text:
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
St Briavels | |
St Briavels Castle | |
St Briavels shown within Gloucestershire | |
OS grid reference | SO559044 |
District | Forest of Dean |
Shire county | Gloucestershire |
Region | South West |
Country | England |
Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
Post town | LYDNEY |
Police | Gloucestershire |
Fire | Gloucestershire |
Ambulance | South Western |
EU Parliament | South West England |
This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2011) |
St Briavels | |
St Briavels Castle | |
St Briavels shown within Gloucestershire | |
OS grid reference | SO559044 |
District | Forest of Dean |
Shire county | Gloucestershire |
Region | South West |
Country | England |
Sovereign state | United Kingdom |
Post town | LYDNEY |
Police | Gloucestershire |
Fire | Gloucestershire |
Ambulance | South Western |
EU Parliament | South West England |
Coordinates: 51°44′12″N 2°38′17″W / 51.736571°N 2.637979°WSt Briavels (pronounced Brevels) is a medium sized village and civil parish in the Royal Forest of Dean in west Gloucestershire, England; close to the England-Wales border, and 5 miles (8 km) south of Coleford. It stands almost 800 feet (240 m) above sea level on the edge of a limestone plateau above the valley of the River Wye, above an ancient meander of the river. To the west, Cinder Hill drops off sharply into the valley.
The village, once known as 'Ledenia Parva' (Little Lydney),[1] is sheltered behind the crumbling walls of its 12th century moated Norman castle,[2] which was garrisoned by Miles of Gloucester for King Henry I as early as 1130. The castle was later granted to him with the Forest of Dean in July 1141 when he was made Earl of Hereford.
St Briavels Castle has been a Norman fortress, a Royal castle and hunting lodge of King John of England and also visited by Henry II, who made the castle the administrative and judicial centre for the Forest of Dean. It has also been a prison, a school and a private house, but today it is a youth hostel.
Little is known about the origin of St Briavels. The name is thought to be from a much-travelled early Christian missionary, Brioc, whose name also appears in places as far afield as Cornwall and Brittany.
Later King Offa of Mercia built Offa's Dyke from the mouth of the River Wye near Chepstow to Chester and local remains can still be seen in the nearby Hudnalls Wood. The Normans thought it an ideal site for one of the many castles built from Chepstow to Chester to check the intrusion of the warlike Welsh tribesmen from the Welsh Kingdom of Gwent into the more peaceful areas east of the Severn and Wye rivers. At Windward, the highest point in the parish, the land rises to 800 feet (240 m) above sea level; the castle itself is somewhat lower at 600 feet (180 m) and nestles into the hillsides, with a commanding view of the Wye Valley between Tintern and Redbrook.
The castle and St Mary's Parish Church, built in 1089, must have been the site of a considerable community, for the castle was the home of the Constable of the Forest of Dean, a region stretching northwards and eastwards toward the city of Gloucester. Cut off from the rest of England by the tidal Severn River to the east and the treacherous tidal Wye to the west, the Forest was in many ways more isolated than most other parts of the country. As a result, this area produced a culture, language and way of living peculiarly its own. The Forest is full of ancient customs and traditions.
In 1155 the castle and the Forest of Dean were held by the Crown after the revolt of Roger Fitzmiles, 2nd Earl of Hereford. It then remained as a Crown possession for the rest of the Middle Ages.
Between 1876 and 1959, while industry was booming in the Forest of Dean, St Briavels was served by the Wye Valley Railway, and St Briavels Station was situated a mile away near Bigsweir bridge. The line closed to passengers in 1959 and freight in 1964 by which time the station had closed.[3]
Coal mining, iron ore extraction, stone quarrying and forestry with Verderers have all been important primary sources of income in the Forest of Dean.
In the Middle Ages, local miners were highly valued for their digging skills during military campaigns. It is said that, after a particularly successful job undermining the foundations of Berwick Castle at Berwick-on-Tweed, King Edward I granted 'Free-Mining' status to all Forest of Dean coal and ore miners.[citation needed] This authority gave Freeminers the right to dig for minerals anywhere in the Forest of Dean except beneath churchyards, orchards and gardens. To be a Freeminer, an individual has to be "born and abiding within the 'Hundred of St Briavels', of the age of 21 and upwards who shall have worked for a year and a day in a coal or iron ore mine or stone quarry within the Hundred".
In the past,[when?] open cast stone mining was prevalent in the woods to the west of the village. Many millstones used in the mills and cider presses of the time were quarried in the Hudnalls and rolled down the hillside to be transported away by barges on the River Wye. Between the 16th century and 18th century timber from the Forest was heavily relied upon for the construction of ships - and almost became exhausted, supplying to the demands of Drake, Raleigh and Nelson.
A Forester, is a resident natural of the Forest of Dean, born within the ancient administrative area of the Hundred of St Briavels. There are still several traditional Forester families living and working in the area keeping the ancient traditions and rights alive.
Freemining, free roaming sheep grazed on common land, and grazing of pigs in the Forest, are rights and responsibilities extended to the people of St Briavels that are still exercised today, although more so elsewhere in the Forest of Dean.
Other peculiarities to the area include the ancient right for 'sheep badgers' to let their flocks roam freely and pigs were also allowed to forage freely in the Forest. Firewood was also allowed to be gathered from the local Hudnalls wood.
Between the 11th century to 13th century, the shire counties were split into hundreds. St Briavels is the largest in the Forest of Dean and its boundaries approximate to the Forest boundaries.
The village has one pub - The George, a junior school, a church, two chapels and a doctors' surgery. The Congregational church, dating from the 1870s has Gothic Revival architecture.
Village life today is centred on the school, church, the Pavilions and the Assembly Rooms, which has a hall with a stage for entertainment and special events for the local close knit community. It also has a small office for hire with Internet and telephone options. Today the Pavilions hold a very popular and well established monthly 'Local Produce and Suppliers Market', a local farmers' market offering a fine selection of organic vegetables, rare breed pedigree pork, award winning local cheeses, cider, wine, honey and a range of delicacies otherwise usual to London's specialists, Fortnum & Mason.
The St Briavels Assembly Rooms are used by the community for classes, playgroups and various events. A recent grant from DEFRA of £94,000 is currently being spent on updating the Rooms for increased usage.
The general character of the village is typified by a mid 19th century core, complemented to the east by a large number of houses built during the 1970s.[4] Although many residents now no longer work in the area the village retains a relatively vibrant community.
The St Briavels Bread and Cheese Dole tradition is said to date back to the time of Miles de Gloucester, 1st Earl of Hereford (then lord of the Forest of Dean) in the 12th century. Each year on Whit Sunday bread and cheese is thrown from the wall of the castle to local 'Dole Claimers' dressed in medieval costume. 'Dole claimers' could be anyone who paid a penny to the incumbent Earl of Hereford entitling them to gather firewood from the nearby Hudnalls wood. Some believe in the power of these edible morsels and preserve them for good luck (miners originally used them as charms to protect against accidents underground). Today some people choose to place them in matchboxes and rest them under their pillow to inspire dreams of the future.
An annual summer fête, known as 'The Carnival', attracts large crowds and is usually held on the second Saturday afternoon in June. Five carnival floats gather and fancy dress contestants congregate around the village green. The floats include St Briavels School, St Briavels Infants, St Briavels Juniors, St Briavels Playgroup and the Carnival Queen Float. The floats then process through the village, finally parking at the bottom of the recreation ground.
A community group called 'Heartbeat St. Briavels' has been set up to provide and maintain defibrillators throughout the village.
Upper Meend and Lower Meend are locales situated on the west of the village on the slope leading down to the valley floor where the River Wye runs. Nearby hamlets and settlements include St. Briavels Common (which has not been common land since the Enclosure Acts but retains its name), Cold Harbour (an old English place name),[5][6] Mork, the Hudnalls, and Triangle, which lies towards Brockweir. The villages of Llandogo, Penallt and Whitebrook lie on the Welsh side of the Wye Valley in Monmouthshire. At the base of the valley, Bigsweir is the site of one of the world's first iron bridges; the Bigsweir Bridge across the Wye.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to St. Briavels. |


text:
Ewido Security Suite
A newer version of Ewido Security Suite is available.
This download is served from an external site
closeNOTICE: This link will open a connection to a third-party site. CNET cannot ensure the security of software that is hosted on external sites.
Sponsored Products
Full user review
"Good but not free like some people are saying!"
I use ad-aware mainly, however this program found a few ads that ad-aware didn`t and got rid of an annoying startup ad!. That said i think if i installed spy doctor, im sure that would also find more as these programs alone, never seem to get them all.
I think the downside is that all of these programs seem to miss bits here and there.
Also a lot of people are saying its free! Its a 2 week Demo! then you must pay, its not a con of the program though, i just wanted to make this clear.

subset: commoncrawl


text: Look at These Amazing Cross Sections of Bullets By Kyle VanHemert | Tuesday July 9, 2013 Share on Facebook0 Tweet There's a decent chance you know what's going on inside a gun. But what's going on inside that bullet? Tags: ammo, ammunition, art, Firearms, Guns, photography, Sabine Pearlman Discuss | Permalink


text:
The Worcester Wolves and Newcastle Eagles strengthened their positions as the BBL Championship's top two with wins on Sunday evening.
Zaire Taylor poured in 30 points as leaders Worcester beat the Cheshire Phoenix 105-94 for their second win in as many nights.
That kept them four points ahead of Newcastle, who marked player-coach Fab Flournoy's BBL-record 541st appearance with a 74-66 success against the Glasgow Rocks, Malik Cooke with 20 points.
And title rivals the Leicester Riders slipped up, losing 91-86 to the 10th-placed Manchester Giants after four late free throws from David Aliu, who finished with 28 points.
The Durham Wildcats beat the winless Birmingham Knights 103-70 while the London Lions won 96-66 against Surrey United.


text:
We all know not to go grocery shopping hungry. Why do I try to defy the laws of nature and not heed this rule?
A while ago I was shopping on an empty stomach, foolishly thinking I was immune to impulse buys. I was zipping around the store, only grabbing items on my list. I guess I got a little too cocky. (more…)


text:
Product Number: | LR5530109W |
Item Price: | $99.95 |
Availability: | The item you are looking for is currently sold out and will no longer be available in the future. Please see similar items below. |
Shipping Weight: | 4.79 lbs. |
-Mossy Oak® Break-Up
-Hyper-dri™ barrier for 100% waterproof protection and superior moisture management
-500-gram Thinsulate™ Ultra Insulation for ultimate warmth
-1000-denier nylon upper with a reinforced, scuff-resistant toe and heel for long lasting wear
-LaCrosse® Bob lightweight outsole for traction
-EVA footbed for cushioning
-Steel shank for arch support


text:
Crown Capital Management Charles Shackelford Professional Asset Management
What are the benefits of...
Start your own group! All DESIGN 21 members have the ability to create organizations.
Create A GroupWell-being, Community, Environment
8 Supporters
The Sustainable Business Network of NYC is an exciting initiative of the Center for the Urban Environment and the NYC chapter of the national organization BALLE (Business Alliances for Local Living Communities). It is founded on the idea that in order to have a healthy and sustainable city, we must support a local living economy.
SBN's members are locally owned and operated businesses with a commitment to the communities that they operate in and serve. They are entrepreneurs and business leaders who have dedicated their lives to creating innovative solutions that result in lasting improvements to local and global communities. Their interests lie in such fields as renewable energy, independent retail, green construction & design, sustainable agriculture, community-based capital, and independent media, to name a few.
Community, Communication Design
Crown Capital Management Charles Shackelford Professional Asset Management
What are the benefits of...
Posted August 23, 2013
By Pana Inn
Responses (0)
Promoting, Connecting & Supporting NYC's Sustainable Businesses
Join This GroupSustainable Business Network of NYC
Contact Sustainable Business Network of NYC
Moderator: Vanessa Knight


text:
I was on my week 2 pills of Oren tricyclen lo and i missed my Tuesday, January 22 pill. I woke up at 1 am Wednesday to take it and took my other pill at my regular time. I had unprotected sex with my boyfriend early Thursday morning and I am worried that because it was my high fertility week that I could be pregnant. I have been on birth control since November.
Hi there,
Whenever you don't take your birth control pills exactly as directed and then have unprotected sex, there is a chance of pregnancy. Continue taking your pills as prescribed-- if you miss your next period, test for pregnancy.
February 2, 2013 - 8:07pmAll user-generated information on this site is the opinion of its author only and is not a substitute for medical advice or treatment for any medical conditions. Members and guests are responsible for their own posts and the potential consequences of those posts detailed in our Terms of Service.


text:
Romantic Forums!
Get the answers you seek quickly and easily! If you can't find what you need
here amongst our tens of thousands of tips and questions, be sure to
Post in our Romantic Forum
We've got over 9,800 members ready to give you a hand!
A Love Quote
Love will not always linger longest - With those who hold it in too clenched a fist. -- Alice Duer Miller
Thousands of Tips
Personal Advice
Love Stories
Saying Sorry
Tales of the Ex
Back in Time
Vote in a Poll
Show Your Love
Love E-cards
Learn of Love
How To ...
What Is ...
Our Books
Irish Romance
Italian Romance
French Romance
Email A Friend
Enter the information below to forward this great tip to a friend!
Play it cool...
Ok. So me and my ex were together around 5months and we had our whole future planned together. I got restless, and broke it off. The WORST thing you can do, to try and get him back, is text/call/email him. DO NOT talk to his friends for support. Basically this will make you look like an obsessive freak, and give him the power making him feel 'big'. Just play it cool...see him when u see him. Theres no harm in 'accidentlly' bumping into him...looking effortlessly hot ;) Have you ever heard the old saying, people want what they cant have? Yeah, use this as your motto! I'm using it now. Ive give up endlessly calling/texting. Cause this just doesnt work lol, believe me! Good luck xx
Your email:
Your friend's email:
Back to the Original Article
Romantic Tips
Japanese Love Kanji
Express your love with these gorgeous tote bags, tshirts and other items! The Japanese character for "love" is on a red background.
Bookmark this site so you can reference it any time you need romantic / relationship info in the future!
Follow @RomanceClass
Romantic Tshirts, Bags, Mugs and More!
Love is Patient ...
Deeply Loved ...
Random Kindness ...
These are just a small selection -
Visit the RomanceClass Shop
Join This Newsletter!
on Facebook
Join This Newsletter!
Past Issues
Express Love
Free E-Cards
Holiday Traditions
Love Poetry
Love Quotes
Love 'Round the World
Adding some Spice
Enhance Love
Love Ebooks
Self Help Books
Romantic Feng Shui
Romantic Movies
Romantic Music
Romantic Novels
Romantic Posters
Just for Fun
Fun Personal Advice
Jigsaw Puzzles
Love Orb Knows All
Love Letters of Great Men
Thought Provoking
Video Games and Child Soldiers
About RomanceClass
Privacy Policy
Submit a Suggestion
All content copyright © 2013
Minerva WebWorks LLC
. All rights reserved.
this site is for amusement only - professional advice is not being rendered


text:
There are moments in life that are so big you remember exactly what you were doing when they happened... JFK assassination, Challenger Explosion, Sept 11th and this week the killing of bin Laden. There are moments in sports as well, and and here the 10 UK Where were you moments: Do you remember them? Where were you?
10. Jan. 8, 1955 - UK v. Ga Tech…
Added by Rob Elliott on May 4, 2011 at 9:14am — 2 Comments
These aren't game winning shots or Sportscenter highlight plays but moments live in infamy, moments that you will never forget, moments that when that game is mentioned, it's the only thing that comes to mind.
10. 2010 - Harrelson and Sullinger play dodge ball…
Added by Rob Elliott on April 26, 2011 at 8:00am — 2 Comments
10. UK v. Michigan St 2005
9. UK v. UCONN 2011
8. UK v. Michigan 1993 …
ContinueAdded by Rob Elliott on April 12, 2011 at 12:00am — No Comments
© 2015 Created by KSN.


text:
Race Car Driver to Plead Not Guilty by Reason of Celebrity; Jury May Get Chance to Dance
Categories: Broward News
Prosecutors say Helio was two-stepping with money laundering. |
Among the accusations detailed in this indictment: The IRS claims Castroneves entered a secret deal with Brazilian import-export company CISA Trading. The deal called for CISA to pay Castroneves $2 million. He would then allegedly keep $200,000 of it and pay the company back $1.8 million in an effort to hide money from the IRS. It may sound sneaky and perhaps criminal, but what the IRS is forgetting is that Castroneves was on Dancing With the Stars.
Now I've never seen Dancing With the Stars, because the cigarette lighter in my Ford Bronco/house broke and I can no longer power my TV/chair. But I'm going to assume here that viewers get a chance to dance with their favorite stars in a George Orwell-style lottery in which the winners are actually sent off to a gulag and the stars get to embezzle money. We'll find out if that's true this week, when Castroneves has his day in court. I'm guessing he'll get off by pleading not guilty by reason of celebrity.
Sponsor Content


text:
Smart grids, smart meters and newspeak
Organization: PWR
Smart grids could save Europe €52bn
Regarding 'Smart grids could save Europe €52bn':
The linking of 'smart grids' and 'energy saving' is often done by those with an interest in selling equipment that ranges from remote-controlled meters (the people that design these are smart, the meters themselves are pretty dumb) through to capital equipment for power networks (similar comments on people and smartness apply).
"In which the writer positions himself"
I'm a power engineer involved in various projects that aim to improve the ability of power networks to absorb more renewables. This transition of power networks is commonly referred to as a move towards active network management and the components which accomplish it as active network components. I have also worked as a factory services engineer responsible for energy reduction activities.
"Energy Efficiency – Industry"
In November 2008 two Fraunhofers published a report on electrical energy efficiency in German manufacturing industry. They estimated medium-term efficiency gains of around 30%, all without smart grids or smart meters. The same savings and perhaps greater could apply to other EU member states. Furthermore, most factories (if the engineers know what they are doing) will already monitor, in real time, electrical energy consumption. Score: SGs & SMs 0 Energy Efficiency in Industry 1
"Energy Efficiency – Residential"
A PWR position paper has shown that there are only three types of energy consumption in homes (autonomous, instant and time shift). Autonomous refers to things like fridges, freezers and heating circulation pumps. Instant are items such as lights, cookers etc. Time shift has three items: dishwashers, clothes washers and clothes dryers.
Energy saving with respect to autonomous products can only be accomplished by replacement with more efficient ones. As a class this can account for up to 50% of a household's electrical energy budget. It is quite possible through replacement to cut consumption in this class by more than half. Example (fridge freezer – 215l/60l): Class A++ = 137 Kwhrs/yr, Class C = 522Kwhrs/yr. A 75% reduction in energy consumption by replacing the Class C with a Class A.
Instant accounts for around 23% of electrical power consumption with, lighting accounting for between 12 to 18%. Lights are amenable to replacement with LEDS (which would cut consumption by 90% in this category). Time shift appliances account for less than 10% although smart grid proponents often emphasise the importance of this class.
The unresolved issue of 'who pays for smart meter roll-out?' can be answered quite simply. So far, the only country-wide installation of smart meters in Europe was done in Italy by ENEL. The financial justification was theft reduction. The project paid for itself in two years and was funded by ENEL. If power companies feel there is a need for 'smart meters', let them pay for the installation themselves.
Alternative systems to smart meters which also provide timely consumption information to the residential sector are rarely mentioned, for example Alertme in the UK (PWR has no commercial links to this company). When your only tool is a hammer (smart meter) every problem (energy consumption) becomes a nail.
Score: SGs & SMs 0 Energy Efficiency Residential Sector 1.
"Power Networks & Smart Grids"
It is claimed that using smart grids could reduce losses in electricity distribution networks. Losses in networks arise from two areas: transformers and cables/overhead lines. There are three ways to reduce losses. Replace old transformers with new, low-loss ones, re-configure the network in a more energy-efficient topology and change transformer tap settings to deliver a more accurate voltage. The latter two can be accomplished with more widespread instrumentation on a given network. Smart Grid? Hardly.
No doubt Mr Chris King ("utilities will also be able to lower the system voltage level") is aware that distribution companies have a regulatory duty to deliver voltage within specific limits. Depending on the network, some struggle with both over and under-voltage. PWR is working on projects in this area. However, the core challenge facing power networks (both transmission and distribution) is absorbing more renewables. I would suggest this comes first and reducing system voltage a poor second.
"Saving Money."
The Smart Energy Demand Coalition claims that smart grids and meters could save 52 billion euros. The residential sector spends around 103 bn euros per year and industry spends around 120bn euros on electricity. The Fraunhofer report indicates non-smart grid savings of around 30bn euros for industry. The residential sector could save (on a non-smart meter basis) around 40bn euros. In total, this amounts to 80bn euros without either smart meters or smart grids. I would be interested to hear in more detail about the hypothetical 53 bn euros that smart grids and smart meters would bring.
John Harris was quoted as saying "the first thing we need to do is to define what an intelligent system and meter is," and noted that European standardisation bodies working under an EU mandate are a good starting point. Perhaps they are, but tell me John, how long does it take to make a meter standard (smart or otherwise?). The Open Meter project has been going for two years: what are the results so far???.
Let's put this into context: Groupe Speciale Mobile took two years to put together a mobile network standard capable of supporting calls across a continent. Two years after that, the first commercial network went live. PWR does not see a similar level of urgency with smart meters and in any case, many member states are already rolling out smart meter systems. Possibly a case of closing the standardisation door after the smart meter horse has bolted?
In George Orwell's 1984, the end of the book discusses how 'newspeak' will remove the ability to think certain concepts. Trite phrases such as 'smart meters' or 'smart grids' do likewise. They simplify to the point of meaninglessness complex energy systems and networks. Such an approach is useful if the intention is to eliminate clear thinking and open debate. It is also useful if the aim is to gloss over the complexities and the alternatives with the hope that politicians will be sufficiently bamboozled to simply hand over lots of money.
Mike Parr


text:
january 26, 2013 • 02:13 PM
The beautiful wives and girlfriends of the Mexican league
- In every league, soccer players show off their beautiful couples. Mexico could not be left behind, having relationships with the most beautiful and famous women. Here we look at the best. Photo: Terra
- Chivas striker, Marco Fabian, was hooked by actress Ana Bekoa in 2012. Until now, their relationship continues to go well with even talk of a possible wedding. Photo: Terra
- Bekoa, 24, has acted on various television shows and is also pursuing a career in modeling. Photo: Reproducción Internet
- One of the most famous couples in Mexican soccer is Rafael Marquez and model Jaydy Michel. The pair was married in 2011. Photo: Reproducción Internet
- Michel was married to the Spanish singer, Alejandro Sanz, before divorcing in 2004. A little later she met Marquez, whom she married two years ago. Photo: Reproducción Internet
- Television reporter, Marisol Gonzalez, ended her relationship with boxer Saul Alvarez and began a relationship with Chivas striker, Rafael Marquez Lugo. Photo: Reproducción Internet
- Marisol, who is also pursuing a career in modeling, was one of the most attractive images on Mexican television. Photo: Reproducción Internet
- One of the London 2012 Olympic Champions, Javier Aquino can also show off a beautiful girlfriend, Zoe Robb, of Ireland. Photo: EFE
- During all social and athletic events, Aquino usually brings Robb. The player even likes to share with his followers what him and Zoe are doing. Photo: Reproducción Internet
Another Chivas player couldn't be left behind. Jorge 'Chaton' Enriquez has sustained a romance with Brazilian model Leia Freitas, dedicating his Twitter to praising her. Photo: Reproducción Internet - Leia Freitas lives in Mexico and is dedicated to her modeling, while also doing cameos on television. Photo: Reproducción Internet
- Cuauhtemoc Blanco could not be left off the lsit. Considered one of the best players in Mexican history, the striker is currently dating Mexican actresse Ivonne Ley. Photo: Terra
In every league, soccer players show off their beautiful couples. Mexico could not be left behind, having relationships with the most beautiful and famous women. Here we look at the best.
Photo: Terra
Multiple Sources


text:
A common denominator for many of the research activities is quantitative computations of atmospheric processes with the aid of theoretical and numerical models.
Photo: NRS, UiO
About the group
We carry out research in dynamical, physical and chemical meteorology. Our research activities are on storm tracks, large-scale dynamics, turbulence, aerosol-climate interactions, polar lows, cloud microphysics, radiative forcing, atmospheric chemistry and many other related topics. We make extensive use of computationally intensive numerical models, such as NorESM, Oslo CTM3, WRF and WRF-CHEM.
The group has significant collaboration with other institutes both nationally and internationally. The collaboration involves research and training of Ph.D. students. At present the following Ph.D. students are affiliated with the Meteorology group:
- Ada Gjermundsen
- Lise Seland Graff
- Jonas Karstensen, Cicero
- Marianne Tronstad Lund, Cicero
- Johanne Hope Rydsaa
- Birthe Marie R. Steensen, MET Norway
- Camilla Weum Stjern
- Kjetil Schanke Aas


text:
Hot tub area
When you're in juniper-country, in a 50 year old house and yard that's been unkempt for at least 20 years, you essentially start from scratch. This is the result. We're only about 1/3 of the way done, but were smart enough to get the hot tub in early. :)
Yard Categories:
Back Yard
Small (Under 1,000 sq ft.)
More Inspirational Yards You Will Enjoy...
Zen Landscaping Tips from the Eye of the Storm
The Tao that can be spoken may not be the Tao, but the Zen that can be seen is definitely "on trend". YardShare members Tracy and Wendy Evans show us how it's done with their lovely landscape in Hurricane, Utah.
Revel in These Charming Snowscapes
Landscapes are usually most stunning during those times of the year when you can actually see the ground. But there is an eerie beauty to a yard covered in freshly fallen snow as well.
YardShare to the Rescue in Sioux City
YardShare member Masman35 in Sioux City is looking for some ideas to boost the appeal of a very plain yard. This homeowner doesn't like the rocks or the existing bushes...
Video: Choosing A Site For A Vegetable Garden
Ed Bruske, Master Gardener and president of D.C. Urban Gardeners, offers tips on the best locations for your vegetable garden.


text:
Community Foundation Of Greater Jackson Announces Newest Fund The Dave Cannada Memorial Scholarship Fund / Special to VIP
Portrait of John Alexander now on display in Mississippi Museum of Art's Portrait Gallery / Special to VIP
Community Foundation Of Greater Jackson Announces Newest Fund The Dave Cannada Memorial Scholarship Fund
Jackson attorney William Reed announced the establishing of THE DAVE CANNADA MEMORIAL SCHOLARSHIP FUND. The fund honors the life of Dave Cannada, a Murrah graduate who died in 1970. Established by Dave's classmates in the Murrah Class of 1968 and administered by The Community Foundation of Greater Jackson (CFGJ), the fund will underwrite scholarships to be awarded annually to Murrah High School seniors.
Reed made the announcement April 19th at Murrah High School. Following the announcement, Jackson businessman and philanthropist Jim Barksdale led the final session of the 2011—2012 Dave Cannada Mentor Program at Murrah High School. This year's roster featured informative sessions led by Jackson area business leaders (all graduates of Murrah High School). Topics covered were government/public service, nursing, education, medicine, small business, insurance, law, accounting, advertising, real estate, dentistry, banking and military. The program began in 2010.
For more information about the Dave Cannada Memorial Scholarship Fund or other funds and scholarship programs offered by CFGJ, call 601-974-6044 or visit www.cfgj.org.
Community Trust Bank Broke Ground on New Banking Centers in Madison and Flowood
Community Trust Bank broke ground on two new banking centers in last month, demonstrating a continued commitment to expansion and investment in the greater Jackson area. Located in Flowood and Madison, these centers are slated to open in the fourth quarter of 2012.
The new Flowood Banking Center took place at 203 Promenade Boulevard, Flowood. Joining representatives of Community Trust Bank were the Chamber of Flowood President Keith Clair, Rankin County Chamber of Commerce President Debbie Brinson, and City of Flowood Mayor Gary Rhoads.
The new Madison Banking Center groundbreaking was at 1910 Main Street, Madison. Madison the City Chamber of Commerce president, Jane Bell, Madison County Chamber of Commerce president, Sharon Moulder, and Madison the City Mayor Mary Hawkins Butler joined Community Trust Bank for this celebration.
"Groundbreakings are representative of Community Trust Bank's growth in Mississippi and our commitment to our customers and communities," said Larry Ratzlaff, Regional President for Community Trust Bank. "Growth is a direct result of customer satisfaction, which is always our number one goal. As an organization, Community Trust Bank is committed to helping its communities prosper and grow. We feel moving to the Flowood area and establishing a presence on Main Street in Madison demonstrates our commitment as we continue to execute our planned development in central Mississippi."
Community Trust Bank will open the Highland Colony Financial Center in Ridgeland later this summer. The financial center at 1063 Highland Colony Parkway broke ground in October 2011. The two-story building will feature state-of-the-art technology and include multiple drive-thru lanes. Dialogue towers will also be featured in the lobby, which offer a more customer friendly environment for conducting transactions.
Community Trust Bank, a century-old Louisiana-chartered bank, provides a wide range of traditional banking services with 30 banking centers throughout north Louisiana, north Texas, and north and central Mississippi. To learn more, visit Community Trust's website at ctbonline.com.
Portrait of John Alexander now on display in Mississippi Museum of Art's Portrait Gallery
A portrait of famed Metropolitan Opera tenor John Alexander, a Meridian native, is now on display at the Mississippi Museum of Art. The portrait was commissioned shortly after Alexander's 1990 death by a group of opera enthusiasts led by Dick Wilson and his wife, Lester Senter Wilson.
Mississippi Opera board member Cecile Wardlaw noted, "I am delighted that this beautiful portrait of celebrated opera star John Alexander by acclaimed Mississippi portraitist Eric McDonald is now available for all to see. Even as a Metropolitan Opera star, Alexander maintained his Mississippi roots, visiting the state often and serving as president of the board of Mississippi Opera. In addition to being an excellent likeness, the portrait exhibits many of Alexander's favorite things, from libretto to cufflinks."
Portrait donors include Mr. and Mrs. Richard B. Wilson, Jr., Lester Senter Wilson, Mr. and Mrs. J. A. Brown, Mr. and Mrs. Chandler Clover, Mr. and Mrs. Emmanuel Crystal, Dr. and Mrs. Samuel B. Johnson, Mr. Stuart C. Irby, Mr. and Mrs. William Norton, Inn Service Corp.—Mr. Earle Jones, Mr. and Mrs. Louis Watson, Mr. and Mrs. Spencer Gilbert, Mr. and Mrs. Tom Kossen, Mr. and Mrs. Warren Ludlam and Dr. and Mrs. McKamy Smith.
Eric McDonald explains the symbolism in his John Alexander portrait: "The clown's costume is from I Pagliacci, one of John's favorite operas in which he performed. The gold chiming watch represents the one John used numerous times in his role in the opera Die Fledermaus to attract the beautiful girls. The gold cuff links were custom made by a jeweler to simulate the stage of Metropolitan Opera. The G. Schirmer scores with dates of Cosi fan Tutte, the opera in which he made his Metropolitan Opera debut and La Clemenza di Tito, which was the last opera in which he premiered a role at the Met."
Mississippi Opera is a non-profit organization that produces professional opera performances, promotes the understanding and appreciation of opera through education and expansion of audiences, and implements programs to identify and develop regional operatic talent. Founded in 1944, Mississippi Opera Association, the 10th oldest continuously operating professional opera company in the United States, is celebrating its 68th anniversary.
For more information about Mississippi Opera, visit www.msopera.org.
First Annual Independence Day Celebration
The Barnett Reservoir Foundation and the Pearl River Valley Water Supply District are proud to announce the 1st Annual Independence Day Celebration Saturday, June 30.
The Independence Day Celebration at the Barnett Reservoir will be a salute to our country's troops. Events will include activities in both Old Trace Park and Lakeshore Park. At both parks, there will be kid zones, live music, food vendors and static military displays. Those attending at either park will enjoy the lighted boat parade, and a grand fireworks display that will finish the evening. Admission is free to all! Both Rankin County and Madison County sides of the reservoir will be able to partake in the celebrations in their local parks.
Wounded Warriors and Operation PROP will serve as our Grand Marshals for the 1st Annual Boat Parade. We are honored to be a partner with these organizations during our salute to our country and troops.
The Barnett Reservoir Foundation, a non-profit 501(c)3, was recently established to promote the reservoir and surrounding businesses. The Foundation looks forward to introducing itself to the community with the Independence Day Celebration. Fireworks had been a tradition at the Barnett Reservoir since the 1980's. With changes in business ownership around the reservoir, the fireworks went silent after the 2005 show. We hope to make this an annual tradition, becoming bigger and better each year.


text:
So, I'm back from that test! There was this OMFG SMOKING HOTTT tenth grader in mine lol. I remember what school she went to, but I didn't catch her name. Bummer. I didn't even notice her until like an hour into the test. XD
It's funny because usually, I always try and pick out all the hot girls while waiting for the tests to begin. You'd think I'd notice if I had a hot one in the actual test with me! But this year, there was only one I was able to focus on... <3 After about ten unsuccessful minutes of trying to get my friend's attention, a girl she had really wanted to talk to appeared and sat down by me. My friend noticed her walk in, though, and ran over to us, where I became unable to contain myself and yelled out her name. She smiled and said hey, then allowed me to attack her with hugs while she talked to the other chick.
But then it was time for the instructions to start and stuff, so she had to go back to the other side of the gym, and I didn't really get to talk to her. :C But hugs are good too! And she was all dressed up and sexy today... Oh, my godddd.
Irritating Girl was jealous. When I was looking for my friend, I said, "Hey Irritating Girl, I'm looking for my friend. Have you seen her?"
She said, "Yeah, she's that stupid hooker-looking one across the room!"
(Umm, nope. She was wearing a knee-length dress and had just the right amount of makeup on. Not very hooker-like. Sorry, Irritating Girl, you lose!)
Shut up, Irritating Girl. You're just mad that she looks like an angel, and you're gross. You're mad that she has perfect hair, pretty eyes, and sexy tanned legs, while you are just a pimply loser and a bitch too! She seemed happy to see all of us sitting there, even YOU, and you talked that way about her. Don't you feel bad?
Anyway, then I spotted some people I don't like. I saw my friend's awful, awful ex-boyfriend. I hoped to never see him again since he moved away, but he was at one of the schools that were there! Ugh! He used to ruin my day once a week, every week.
Then I saw my friend's other friend whom I'm not too fond of. The things she writes on her facebook irritate me, and today she wouldn't stop kissing her face, which got me all stupidly jealous.
The test itself was kinda bad... Eeeek. D: I probably didn't do much to make my school look good. Well, that's fine by me, because my school ISN'T good. So ha! I win, and they lose!
i love how you ramble on about girls for ten paragraphs, then barley mention the test XD
"...I find it kinda funny,I find it kinda sad, that the dreams where i am dieing are the best I've ever had..." -gary jules
guys are more important ;D then only guy you mentioned was douche face boy
"...I find it kinda funny,I find it kinda sad, that the dreams where i am dieing are the best I've ever had..." -gary jules
Umm, there was also a certain dude there who is 15 yet looks 10... I recognized him right away. Uber annoying girl's ex-boyfriend XDDD
I agree with Ferrets XD
It was like "So I'm back from the test! Ohletstalkaboutgirls"
Haha. You're amazing.
You're twisted and perverted. I like that in a person.
scoping out hot girls - that's what going to events that include other schools are for!
I know, right? :D
And all the other schools have way hotter girls than mine. Not fair!


text:
History of Bangladesh (1947-1971)
History of Bangladesh (1947-1971)
Topic Home
Ask a question about '
History of Bangladesh (1947-1971)
Start a new discussion about '
History of Bangladesh (1947-1971)
Answer questions from other users
Full Discussion Forum
history of Bangladesh from 1947 to 1971
covers the period of
Bangladesh , officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south...
's history between its independence as a part of
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
from British colonial rule in 1947 to its independence from Pakistan in 1971.
Post-partition difficulties
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
was born in bloodshed and came into existence on August 14, 1947, confronted by seemingly insurmountable problems. As many as 12 million people—Muslims leaving
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
for Pakistan, and
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
s and
A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. It primarily originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia. The term "Sikh" has its origin in Sanskrit term शिष्य , meaning "disciple, student" or शिक्ष , meaning "instruction"...
s opting to move to India from the new state of Pakistan—had been involved in the mass transfer of population between the two countries, and perhaps two million refugees had died in the violence that had accompanied the migrations. Pakistan's boundaries were established hastily without adequate regard for the new nation's economic viability. Even the minimal requirements of a working central government—skilled personnel, equipment, and a capital city with government buildings—were missing. Until 1947, the East Wing of Pakistan, separated from the West Wing by 1,600 kilometres of Indian territory, had been heavily dependent on Hindu management. Many Hindu Bengalis left for Calcutta after partition, and their place, particularly in commerce, was taken mostly by Muslims who had migrated from the Indian state of
Bihar is a state in eastern India. It is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size at and 3rd largest by population. Almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, which is the highest proportion in India....
or by
West Pakistan
West Pakistan
West Pakistan , common name West-Pakistan , in the period between its establishment on 22 November 1955 to disintegration on December 16, 1971. This period, during which, Pakistan was divided, ended when East-Pakistan was disintegrated and succeeded to become which is now what is known as Bangladesh...
is from
Punjab (Pakistan)
Punjab is the most populous province of Pakistan, with approximately 45% of the country's total population. Forming most of the Punjab region, the province is bordered by Kashmir to the north-east, the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east, the Pakistani province of Sindh to the...
After partition,
Muslim banking
Islamic banking
Islamic banking is banking or banking activity that is consistent with the principles of Islamic law and its practical application through the development of Islamic economics. Sharia prohibits the fixed or floating payment or acceptance of specific interest or fees for loans of money...
shifted from Bombay to
Karachi is the largest city, main seaport and the main financial centre of Pakistan, as well as the capital of the province of Sindh. The city has an estimated population of 13 to 15 million, while the total metropolitan area has a population of over 18 million...
, Pakistan's first capital. Much of the investment in
East Pakistan
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a provincial state of Pakistan established in 14 August 1947. The provincial state existed until its declaration of independence on 26 March 1971 as the independent nation of Bangladesh. Pakistan recognized the new nation on 16 December 1971. East Pakistan was created from Bengal...
came from West Pakistani banks. Investment was concentrated in
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced from plants in the genus Corchorus, which has been classified in the family Tiliaceae, or more recently in Malvaceae....
production at a time when international demand was decreasing. The largest jute processing factory in the world, at
Narayanganj is a city in central Bangladesh. It is located in the Narayanganj District, near the capital city of Dhaka and has a population of 220,000. The city is on the bank of the Shitalakshya River. The river port of Narayanganj is one of the oldest in Bangladesh...
, an industrial suburb of
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
, was owned by the Adamjee family from West Pakistan. Because banking and financing were generally controlled by West Pakistanis, discriminatory practices often resulted. Bengalis found themselves excluded from the managerial level and from skilled labor. West Pakistanis tended to favour
Urdu is a register of the Hindustani language that is identified with Muslims in South Asia. It belongs to the Indo-European family. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also widely spoken in some regions of India, where it is one of the 22 scheduled languages and an...
-speaking Biharis (refugees from the northern Indian state of Bihar living in East Pakistan), considering them to be less prone to labor agitation than the Bengalis. This preference became more pronounced after explosive labor clashes between the Biharis and Bengalis at the Narayaganj jute mill in 1954.
Pakistan had a severe shortage of trained administrative personnel, as most members of the pre-independence Indian Civil Service were Hindus or Sikhs who opted to belong to India at partition. Rarer still were Muslim Bengalis who had any past administrative experience. As a result, high-level posts in
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
, including that of governor general, were usually filled by West Pakistanis or by refugees from India who had adopted Pakistani citizenship.
Bengali Language Movement
One of the most divisive issues confronting Pakistan in its infancy was the question of what the
official language
Official language
An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically a nation's official language will be the one used in that nation's courts, parliament and administration. However, official status can also be used to give a...
of the new state was to be. Mohammad Ali Jinnah yielded to the demands of refugees from the Indian states of Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh abbreviation U.P. , is a state located in the northern part of India. With a population of over 200 million people, it is India's most populous state, as well as the world's most populous sub-national entity...
, who insisted that
Urdu is a register of the Hindustani language that is identified with Muslims in South Asia. It belongs to the Indo-European family. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan. It is also widely spoken in some regions of India, where it is one of the 22 scheduled languages and an...
be Pakistan's official language. Speakers of the languages of West Pakistan (
Punjabi language
Punjabi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by inhabitants of the historical Punjab region . For Sikhs, the Punjabi language stands as the official language in which all ceremonies take place. In Pakistan, Punjabi is the most widely spoken language...
Sindhi language
Sindhi is the language of the Sindh region of Pakistan that is spoken by the Sindhi people. In India, it is among 22 constitutionally recognized languages, where Sindhis are a sizeable minority. It is spoken by 53,410,910 people in Pakistan, according to the national government's Statistics Division...
, Pushtu, and
Balochi language
Balochi is a Northwestern Iranian language. It is the principal language of the Baloch of Balochistan, Pakistan, eastern Iran and southern Afghanistan. It is also spoken as a second language by some Brahui. It is designated as one of nine official languages of Pakistan.-Vowels:The Balochi vowel...
) were upset that their languages were given second-class status. In East Pakistan, the dissatisfaction quickly turned to violence. The Bengalis of East Pakistan constituted a majority (an estimated 54 percent) of Pakistan's entire population. Their language, Bangla (then commonly known as Bengali), shares with Urdu a common
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
ic-Persian ancestor, but the two languages have different scripts and literary traditions.
Jinnah visited East Pakistan on only one occasion after independence, shortly before his death in 1948. He announced in Dhaka that "without one state language, no nation can remain solidly together and function." Jinnah's views were not accepted by most East Pakistanis, but perhaps in tribute to the founder of Pakistan, serious resistance on this issue did not break out until after his death. On February 21, 1952, a demonstration was carried out in Dhaka in which students demanded equal status for Bangla. The police reacted by firing on the crowd and killing many students, most of whom remain unidentified to this day. (A memorial, the
Shaheed Minar
Shaheed Minar
The Shaheed Minar is a national monument in Dhaka, Bangladesh, established to commemorate those killed during the Language Movement demonstrations of 1952....
, was built later to commemorate the martyrs of the language movement.) Two years after the incident, Bengali agitation effectively forced the National Assembly to designate "Urdu and Bengali and such other languages as may be declared" to be the official languages of Pakistan.
Jinnah and Liaquat
What kept the new country together was the vision and forceful personality of the founders of Pakistan: Jinnah, the governor general popularly known as the
Quaid i Azam
(Supreme Leader); and
Liaquat Ali Khan
Liaquat Ali Khan
For other people with the same or similar name, see Liaqat Ali Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan was a Pakistani statesman who became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan, Defence minister and Commonwealth, Kashmir Affairs...
(1895–1951), the first
prime minister
Prime Minister of Pakistan
The Prime Minister of Pakistan , is the Head of Government of Pakistan who is designated to exercise as the country's Chief Executive. By the Constitution of Pakistan, Pakistan has the parliamentary democratic system of government...
, popularly known as the
Quaid i Millet
(Leader of the Community). The government machinery established at independence was similar to the viceregal system that had prevailed in the pre-independence period and placed no formal limitations on Jinnah's constitutional powers. In the 1970s in Bangladesh, another autocrat,
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was a Bengali nationalist politician and the founder of Bangladesh. He headed the Awami League, served as the first President of Bangladesh and later became its Prime Minister. He headed the Awami League, served as the first President of Bangladesh and later became its...
, would enjoy much of the same prestige and exemption from the normal rule of law.
When Jinnah died in September 1948, the seat of power shifted from the governor general to the prime minister, Liaquat. Liaquat had extensive experience in politics and enjoyed as a refugee from India the additional benefit of not being too closely identified with any one province of Pakistan. A moderate, Liaquat subscribed to the ideals of a
A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modeled after that of the United Kingdom. The name is derived from the French , the action of parler : a parlement is a discussion. The term came to mean a meeting at which...
ary, democratic, and secular state. Out of necessity he considered the wishes of the country's religious spokesmen who championed the cause of Pakistan as an
Islamic state
Islamic State
An Islamic state is a type of government, in which the primary basis for government is Islamic religious law...
. He was seeking a balance of Islam against secularism for a new constitution when he was assassinated on October 16, 1951, by fanatics opposed to Liaquat's refusal to wage war against India. With both Jinnah and Liaquat gone, Pakistan faced an unstable period that would be resolved by military and civil service intervention in political affairs. The first few turbulent years after independence thus defined the enduring politico-military culture of Pakistan.
The inability of the politicians to provide a stable government was largely a result of their mutual suspicions. Loyalties tended to be personal, ethnic, and provincial rather than national and issue oriented. Provincialism was openly expressed in the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly. In the Constituent Assembly, frequent arguments voiced the fear that the West Pakistani province of Punjab would dominate the nation. An ineffective body, the Constituent Assembly took almost nine years to draft a constitution, which for all practical purposes was never put into effect.
Khwaja Nazimuddin and Ghulam Mohammad
Liaquat was succeeded as prime minister by a conservative Bengali, Governor General Khwaja Nazimuddin. Former finance minister Ghulam Mohammad, a Punjabi career civil servant, became governor general. Ghulam Mohammad was dissatisfied with Nazimuddin's inability to deal with Bengali agitation for provincial
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
and worked to expand his own power base. East Pakistan favoured a high degree of autonomy, with the central government controlling little more than foreign affairs, defence, communications, and currency. In 1953 Ghulam Mohammad dismissed Prime Minister Nazimuddin, established
martial law
Martial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
in Punjab, and imposed governor's rule (direct rule by the central government) in East Pakistan. In 1954, he appointed his own "cabinet of talents". Mohammad Ali Bogra, another conservative Bengali and previously Pakistan's ambassador to the
United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and the
United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
, was named prime minister.
During September and October 1954 a chain of events culminated in a confrontation between the governor general and the prime minister. Prime Minister Bogra tried to limit the powers of Governor General Ghulam Mohammad through hastily adopted amendments to the de facto constitution, the Government of India Act of 1935. The governor general, however, enlisted the tacit support of the army and civil service, dissolved the Constituent Assembly, and then formed a new cabinet. Bogra, a man without a personal following, remained prime minister but without effective power. General
Iskander Mirza
, who had been a soldier and civil servant, became minister of the interior; General Muhammad Ayub Khan, the army commander, became minister of defence; and
Chaudhry Muhammad Ali
Chaudhry Muhammad Ali
Chaudhry Muhammad Ali Chaudhry Muhammad Ali Chaudhry Muhammad Ali (Punjabi, ; (July 15, 1905 - December 2, 1980) was a Pakistani statesman who served as the fourth Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1955 to 1956.-Early life:...
, former head of the civil service, remained minister of finance. The main objective of the new government was to end disruptive provincial politics and to provide the country with a new constitution. The Federal Court, however, declared that a new Constituent Assembly must be called. Ghulam Mohammad was unable to circumvent the order, and the new Constituent Assembly, elected by the provincial assemblies, met for the first time in July 1955. Bogra, who had little support in the new assembly, fell in August and was replaced by Choudhry; Ghulam Mohammad, plagued by poor health, was succeeded as governor general in September 1955 by Mirza.
Second Constituent Assembly
The second Constituent Assembly differed in composition from the first. In East Pakistan, the
Muslim League
Muslim League
The All-India Muslim League,, was founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka , in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the partition of Bengal in 1905...
had been overwhelmingly defeated in the 1954 provincial assembly elections by the United Front coalition of Bengali regional parties anchored by
A. K. Fazlul Huq
A. K. Fazlul Huq
Not to be confused with the cricket ground in Dhaka Sher-e-Bangla Cricket Stadium Sher-e-Bangla Abul Kashem Fazlul Huq was a well-known Bengali statesman in the first half of the 20th century...
's Krishak Sramik Samajbadi Dal (Peasants and Workers Socialist Party) and the Awami League (People's League) led by
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was a Pakistani-Bengali politician and statesman who served as 5th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1956 till 1957, and a close associate of Mohammad Ali Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan, first Prime minister of Pakistan...
. Rejection of West Pakistan's dominance over East Pakistan and the desire for Bengali provincial autonomy were the main ingredients of the coalition's twenty-one-point platform. The East Pakistani election and the coalition's victory proved pyrrhic; Bengali factionalism surfaced soon after the election and the United Front fell apart. From 1954 to Ayub's assumption of power in 1958, the Krishak Sramik and the Awami League waged a ceaseless battle for control of East Pakistan's provincial government.
Prime Minister Choudhry induced the politicians to agree on a constitution in 1956. In order to establish a better balance between the west and east wings, the four provinces of West Pakistan were amalgamated into
one administrative unit
One Unit
One-Unit was the title of a scheme launched by the federal government of Pakistan to merge the four provinces of West Pakistan into one homogenous unit, as a counterbalance against the numerical domination of the ethnic Bengalis of East Pakistan...
. The
1956 constitution
Constitution of Pakistan of 1956
The Constitution of 1956 was the fundamental law of Pakistan from March 1956 until the Revolution of October 1958.-Origins:Pakistan became independent of the United Kingdom in 1947. Under Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Government of India Act, 1935 became, with certain...
made provisions for an
Islamic state
Islamic State
An Islamic state is a type of government, in which the primary basis for government is Islamic religious law...
as embodied in its Directive of Principles of State Policy, which defined methods of promoting Islamic morality. The national parliament was to comprise one house of 300 members with equal representation from both the west and east wings.
The Awami League's Suhrawardy succeeded Choudhry as prime minister in September 1956 and formed a coalition cabinet. He, like other Bengali politicians, was chosen by the central government to serve as a symbol of unity, but he failed to secure significant support from West Pakistani power brokers. Although he had a good reputation in East Pakistan and was respected for his pre-partition association with Gandhi, his strenuous efforts to gain greater provincial autonomy for East Pakistan and a larger share of development funds for it were not well received in West Pakistan. Suhrawardy's thirteen months in office came to an end after he took a strong position against abrogation of the existing "One Unit" government for all of West Pakistan in favour of separate local governments for
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
, Punjab, Baluchistan, and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. He thus lost much support from West Pakistan's provincial politicians. He also used emergency powers to prevent the formation of a
Muslim League
Muslim League
The All-India Muslim League,, was founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka , in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the partition of Bengal in 1905...
provincial government in West Pakistan, thereby losing much Punjabi backing. Moreover, his open advocacy of votes of confidence from the Constituent Assembly as the proper means of forming governments aroused the suspicions of President Mirza. In 1957 the president used his considerable influence to oust Suhrawardy from the office of prime minister. The drift toward economic decline and political chaos continued.
The "Revolution" of Ayub Khan, 1958–66
In East Pakistan the political impasse culminated in 1958 in a violent scuffle in the provincial assembly between members of the opposition and the police force, in which the deputy speaker was fatally injured and two ministers badly wounded. Uncomfortable with the workings of parliamentary democracy, unruliness in the East Pakistani provincial assembly elections and the threat of
Baluch may refer to:*Balochistan region of south and southwest Asia*Baloch people, a people inhabiting the region of Balochistan*Sindhi Baloch, a community of Baloch descent found in the province of Sindh in Pakistan...
separatism in West Pakistan, on October 7, 1958,
issued a proclamation that abolished political parties, abrogated the two-year-old constitution, and placed the country under
martial law
Martial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
. Mirza announced that martial law would be a temporary measure lasting only until a new constitution was drafted. On October 27, he swore in a twelve-member cabinet that included Ayub as prime minister and three other generals in ministerial positions. Included among the eight civilians was
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that, 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party — the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan— and served as its chairman until his...
, a former university lecturer. On the same day, the general exiled Mirza to
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
because "the armed services and the people demanded a clean break with the past." Until 1962, martial law continued and Ayub purged a number of politicians and civil servants from the government and replaced them with army officers. Ayub called his regime a "revolution to clean up the mess of black marketing and corruption."
new constitution
Constitution of Pakistan of 1962
The Constitution of 1962 was the fundamental law of Pakistan from June 1962 until martial law was declared in March 1969. It was eventually replaced by the current Constitution of 1973.-Origins:...
promulgated by Ayub in March 1962 vested all executive authority of the republic in the president. As chief executive, the president could appoint ministers without approval by the legislature. There was no provision for a prime minister. There was a provision for a National Assembly and two provincial assemblies, whose members were to be chosen by the "Basic Democrats"—80,000 voters organised into a five-tier hierarchy, with each tier electing officials to the next tier. Pakistan was declared a
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
(without being specifically an
Islamic republic
Islamic republic
Islamic republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Mauritania. Pakistan adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian...
) but, in deference to the
-In Islam:* Ulema, also transliterated "ulama", a community of legal scholars of Islam and its laws . See:**Nahdlatul Ulama **Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama **Jamiatul Ulama Transvaal**Jamiat ul-Ulama -Other:...
s (religious scholars), the president was required to be a
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
, and no law could be passed that was contrary to the tenets of Islam.
The 1962 constitution made few concessions to Bengalis. It was, instead, a document that buttressed centralised government under the guise of "basic democracies" programs, gave legal support to martial law, and turned parliamentary bodies into forums for debate. Throughout the Ayub years, East Pakistan and West Pakistan grew farther apart. The death of the Awami League's Suhrawardy in 1963 gave the mercurial
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was a Bengali nationalist politician and the founder of Bangladesh. He headed the Awami League, served as the first President of Bangladesh and later became its Prime Minister. He headed the Awami League, served as the first President of Bangladesh and later became its...
(commonly known as Mujib) the leadership of East Pakistan's dominant party. Mujib, who as early as 1956 had advocated the "liberation" of East Pakistan and had been jailed in 1958 during the military coup, quickly and successfully brought the issue of East Pakistan's movement for autonomy to the forefront of the nation's politics.
During the years between 1960 and 1965, the annual rate of growth of the
gross domestic product
Gross domestic product
Gross domestic product refers to the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period. GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country's standard of living....
per capita was 4.4 percent in West Pakistan versus just 2.6 percent in East Pakistan. Furthermore, Bengali politicians pushing for more autonomy complained that much of Pakistan's export earnings were generated in East Pakistan by the export of Bengali
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced from plants in the genus Corchorus, which has been classified in the family Tiliaceae, or more recently in Malvaceae....
Tea is an aromatic beverage prepared by adding cured leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant to hot water. The term also refers to the plant itself. After water, tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world...
. As late as 1960, approximately 70 percent of Pakistan's export earnings originated in the East Wing, although this percentage declined as international demand for jute dwindled. By the mid-1960s, the East Wing was accounting for less than 60 percent of the nation's export earnings, and by the time of Bangladesh's independence in 1971, this percentage had dipped below 50 percent. This reality did not dissuade Mujib from demanding in 1966 that separate foreign exchange accounts be kept and that separate trade offices be opened overseas. By the mid-1960s, West Pakistan was benefiting from Ayub's "Decade of Progress," with its successful "
green revolution
Green Revolution
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s....
" in wheat, and from the expansion of markets for West Pakistani textiles, while the East Pakistani
standard of living
Standard of living
Standard of living is generally measured by standards such as real income per person and poverty rate. Other measures such as access and quality of health care, income growth inequality and educational standards are also used. Examples are access to certain goods , or measures of health such as...
remained at an abysmally low level. Bengalis were also upset that West Pakistan, because it was the seat of government, was the major beneficiary of foreign aid.
Emerging discontent, 1966–70
At a 1966
Lahore conference
Lahore Conference
At the Lahore Conference of 1940, the idea of one/more independent Muslim state – Pakistan – was first raised by Mohammad Ali Jinnah....
of both the eastern and the western chapters of the Awami League, Mujib announced his six-point political and economic program for East Pakistani provincial autonomy. He demanded that the government be federal and parliamentary in nature, its members to be elected by universal adult suffrage with legislative on the basis of population; that the federal government have principal responsibility for
foreign affairs
Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs is an American magazine and website on international relations and U.S. foreign policy published since 1922 by the Council on Foreign Relations six times annually...
and defence only; that each wing have its own currency and separate fiscal accounts; that taxation would occur at the provincial level, with a federal government funded by constitutionally guaranteed grants; that each federal unit could control its own earning of foreign exchange; and that each unit could raise its own
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
or paramilitary forces.
Mujib's six points ran directly counter to President Ayub's plan for greater national integration. Ayub's anxieties were shared by many West Pakistanis, who feared that Mujib's plan would divide Pakistan by encouraging ethnic and linguistic cleavages in West Pakistan, and would leave East Pakistan, with its Bengali ethnic and linguistic unity, by far the most populous and powerful of the federating units. Ayub interpreted Mujib's demands as tantamount to a call for independence. After pro-Mujib supporters rioted in a
general strike
General strike
A general strike is a strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city, region, or country. While a general strike can be for political goals, economic goals, or both, it tends to gain its momentum from the ideological or class sympathies of the participants...
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
, the government arrested Mujib in January 1968.
Ayub suffered a number of setbacks in 1968. His health was poor, and he was almost assassinated at a ceremony marking ten years of his rule. Riots followed, and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that, 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party — the largest and most influential political party in Pakistan— and served as its chairman until his...
was arrested as the instigator. At Dhaka a tribunal that inquired into the activities of the already-interned Mujib was arousing strong popular resentment against Ayub. A conference of opposition leaders and the cancellation of the state of emergency (in effect since 1965) came too late to conciliate the opposition. On February 21, 1969, Ayub announced that he would not run in the next
presidential election in 1970
Pakistani general election, 1970
General elections were held for the first time in Pakistan in on 7 December 1970, although the polls in East Pakistan, originally scheduled for October, were delayed by disastrous floods and rescheduled for later in December and January 1971....
. A state of near anarchy reigned with protests and strikes throughout the country. The police appeared helpless to control the mob violence, and the military stood aloof. At length, on March 25 Ayub resigned and handed over the administration to the commander in chief, General Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan. Once again the country was placed under
martial law
Martial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
General Yahya assumed the titles of
Chief Martial Law Administrator
Chief Martial Law Administrator
The office of the Chief Martial Law Administrator was a senior government post created in countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and Indonesia that gave considerable executive authority and powers to the holder of the post to enforce martial law in the country. This office has been used mostly by...
and President. He announced that he considered himself to be a transitional leader whose task would be to restore order and to conduct free elections for a new constituent assembly, which would then draft a new constitution. He appointed a largely civilian cabinet in August 1969 in preparation for the election, which was scheduled to take place in December 1970. Yahya moved with dispatch to settle two contentious issues by decree: the unpopular "
One Unit
One Unit
One-Unit was the title of a scheme launched by the federal government of Pakistan to merge the four provinces of West Pakistan into one homogenous unit, as a counterbalance against the numerical domination of the ethnic Bengalis of East Pakistan...
" of West Pakistan, which was created as a condition for the
1956 constitution
Constitution of Pakistan of 1956
The Constitution of 1956 was the fundamental law of Pakistan from March 1956 until the Revolution of October 1958.-Origins:Pakistan became independent of the United Kingdom in 1947. Under Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, the Government of India Act, 1935 became, with certain...
, was ended; and East Pakistan was awarded 162 seats out of the 300-member
National Assembly
National Assembly of Pakistan
The National Assembly of Pakistan is the lower house of the bicameral Majlis-e-Shura, which also compromises the President of Pakistan and Senate . The National Assembly and the Senate both convene at Parliament House in Islamabad...
On November 12, 1970, a
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale...
devastated an area of almost 8,000 square kilometres of East Pakistan's mid-coastal lowlands and its outlying islands in the
Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal , the largest bay in the world, forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It resembles a triangle in shape, and is bordered mostly by the Eastern Coast of India, southern coast of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka to the west and Burma and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the...
. It was perhaps the worst natural disaster of the area in centuries. As many as 250,000 lives were lost. Two days after the cyclone hit, Yahya arrived in Dhaka after a trip to Beijing, but he left a day later. His seeming indifference to the plight of Bengali victims caused a great deal of animosity. Opposition newspapers in Dhaka accused the Pakistani government of impeding the efforts of international relief agencies and of "gross neglect, callous inattention, and bitter indifference." Mujib, who had been released from prison, lamented that "West Pakistan has a bumper wheat crop, but the first shipment of food grain to reach us is from abroad" and "that the textile merchants have not given a yard of cloth for our shrouds." "We have a large army," Mujib continued," but it is left to the British Marines to bury our dead." In an unveiled threat to the unity of Pakistan he added, "the feeling now pervades... every village, home, and slum that we must rule ourselves. We must make the decisions that matter. We will no longer suffer arbitrary rule by bureaucrats, capitalists, and feudal interests of West Pakistan."
Yahya announced plans for a national election on December 7, 1970, and urged voters to elect candidates who were committed to the integrity and unity of Pakistan. The elections were the first in the history of Pakistan in which voters were able to elect members of the National Assembly directly. In a convincing demonstration of Bengali dissatisfaction with the West Pakistani regime, the Awami League won all but two of the 162 seats allotted East Pakistan in the National Assembly. Bhutto's
Pakistan Peoples Party
Pakistan Peoples Party
The Pakistan Peoples Party , is a democratic socialist political party in Pakistan affiliated with Socialist International. Pakistan People's Party is the largest political party of Pakistan...
came in a poor second nationally, winning 81 out of the 138 West Pakistani seats in the National Assembly. The Awami League's electoral victory promised it control of the government, with Mujib as the country's prime minister, but the inaugural assembly never met.
Yahya and Bhutto vehemently opposed Mujib's idea of a confederated Pakistan. Mujib was adamant that the constitution be based on his six-point program. Bhutto, meanwhile, pleaded for unity in Pakistan under his leadership. As tensions mounted, Mujib suggested he become prime minister of East Pakistan while Bhutto be made prime minister of West Pakistan. It was this action that triggered mass
civil disobedience
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
in East Pakistan. Mujib called for a
general strike
General strike
A general strike is a strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city, region, or country. While a general strike can be for political goals, economic goals, or both, it tends to gain its momentum from the ideological or class sympathies of the participants...
until the government was given over to the "people's representatives". Tiring of the interminable game of politics he was playing with the Bengali leader, Yahya decided to ignore Mujib's demands and on March 1 postponed indefinitely the convening of the National Assembly, which had been scheduled for March 3. March 1 also was a portentous date, for on that day Yahya named General
Tikka Khan
Tikka Khan
General Tikka Khan, HJ, HQA, SPk, was a senior four-star general in the Pakistan Army who served as the first Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army from 3 March 1972 to 1 March 1976. Before his four-star assignment, Khan was a Martial Law Administrator of erstwhile East-Pakistan...
as East Pakistan's military governor.
The number of West Pakistani troops entering East Pakistan had increased sharply in the preceding weeks, climbing from a pre-crisis level of 25,000 to about 60,000, bringing the army close to a state of readiness. As tensions rose, however, Yahya continued desperate negotiations with Mujib, flying to Dhaka in mid-March. Talks between Yahya and Muhib were joined by Bhutto but soon collapsed, and on March 23 Bengalis following Mujib's lead defiantly celebrated "Resistance Day" in East Pakistan instead of the traditional all-Pakistan "Republic Day". Yahya decided to "solve" the problem of East Pakistan by repression. On the evening of March 25 he flew back to
Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan and the tenth largest city in the country. Located within the Islamabad Capital Territory , the population of the city has grown from 100,000 in 1951 to 1.7 million in 2011...
. The military crackdown in East Pakistan began that same night.
Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971
On March 25, the
Pakistan Army
Pakistan Army
The Pakistan Army is the branch of the Pakistani Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. The Pakistan Army came into existence after the Partition of India and the resulting independence of Pakistan in 1947. It is currently headed by General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani. The Pakistan...
launched a campaign calculated to intimidate the Bengalis into submission. Within hours a wholesale attack had commenced in
Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka Division. Dhaka is a megacity and one of the major cities of South Asia. Located on the banks of the Buriganga River, Dhaka, along with its metropolitan area, had a population of over 15 million in 2010, making it the largest city...
, with the heaviest casualties concentrated on the
University of Dhaka
University of Dhaka
The University of Dhaka is the oldest university in Bangladesh. It is a multi-disciplinary research university and is among the top universities in the region. Established on July 21, 1921, as per the Government of India Act, 1920, it was modelled on the Universities in England and soon gained...
and the
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
area of the old town. The Pakistan Army came with hit lists and systematically killed several hundred Bengalis. Mujib was captured and flown to
West Pakistan
West Pakistan
West Pakistan , common name West-Pakistan , in the period between its establishment on 22 November 1955 to disintegration on December 16, 1971. This period, during which, Pakistan was divided, ended when East-Pakistan was disintegrated and succeeded to become which is now what is known as Bangladesh...
for incarceration.
To conceal what they were doing, the Pakistan Army corralled the corps of foreign journalists at the International Hotel in Dhaka, seized their notes, and expelled them the next day. One reporter who escaped the censor net estimated that three battalions of troops—one
Armoured warfare
Armoured warfare or tank warfare is the use of armoured fighting vehicles in modern warfare. It is a major component of modern methods of war....
, one
Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...
, and one
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
—had attacked the virtually defenceless city. Various informants, including missionaries and foreign journalists who clandestinely returned to East Pakistan during the war, estimated that by March 28 the loss of life reached 15,000. By the end of summer as many as 300,000 people were thought to have lost their lives.
Anthony Mascarenhas
Anthony Mascarenhas
Neville Anthony Mascarenhas was a Pakistani journalist and author. His works include exposés on the brutality of Pakistan's military during the 1971 independence movement of Bangladesh, The Rape of Bangladesh and Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood...
Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood
Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood
Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood is a book written by journalist Anthony Mascarenhas. The book chronicles the bloody coups and uprisings in the post-independence Bangladesh. The book focuses on the two towering figures of Bangladeshi politics, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Ziaur Rahman...
estimates that during the entire nine-month liberation struggle more than one million Bengalis may have died at the hands of the Pakistan Army.
The West Pakistani press waged a vigorous but ultimately futile campaign to counteract newspaper and radio accounts of atrocities. One paper, the
Morning News
, even editorialised that the armed forces were saving East Pakistanis from eventual Hindu enslavement. The civil war was played down by the government-controlled press as a minor insurrection quickly being brought under control.
After the tragic events of March, India became vocal in its condemnation of Pakistan. An immense flood of East Pakistani refugees, between 8 and 10 million according to various estimates, fled across the border into the Indian state of
West Bengal
West Bengal
West Bengal is a state in the eastern region of India and is the nation's fourth-most populous. It is also the seventh-most populous sub-national entity in the world, with over 91 million inhabitants. A major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to India's GDP...
. In April, an Indian parliamentary resolution demanded that Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhara was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms and a fourth term . She was assassinated by Sikh extremists...
supply aid to the rebels in East Pakistan. She complied but declined to recognise the provisional government of independent Bangladesh.
A propaganda war between Pakistan and India ensued in which Yahya threatened war against India if that country made an attempt to seize any part of Pakistan. Yahya also asserted that Pakistan could count on its American and Chinese friends. At the same time, Pakistan tried to ease the situation in the East Wing. Belatedly, it replaced Tikka, whose military tactics had caused such havoc and human loss of life, with the more restrained Lieutenant General A.A.K. Niazi. A moderate Bengali,
Abdul Malik
Abdul Malik
Abdul Malik Pahlawan is an Uzbek politician based out of Faryab Province in northern Afghanistan. He is currently head of the Afghanistan Liberation Party and was heavily involved the factional fighting that consumed Afghanistan throughout the 1990s...
, was installed as the civilian governor of East Pakistan. These belated gestures of appeasement did not yield results or change world opinion.
On December 4, 1971, the Indian Army, far superior in numbers and equipment to that of Pakistan, executed a three-pronged
pincer movement
Pincer movement
The pincer movement or double envelopment is a military maneuver. The flanks of the opponent are attacked simultaneously in a pinching motion after the opponent has advanced towards the center of an army which is responding by moving its outside forces to the enemy's flanks, in order to surround it...
on Dhaka launched from the Indian states of West Bengal,
Assam , also, rarely, Assam Valley and formerly the Assam Province , is a northeastern state of India and is one of the most culturally and geographically distinct regions of the country...
, and
Tripura is a state in North-East India, with an area of . It is the third smallest state of India, according to area. Tripura is surrounded by Bangladesh on the north, south, and west. The Indian states of Assam and Mizoram lie to the east. The capital is Agartala and the main languages spoken are...
, taking only 12 days to defeat the 90,000 Pakistani defenders. The Pakistan Army was weakened by having to operate so far away from its source of supply. The Indian Army, on the other hand, was aided by East Pakistan's
Mukti Bahini
Mukti Bahini
Mukti Bahini , also termed as the "Freedom Fighters" or FFs, collectively refers to the armed organizations who fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of Bangladesh's independence on...
(Liberation Force), the freedom fighters who managed to keep the Pakistan Army at bay in many areas. On 16 December 1971 the Pakistan army wing in East Pakistan led by Niazi surrendered and Bangladesh was liberated. This day is celebrated in Bangladesh as "Victory Day" with more emphasis than Independence Day (26 March 1971).
Works cited
Heitzman, James and Robert Worden, editors.
A Country Study: Bangladesh
Library of Congress
Library of Congress
The Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and...
Federal Research Division
Federal Research Division
The Federal Research Division is the research and analysis unit of the United States Library of Congress.The Federal Research Division provides directed research and analysis on domestic and international subjects to agencies of the United States government, the District of Columbia, and...
(September 1988).
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.


text:
droo-puhl 101
Learn how to use Drupal today! Are you looking to build a website? Thinking of using Drupal? Drupal is one of the most popular Content Management Systems available today (latest statistics show that over 1% of all websites use Drupal for its backend). It is estimated that 7.2 million websites are based on Drupal. You can download it today for free (it is open source) and start building your website within minutes.
This iPhone application shows you how to build a Drupal website. All videos are within the app itself so no wifi or 3G connection is needed once the app is downloaded. The videos include an introduction to Drupal, Installing Drupal, and then we go and build a membership site that includes comments, categories, and blogs. At the end we change the look of the site. See how easy it is to build a website using Drupal!
If you like to learn by watching videos and you want to learn how to build websites using Drupal, this is the app for you!
These videos are made by the same team at www.drupaldude.com. What do people have to say about the videos from DrupalDude?
- "I just want to thank you Drupaldude your site is Fantastic. You truly make it easy for the newbie to grasp some key concepts. I feel that you are truly one of the shining stars in the overall drupal community."
- "Let me say your info is awesome"
- "Thank you for your great website and great videos!"
- "Firstly can say that I have followed your videos on youtube and they have really helped me to get up and running in the world of drupal. Thank you."
- "Thanks for wonderful video"
- "I am new to using Drupal and have found your tutorials to be helpful and really easy to follow"
- "I just want you to know that i'm a drupal user too.. i've been following your site since I started studying drupal.. and your tutorials helped a lot.. so i want to thank you"
- "I watched some of your videos today and was impressed."
Share with Others
- Last changed:
- Dec 22, 2010
- Category:
- Education
- Developer:
- Noteboom Productions, Ltd.
- Version:
- 1
- Size:
- Current Version Average Rating:
- No data
- All Versions Average Rating:
- No data
- Other Apps By This Developer
• Tutor for Bento
• Tutor for Filemaker Pro - The Basics
• Tutor for Filemaker Pro - The Basics
• Tutor for Final Cut Pro X
• Tutor for iDVD
• Tutor for iMovie
• Tutor for iMovie '11
• Tutor for iMovie for iPad
• Tutor for iMovie for iPhone
• Tutor for iMovie for OS X
• Tutor for iPad with iOS 6 - Video Tutorial to Help your Learn about the iPad
• Tutor for iPad: iOS 8 Edition
• Tutor for iPhone with iOS 6 - Video Tutorial to Help you Learn your iPhone
• Tutor for iPhoto
• Tutor for iPhoto for iOS
• Tutor for iPhoto for OS X
• Tutor for iWeb
• Tutor for Keynote
• Tutor for Keynote '09
• Tutor for Keynote for iOS - Video Tutorial to Help your Learn Keynote
• Tutor for Microsoft Office for iPad - Learn Excel, Word, and Powerpoint for iPad
• Tutor for Numbers
• Tutor for Numbers
• Tutor for Numbers '09
• Tutor for OS X iMovie '11
• Tutor for OS X Mavericks
• Tutor for OS X Mavericks
• Tutor for OS X Mountain Lion
• Tutor for OS X Mountain Lion
• Tutor for OS X Yosemite
• Tutor for OS X Yosemite
• Tutor for Pages
• Tutor for Pages '09
• Tutor for Pages for iOS - Video Tutorial to Help you Learn Pages
• Tutor Tips for iPhone and iOS 8