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A tree is a perennial woody plant. It typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by a single, self-supporting main stem or trunk. This contains woody tissue for strength and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier. Below the ground the roots branch and spread out widely. They serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. The branches divide into smaller branches and shoots. These typically bear leaves, which contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll converts light energy into chemical energy by photosynthesis, providing the food needed by the tree for its growth and development. Flowers and fruit may also be present.
Trees tend to be long-lived,[1] some reaching several thousand years old. The tallest known specimen on Earth is 115.6 m (379 ft) and they have a theoretical maximum height of 130m (426 ft).[2] Trees have been in existence on the Earth for 370 million years and are found growing worldwide wherever the climate permits.[citation needed] Trees are not a taxonomic group but are a number of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants and make full use of the sunlight.
Trees are an important component of the natural landscape.[clarification needed] They play a significant part in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues. Trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are one of the most biodiverse habitats in the world. Trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of land available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always been revered and they play a role in many of the world's mythologies.
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Trees are an evolutionary adaptation to competition for space, by growing taller trees are able to compete better for sunlight.[3] They have modified structures that allow them to grow taller and spread out their foliage, such as thicker stems that are composed of specialized cells that add structural strength and durability. They are long-lived perennial plants that can increase their size each year by producing woody stems. They differ from shrubs, which are also woody plants, by usually growing larger and having a single main stem;[4] but the distinction between a small tree and a large shrub is not always clear,[5] made more confusing by the fact that trees may be reduced in size under harsher environmental conditions such as on mountains and subarctic areas. The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants in response to similar environmental challenges, making it a classic example of parallel evolution. With an estimated 100,000 species, the number of trees worldwide might total twenty-five percent of all living plant species.[6] Their greatest number grow in tropical regions and many of these areas have not yet been fully surveyed by botanists, making tree diversity and ranges poorly known.[7]
Trees exist in two different groups of vascular or higher plants, the gymnosperms and the angiosperms. Both groups are seed plants. The gymnosperms include conifers, cycads, ginkgophytes and gnetales. They are characterised by having naked seeds that are not enclosed, at the time of fertilization the ovules lie uncovered on scales or on the ends of branches. The angiosperms or flowering plants are characterised by having ovals enclosed in ovaries which develop into some type of fruit and the seeds store nutrients after they are fertilized as endosperm surrounding the embryo.[8] Angiosperm trees are also known as broad-leaved trees. Most angiosperm trees are dicotyledons, so named because the seeds contain two cotyledons or seed leaves.
Wood gives structural strength to a tree stem which is used to support the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. The three main parts of trees include the root, stem, and leaves; they are integral parts of the vascular system which interconnects all the living cells. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.
Trees are either evergreen, having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year,[9] or deciduous, shedding their leaves at the end of the growing season and then having a dormant period without foliage.[10] Most conifers are evergreens but larches (Larix and Pseudolarix) are deciduous, dropping their needles each autumn, and some species of cypress (Glyptostrobus, Metasequoia and Taxodium) shed small leafy shoots annually in a process known as cladoptosis.[4] The crown is a name for the upper part[clarification needed] of a tree including the branches and leaves [11] and the uppermost layer in a forest, formed by the crowns of the trees, is known as the canopy.[12] A sapling is a young tree.[13]
Tree-like plants include some palms which are not trees but herbaceous[14][15] monocots that do not undergo secondary growth and never produce wood,[16][17][17][18] and hence do not meet the definition of tree used in this article. In many tree-like palms, the terminal bud on the main stem is the only one to develop so they have tall, unbranched trunks with spirally arranged large leaves. Some of the tree ferns, order Cyatheales, have tree-like growth forms, growing up to 20 metres (66 ft) but they are structurally very different from other trees[clarification needed] Their trunks are composed of rhizomes which grow vertically and which are covered by numerous adventitious roots.[19]
This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. (September 2012) |
In places where the climate is suitable, trees are the climax vegetation.[citation needed] In regions with a cool temperate climate, conifers tend to predominate, whereas in regions with tropical or warm temperate climates, broad-leaved trees are more common[citation needed].[20] Shade tolerance in young trees varies between species, and may determine the pattern of forest succession. For example, pines are particularly intolerant of shade[citation needed] while many broad-leaved tree saplings in forests grow tall and thin but survive; even if pines dominate woodland at an early stage in its succession, they may eventually be suppressed by broad-leaved species.[clarification needed][21]
More than half the species of terrestrial plants and animals on the Earth are thought to live in tropical rainforests even though these occupy just five percent of the land area.[22] In tropical regions with a monsoon climate, where a drier part of the year alternates with a wet period when the rains arrive, different species of broad-leaved trees dominate the forest, some of them being deciduous.[23]
Tropical regions with a drier savanna climate have insufficient rainfall to support dense forests; the canopy is not closed and plenty of sunshine reaches the ground which is covered with grass and scrub. Acacia and baobab are well adapted to living in such areas.[24]
In cool temperate parts of the world, particularly in the northern hemisphere, deciduous broad-leaved trees tend to be replaced by conifers. The long cold winter is unsuitable for plant growth and trees must grow rapidly in the short summer season when the temperature rises and the days are long. A wide range of pines, firs and spruces grow here. Light is very limited under their dense cover and there may be little plant life on the forest floor although fungi may abound.[25] What deciduous trees there are tend to be dwarf willows and birches. Similar woodland is found on mountains where the altitude causes the average temperature to be lower thus reducing the length of the growing season. The tree line is lower on north facing slopes than on south facing ones[citation needed]<>.[26]
The roots of a tree serve to anchor it to the ground and gather water and nutrients to transfer to all parts of the tree, and for reproduction defense, survival, energy storage and many, many other purposes. The first root produced by a newly germinated seedling is a taproot which goes straight downwards. Within a few weeks lateral roots branch out of the side of this and grow horizontally through the upper layers of the soil. In most trees, the tap root eventually withers away and the wide-spreading laterals remain. Near the tip of the finer roots are single cell root hairs. These are in immediate contact with the soil particles and can absorb water and nutrients such as nitrogen[citation needed] and potassium in solution. The root system spreads out about twice as far as the tree's canopy extends[citation needed] with most of the roots found in the top 2 ft (0.6 m) of soil.[citation needed] The roots require oxygen to respire and only a few species such as the mangrove and the pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens) can live in permanently waterlogged soil.[27]
Mangroves have several special adaptations of their root systems to cope with their marine habitat. The red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), has prop roots that loop out of the side of both trunk and branches and then descend vertically into the mud. These help stabilize the tree in the shifting sediment.[28] The black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) lives in drier locations but the mud is poorly oxygenated so these mangroves have pneumatophores, roots which project up through the surface of the soil like a breathing tube, allowing gaseous exchange to take place.[28] The upriver orange mangrove (Bruguiera sexangula) has "kneed" roots which hump up out of the water and have lenticels or breathing holes.[28]
The Indian banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) has aerial or pillar roots that drop down to the ground from the trunk and branches, either singly or in groups. These help provide water and nutrients and make the tree more stable.[29] The strangler fig takes this a stage further.[clarification needed] It starts life as an epiphyte high in the tree canopy[citation needed] and drops aerial roots down to the forest floor. These intertwine and thicken and if, as sometimes happens, the host tree eventually dies, the roots can take over the role of trunk for the fig.[29]
Many large trees have buttress roots which flare out from the lower part of the trunk. These brace the tree rather like angle brackets and provide stability, reducing sway in high winds. They are particularly prevalent in tropical rainforests where the soil is poor and the roots are close to the surface. They may start several yards (metres) up the trunk and spread out widely on the surface of the ground. Some send out vertical sinker roots well away from the trunk. The roots to leeward resist compression while those to windward provide tension. They provide about six times more anchorage than the lateral roots of similar sized unbuttressed trees.[30]
In the soil, the roots encounter the hyphae of fungi. Many of these are known as mycorrhiza and form a mutualistic relationship with the tree roots. Some are specific to a single tree species, which will not flourish in the absence of its mycorrhizal associate. Others are generalists and associate with many species. The tree acquires minerals such as phosphorus from the fungus while it obtains the carbohydrate products of photosynthesis from the tree.[31] The hyphae of the fungus can link different trees and a network is formed, transferring nutrients from one place to another. The fungus promotes growth of the roots and helps protect the trees against predators and pathogens. It can also limit damage done to a tree by pollution as the fungus accumulate heavy metals within its tissues.[32] Fossil evidence shows that roots have been associated with mycorrhizal fungi since the early Paleozoic, four hundred million years ago, when the first vascular plants colonised dry land.[33]
Some trees such as the alders (Alnus spp.) have a symbiotic relationship with Frankia sp,, a filamentous bacterium that can fix nitrogen from the air, converting it into ammonia. They have actinorhizal root nodules on their roots in which the bacteria live. This process enables the tree to live in low nitrogen habitats where they would otherwise be unable to thrive.[34] Researchers have discovered that certain plant hormones called cytokinins initiate root nodule formation and that this process is closely related to the mechanisms involved in mycorrhizal association. [35]
The main purpose of the trunk and branches of a tree is to maximise the amount of light that falls on the leaves.[citation needed] By overtopping other plants and shading them out, trees become the terminal vegetation cover on all but the most infertile and inhospitable land.[citation needed] A secondary purpose is to transport water and nutrients from the roots to the aerial parts of the tree and to distribute the food produced by the leaves to all other parts including the roots.[36]
In the case of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, the outermost layer of the trunk is the bark and is mostly composed of dead cells. It provides a thick, waterproof covering to the living inner tissue. It protects the trunk against the elements, disease, animal attack and fire. It is perforated by a large number of fine breathing pores called lenticels through which oxygen diffuses. Bark is continually replaced by a living layer of cells called the cork cambium. The London plane (Platanus × acerifolia) periodically sheds its bark in large flakes. Similarly, the bark of the silver birch (Betula pendula) peels off in strips. As the tree's girth expands, newer layers of bark are larger in circumference, and the older layers develop fissures in many species. Different species of tree can sometimes be distinguished by the characteristics of their bark.[citation needed] In some trees such as the pine (Pinus spp.,) the bark exudes sticky resin which deters attackers whereas in rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) it is a milky latex that oozes out. The quinine bark tree (Cinchona officinalis) contains bitter substances to make the bark unpalatable.[36] Tree-like plants[clarification needed] in the Pteridophyta, Arecales, Cycadophyta and Poales such as the tree ferns, palms, cycads and bamboos have no true bark but all have an outer protective covering of some form.[37]
Although the bark functions as a protective barrier, it is itself attacked by boring insects such as beetles. These lay their eggs in crevices and the larvae chew their way through the cellulose tissues leaving a gallery of tunnels. This may allow fungal spores to gain admittance and attack the tree. Dutch elm disease is caused by a fungus (Ophiostoma sp.) carried from one elm tree to another by various beetles. The tree reacts to the growth of the fungus by blocking off the xylem tissue carrying sap upwards and the branch above, and eventually the whole tree, is deprived of nourishment and dies. In Britain in the 1990s, 25 million elm trees were killed by this disease.[38]
The innermost layer of bark is known as the phloem and this is involved in the transport of the sap containing the sugars made by photosynthesis to other parts of the tree. It is a soft spongy layer of living cells, some of which are arranged end to end to form tubes. These are supported by parenchyma cells which provide padding and include fibres for strengthening the tissue.[39] Inside the phloem is a layer of undifferentiated cells one cell thick called the vascular cambium layer. This is where all the growth in girth of the tree takes place.[citation needed] The cells are continually dividing, creating phloem cells on the outside and wood cells known as xylem on the inside.[40]
The newly created xylem is the sapwood. It is composed of water-conducting cells and associated cells which are often living, and is usually pale in colour. It transports water and minerals from the roots to the upper parts of the tree. The oldest, inner part of the sapwood is progressively converted into heartwood as new sapwood is formed at the cambium. The conductive cells of the heartwood are blocked in some species, and the surrounding cells are more often dead. Heartwood is usually darker in colour than the sapwood. It is the dense central core of the trunk giving it rigidity. Three quarters of the dry mass of the xylem is cellulose, a polysaccharide, and most of the remainder is lignin, a complex polymer. The concentric circles seen when a transverse cut is made across the trunk of many tree species are the annual growth rings.[citation needed] There are a number of streaks called rays running at right angles to these.[citation needed] They are plates of living cells transporting materials between the phloem, sapwood, and heartwood. If the tree is damaged and water and fungal spores come in contact with the heartwood, decay may occur and the heartwood will rot.[citation needed] This happens in many older trees which become hollow as a result but may still stand upright for many years.[41]
Trees do not usually grow continuously throughout the year but mostly have spurts of active expansion followed by periods of rest. This pattern of growth is related to the climatic conditions, growth normally ceasing when conditions are either too cold or too dry. In readiness for the inactive period, trees form buds to protect the meristem, the zone of active growth. Before the period of dormancy, the last few leaves produced at the tip of a twig form scales. These are thick, small and closely wrapped and enclose the growing point in a waterproof sheath. Inside this bud there is a rudimentary stalk and neatly folded miniature leaves, ready to expand when the next growing season arrives. Buds also form in the axils of the leaves ready to produce new side shoots. A few trees, such as the eucalyptus, have "naked buds" with no protective scales and some conifers, such as the Lawson's cypress, have no buds but instead have little pockets of meristem concealed among the scale-like leaves.[42]
When growing conditions improve, such as the arrival of warmer weather and the longer days associated with spring in temperate regions, growth starts again. A surge of sap rises through the tree[citation needed] and the buds start to grow. The expanding shoot pushes its way out, shedding the scales in the process. These leave behind scars on the surface of the twig. By counting the number of these scars, it is possible to establish the age of a twig.[citation needed][clarification needed] The whole year's growth may take place in just a few weeks. The new stem is unlignified at first and may be green and downy. The leaves grow either alternately on each side of the stem or in opposite pairs, depending on the species.[citation needed] Palm trees[clarification needed] have their leaves spirally arranged on an unbranched trunk.[42] In some tree species in temperate climates, a second spurt of growth, a Lammas growth may occur which is believed to be a strategy to compensate for loss of early foliage to insect predators.[43]
Primary growth is the term used to describe the elongation of the stems and roots. Secondary growth takes place in the older twigs, branches, trunk and larger roots.[citation needed] This consists of a progressive thickening and strengthening of the tissues as the outer layer of the epidermis is converted into bark and the cambium layer creates new phloem and xylem cells. The bark is inelastic and becomes fissured and wrinkled as the girth of the tree expands.[citation needed][44] Sooner or later[which?] the growth of a tree slows down and stops and it gets no taller. Primary growth is limited to the production of leaves with hardly any elongation of the twigs.[citation needed] As long as the crown remains in balance with the roots[clarification needed] the tree should remain healthy but its ability to defend itself against fungal attack is diminished. If damage occurs to the tree and fungal spores gain admission to the interior, decay will occur[citation needed] and the tree may in time become hollow.[45]
The branches and twigs of a tree are spread out in such a way as to maximise the amount of light falling on the leaves[citation needed] Tree are much taller than herbaceous or shrubby plants and ensuring the upper-most leaves are supplied with water originating in the root system requires that water is drawn up through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as it evaporates from the leaves.[clarification needed] If insufficient water is available, as may happen in times of drought, the leaves droop,[citation needed] and if this state continues they will die.[46]
The leaves of trees come in a wide range of shapes and sizes which have evolved in response to environmental pressures including climate and predation. They can be broad or needle-like, simple or compound, lobed or entire, smooth or hairy, delicate or tough, deciduous or evergreen. The needles of coniferous trees are compact but are structurally similar to those of broad-leaved trees. They lose less water through transpiration[citation needed] and are adapted for life in environments where resources are low or water is scarce. Frozen ground may limit water availability and conifers are often found in colder places at higher altitudes and higher latitudes than broad leaved trees. In many cases, their branches hang down at an angle to the trunk which decreases the likelihood of them breaking when weighed down by snow.[clarification needed] Where resources permit, the higher leaf nitrogen concentrations in broad-leaved species[citation needed] enables them to out-compete conifers.[47] Broad leaved trees in temperate regions have a different[clarification needed] strategy for dealing with winter weather. When the days get shorter and the temperature begins to decrease, the leaves no longer makes new chlorophyll and the red and yellow pigments already present in the blades become apparent.[48] Synthesis in the leaf of a plant hormone called auxin also ceases. This causes the cells at the junction of the petiole and the twig to weaken and sooner or later the joint breaks and the leaf floats to the ground. In tropical and subtropical regions, many trees keep their leaves all year round. Individual leaves may fall intermittently and be replaced by new growth but most leaves remain intact for some time. Other tropical species and those in arid regions may shed all their leaves annually at a particular time of year.[citation needed] Often this will coincide with the onset of the dry season or some other climatic event.[clarification needed] Many deciduous trees flower before the new leaves emerge.[49]
Tree forms are found in a wide range of plants and their reproductive strategies are substantially the same as shrub or herbaceous plant forms.
Many trees are wind pollinated which may be an evolutionary adaptation to take advantage of increased wind speeds high above the ground, particularly in the case of those that produce pollen before the leaves emerge.[50] A vast quantity of pollen is produced because of the low likelihood of any particular grain landing on an appropriate female flower. Wind-pollinated flowers of broad-leaved trees are characterised by a lack of showy parts, no scent and a copious production of pollen, often with separate male and female flowers, or separate male and female trees. The male flowers may be high up in the tree, often in the form of dangling catkins. The female flowers may be lower down the tree. The pollen of pine trees contains air sacs which give it buoyancy and it has been known to travel as far as 800 kilometres (500 mi).[51] Tree pollen can cause allergies. A prime example would be hay fever, which can be caused by pollen.[52]
Seeds are the primary way that trees reproduce and their seeds vary greatly in size and shape. Some of the largest seeds come from trees, but the largest tree, Sequoiadendron giganteum, produces one of the smallest tree seeds.[53] The great diversity in tree fruits and seeds reflects the many different ways that tree species have evolved to disperse their offspring.
Most extant Gymnosperms produce seeds in cones.[citation needed][54][18] The single extant species of Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba) has small fleshy seeds produced at the ends of short branches on female trees,[55] and Gnetum, a tropical and subtropical group of gymnosperms produce seeds at the tip of a shoot axis.[56] The seeds of conifers, the largest group of Gymnosperms, are enclosed in a cone and most species have seeds that are light and papery that can be blown considerable distances once free from the cone.[57] Sometimes the seed remains in the cone for years waiting for a trigger event to liberate it. Fire stimulates release and germination of seeds of the jack pine, and also enriches the forest floor with wood ash and removes competing vegetation.[58] Similarly, a number of Angiosperms including Acacia cyclops and Acacia mangium have seeds that germinate better after exposure to high temperatures.[59]
Angiosperm tree produce seeds in a wide variety of fruits, some of them include acorn, nut, berrie, pome, drupe, samaras, hesperdium, capsule and legume.[60]
For a tree seeding to grow into an adult tree it needs light and space, if seeds only fell straight to the ground, competition among the concentrated saplings and the shade of the parent would likely prevent it from flourishing. Many seeds such as birch are small and have papery wings to aid dispersal by the wind. Ash trees and maples have larger seeds with blade shaped wings which spiral down to the ground when released. The kapok tree has cottony threads to catch the breeze.[61] The flame tree does not rely on fire but shoots its seeds through the air when the two sides of its long pods crack apart explosively on drying.[61] The miniature cone-like catkins of Alder trees produce seeds that contain small droplets of oil that help disperse the seeds on the surface of water. Mangroves often grow in water and some species have propagules, which are buoyant fruits with seeds that start germinating before becoming detached from the parent tree.[62][63] These float on the water and may become lodged on emerging mudbanks and successfully take root.[61] Other seeds, such as apple pips and plum stones, have fleshy receptacles and smaller fruits like hawthorns have seeds enclosed in edible tissue; birds and animals[clarification needed] eat the fruits and the seeds are either discarded or are consumed and pass through the gut to be deposited in the animal's droppings well away from the parent tree. In some cases, germination is improved by being processed in this way.[64] Nuts and other large seeds are gathered by animals that hide in caches[citation needed] any not immediately consumed.[65] Many of these caches are never revisited, the nut-casing softens with rain and frost and the seed germinates in the spring.[66] Pine cones may be hoarded in a similar way by red squirrels, and grizzly bears raiding the caches may also help to disperse the seed.[67]
The earliest tree-like organisms were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in forests in the Carboniferous period. The first tree may have been Wattieza, fossils of which have been found in New York State in 2007 dating back to the Middle Devonian (about 385 million years ago). Prior to this discovery, Archaeopteris was the earliest known tree.[68] Both of these reproduced by spores rather than seeds and are considered to be links between ferns and the gymnosperms which evolved in the Triassic period. The gymnosperms include conifers, cycads, gnetales and ginkgos and these may have appeared as a result of a whole genome duplication event which took place about 319 million years ago.[69] Ginkgophyta was once a widespread diverse group [70] of which the only survivor is the maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba. This is considered to be a living fossil because it is virtually unchanged from the fossilised specimens found in Triassic deposits.[71]
During the Mesozoic (245 to 65 million years ago) the conifers flourished and became adapted to live in all the major terrestrial habitats. Subsequently the tree forms of flowering plants evolved during the Cretaceous period. These began to dominate the conifers during the Tertiary era (65 to 2 million years ago) when forests covered the globe. When the climate cooled 1.5 million years ago and the first of four ice ages occurred, the forests retreated as the ice advanced. In the interglacials, trees recolonised the land[clarification needed] only to be driven back again at the start of the next ice age.[72]
Trees are an important part of the terrestrial ecosystem, and provide a habitat for a community of arboreal animals and plants.[73] Epiphytic plants such as ferns, orchids and some species of parasitic plants such as mistletoe hang from mossy and lichen-clad branches,[citation needed] providing their own micro-habitats. Leaves, flowers and fruits are seasonally available. On the ground underneath trees there is shade, shelter, undergrowth, leaf litter, fallen branches and decaying wood.[clarification needed] Trees stabilise the soil, prevent rapid run-off of rain water, help prevent desertification, have a role in climate control and help in the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem balance.[74]
Many species of tree support their own specialised invertebrates. In their natural habitats, 284 different species of insect have been found on the English oak (Quercus robur) [75] and 306 species of invertebrate on the Tasmanian oak (Eucalyptus obliqua).[76] Non-native tree species provide a less biodiverse community, for example in the United Kingdom the sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), which originates from southern Europe, has few associated invertebrate species, though its base rich bark[clarification needed] does support a wide range of lichens, bryophytes and epiphytes.[77]
Trees can play a role in the development of an ecosystem,[clarification needed] for example in mangrove swamps the roots of the mangrove trees reduce the speed of flow of tidal currents and hence trap water-borne sediment, leading over time to a reduction in water depth and the creation of suitable conditions for further mangrove colonisation. Thus mangrove swamps tend to extend seawards in suitable locations.[78] Mangrove swamps also provide an effective buffer against the more damaging effects of cyclones and tsunamis.[79]
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests, which are areas that have a high density of trees. Cultivated trees are planted and tended by humans, usually because they provide food (fruits or nuts), ornamental beauty, or some type of wood product that benefits people. A small wooded area, usually with no undergrowth, is called a grove [80] and a small wood or thicket of trees and bushes is called a coppice or copse.[81] A large area of land covered with trees and undergrowth is called woodland or forest.[82] An area of woodland composed primarily of trees established by planting or artificial seeding is known as a plantation [83] and an area of land planted with fruit or nut trees is an orchard.[84] Several biotopes are defined largely by the trees that inhabit them, examples being rainforest and taiga. A landscape of trees scattered or spaced across grassland is called a savanna.[85] A forest of great age is called ancient woodland[citation needed][86] and a forest in its natural state, before being explored or exploited by man is a virgin forest.[citation needed][87] Trees have conservation value and add interest to the landscape. They can be planted as isolated specimens in hedgerows or as shelter belts. They provide shade for people and animals. They can be planted in grand avenues in parkland or alongside roads in town and country.
Trees are the source of many of the world's best known fleshy fruits. Apples, pears, plums, cherries and citrus are all grown commercially in temperate climates and a wide range of edible fruits are found in the tropics. Other commercially important fruit include dates, coconuts and other nuts, figs and olives. Palm oil is obtained from the fruits of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). The fruits of the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) are used to make cocoa and chocolate and the berries of coffee trees, (Coffea arabica) and (Coffea canephora), are processed to extract the coffee beans. In many rural areas of the world, fruit is gathered from forest trees for consumption.[88]
Many trees have flowers rich in nectar which are attractive to bees. The production of forest honey is an important industry in rural areas of the developing world where it is undertaken by small-scale beekeepers using traditional methods.[89] The flowers of the elder (Sambucus) are used to make elderflower cordial and petals of the plum (Prunus spp.) and the rose (Rosa spp.) can be candied.[90]
The leaves of trees are widely gathered as fodder for livestock and some can be eaten by humans but they tend to be high in tannins which makes them bitter. Leaves of the curry tree (Murraya koenigii) and kaffir lime (Citrus × hystrix) are eaten in the east[where?] [91] and those of the European bay tree (Laurus nobilis) and the California bay tree (Umbellularia californica) are used for flavouring food.[92] Camellia sinensis, the source of tea, is a small tree but seldom reaches its full height, being heavily pruned to make picking the leaves easier.[93]
In temperate climates there is a sudden movement of sap at the end of the winter as trees prepare to burst into growth. In North America, the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is most often used in the production of a sweet liquid, maple syrup. About 90% of the sap is water, the remaining 10% being a mixture of various sugars and certain minerals.[94] The sap is harvested by drilling holes in the trunks of the trees and collecting the liquid that flows out of the inserted spigots. It is piped to a sugarhouse where it is heated to concentrate it and improve its flavour. One litre of maple syrup is obtained from every forty litres of sap and has a sugar content of exactly 66%.[94] A similar process happens in northern Europe when the spring rise in the sap of the silver birch (Betula pendula) is tapped and collected. This is either drunk fresh or is fermented into an alcoholic drink. In Alaska, the sap of the sweet birch (Betula lenta) is similarly collected and converted into birch syrup with a sugar content of 67%. Sweet birch sap is more dilute than maple sap and one hundred litres are required to make one litre of birch syrup.[95]
Various parts of trees are used as spices. These include cinnamon, made from the bark of the cinnamon tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and all spice, the dried small fruits of the pimento tree (Pimenta dioica). Nutmeg is a seed found in the fleshy fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans) and cloves are the unopened flower buds of the clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum). Sassafras oil is an important flavouring obtained from distilling bark from the roots of (Sassafras albidum).[92]
Wood has traditionally been used for fuel, especially in rural areas. In less developed nations it may be the only fuel available and collecting firewood is often a time consuming task as it becomes necessary to travel further and further afield in the search for fuel.[96] It is often burned inefficiently on an open fire. In more developed countries other fuels are available and burning wood is a choice rather than a necessity. Modern wood-burning stoves are very fuel efficient and new products such as wood pellets are available to burn.[97]
Charcoal can be made by slow pyrolysis of wood by heating it in the absence of air in a kiln. The carefully stacked branches, often oak, are burned with a very limited amount of air. The process of converting them into charcoal takes about fifteen hours. Charcoal is used as a fuel in barbecues and by blacksmiths and has many industrial and other uses.[98]
Wood smoke can be used to preserve food. In the hot smoking process the food is exposed to smoke and heat in a controlled environment. The food is ready to eat when the process is complete, having been tenderised and flavoured by the smoke it has absorbed. In the cold process, the temperature is not allowed to rise above 100 °F (38 °C). The flavour of the food is enhanced but raw food requires further cooking. If it is to be preserved, meat should be cured before cold smoking.[99]
Wood has been an important, easily available material for construction since humans started building shelters. Engineered wood products are available which bind the particles, fibres or veneers of wood together with adhesives to form composite materials. Plastics have taken over from wood for some traditional uses.[100]
Wood is used in the construction of buildings, bridges, trackways, piles, poles for power lines, masts for boats, pit props, railway sleepers, fencing, hurdles, shuttering for concrete, pipes, scaffolding and pallets. In housebuilding it is used in joinery, for making joists, roof trusses, roofing shingles, thatching, staircases, doors, window frames, floor boards, parquet flooring, panelling and cladding.[101]
Wood is used to construct carts, farm implements, boats, dugout canoes and in shipbuilding. It is used for making furniture, tool handles, boxes, ladders, musical instruments, bows, weapons, matches, clothes pegs, brooms, shoes, baskets, turnery, carving, toys, pencils, rollers, cogs, wooden screws, barrels, coffins, skittles, veneers, artificial limbs, oars, skis, wooden spoons, sports equipment and wooden balls.[101]
Wood is pulped for paper and used in the manufacture of cardboard and made into engineered wood products for use in construction such as fibreboard, hardboard, chipboard and plywood.[101] The wood of conifers is known as softwood while that of broad-leaved trees is hardwood.[102]
Cork is produced from the thick bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber). It is harvested from the living trees about once every ten years in an environmentally sustainable industry.[103] More than half the world's cork comes from Portugal and is largely used to make stoppers for wine bottles.[104] Other uses include floor tiles, bulletin boards, balls, footwear, cigarette tips, packaging, insulation and joints in woodwind instruments.[104]
The bark of other varieties of oak has traditionally been used in Europe for the tanning of hides though bark from other species of tree has been used elsewhere. The active ingredient, tannin, is extracted and after various preliminary treatments, the skins are immersed in a series of vats containing solutions in increasing concentrations. The tannin causes the hide to become supple, less affected by water and more resistant to bacterial attack.[105]
At least a hundred and twenty drugs come from plant sources, many of them from the bark of trees.[106] Quinine originates from the cinchona tree (Cinchona) and was for a long time the remedy of choice for the treatment of malaria.[107] Aspirin was synthesized to replace the sodium salicylate derived from the bark of willow trees (Salix) which had unpleasant side effects.[108] The anti-cancer drug Paclitaxel is derived from taxol, a substance found in the bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia).[109] Other tree based drugs come from the paw-paw (Carica papaya), the cassia (Cassia spp.), the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao), the tree of life (Camptotheca acuminata) and the downy birch (Betula pubescens).[106]
The papery bark of the white birch tree (Betula papyrifera) was used extensively by Native Americans. Wigwams were covered by it and canoes were constructed from it. Other uses included food containers, hunting and fishing equipment, musical instruments, toys and sledges.[110] Nowadays, bark chips, a by-product of the timber industry, are used as a mulch and as a growing medium for epiphytic plants that need a soil-free compost.[111]
Latex is a sticky defensive secretion that protects plants against herbivores. Many trees produce it when injured but the main source of the latex used to make natural rubber is the Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). Originally used to create bouncy balls and for the waterproofing of cloth, natural rubber is now mainly used in tyres for which synthetic materials have proved less durable.[112] The latex exuded by the balatá tree (Manilkara bidentata) is used to make golf balls and is similar to gutta-percha, made from the latex of the "getah perca" tree Palaquium. This is also used as an insulator, particularly of undersea cables, and in dentistry, walking sticks and gun butts. It has now largely been replaced by synthetic materials.[113]
Resin is another plant exudate that may have a defensive purpose. It is a viscous liquid composed mainly of volatile terpenes and is produced mostly by coniferous trees. It is used in varnishes, for making small castings and in ten-pin bowling balls. When heated, the terpenes are driven off and the remaining product is called "rosin" and is used by stringed instrumentalists on their bows. Some resins contain essential oils and are used in incense and aromatherapy. Fossilized resin is known as amber and was mostly formed in the Cretaceous (145 to 65 million years ago) or more recently. The resin that oozed out of trees sometimes trapped insects or spiders and these are still visible in the interior of the amber.[114]
The camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) produces an essential oil [92] and the eucalyptus tree (Eucalyptus globulus) is the main source of eucalyptus oil which is used in medicine, as a fragrance and in industry.[115]
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2012) |
Dead trees pose a safety risk, especially during high winds and severe storms, and removing dead trees involves a financial burden, whereas the presence of healthy trees can clean the air, increase property values, and reduce the temperature of the built environment and thereby reduce building cooling costs. During times of drought, trees can fall into water stress, which may cause a tree to become more susceptible to disease and insect problems, and ultimately may lead to a tree's death. Irrigating trees during dry periods can reduce the risk of water stress and death. Irrigation can be accomplished by use of a garden hose, soaker hose, sprinkler, or modified five-gallon bucket.[116]
Trees have been venerated since time immemorial. To the ancient Celts, certain trees held special significance as providing fuel, building materials, ornamental objects and weaponry. The mighty oak, the mystical yew and the mistletoe were their most sacred trees.[117] Other cultures have similarly revered trees, often linking the lives and fortunes of individuals to them or used them as oracles. In Greek mythology, dryads were believed to be shy nymphs who inhabited trees. The Tree of Life in Mesopotamia linked the dead with the living and was associated with the Earth Goddess who brought fertility. The birds that perched on its branches were thought to be the souls of the dead.[118]
The Oubangui people of west Africa plant a tree when a child is born. As the tree flourishes, so does the child but if the tree fails to thrive, the health of the child is considered at risk. When it flowers it is time for marriage. Gifts are left at the tree periodically and when the individual dies, their spirit lives on in the tree.[119]
Trees have their roots in the ground and their trunk and branches extended towards the sky. This concept is found in many of the world's religions as a World Tree which links the underworld and the earth and holds up the heavens. The best known example from European mythology is the ancient Norse Yggdrasil.[120] In India, Kalpavriksha is a wish-fulfilling tree that was one of nine jewels that emerged from the primitive ocean. Icons are placed beneath it to be worshipped, tree nymphs inhabit the branches and it grants favours to the devout who tie threads round the trunk.[121] Democracy started in North America when the Great Peacemaker formed the Iroquois Confederacy, inspiring the warriors of the original five American nations to bury their weapons under the Tree of Peace, an eastern white pine (Pinus strobus).[122] In the creation story in the Bible, the tree of life and the knowledge of good and evil was planted by God in the Garden of Eden.[123]
Sacred groves exist in China, India, Africa and elsewhere. They are places where the deities live and where all the living things are either sacred or are companions of the gods. Folklore lays down the supernatural penalties that will result if desecration takes place for example by the felling of trees. Because of their protected status, sacred groves may be the only relicts of ancient forest and have a biodiversity much greater than the surrounding area.[124] Some Ancient Indian tree deities, such as Puliyidaivalaiyamman, the Tamil deity of the tamarind tree, or Kadambariyamman, associated with the kadamba tree were seen as manifestations of a goddess who offers her blessings by giving fruits in abundance.[125]
The tallest living tree is believed to be a coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) at Redwood National Park, California. It has been named Hyperion and is 115.66 metres (379.5 ft) tall.[126] The tallest known broad-leaved tree is a swamp gum (Eucalyptus regnans) growing in Tasmania with a height of 97 metres (318 ft).[127][128] The largest tree by volume is believed to be a giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) known as the General Sherman Tree in the Sequoia National Park in Tulare County, California. Only the trunk is used in the calculation and the volume is estimated to be 1,487 m³ (52,508 cu ft). Also in California is the oldest living tree with a verified age. It is a Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) called Methuselah growing in the White Mountains. It has been dated by drilling a core sample and counting the annual rings and was considered to be 4,844 years old in 2012.[129] It is thought likely that other bristlecone pines exceed 5,000 years of age.[129] A little further south, at Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico, is the tree with the broadest trunk. It is a Montezuma cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) known as Árbol del Tule and its diameter at breast height is 11.62 m (38.1 ft) giving it a girth of 36.2 m (119 ft). The tree's trunk is far from round and the exact dimensions may be misleading as the circumference includes much empty space between the large buttress roots.[130]
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Look up tree in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |


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Kropf Park Model DealershipsKropf Industries, Inc. Company ProfileKropf Industries, Inc. of Goshen, Indiana is a specialty niche manufacturer of park model vacation homes, travel trailers and destination trailers. Kropf Industries was founded in 1997. Kropf park models include their Canadian Series, Executive Series, Island Series, Special Edition Series and Special Edition Loft Series units. All models include peaked/pitched roofs with cathedral ceilings (excluding the Executive Series) with a variety of floorplan layouts and optional amenities. The Executive Series features multiple floorplan and twin slide-out configurations, and comes in lengths from 40' to 43.'
Kropf Park Model Dealers in the South-Western USKropf Park Model Dealers in the North-Western USKropf Park Model Dealers in the Mountain StatesKropf Park Model Dealers in the Mid-WestYoungblood's Capetown229 Airport Road (800) 455-2267 Executive, Island Park Models by Kropf Stoney's RV - Cambridge11510 E Pike (740) 439-7285 Ohio Kropf Park Model Dealership Kenisee Grand River RV Sales4680 Route 307 East (440) 466-6320 New and used park models from Kropf Thompson Campers, Inc.8976 Ohio State Route 14 (330) 626-3021 Ohio Kropf Dealer Merz RV Center1140 South Military Road (920) 921-1164 Kropf Park Model Dealership Lakeland RV Center2801 E. State Road 59 (608) 868-4701 Wisconsin Kropf Park Model RV Dealership Kropf Park Model Dealers in the North-Eastern USSeacoast RV's, Inc.729 Portland Road (207) 282-3511 Kropf Park Model Dealership Lewie's RV Center7324 Novotny Road (218) 829-3695 Minnesota Kropf Park Model Dealership Hitch RV4121 Route 42 (888) 448-2478 New Jersey Kropf RV Dealership Susquehanna Valley RV2084 Route 522 (570) 374-2267 Pennsylvania Kropf Park Model Dealership Kropf Park Model Dealers in the South-Eastern USYoungblood's Capetown5146 Heartland Drive (800) 542-8206 Executive, Island Park Models by Kropf Robert Handy Camping Center4387 W. U.S. Hwy 421N (336) 973-4109 Special Edition and Island Series Park Models by Kropf Countryside RV2100 Hinshaw Road (336) 416-2360 Kropf Park Models Dealership www.countrysidervcenter.com map Kropf Park Model Dealers in CanadaInformation Disclaimer All data content Copyright © TheMotorHomeGuide.com - all rights reserved. | ||||

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Featured Article
Over a 25 year career, engineer Jack Ramsey recorded hundreds of concerts in the early days of Connecticut Public Radio. He died this week, and WNPR's John Dankosky has this remembrance.
Jack Ramsey worked at a different time in the history of public radio, when classical music was the sound you'd hear, and local concert hall performances were the station's primary way to reach out to the community.
He'd travel from town to town, nearly every night of the week, with microphones and a Nagra reel-to-reel tape deck, recording the orchestras in New Haven and Hartford, visiting musicians from around the world, and community concerts. Capturing everything from Bach to Billy Taylor.
Ramsey retired from Connecticut Public Radio in 1987. It was his second career -the first spanned 23 years in the Coast Guard, retiring as a Master Chief Radioman. He was a veteran of World War 2, the Korean War and Vietnam.
Jack Ramsey died Tuesday at St. Francis Hospital at the age of 84. He's remembered as one of the pioneers of public broadcasting in Connecticut.
For WNPR, I'm John Dankosky.


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The 18-year-old tree arrived Friday from a farm near Neshkoro, Wisc. Growers Tom and Sue Schroeder were at the White House for the arrival of the tree, which was harvested last week and shipped to Washington.
The tree was hand-picked by the White House superintendent of grounds and an official with the National Park Service after the Schroeders won the National Christmas Tree Assn.'s National Christmas Tree contest in August.
The tree will be set up in the Blue Room of the White House, where it will be decorated by volunteers and White House staff. The theme will be honoring Blue Star families. The first public viewing of the tree and other White House decorations will be on Wednesday, when the first lady welcomes Gold Star and Blue Star families to the White House.
Ultimately, the tree will be viewed by about 100,000 visitors to the White House this holiday season.
Across town, the 65-foot Sierra white fir from California that was chosen to be the Capitol Christmas tree will arrive Monday after a three-week cross-country journey that included stops in Los Angeles, Gallup, N.M., Santa Claus, Ind., and Cherokee, N.C.
The tree comes from the Stanislaus National Forest in the central Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. It is currently making its way through Virginia.
It will stand at the west front lawn of the U.S. Capitol and will be decorated by about 3,000 ornaments crafted by Californians. The theme will be "California Shines" to "highlight the rich cultural and ecological diversity of the Golden State," according to the Architect of the Capitol.
It will be lit Dec. 6 by House Speaker John Boehner (R-Ohio) and a child from California, according to the Associated Press.


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Asynchronous delivery with WS-Addressing
WS-Addressing is a standard that enables flexible communication between web services.
Two of the major standards bodies, OASIS and the W3C, recently released a flurry of standards dealing with web services. Because most of these standards have names that start with WS, the standards are loosely known as WS-* or (less formally) WS-splat. In this article, I will examine one of the key pieces, WS-Addressing, and explain how it can enhance existing web service applications and ultimately bring powerful new messaging patterns into the web services world.
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Old Vulnerabilities Are Kept Alive Through Bad Configuration
HP's annual Cyber Risk report offers a bleak look at the state of IT.
Linus Torvalds Announces Linux 4.0
But what do the big numbers really mean?
Microsoft Frees CoreCLR
.NET Core execution engine is the basis for cross-platform .NET implementations.
New Trojan Attacks Linux Servers
The Xnote trojan hides itself on the target system and will launch a variety of attacks on command.
Cisco Releases Annual Security Report
Spammers go low-volume, and 90% of IE browsers are unpatched.
Zero Day Exploits Target Flash
Adobe scrambles to release patches for vulnerable Flash Player.
Intel Unveils Compute Stick
Four-inch-long computer on a stick lets you boot a full Linux system from any HDMI display device.
Obama Proposes Personal Data Notification Law
New statute would require companies to report break-ins to consumers.
TGXf Project Warns of File Transfer through Screen Pixels
Weird data transfer technique avoids all standard security measures.
Industry Giants Announce a Fix for the Password Mess
FIDO alliance declares the beginning of the end for old-style login authentication.


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I haven't made much progress on my Fourth of July quilt, but I did manage to finish one block in each colorway.
This is a white block. These are the one blocks with indigo borders, and there will be three of them in the quilt.
This is the light blue block. It's the one light blue block, and the only block with a scrappy-pieced background.
This is one of the dark blue blocks. There will be 5 of these in the quilt. (The chambray in this one didn't photograph very well. I promise that it doesn't look like an oil spill in real life!)
Finally, this is a red block. There will be 7 red blocks in the quilt.
And here they are on the design wall. I'm now 25% complete. Twelve more blocks to go!


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Everyone wearing pink to fight breast cancerSeptember 18, 2012A mixture of the Youngsville Eagle colors of red and white would make pink. At 7 p.m. Friday, Oct. 5 the Youngsville High School football team will have all three on display when it hosts Union Cit.... No comments posted for this article.
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Many drivers were stoned long before 21 states and a number of cities opened the door to legal marijuana use for medical or recreational purposes.
Yet law enforcement, auto insurance companies and the public have only just begun to grapple with serious questions about how to accommodate the risks posed by drivers who smoke marijuana -- and to protect those who drive sober.
Marijuana's active ingredient is commonly known by the initials THC. It is a hallucinogen that can relieve pain. And since it's mind-altering, it also has an effect on motor skills and perception, both important parts of driving. But like any drug, its effect depends on the quantity and quality used. Marijuana is currently listed as a "Schedule 1" or dangerous drug, alongside LSD and heroin.
But one thing is certain: More stoned drivers are headed your way – and in your lane.
It's difficult to assess the exact role marijuana plays in car crashes because many accidents are caused by people using marijuana in conjunction with other drugs, or in combination with alcohol.
A National Highway Traffic Safety Administration study in 2007 found that marijuana was the most common drug used by motorists. This sample study found that about 4 percent of drivers were high during the day and more than 6 percent at night.
But researchers from Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health, using toxicology exams on 23,500 car crash fatalities, found that marijuana contributed to 12 percent of traffic deaths in 2010, up from 4 percent in 1999.
Statistics from Colorado, which legalized recreational marijuana at the start of the year, aren't as clear. Just like the rest of the nation, traffic deaths there have gone down in recent years. But the percentage of driving fatalities in which marijuana alone was involved spiked in Colorado in 2009, and then remained stable through 2013.
The situation is also confusing for state troopers, county Mounties and local law enforcement.
"If an officer thinks you are driving erratically [which could be as simple as driving in the left-hand lane of a highway], he or she can pull you over and give you a field sobriety test," says spokesperson Zach Hosseini of New Jersey's Division of Highway Traffic Safety.
Federal grants allow local police departments to designate and train Drug Recognition Experts (DREs) to identify drug- and alcohol-impaired drivers in the field, from symptoms such as dilated pupils, agitation, slurred speech and of course the pungent odor of marijuana from an open car window.
But apart from the obvious, there are few tools a law officer can currently use to determine the level of marijuana impairment. An effective Breathalyzer-type test is at least five years away, according to researchers at Columbia University.
Even a blood test has its limitations, according to High Times, a magazine devoted to the legalization of marijuana. While THC would vanish from the bloodstreams of part-time smokers after an hour and a half, and in all probability before a blood test could be administered, totally sober regular users of the drug would still test positive for hours after being pulled over.
While a chemical test may not be accurate, states like Colorado can still force drivers to take it or risk losing their licenses if they refuse, according to the state's Department of Transportation website.
Much is left to the discretion of an officer, particularly a DRE. "He or she can charge you with driving impaired with or without a Breathalyzer test," says Hosseini.
No matter how the driver became impaired, state laws – and insurance company rating systems that rely upon state driving records -- don't distinguish a conviction for stoned driving from a conviction for drunken driving. A DUI is a DUI – and toxic to a driving record and car insurance rates either way.
That means auto insurers aren't likely to make any rash decisions to treat marijuana smokers differently. They rely on statistics, and there aren't any clear statistics yet that show how many motorists in a particular state are driving stoned, and whether their behavior is causing even more fatal accidents.
"You can't say that legalizing pot leads to more crashes," says spokesperson Loretta Worters of the Insurance Information Institute (III), which represents the industry.
Insurers try to look at each driver based on his or her own record, says Brad Hilliard, a spokesperson for State Farm, the nation's largest car insurer.
"Factors like where you live, type of car you drive, how far and often you drive and your driving record are just a few. Rates are also influenced by the personal needs of an individual," he says. And with varying state and federal regulations -- even within the states themselves -- it's unlikely that state insurance commissioners would allow insurers to raise rates based solely on legalized marijuana use.
But increased danger on the road from stoned drivers in states where use is legal means all drivers should consider additional auto insurance, such as uninsured/underinsured motorist coverage, says the III's Worters. This coverage protects the car owner hit by someone who's uninsured or who doesn't have enough insurance to pay for all the medical bills and/or damages.
Another option is to buy collision coverage; that way, if an uninsured motorist hits your car, you can turn to your collision coverage to pay for your car damage (minus your deductible).
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
It has been suggested that this article be merged with Cold milling machine. (Discuss) Proposed since November 2013. |
This article does not cite any references or sources. (November 2013) |
A cold planer (also known as a pavement planer, pavement recycler, asphalt milling machine or roto-mill) is a construction machine used to remove bituminous pavement or asphalt concrete from roadways, resulting in a somewhat rough, even surface that can be immediately opened to traffic. This is accomplished by bringing a rotating mandrel or "head" into contact with the pavement at an exact depth or slope. The mandrel has hundreds of hardened spikes on its surface, which bite and tear away at the roadway's surface. The surface material that is removed is normally fed by conveyor into a dump truck or semi trailer, but can be left in place or windrowed to be removed at a later date or recycled. A water spray system provides cooling for the mandrel, as well as dust management.
Asphalt milling machines have been around for over 30 years. Asphalt milling is the process of grinding up asphalt that can then be recycled. The process came about because many streets were getting higher and higher on curbs, and therefore drainage of the roadway was becoming an increasingly bad problem. The first production milling machines were called Galions after their manufacturer, Galion Iron Works. These machines resembled graders in shape and size. The difference was there was a 30-inch-wide (760 mm) milling head where the scraper blade would normally be. The cutter drum was set into action by a rather large hydraulic pump.
Today's machines are much larger. They also have elaborate conveyor systems to reduce the labor of picking up the material from the roadway. With many new types of asphalt aggregates in use today the asphalt cold milling machines are often used. These new production machines are designed to tackle any mix design they chew into. Some of the larger machines, depending on the depth of the cut, can cut close to 15,000 square yards (13,000 m2) a day, at 75 feet per minute.
Operating an asphalt milling machine requires specialized training. Typically newer machines require two or more people to operate safely and efficiently. The operator stands on the deck of the machine and controls most of the machine's functions, while another person on the ground controls the depth of the cut and keeps an eye out for obstructions in the roadway such as manholes and/or water valves. Operators typically learn by on-the-job training, making the transition from operating on the ground to running the machine on top.
Diamond grinding of pavement is a process to work the surface of asphalt or concrete pavement.


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for mandarin napoleon brandy - we take this every time we go fishing - peace, relaxation & brandy to die for - what more could u ask for ?? :-) - have yet to meet anyone who doesn't like it - that in itself is a top recommendation !!!
9th January 2013
Worthy of five stars !!
19th August 2012
A lover of Grand Marnier, I tried Mandarine for the first time on holiday...in Norfolk !! A delicious after dinner drink !!
This stuff is amazing, even better if kept in the freezer for a few hours then served on the rocks.
28th March 2012
First class Liqueur , if you like cognac you will love this .cocktail to die for :-measure of cognac poured over a lump of sugar , half measure mandarine napoleon ,topped up with champagne .Blows Your Mind !!!Happy New Year
1st January 2012


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Dental Care
Good dental care is important to your overall health. Healthfirst NJ members can get high quality dental care through our partner DentaQuest, as well as a few individual dentists who are experts in special dental services. |
What dental services are covered by Healthfirst NJ?
The following dental services are covered by your plan or program:
- Dentist checkups
- Teeth cleaning
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- Cavity fillings
- Fluoride treatments
- And many more
Do I need a referral from my Primary Doctor to see a dentist?
No. You do not need a referral to see a dentist. Once you choose a Healthfirst NJ dentist, just call his or her office to make an appointment.
Which dentists can I see?
DentaQuest uses an "open network." This means you can select and visit any dentist that takes Healthfirst NJ or DentaQuest.
When you visit your dentist, you should show your Healthfirst NJ ID card. You will not receive a separate dental card.
Click here to find a dentist that is right for you.
I still have questions about dentists and dental care. Who can I talk to?
DentaQuest representatives can help you if you need to:
- Find a dentist;
- Change your dentist; or
- Ask additional questions about your dental coverage.
Please call DentaQuest at 1-800-508-2047, Monday - Friday, from 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. Just like Healthfirst NJ, you can ask to talk to a DentaQuest representative that speaks your language.


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Home > Food > Recipes > Spaghetti Carbonara
Spaghetti Carbonara
Instead of the usual meat and tomato sauce, put a spin on spaghetti with this quick recipe.
Serves: Serves 4 to 6
- 3⁄4 lb. bacon
- 1 lb. spaghetti
- 3⁄4 cup Parmesan cheese, shredded
- 1⁄4 cup sour cream
- 2 eggs, well beaten
- Salt and pepper
- Set a large pot to boil with water for pasta.
- In a skillet, cook bacon until crispy, dry on paper towels, and crumble.
- Cook spaghetti.
- When spaghetti is done, drain, put back in the pan, and quickly toss with crumbled bacon, Parmesan cheese, sour cream, and eggs. (The hot pasta cooks the eggs.)
- Season with salt and pepper and serve to rave reviews.
excerpted from:
Excerpted from The Complete Idiot's Guide to 20-Minute Meals © 2003 by CWL Publishing Enterprises, Inc., John Woods, President. All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Used by arrangement with Alpha Books, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
To order this book visit Amazon's website or call 1-800-253-6476.
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EXCLUSIVE: Sara Quin-Produced Song from Fences
Sara Quin knows a thing or two about witty yet winsome, deliriously self-deprecating, and achingly pretty songs. So when a friend passed along an EP from Fences (aka Seattle singer-songwriter Christopher Mansfield) to the Tegan and Sara star, she fell for it instantly, and, after a year of correspondence, ended up producing his self-titled debut album (out Sept. 28). Hear a song from it, "Girls With Accents," below.
"Everything that Chris writes, melodically and lyrically, has that rare balance of patience and urgency that I love in honest, haunting pop songs," Quin tells SPIN.com. And "honest" and "haunting" absolutely describe the vibe of "Girls With Accents," a lament about squandered romance from Mansfield (one of our artists to watch at last year's Sasquatch fest), with its over-the-top but true-as-hell chorus: "I'm fucking up, I'm fucking up, I'm fucking up everything."
"Guess I got just what I wanted," begins each verse, in which yet another missed opportunity is described, like the inability to talk to someone in the hallway, or getting drunk and passing out after finally getting a potential lover alone.
"I love 'Girls with Accents' because it reminds me of high school, but also resonates with the adult me," says Quin. "It has these tough slacker lyrics but also a super hooky melodic line that is really upbeat. I asked Chris to holler the background vocal parts, which I don't think he generally does, and that was fun."
Mansfield felt a definite songwriting kinship with Quin, even though many of the songs on Fences were conceived before he met Sara and her band's guitarist, Ted Gowans, for some overly-caffeinated recording sessions over eight days in Victoria, British Columbia. "She waves her hands around and sings ideas right off the cuff," he says of Quin. "Any idea she had without fail would be the right direction for a song. It was completely fulfilling in every possible way... I didn't once feel like someone was changing my art to fit into something else."
Adds Quin: "Chris is a one-take wonder when it comes to capturing terrific performances. I wanted to record the songs simply, wanted them to feel intimate but also atmospheric. The extremely quick session and extremely modest budget worked very well! We didn't over think anything."
Check out the song and tell us what you think in the comments section!
Listen/Download: Fences, "Girls with Accents"
Fences has a few live dates in August in the Pacific Northwest, an appearance at Seattle's Bumbershoot festival September 5, then a short West Coast Tour in late September -- click here for all dates.


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All undergraduate and graduate programs in the College of Education at Butler University are accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the Indiana Division of Professional Standards (DPS). For information on Butler's graduate programs, please email firstname.lastname@example.com
The Butler University College of Education has a 36-credit-hour program that leads to a Master of Science in Education and prepares students for obtaining an administrative license. Learn more about Educational Administration: EPPSP
Butler University has a long history of serving teachers seeking a Master of Science in Education. Many teachers in the Indianapolis area are graduates of our program and have been a major influence in educational matters both at the local and state levels. Learn more about Effective Teaching and Leadership
Butler University has been preparing new school counselors for the State of Indiana and for the world for more than four decades. Our graduates can be found locally in the greater Indianapolis area, throughout the Hoosier State, and beyond. Learn more about School Counseling
The Licensed Mental Health Counselor Certification Program (LMHC) is a licensure program designed to meet the needs of school counseling graduates that currently hold a 48 credit hour master's degree. The licensure track is a 12 credit hour program specific for licensure for mental health. Learn more about this option here.
Learn more about Alternative Special Education Licensure.
The Graduate Initial Licensure Program (GILP) is a 31 credit hour, non-degree graduate program for secondary (grades 5-12) initial licensure. Find out more here.
The College of Education offers the following scholarship funds to assist with graduate student tuition fees. For further information please contact Janet Ayers at email@example.com.
These awards are for men or women who are pursuing graduate study in any area of concentration in the College of Education. Awards are based on academic excellence and preference will be given to employees of Pike Township.
These awards are for men or women who are pursuing graduate study in the EPPSP Program. Awards are based on exemplification of leadership, community service and professional excellence as well as financial need.
These awards are for men or women who are pursuing graduate study in School Counseling. Awards are based on financial need.
These awards are for women pursuing graduate study in any area of concentration in the College of Education. Awards are based on financial need.
This award is given to one graduate student who is conducting a research project in elementary education. Certification and teaching experience in elementary education are required.


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HP Chromebook 14 review: Big display, bold colors, full keyboard
Summary: HP's latest Intel Haswell Chromebook is available now with free monthly LTE and available in bold colors. It's a rocking Chromebook that enables efficiency with the large display and keyboard.
Topics: Mobility, Google Apps, Laptops, Reviews
About Matthew Miller
Matthew Miller started using a mobile devices in 1997 and has been writing news, reviews, and opinion pieces ever since. He is a co-host with GigaOM's Kevin Tofel on the MobileTechRoundup podcast and an author of three Wiley Companion series books. Matthew started using mobile devices with a US Robotics Pilot 1000 and has owned over 200 d... Full Bio


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Antiques in a window (David Gluns photo)
For information on museums in this location and other nearby locations, check out the map and product listings from business or service providers below.
Local Visitor Centres may also be able to offer helpful information about museums located in this area.
1 Museums in Lytton
Drive the scenic Fraser Canyon with its 7 mountain tunnels through the historic heart of BC & relive the biggest 'rush' on the Gold Rush Trail. Hell's Gate Airtram is in a location so unique, the 'afterlife' have come back to use it as a playground. Early explorers refer to it as 'a place where no human being should venture' and man and nature battle here for supremacy. Experience this place for yourself as you exchange mountain ranges aboard one of the only descending gondolas in North America.
Hell's Gate Airtram was awarded the TripAdvisor Certificate of Excellence (2014).
Please note that your admission ticket is good any day during the season it was bought.
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Welcome to the World of Modern Cancer Care
Our Philosophy
We believe in providing comprehensive and aggressive cancer care, tailored to each patient's individual needs, in order to preserve and improve quality of life.
Our Committment
We are committed to providing the highest quality care in a friendly, efficient, and professional manner. We encourage your participation in your care. We believe that excellent communication and working together with our patients is the best way to optimize your care.
We are dedicated to helping you fight cancer and other blood-related disorders.
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Calculation of Brokerage and Taxes
Learn how to calculate brokerage and taxes
Lets see how to calculate Brokerage and taxes for intraday trading and for delivery trading
The current maximum intraday brokerage offered is 0.05% for buying and 0.05% for selling
(we provide 0.03% for buying and 0.03% for selling, these rates can be reduced further if you do daily high volume trading)
Brokerage calculation for day trading (intraday trading)
1. The service tax is of 10.36% only on brokerage. (Update Mar 09- The service tax is reduced to 10.30% including education cess )
2. The STT (Security Transaction Tax) is of 0.025% only selling amount.
3. The stamp duty on total turnover for a day which is 0.002%.
4. and finally you have to pay Regulatory charges on total turnover for a day which is 0.004%
Please note - These all taxes will add up to very small amount at the end of the day compared to your profits.
One example is explained to understand how to calculate brokerage and taxes.
Suppose the shares of Kotak Bank has been bought at Rs.315, quantity - 100 so the amount comes to Rs.315 x 100 = Rs.31500.
Now lets see how to calculate the brokerage and taxes.
Your buying amount
Rs.31500 (Rs.315x100 Qty shares)
Brokerage charge
0.03% as brokerage (Its our brokerage rates) on 31,500 which comes to Rs.9.45
Service Tax
The service tax is 10.36% only on brokerage, so 10.36 % on Rs.9.45 comes to Rs 0.98.
Total charges you have pay on buying amount is
The total brokerage + service tax which come to Rs.9.45 + Rs.0.98 =
Now lets calculate the brokerage and taxes on selling amount
Your selling amount
Suppose you sold Kotak Bank shares at Rs.316, Qty - 100 so the amount comes to Rs.31,600 (Rs.316 x 100 Qty shares)
Brokerage charge
0.03% brokerage on 31600, comes to Rs.9.48
Service Tax
The service tax is 10.36% only on brokerage, so 10.36 % on Rs.9.48 comes to Rs 0.99.
STT(Service Transaction Tax) only on selling amount
The STT (Service Transaction Tax) is 0.025% on selling amount (the selling amount is 31,600) which comes to Rs.6.32.
Total charges you have pay on Selling amount is
Total brokerage + service tax + STT on selling amount is
= Rs.9.48 + Rs.0.99 + Rs.6.32
Total amount you have to pay on buying and selling is
= Rs.10.43 (buying) + Rs.16.79 (selling)
Also you have to pay stamp duty and regulatory charges on total turnover.
Your total turn over is calculated by adding the buying amount and selling amount.
Buying amount is 31500 and selling amount is 31600 which adds up to Rs. 61300
Stamp duty is 0.002% and Regulatory charges are 0.004% which adds up to 0.006%
So on total turnover amount (Rs. 61300) the stamp duty and regulatory charges comes to Rs 3.8.
So the total amount you have to pay including brokerage and all taxes is only
Rs 27.22 + 3.8 = 31.02
So now the conclusion is you are paying Rs.31.02 while you earned the profit of Rs.100.
So your profit is Rs 100-31 = 69
So dont you think more then 69% profit in single trade is quite enough to do thousands per day.
If you continue doing such small trades with such small profits then you will end up with big amount at the end of the day.
Please visit below link if you are interested to know how to add thousands in a day and earn minimum 30% returns in single month at below link, its free.
Lets see how to calculate Brokerage charges for Delivery trading
For delivery trading the brokerage rates are 0.5% for buying and 0.5% for selling ( we charge 0.3% for buying and 0.3% for selling)
Remaining all taxes are same except STT (security transaction tax).
STT is not applicable for delivery based trading.
But in delivery trading DP charges are applicable when you sell shares from your demat account. (Charges are mentioned above)
Please note
Information provided above is latest but if you find any discrepancies then please let us know and we will provide further details on same.
If you are interested to know how to earn minimum 30% profit in a month then please visit at below link. It's free.
Small profits and multiple trades
Welcome to Indian Share Market
Your Desire to Earn
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www.daytradingshares.com takes no responsibility for any investment decisions based on recommendations provided on website.
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25 Free Craft Projects for Every Crafter - The Ultimate Craft Guide
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Aubrey's Beads Video: How To Make Elastic Paper Bead Bracelet
By: Janice Mae of Aubrey's Beads
Janice Mae of Aubrey's Beads demonstrates how to make an elastic bracelet with rolled paper beads in this craft video. This jewelry technique is a great way to use homemade or store-bought paper beads to create a comfortable bracelet.
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It is a nice video. Your idea is creative and your way of doing it is pretty simple! Really liked it and will share it with all my friends. Thanks for sharing the video. Looking forward to see more of your videos and enjoying them...Great work keep it up.
This was my first time watching this video. I had no problem- and, thought the lesson was quite simple. Thank you!
Hi MissPatti, I checked all of the videos you commented on and they are all working fine on our end. Make sure you have downloaded the video plug in that is necessary to watch any videos online. Or perhaps make sure the page has finished loading fully before moving on. Some operating systems take longer to load. Thanks! -Editors of FaveCrafts
The one thing I would do if I were making these videos is turn down the horribly loud music at the beginning and end of the videos and place a microphone closer to the woman in the video and tell her to speak up. In order to hear her, I had to turn up the volume, but the beginning and end of the videos blasted me out of the room.
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Consumers Businesses
WASHINGTON, D.C. – The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, in cooperation with the firm named below, today announced a voluntary recall of the following consumer product. Consumers should stop using recalled products immediately unless otherwise instructed. It is illegal to resell or attempt to resell a recalled consumer product.
Name of Product: VisionTech USA SuperMax, TriMax, TriMax Plus and Pro model Integrated Bicycle Aero Bars
Units: About 280
Manufacturer: VisionTech USA, Inc., of Auburn, Wash.
Hazard: The centerpiece of these bicycle aero bars can crack or break, causing the bicycle rider to lose control and crash.
Incidents/Injuries: VisionTech has received two reports of the centerpiece of these aero bars breaking, resulting in minor scrapes and abrasions.
Description: Aero bars are handlebar extensions typically used on racing and triathlon bicycles that either clip on to the handlebars or are sold as an integrated handlebar and stem system. The aero bars allow riders to ride in an aerodynamic crouching position. The recalled aero bars are an integrated system which have a casted aluminum centerpiece which are attached to a handlebar, a stem and two aero bars each approximately 15 inches long, protruding in front of the handlebar. The VisionTech logo is displayed in gold lettering against a black background on the wings of the bar. Bicycle aero bars bearing a silver and red decal on the wings with the words "Vision by Full Speed Ahead" are not included in this recall.
Sold at: Bicycle specialty stores nationwide from March 2002 through March 2003 for about $435.
Manufactured in: USA
Remedy: Consumers should stop using the bicycle aero bars immediately and contact VisionTech USA, Inc. to have their aero bars tested. A free replacement will be provided for any bicycle aero bars found defective.
Consumer Contact: Contact VisionTech USA, Inc. toll-free at (866) 204-5798, pin number 0118, between 8 a.m. and 9 p.m. ET Monday through Friday.
The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission is charged with protecting the public from unreasonable risks of injury or death associated with the use of thousands of types of consumer products under the agency's jurisdiction. Deaths, injuries, and property damage from consumer product incidents cost the nation more than $1 trillion annually. CPSC is committed to protecting consumers and families from products that pose a fire, electrical, chemical or mechanical hazard. CPSC's work to help ensure the safety of consumer products - such as toys, cribs, power tools, cigarette lighters and household chemicals -– contributed to a decline in the rate of deaths and injuries associated with consumer products over the past 40 years.
Federal law bars any person from selling products subject to a publicly-announced voluntary recall by a manufacturer or a mandatory recall ordered by the Commission.
To report a dangerous product or a product-related injury go online to www.SaferProducts.gov or call CPSC's Hotline at (800) 638-2772 or teletypewriter at (301) 595-7054 for the hearing impaired. Consumers can obtain news release and recall information at www.cpsc.gov, on Twitter @USCPSC or by subscribing to CPSC's free e-mail newsletters.
Times: 8 a.m. - 5:30 p.m. ET; Messages can be left anytime
Call to get product safety and other agency information and to report unsafe products.
Please use the below phone number for all media requests.
Phone: (301) 504-7908
Spanish: (301) 504-7800
View CPSC contacts for specific areas of expertise
We are still interested in receiving incident or injury reports that are either directly related to this product recall or involve a different hazard with the same product.
Report a Product on SaferProducts.gov
The link you selected is for a destination outside of the Federal Government. CPSC does not control this external site or its privacy policy and cannot attest to the accuracy of the information it contains. You may wish to review the privacy policy of the external site as its information collection practices may differ from ours. Linking to this external site does not constitute an endorsement of the site or the information it contains by CPSC or any of its employees.
Click Ok if you wish to continue to the website; otherwise, click Cancel to return to our site.


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Hospice of San Luis Obispo
Hospice of San Luis Obispo County is a comprehensive resource center providing non-medical support through group and individual counseling programs that are free of charge.
At Hospice SLO we believe that no one should have to face death, serious illness or grief by themselves. It's that belief that has motivated our staff and volunteers to serve our Central Coast community since its incorporation in 1977.
As the only volunteer hospice in the county, we rely 100% on the generosity from community donations, fundraising events, grants, and the time and talent of over 200 volunteers to compassionately help more than 6,000 individuals annually.


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Post your feedback for me here.
Post your feedback for me here.
I purchased a Z-Mag from him and it was very pleasant transaction.
It's great to find someone with a sense of humor...
Lots of PMs, very fast and secure shipping!
As a recommendation; I would happily do business with mightymag again, no hesitation!
Good Traders: Mossman, Person, boomerfoxtrot, Armyof1recruiter, than205, spleefstylez, imspecil, shrapnel
My Feedback Thread:
Member of O.F.P.P.A.
When you wrap-up the day with beer and Bengay.
I purchased a Hyperframe MicroMag from him, and everything went smoothly. Very fast shipment.
I bought a 12" tear drop from him. Barrel looks brand new. Thanks for the deal!!!!
Main setup:
Automag RT
Level Ten(wanted)
Dye Stickies
AGD flatline
Red's tank cover
Cp Flame Drop
Viewloader Revolution
10" Dye SS
Armson Stealth
12" all american (ruined)
Dye Invision (wanted- red)