in mid autumn. Occasionally it occurs that a male plant of T. fortunei besides the usual spadices produces also a few other spadices which carry really hermaphroditic flowers. The hermaphroditic and completely fertile flowers are almost exactly like the male flowers, but are a little larger and with the carpels well evolute, the latter about as long as the filaments, furnished with a ring of silvery hairs all round.
Although not the northernmost naturally occurring palm in the world (Chamaerops humilis grows further north in the Mediterranean region, and Rhapidophyllum and some Sabal species further north on the Atlantic coast of North America), it is one of the hardiest, as it grows at much higher altitudes, up to 2,400 m in the mountains of southern China. This brings it into a climate not only with cold winters, but also cool, moist summers; while Rhapidophyllum may possibly tolerate slightly lower temperatures in winter, it needs much greater summer heat to grow successfully.
Cultivation and uses of Trachycarpus fortunei:
Article by Wiki PediaTrachycarpus fortunei has been cultivated in China and Japan for thousands of years, grown for its coarse but very strong leaf sheath fibre, used for making ropes, sacks, and other coarse cloth where great strength is important. The extent of this cultivation means that the exact natural range of the species is uncertain.
This palm was brought from Japan (Dejima) to Europe by the German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold in 1830. The common name refers to Chusan Island (now Zhoushan Island), where Robert Fortune first saw cultivated specimens of the species that was later named after him. It was first described by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius in 1850 in his Histroia Naturalis Palmarum but under the false name of Chamaerops excelsa.
Its tolerance of cool summers makes it highly valued by palm enthusiasts as the palm that can be cultivated the furthest north in the world, being grown successfully in such cool and damp but relatively winter-mild locales as Scotland and the panhandle of Alaska. It is commonly grown in gardens in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, the Pacific Northwestern United States, and coastal regions of the Canadian province of British Columbia, as well as extreme south locations, such as Tasmania. It does not however grow well in hot climates. The greatest reported cold tolerance is −27.5 °C (−17.5 °F), survived by four specimens planted in Plovdiv, Bulgaria during a severe cold spell on 6 January 1993 and placing it hardy to USDA Zone 7;[4] more commonly lower tolerance limits of −15 °C to −20 °C (5 °F to −4 ºF) are cited for mature plants.[5][6] Young plants are less hardy, and can be damaged by only −8 °C (17.6 °F).[7]
The plant formerly sometimes treated as a separate species T. wagnerianus is a small-leafed variant of this species selected in cultivation in China and Japan.[3]
The names Chamaerops excelsus and T. excelsus have occasionally been misapplied to T. fortunei; this is correctly a synonym of Rhapis excelsa, with the confusion arising due to a misunderstanding of Japanese vernacular names.[6]
RPT Windmill Palm Description:
The cold hardy Windmill Palm is sometimes referred as the Chinese Windmill Palm and is also known as the Chusan palm. The Windmill Palm can be found at the foothills of the Himalyan Mountains. As such, the Windmill Palm is a cold hardy palm, which has adapted and acclimated to extreme cold temperatures through-out the year and is one of the cold hardiest of palms. Windmill Palm is very tolerant of the sun and tolerant of partial shade. Enjoys well-drained soils and can grow is virtually any environment given the right care and maintenance. Over time the Windmill Palm will become virtually maintenance free. Chinese Windmill Palms are a common landscape sight throughout most of Europe, the United States, and Canada. The Windmill Palm along with other plants should be watered regularly. The Windmill Palm looks great as a stand-alone palm tree or encompassed by smaller palms. The Windmill Palm is an exceptional palm tree for colder climates. Gardeners will agree, the Windmill Palm is great for the Northern United States and for its durable nature to overcome most disease and insects. The Windmill Palm is also a great indoor palm tree and even greater for a Conservatory. The Windmill Palm has similar characteristics as the Mediterranean Fan palm. They both are acclimated for cold weather and both have a fibrous trunk which keeps the cold at bay. The Windmill Palm is also great for the pool area, patio, or even a Zen garden oasis.
This palm tree will make a great addition to any home office or landscape. It will give a sense of the tropics with little cost. Its time to go green and buy real palm trees. Palm trees are also great for indoors because they act as a natural humidifier and detoxifier by removing Carbon Monoxide and replacing the air with fresh Oxygen. Real Palm Trees make a home feel like home by giving you the feel of nature inside or out. Buy this palm tree and have a piece of unspoiled nature.
Landscaping with the cold hardy Windmill Palm Tree is quite simple. All you need is the area and your imagination to create an oasis in your yard. Ideally, the Windmill Palm Tree stands out by itself, but if ground shrubs are needed, keep in mind they would have to be shaded ground shrubs. Also, the Windmill Palm Tree has a radial spacing of 5 to 10 feet. The radial spacing is needed because the Windmill Palm Tree's fronds dart horizontally so any other tree or plant, placed close together, will prevent the Windmill Palm Tree from developing upright.
A great bonus to the Windmill Palm Tree is its ability to withstand times of drought, and this gives you more choices with planting different types of plants or flowers.
The Windmill Palm Tree makes for a great potted tree. As long as you place it near a window or replace a regular bulb with a grow light, the Windmill Palm Tree will thrive. Picking out a pot for the Windmill palm tree is a great learning opportunity or activity for a family or couples. You can purchase a normal pot and use your creative abilities to paint the pot to coordinate with the room or environment. So go ahead, let your imagination run wild!


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Atoms and Substrate Images
Name: Justin Status: educator Grade: 9-12 Location: IL Date: March 2009
Back in 1989, scientists at the IBM Research Center in San Jose, California conducted an interesting activity using atoms. The scientists manipulated 35 atoms of the gas xenon on a nickel substrate, to write the letters, IBM. http://www.itwire.com/content/view/14374/1154/ Why are none of the nickel substrate atoms visible? I have seen other images, since then, with much the same issue: Where are the atoms of the substrate? It always looks smooth! Please help me explain this to my students.
Imaging at atomic scale is quite different than how people see things at our scale. Nanoscale imaging, unlike our eyes, doesn't use light, lenses and detectors, and that means the results may seem counter-intuitive compared to how human eyes work. However, with a little understanding of how nano imaging works, the images produced will make more intuitive sense.
In the famous IBM image, a type of instrument called an STM (scanning tunneling microscope) was used. The principle of operation of an STM is that a very small pointy tip is moved very close to a surface, and when it gets close enough, a small electrical change can be detected. When you move the tip across a surface and measure the height at which the change occurs, you can map out a series of heights associated with different coordinates. Think of it as an atomic topographic map. You can then use software to create an image of the heights and coordinates that "looks like" a photograph.
In this case, the instrument was set up to image the xenon atoms, but not to reach all the way down to the nickel surface between the nickel atoms. The purpose was to emphasize the xenon atoms, not the nickel substrate. That's why they got the image they did. However, they could have imaged the nickel had they so desired. If you Google for STM images, you can see lots of examples of flat planes of atoms being imaged by STM.
Hope this helps,
Burr Zimmerman
The way the "atoms" are imaged is through a process called Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). As you know, all atoms exhibit a repulsive force (Van der Waal) as though the atom were acting like solid object. AFM uses a technique whereby an atom thin stylus (like in those old style phonographs for vinyl records) that is dragged through the surface of a substrate and the "bumps" produced by individual atoms through their Van der Waal's radius, causes the stylus to deflect. The deflection is measured as a force and converted to an image. The stronger the deflection, the stronger the force, the higher the mound depicted in the computer generated image.
There are two reasons the substrate does not appear to have any bumps (and therefore the atoms in the substrate do not get imaged), is (1) a very uniform patch of the substrate is used so that the bumps are regularly spaced and predictable (usually densely packed silicon crystals), and (2) since the image is essentially computer generated from data, the substrate data -which is very uniform and predictable- can be deleted so that the added information (such as the IBM letters) becomes clearly visible in relief.
Greg (Roberto Gregorius)
Hi Justin,
Once you understand what the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) is doing, the answer becomes more clear. The STM uses a probe that has been sharpened to an incredibly sharp point... a point only one or two atoms at its tip. This probe is "hovered" very accurately over the xenon atoms. In fact, it passes much less than one atom's diameter over the xenon atoms (which, by the way, are much larger than nickel atoms). Using the quantum tunneling effect, the STM (operating via its probe) electrically senses the presence of the Xenon atoms as the probe passes over, and hence a 3D map can be made of their presence (which is in essence what you are seeing). Note that you are not seeing a photo, but only a map of the electric charge.
Whereas the probe passes (and can sense) the xenon atoms at a distance much smaller than an atom's diameter, the probe is too far away from the nickel substrate atoms below, to be able to sense the individual nickel atoms themselves. In a way, it is as if the nickel background is blurred out of focus and all the STM can "see" is a blurred background plane that underlies the xenon atoms.
This is not unlike what happens with a closeup shot using a normal camera. Suppose you were trying to take a shot of an object that was positioned some distance in front of very fine black and white checkerboard pattern. If you focused on the object, it would be very clear, but the background may be so badly out of focus, it might appear as a solid, featureless grey background.
Bob Wilson
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Corporate brand name changes and business restructuring: is the relationship complementary or substitutive?
- Kartik Kalaignanam,
- S. Cem Bahadir
- … show all 2 hide
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Get AccessAbstract
Corporate brands are strategic assets for organizations, but it is difficult to understand the value added by corporate brand name changes because they often occur simultaneously with business restructuring initiatives. The authors test a framework that delineates the informational relationship between corporate name changes and business restructuring initiatives. The hypothesis is tested on a sample of jointly announced corporate name changes and business restructuring initiatives. The results show that jointly announced corporate name changes and business restructuring are significantly more informative than the sum of their individual effects. The results further suggest that the information complementarity arises because corporate brand name changes resolve uncertainty and help in coordinating business restructuring initiatives. The results do not support the view that corporate brand name changes are cosmetic and/or primarily signals for business restructuring. The study offers a promising research foundation for understanding the value of marketing actions announced jointly with other corporate events.
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- Title
- Corporate brand name changes and business restructuring: is the relationship complementary or substitutive?
- Journal
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science
Volume 41, Issue 4 , pp 456-472
- Cover Date
- 2013-07-01
- 10.1007/s11747-012-0321-6
- Print ISSN
- 0092-0703
- Online ISSN
- 1552-7824
- Publisher
- Springer US
- Additional Links
- Topics
- Keywords
- Corporate brands
- Corporate name change
- Business restructuring
- Complementarity
- Industry Sectors
- Authors
- Kartik Kalaignanam (1)
- S. Cem Bahadir (1)
- Author Affiliations
- 1. Department of Marketing, University of South Carolina, 1705 College Street, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA


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[New York | Author: Department of Peacekeeping Operations/iSeek]
As you all know, yesterday afternoon, Tuesday 12 January 2010, Haiti suffered a devastating 7.0 magnitude earthquake.
At this stage, it has been confirmed that the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti's (MINUSTAH) Headquarters in the Christopher Hotel collapsed and at least 150 UN staff who were in the building at the time are still unaccounted for. Other UN installations, including the MINUSTAH logistics base have also sustained serious damage. At this point we cannot estimate the number of casualties.
The earthquake knocked out water and electricity and communications networks within the country have been disabled. MINUSTAH has begun rescue efforts and is helping to clear roads.
Edmond Mulet, Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations , is on his way to Haiti and a flash appeal has been announced.
In a statement , Secretary-General BAN Ki-moon said that his "heart goes out to the people of Haiti after this devastating earthquake."
Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, Alain Le Roy said that the Department of Peacekeeping Operations "is still in the process of gathering information on the extent of the damage and the status of UN personnel. Contacts with the UN on the ground have been severely hampered as communications networks in Haiti have been disabled by the earthquake." [ full statement ]
The Secretary-General has requested that all duty stations lower the UN flag to half-staff effective immediately out of respect for those who have lost their lives. The flags will remain lowered for two full days.
Understandably, many staff members have questions regarding the overall situation, family and friends in Haiti and we would like to reassure you that the UN family has been working hard to gather information on the extent of the damage and the status of UN personnel. All staff will be updated regularly as developments are made available.
It is important that during this time of crisis, the phone lines remain open for communication with the field and families of staff. In order to avoid blocking the phone lines we would request that calls from staff be limited and relevant queries be directed to the numbers below:
- All questions from direct families: +1 212.963.4139 or 917.367.0269 [If the call does not go through, please try again as the lines are experiencing heavy traffic.]
- A list of officials available for media interviews is available. Media queries should be directed to the DPKO Public Affairs Section +1.212.367.5044 or the Office of the Spokesperson +1.212.963.7160/7161/7162.
We thank you for your cooperation and ask that you keep our UN colleagues, their families and friends, and the people of Haiti in your thoughts and prayers.


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Real Moms Weigh In: Can You Get Your Body Back After Having a Baby? (Video Blog)
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South Africa: South Gauteng High Court, Johannesburg
You are here: SAFLII >> Databases >> South Africa: South Gauteng High Court, Johannesburg >> 2009 >> [2009] ZAGPJHC 45 | Noteup | LawCiteVerimark Holdings Limited v Brait Specialised Trustees (Pty) Limited NO and Others (2009/22928) [2009] ZAGPJHC 45 (28 August 2009)
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In the matter between:
Verimark Holdings Limited Applicant
Brait Specialised Trustees (Pty) Limited NO First Respondent
Brait Multistrategy Trustees (Pty) Limited NO Second Respondent
Securities Regulation Panel Third Respondent
Malan J;
[1] On 4 June 2009, the applicant applied for leave to convene a meeting in terms of s 311 of the Companies Act 61 of 1973. In terms of the proposed scheme of arrangement, the Van Straaten Family Trust (VSFT), the majority shareholder in the applicant, offered to acquire all the minority shares (being 37% thereof) in the applicant, a company listed on the JSE, for 50 cents per share. On 15 June 2009, Gildenhuys J granted an order convening a meeting of the ordinary shareholders of the applicant to be held on Monday, 13 July 2009 for the purpose of considering the scheme proposed by VSFT.
[2] The scheme meeting was held on 13 July 2009 under the chairmanship of Mr David Leibowitz. As appears from the chairman's report, the results of the poll taken at the meeting of 'scheme members' reflect that 80,06% of 'scheme members' voted in favour of the scheme; 19.93% of 'scheme members' voted against the scheme; and .01% of "scheme members' abstained from voting. It is common cause that VSFT and what are defined as 'excluded members' under the scheme voted in favour of it.1
[3] The three respondents having been granted leave to intervene all oppose the sanctioning of the scheme essentially on two grounds: first, that VSFT and the 'excluded members' are not 'scheme participants' and should not have been permitted to vote; and, secondly, VSFT and the 'excluded members' are a class of
ordinary shareholders different from the remaining 37 per cent of the shareholders and should not have been permitted to vote. In addition, the adequacy of the offer price is challenged.
[4] The order of court made on 15 June 20092 makes reference to a scheme of arrangement proposed by the proposer between Verimark 'and its ordinary shareholders substantially in the form attached to the founding affidavit in this matter'. The scheme circular to Verimark shareholders describes the scheme of arrangement as one between Verimark
'and the shareholders of Verimark (other than the excluded members) in terms of which VSFT will acquire ail of Verimark's issued shares held by the scheme participants on the consideration record date...',3
[5] The 'excluded members' is defined as, collectively, Prime Rentals CC (a ciose corporation, an associate of the proposer holding 7% of the issued share capital in Verimark and which close corporation is beneficially owned by Mr MJ Van Straaten and his family); Mirror Ball investments 49 (Pty) Limited (a Black Economic Empowerment entity holding 6,6% of the shares in Verimark) and Selcovest 35 (Pty) Limited (an employee entity holding 3,5% of the shares in Verimark).
The 'scheme participants' is defined as:
'Verimark shareholders, other than the excluded members, recorded in the register on the scheme consideration record date, who will dispose of [their] scheme shares and become entitled to receive the scheme consideration, if the scheme becomes operative;
The 'scheme shares' is defined as:
'42 272 328 shares, representing 37% of the shares in the issued share capital of Verimark held by scheme participants on the scheme consideration record date,'
'Scheme members' is defined as
'Verimark shareholder[s] recorded in the register on the scheme voting record date, who are entitled to vote at the scheme meeting:
'Scheme meeting' is
'the meeting of scheme members convened in terms of an Order of the Court, to be held at 09:00 on Wednesday, 8 July 2009 at the registered office of Verimark ... or any adjournment thereof... at which scheme members will consider and vote on the scheme, the notice of which is attached to and forms part of this circular.'
The 'scheme' or 'scheme of arrangement' is
'a scheme of arrangement in terms of section 311 of the Companies Act, proposed between VSFT and the shareholders of Verimark (other than the excluded members), in terms of which VSFT will acquire all of Verimark's issued shares held by the scheme participants on the consideration record date in exchange for the scheme consideration, the terms and conditions of which are contained in the scheme of arrangement
[6] The scheme is therefore one directed at the proposer's acquiring the 37 per cent shareholding held by the 'scheme participants' (ie 'shareholders, other than the excluded members, recorded in the register on the scheme consideration record date, who will dispose of [their] scheme shares and become entitled to receive the scheme consideration, if the scheme becomes operative'). The proposer is not a 'scheme participant' because, although a shareholder, it is not envisaged that VSFT will dispose of any of its shares and receive the scheme consideration, albeit a 'scheme member' it holds no 'scheme shares'. However, the scheme envisages that the offer contained in the scheme documents be accepted, not by the 'scheme participants' (the holders of 37 per cent of the shares) to whom the offer was addressed, but by the 'scheme members' (all the shareholders) at the 'scheme meeting'.
[7] Section 311 provides;4
'(1) Where any compromise or arrangement is proposed between a company and its creditors or any class of them or between a company and its members or any class of them, the Court may, on the application of the company or any creditor or member of the company ... order a meeting of the creditors or class of creditors, or of the members of the company or class of members (as the case may be), to be summoned in such manner as the Court may direct (2) If the compromise or arrangement is agreed to by-
a majority in number representing three-fourths in value of the creditors or class of creditors; or
a majority representing three-fourths of the votes exercisable by the members or class of members, (as the case may be) present and voting either in person or by proxy at the meeting, such compromise or arrangement shall, if sanctioned by the Court, be binding on all the creditors or the class of creditors, or on the members or class of members (as the case may be) and also on the company..."
[8] At common law an offer may be accepted by the addressee only.5 An offer for a composition, at common law,6
'to be binding and effective ... must be accepted by all to whom it is proposed. Whilst the composition may or may not have to be accepted by all debtor's creditors to whom the proposal is addressed and for whom it is intended; if any such creditor(s) refuse or reject the offer, it is an end to the matter.'
[9] Because the number of creditors and members of a company are often large making it difficult to negotiate with each individual to secure his or her consent, s 311 and its predecessors were enacted.7 In Re The Dominion of Canada Freehold Estate and Timber Company Limited8 Chitty J said:9
'[O]ne of the difficulties that there always is in dealing with matters of this kind when the company gets into difficulty, and when more money is required, is to deal with the debenture holders as a class. That is the difficulty which the Legislature itself felt when it passed the Act of 1870, allowing a majority, and a sufficient majority - that is to say, not a mere absolute majority, but a majority that is larger than that ~ to bind the minority. Then it was known that, before the legislation of 1870, any particular individual could hold out against a scheme, however meritorious and however beneficial if might be, in order that he might get, generally speaking, some special advantage for himself, or because he was a person who did not even get a fair view of the advantages to be gained. It was for the purpose of preventing that the Legislature passed the Joint Stock Companies Arrangement Act, 1870 …'
[10] In defining what is meant by a 'class' in s 311, our courts have generally followed the statement of Bowen LJ in Sovereign Life Assurance Co v Dodd:10
The word "class" used in the statute is vague, and to find out what it means we must look at the general scope of the section, which enables the court to order a meeting of a "class of creditors" to be summoned. St seems to me that we must give such a meaning to the term "class" as will prevent the section being so worked as to produce confiscation and injustice, and that we must confine its meaning to those persons whose rights are not so dissimilar as to make it impossible for them to consult together with a view to their common interest.'
In the cases that have followed since Sovereign Life, this passage has virtually hardened into law.11 It became well established that the categorisation of a class of either members or creditors for the purposes of s 311, involves a determination of the similarity of rights and not the similarity of interests.12
[11] The proposer, the 'excluded members' and minorities are all ordinary shareholders in the applicant. Their rights, or the 'bundle, or conglomerate, of personal rights entitling the holder thereof to a certain interest in the company, its assets and dividends',13 are identical and they all belong, it seems to me, to the same class of shareholder. This, however, is not the issue. The inquiry whether separate meetings should be held arises only after determination of the identity of the offeree, The relevant question, 'at the outset, is 'between whom is it proposed that a compromise or arrangement is to be made?'14 It was remarked that:15
'in order to determine what the rights of creditors are and indeed whether they are bound at all, one looks to the terms of the contract. Although the Act apparently enjoins that all creditors are bound by a duly sanctioned offer, the cases explain, at least by necessary implication, that this only applies to those creditors who were parties to it, that is to say, to those to whom the offer was intended to be directed.'
[12] The reference to 'all' the creditors or members in s 311(2) is thus a reference to those creditors or members to whom the offer is made. Only when this primary question has been answered does the question whether one or several classes are involved arise. In Re Hawk Insurance Co Ltd16 Chadwick JL said:
[13] The question whether to summon more than one meeting - and, if so, who should be summoned to attend which meeting - has to be made at the first stage. If the matter were free from authority, i would have regarded the basis upon which that decision has to be made as self-evident The relevant question is: between whom is the proposed compromise or arrangement to be made? There are, as it seems to me, three possible answers to that question. Which answer is correct in any particular case will depend upon the circumstances peculiar to that case,
[14] First, there will be cases where it is plain that the compromise or arrangement proposed is between the company and all its creditors. In such a case, s 425(1) of the 1985 Act provides for the court to order a single meeting of all the creditors,
[15] Second, there will be cases where it is plain that the compromise or arrangement is proposed between the company and one distinct class of creditors; for example, unsecured trade creditors whose debts accrued before (or after) a given date. Or it may be plain that there are two (or more) separate compromises or arrangements with two (or more) distinct classes of creditors; for example, one compromise with unsecured trade creditors whose debts accrued before a given date and a separate compromise (on different terms) with unsecured trade creditors whose debts accrued after that date. In such a case, the section provides for the court to order a meeting of each class of creditors with whom the compromise or arrangement is to be made, that is the plain meaning of the words in the section: "Where a compromise or arrangement is proposed between a company and itscreditors, or any class of them, .. the court may order a meeting of the creditors or class of creditors, (as the case may be)"...
[16] Cases which fail into one or other of the two categories which I have described above are likely to be recognised without difficulty. More difficult to recognise are cases in a third category. Those are cases where what appears at first sight to be a single compromise or arrangement between the company and all its creditors (or all creditors of a particular description; say, unsecured creditors) can be seen, on a true analysis, to be two or more linked compromises or arrangements with creditors whose rights put them in several and distinct classes. The compromises and arrangements are linked in the sense that each is conditional upon the other or others taking effect. In such a case, the section provides for the court to order - and the court should be asked to order -that there be summoned separate meetings of each of the distinct classes of creditors.'
[13] The offer in question, 'on a true analysis', was made to the minority shareholders, ie the 'scheme participants', It was not made to the proposer, nor to the 'excluded members'. Only the 'scheme participants', as defined, were entitled to accept or reject it. Only they should have been allowed to vote on it.17 It follows that I do not have the power to sanction the scheme of arrangement.18
The application that the proposed scheme of arrangement be sanctioned is dismissed with costs including the costs of two counsel.
Malan J
Judge of the High Court
Counsel for the applicant: DM Fine SC and J Blou
Attorneys for the applicant: Glyn Marais Inc
Counsel for first and second respondents: A Subel SC and AJ Eyles
Attorneys for first and second respondents: Cliffe Dekker Hofmeyr Inc
Counsel for third respondent: WGH van der Linde SC and T Massyn
Attorneys for third respondent: Edward Nathan Sonnenbergs Inc
Date of hearing: 7 August 2009
Date of judgment: 28 August 2009
1 VSFT holds 45,94% of the shares; Prime Rentals CC (an excluded member) 7% of the shares and these shares are beneficially owned by MJ Van Straaten and his family. Mirror Bail Investments and Selcovest (both excluded members) are not controlled by Van Straaten and hold 6,6% and 3,5% of the shares respectively.
3 C44 para 1, The scheme contemplates a subsequent delisting of Verimark from the JSE.
4 The parties appear to have accepted that the scheme is an 'arrangement within the contemplation of the Act. The term should be given a wide meaning: Blackman 12-4 ff, Namex (Edms) Bpk v Kommissaris van Binnelandse Inkomste [1993] ZASCA 181; 1994 (2) SA 265 (A) 298; NRMA Limited NRMA Insurance Limited [2000] NSWSC 82 para 20.
5 Schalk van der Merwe, LF van Huyssteen, MFB Reinecke and GF Lubbe Contract General Principles (2007) 54 ff.
6 De Wit v Boathavens CC (King and Another Intervening) 1989 (1) SA 606 (C) 611 IJ.
7 MS Blackman, RD Jooste and GK Everingham Commentary on the Companies Act (Volume 2) (2002) 12-2.
8 (1886) 55 LT 347 at 351, The resulting scheme of arrangement or compromise may therefore not be a contract in the strict sense because the consent of all the members or creditors to it may be lacking; Ilic v Parginos 1985 (1) SA 785 (A) 803 HI; Namex (Edms) Bpk v Kommissaris van Binnelandse Inkomste 1994 (2) SA 265 (A) 290 A
9 Also cited by Blackman 12-2. Cf Re Bond Corporation Holdings Ltd (1991) 5 ACSR 304 (SC(WA)) 317 and In re Alabama, New Orleans, Texas and Pacific Junction Railway Company [1891] H 213 where Bowen LJ observed: 'The object of this section is not confiscation, It is not that one person should be a victim, and that the rest of the body should feast upon his rights. Its object is to enable compromises to be made which are for the common benefit of the creditors as creditors, or for the common benefit of some class of creditors as such…'.
10 [1891-94] All ER Rep 246; [1892] 2 QB 573 at 583.
11 See, for example, in addition to the cases referred to in the next note; Re Hawk Insurance Co Lid [2001] EWCA Civ 241 para 31 and the references cited; Re Equitable Life Assurance Society [2002] EWHC 140 (Ch), [2002] 2 BCLC 510 paras 43 ff; Re Hills Motorway Ltd [2002] NSWSC 879 paras 10 ff; Re Bond Corporation Holdings Ltd (1991) 5 ACSR 304 (SC (WA)) 314 ff; Re Hills Motorway Ltd [2002] NSWSC 897 paras 11 ff; Australian Co-Operative Foods Ltd [2001] NSWSC 382; (2000) 38 ACSR 71 (SC(NSW)) para 81.
1212 Ex Parte Colman; In re Argyle Denial Supplies Limited (In Liquidation) 1933 WLD 177 190 ff; Rosen v Bruyns NO 1973 (1) SA 815 (T) 820-1; Ensor NO v South Pine Properties (Pty) Limited and Another 1978 (2) SA 755 (N) 763-4; Ex parts Klopper and Another NNO: Re Rena Finansieringsmaatskappy (Pty) Ltd (in Provisional Liquidation) 1979 (1) SA 254 (T) 259 ff; Borgelt v Moolman NO and Another 19S3 (1) SA 757 (C) 763 ff; Ex Parte Garlick Ltd 1990 (4) SA 324 (C) 331 ff. But see Ex parte Venter and Another, NNO: in re Rapid Mining Supplies (Pty) Ltd (in Provisional Liquidation); African Gate and Fence Works Ltd intervening 1976 (3) SA 267 (O) 276.
13 Standard Bank of SA Ltd v Ocean Commodities ho 1983 (1) SA 276 (A) 288.
Re Hawk
Insurance Co Ltd
Civ 241; [2001] BCLC
480 para 23 and see paras 13-5,
32-3 (and see In
the matter
of PT Garuda
Indonesia 2001
WL 1171948 (Ch D
(Companies Ct)).
15 In Kleena Industries (Pty) Ltd v Senator Insurance Co Ltd 1982 (2) SA 458 (W) Slomowitz AJ at 462. Cf Cohen NO v Nell and Another 1975 (3) SA 963 (W) 968. Referring to the word 'all' in the section Slomowitz AJ in Kleena said at 483: 'To my mind this passage is clear authority that where the Act refers to a sanctioned composition as being binding on all creditors or on all members of a particular class of them, the word "all" must be qualified to mean no mors than all those to whom the offeror intended, on a proper construction of the offer, should be bound.' He continued at 464: 'in the result, I see nothing in the Actor in any of the authorities which were quoted to me which would, all other things being equal, preclude an offeror from making an offer to acquire only some of the claims which lie against the company or perhaps only one of them, or from directing his offer to only some of the members of a class of creditors and not to others. No doubt, if such offer is calculated to produce inequality, sanction would be withheld. I have little doubt that a creditor, or, for that matter, a member, to whom the offer is not directed, would have locus standi, either when it is sought to obtain leave to convene meetings or at the later stage when approval of the Court is asked, to make his complaint known,' He, however, left open the question whether a 'class' was constituted by virtue of the terms of the offer (at 464). Cf Morris NO v Airomatic (Pty) Ltd t/a Barlows Air Conditioning Co 1990 (4) SA 3756 (A) 397-8. In Namex (Edms) Bpk v Kommissaris van Binnelandse Inkomste 1984 (2) SA 265 (A) 289 G - 290 C the court remarked: ' 'Ek het reeds daarop gewys dat as 'n voorgestelde reëling in wese 'n aanbod is wat aan oa 'n maatskappy se skuldeisers gemaak word. Dit is gerig op hul aanvaarding daarvan. Wat betref die wat wel aanvaar, kom daar natuurlik 'n ooreenkoms tot stand, onderhewig egter aan die Hof se goedkeuring van die reëling. Word goedkeuring verleen, bind die ooreenkoms ook ander skuldeisers van die maatskappy; nie omdat hulle dan ook kontrakspartye is nie, maar eenvoudig omdat art 311(2) so bepaal Dit volg egter nie dat die sinsnede "al die skuldeisers" in die subartikel streng letterlik vertolk moet word nie. Eerstens is dit duidelik. meen ek, dat die sinsnede slegs betrekking kan he op daardie skuldelsers aan wie die aanbod gerig was. En so 'n aanbod hoef natuurlik nie alle skuldeisers van 'n maatskappy te betrek nie. So byvoorbeeld kan dit slegs vir bepaalde konkurrente skuldeisers bestem wees. Tweedens kon die Wetgewer nooit beoog het dat 'n goedkeuringsbevel bindend is op skuldeisers wat nie regtens by magte is om die aanbod te aanvaar nie. Dit is die geval omdat, hoewel die statutere meganismes meebring dat indien die vereiste meerderheid sou instem ander skuldeisers na goedkeuring ook gebonde is, die aanbod juis bestem was om aanvaar te word ' See Kleena Industries (Pty) Ltd v Senator Insurance Co Ltd 1982 (2) SA 458 (W) 463 and of Re Hellenic & General Trust Ltd [1975] 3 All ER 382 ('No one can be both a vendor and a purchaser and, in my judgment for the purpose of the class meetings in the present case, MIT were in the camp of the purchaser') although this case is distinguishable.
16 [2001] EWCA Civ 241; [2001] BCLC 480 paras 13 ff. In para 22 the court asked how it was to be determined that separate meetings were to be held and stated in para 23: 'As I have indicated, I would have regarded it as self-evident, in the absence of authority, that the relevant question at the outset is. between whom is it proposed that a compromise or arrangement is to be made? Are the rights of those who are to be affected by the scheme proposed such that the scheme can be seen as a single arrangement; or ought the scheme to be regarded, on a true analysis, as a number of linked arrangements? The question may be easy to state; but, as the cases show, it is not always easy to answer. Nor can if be said that, hitherto, the courts have posed the question in quite those terms.'
17 See the remarks in the opposing affidavit of Mr Richard John Connellan, the executive director of the Securities Regulation Panel, at D 46 paras 11 ff.
1818 Re Hawk Insurance Co Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ 241; [2001] 2 BCLC 480 at para 17: 'If the correct decision is not made at the first stage, the court may find, at the third stage, that it is without jurisdiction. The reason is that the court's jurisdiction under s 425(2) of the 1985 Act is limited to sanctioning a compromise or arrangement between the company and its creditors or any class of creditors (as the case may be) which has been approved by the requisite majority at a meeting of the creditors or that class of creditors (as the case may be). So, if what has been put forward at the first stage as a single compromise between the company and all its members, or all of a single class of members, is seen by the court, at the third stage, to be (on a true analysis) a number of linked compromises or arrangements with creditors whose rights put' them in several and distinct classes, the court will find that the condition that gives rise to its power to sanction absent; none of the linked compromises or arrangements will have been approved by the requisite majority at a relevant meeting because there will have been no meetings of the distinct classes.'


text:
WASHINGTON D.C. — An appellate court sitting in Washington D.C. has lifted the stay in the U.S. vs. Maj. Nidal M. Hasan court martial.
The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces lifted the stay that had put the Hasan court martial on hold since Aug. 15 over whether the trial judge, Col. Gregory Gross, could order the forcible shaving of the accused against his wishes.
The CAAF did not rule whether Gross could in fact order a forcible shaving. Instead, the CAAF stated in their order lifting the stay that Gross should further develop the record whether the Religious Freedom Restoration Act applied in this court-martial and if so, could a forcible shaving still occur.
Should the trial judge eventually order a compelled shaving, the CAAF stated that defense can ask the Army Court of Criminal Appeals to review the appropriateness of the order.
The ACCA is an intermediate appellate court, which is overseen by the CAAF.
Because the stay has been lifted, Gross can again schedule hearings in the case. An appropriate release will be provided once future court dates are set.