text:
Saint Thomas Christians
The Mar Thoma Sliva or Saint Thomas Cross (also known as the Nasrani Menorah), the symbol of the Nasrani people
Regions with significant populations | |
India (Kerala, Bangalore, Mumbai); UAE (Dubai); (Oman); (Kuwait); USA (New York City metropolitan area, Chicago, Houston, Dallas, Tampa, Los Angeles); Canada (Toronto)[1] |
Languages | |
Vernacular: Malayalam Liturgical: Syriac (Aramaic)[2] |
Religion | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Malabar Jews,[2] Malayalis |
The Saint Thomas Christians, also called Syrian Christians or Nasrani, are an ancient community of Christians from Kerala, India, who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Saint Thomas in the 1st century thus making it one of the oldest Christian communities of the world.[3][4] The community was historically united in leadership and liturgy, but since the 17th century have been split into several different church denominations and traditions.
Historically the Saint Thomas Christian community was part of the Church of the East, centred in Persia. They were organised as the Ecclesiastical Province of India in the 8th century, served by bishops and a hereditary Archdeacon. In the 16th century the overtures of the Portuguese padroado to bring the Saint Thomas Christians into the Catholic Church led to the first of several rifts in the community and the establishment of Catholic and Malankara Church factions. Since that time further splits have occurred, and the Saint Thomas Christians are now divided into several different Eastern Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, and independent bodies, each with their own liturgies and traditions.
The Saint Thomas Christians represent a single ethnic group. Saint Thomas Christian culture is largely developed from East Syrian and Jewish influences blended with local customs and later elements derived from indigenous Indian and European colonial contacts. Their language is Malayalam, the local tongue of Kerala and Syriac is used for liturgical purposes.
The Saint Thomas Christians are so called due to their reverence for Saint Thomas the Apostle, who is said to have brought Christianity to India. The name dates to the period of Portuguese colonization. They are also known, especially locally, as the Nasrani or Nasrani Mappila. "Nasrani" is a term meaning "Christian"; it appears to be derived from Nazareth, the home town of Jesus. Mappila is an honorific applied to members of non-Indian faiths, including Muslims (Jonaka Mappila) and Jews (Yuda Mappila).[5][6] Some Syrian Christians of Travancore continue to attach this honorific title to their names.[7] The Indian government designates members of the community as "Syrian Christians", a term originating with the Dutch colonial authority distinguishing the Saint Thomas Christians, who used Syriac as their liturgical language, from newly evangelized Christians who followed the Latin liturgy.[8] The term Syrian relates not to their ethnicity but to their historical, religious and liturgical connection to the Church of the East, or East Syrian Church.[5]
Early history[edit]
Part of a series on |
Saint Thomas Christians മാർത്തോമാ നസ്രാണികൾ |
Alternate names |
Nasrani · Mar Thoma Nasrani · Syrian Christians |
History |
Saint Thomas · Thomas of Cana · Mar Sabor and Mar Proth · Tharisapalli plates · Synod of Diamper · Coonan Cross Oath |
Religion |
Monuments · Churches · Shrines · Liturgical language · Church music |
Prominent persons |
Abraham Malpan · Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar · Kayamkulam Philipose Ramban · Kuriakose Elias Chavara · Mar Thoma I · Varghese Payyappilly Palakkappilly · Sadhu Kochoonju Upadesi · Kariattil Mar Ousep · Geevarghese Mar Dionysius of Vattasseril · Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala · Geevarghese Mar Ivanios · Saint Alphonsa · Yeldho Mar Baselios · Euphrasia Eluvathingal · Thoma of Villarvattom |
Culture |
Margam Kali · Parichamuttukali · Cuisine · Suriyani Malayalam |
The most commonly believed tradition of origin among Saint Thomas Christians relates to the arrival of Saint Thomas, one of the 12 disciples of Jesus at the ancient seaport of Muziris ( in present day Kerala) in AD 52. Further, the tradition claims that Thomas converted a large number of Jews who were already present in Kerala that time along with 12 Nambudiri brahmin famililes namely Nedumpally, Pakalomattom, Maliyekkal, Sankarapuri, Kalli, Kalliamkavu, Payyappilly, Palakkappilly, Koykkam, Muttodal, Madeipur and Panakkamattom. Most of the modern day Saint Thomas Christians trace their ancestry to these Jewish or Brahmin roots.[9] There is no contemporary evidence for Thomas being in the subcontinent, though it was possible for a Roman Jew of the time to make such a trip. Groups such as the Cochin Jews and Bene Israel are known to have existed in India around that time.[10][11][12] The earliest known source connecting the apostle to India is the Acts of Thomas, likely written in the early 3rd century, perhaps in Edessa.[9][13][14] The text describes Thomas' adventures in bringing Christianity to India, a tradition later expanded upon in early Indian sources such as the "Thomma Parvam" ("Song of Thomas").[15][16] Generally he is described as arriving in or around Maliankara and founding Seven Churches, or Ezharapallikal: Kodungallur, Kollam, Niranam, Nilackal (Chayal), Kokkamangalam, Kottakkavu, Palayoor (Chattukulangara) and Thiruvithamcode Arappally (a "half church").[17][18][19] A number of 3rd- and 4th-century Roman writers also mention Thomas' trip to India, including Ambrose of Milan, Gregory of Nazianzus, Jerome, and Ephrem the Syrian, while Eusebius of Caesarea records that his teacher Pantaenus visited a Christian community in India in the 2nd century.[20][21]
An organised Christian presence in India dates to the arrival of East Syrian settlers and missionaries from Persia, members of what would become the Church of the East or Nestorian Church, in around the 3rd century.[22] Saint Thomas Christians trace the further growth of their community to the arrival of the Nestorian Thomas of Cana from the Middle East, which is said to have occurred sometime between the 4th and 8th century. The subgroup of the Saint Thomas Christians known as the Knanaya or Southists trace their lineage to Thomas of Cana, while the group known as the Northists claim descent from Thomas the Apostle's indigenous converts; some additionally assert ancestry from Thomas of Cana through a second, Indian wife.[21][23]
Classical period[edit]
Part of a series on |
Christianity in India |
Indian Christianity portal |
Part of a series on |
Christianity |
Christianity portal |
As the community grew and immigration by East Syrians increased, the connection with the Church of the East, centred in the Persian capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, strengthened. From the early 4th century the Patriarch of the Church of the East provided India with clergy, holy texts, and ecclesiastical infrastructure, and around 650 Patriarch Ishoyahb III solidified the Church of the East's jurisdiction over the Saint Thomas Christian community.[27] In the 8th century Patriarch Timothy I organised the community as the Ecclesiastical Province of India, one of the church's Provinces of the Exterior. After this point the Province of India was headed by a metropolitan bishop, dispatched from Persia, the "Metropolitan-Bishop of the Seat of Saint Thomas and the Whole Christian Church of India".[21] His metropolitan see was probably in Cranganore, or (perhaps nominally) in Mylapore, where the shrine of Thomas was located.[21] Under him were a varying number of bishops, as well as a native Archdeacon, who had authority over the clergy and who wielded a great amount of secular power.[21]
Some contact and transmission of knowledge of the Saint Thomas Christians managed to reach the Christian West, even after the rise of the Islamic empires.[28] Byzantine traveller Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote of East Syrian Christians he met in India and Sri Lanka in the 6th century.[29] In 883 the English king Alfred the Great reportedly sent a mission and gifts to Saint Thomas' tomb in India.[28] During the Crusades, distorted accounts of the Saint Thomas Christians and the Nestorian Church gave rise to the European legend of Prester John.[30]
The great distances involved and the geopolitical turmoil of the period caused India to be cut off from the church's heartland in Mesopotamia at several points. In the 11th century the province was suppressed by the church entirely, as it had become impossible to reach,[31] but effective relations were restored by 1301.[32] However, following the collapse of the Church of the East's hierarchy in most of Asia later in the 14th century, India was effectively cut off from church, and formal contact was severed. By the late 15th century India had had no metropolitan for several generations, and the authority traditionally associated with him had been vested in the archdeacon.[33]
In 1491 the archdeacon sent envoys to the Patriarch of the Church of the East, as well as to the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and to the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, requesting a new bishop for India. The Patriarch of the Church of the East Shemʿon IV Basidi responded by consecrating two bishops, Thoma and Yuhanon, and dispatching them to India.[33] These bishops helped rebuild the ecclesiastical infrastructure and reestablish fraternal ties with the patriarchate, but the years of separation had greatly affected the structure of the Indian church. Though receiving utmost respect, the metropolitan was treated as a guest in his own diocese; the Archdeacon was firmly established as the real power in the Nasrani community.[34]
Portuguese contact[edit]
The Saint Thomas Christians first encountered the Portuguese in 1498, during the expedition of Vasco da Gama. At the time the community was in a tenuous position: though thriving in the spice trade and protected by their own militia, the local political sphere was volatile and the Saint Thomas Christians found themselves under pressure from the rajas of Calicut and Cochin and other small kingdoms in the area. The Saint Thomas Christians and the Portuguese newcomers quickly formed an alliance.[35]
The Portuguese had a keen interest in implanting themselves in the spice trade and in spreading their particularly bellicose version of Christianity, which had been forged during several centuries of warfare in the Reconquista.[36] Facilitating their goals was the Padroado Real, a series of treaties and decrees in which the Pope conferred upon the Portuguese government certain authority in ecclesiastical matters in the foreign territories they conquered. They set up in Goa, forming a colonial government and a Latin church hierarchy under the Archbishop of Goa, and quickly set to bringing the Saint Thomas Christians under his authority.[37]
The Portuguese subjection of the Saint Thomas Christians was relatively measured at first, but they became more aggressive after 1552, the year of the death of Metropolitan Mar Jacob and of a schism in the Church of the East, which resulted in there being two rival Patriarchs—one of whom entered communion with the Catholic Church. Both patriarchs sent bishops to India, but the Portuguese consistently managed to outmaneuver them, and effectively cut off the Saint Thomas Christians from their hierarchy in 1575, when the Padroado legislated that neither patriarch could send representatives to India without Portuguese approval.[38]
By 1599 the last Metropolitan, Abraham, had died, and the Archbishop of Goa, Aleixo de Menezes, had secured the submission of the young Archdeacon George, the highest remaining representative of the native church hierarchy.[39] The Archbishop convened the Synod of Diamper, which implemented various liturgical and structural reforms in the Indian church. The Synod brought the parishes directly under the Archbishop's purview; anathematised certain "superstitious" social customs characteristic of their Hindu neighbors, including untouchability and a caste hierarchy; and purged the indigenous liturgy, the Malabar Rite, of elements deemed unacceptable according to the Latin protocol.[40][41][42] A number of texts were condemned and ordered burnt, including the Peshitta, the Syriac version of the Bible.[43][page needed] Some of the reforms, especially the elimination of caste status, reduced the Saint Thomas Christians' standing with their socially stratified Hindu neighbors.[41] The Synod formally brought the Saint Thomas Christians into the Catholic Church; however, the actions of the Portuguese over the ensuing years fueled resentment in segments of the community, and ultimately led to open resistance to their power.[44]
Division and defiance[edit]
Over the next several decades, tensions seethed between the Portuguese and the remaining native hierarchy, and after 1641 Archdeacon Thomas, the nephew and successor to Archdeacon George, was often at odds with the Latin prelates.[45] In 1652, the escalating situation was further complicated by the appearance in Mylapore of a mysterious figure named Ahatallah, who claimed to have been sent by the Pope to serve as "Patriarch of the Whole of India and of China".[45][46]
Ahatallah made a strong impression on the native clergy, but the Portuguese quickly decided he was an impostor, and put him on a ship bound for Europe by way of Goa. Archdeacon Thomas, desperate for a new ecclesiastical leader to free his people from the Padroado, travelled to Cochin and demanded to meet Ahatallah and examine his credentials. The Portuguese refused, stating the ship had already left for Goa.[46] Ahatallah was never heard from in India again, inspiring rumours that the Portuguese had murdered him and inflaming anti-Portuguese sentiments even more.[47]
This was the last straw for the Saint Thomas Christians, and in 1653 Thomas and community representatives met at the Church of Our Lady in Mattancherry to take bold action. In a great ceremony before a crucifix and lighted candles, they swore a solemn oath that they would never obey Garcia or the Portuguese again, and that they accepted only the Archdeacon as their shepherd.[47] The Malankara Church and all its successor churches regard this declaration, known as the Coonan Cross Oath after the outdoor cross in the churchyard, as the moment when their church regained its independence.[47] Shortly after, the leaders of this newly independent church decided Thomas should be elevated to bishop. Thomas was consecrated in a ceremony in which twelve priests laid hands on him, and he became the metropolitan of Malankara.[48]
After the Coonan Cross Oath the Portuguese missionaries attempted for reconciliation with Saint Thomas Christians but was not successful. Later Pope Alexander VII sent the Syrian bishop Joseph Sebastiani at the head of a Carmelite delegation who succeeded in convincing majority of Saint Thomas Christians, including Palliveettil Chandy Kathanar and Kadavil Chandy Kathanar that the consecration of Archdeacon as metropolitan was not legitimate. Later Palliveettil Chandy Kathanar was consecrated as the bishop for the Syrian Catholics with the historic title 'The Metropolitan and the Gate of all India' which denotes a Quasi Patriarchal status with all India jurisdiction.[49][50][51] This led to the first permanent split in the Saint Thomas Christian community. Thereafter, the faction affiliated with the Catholic Church under Parambil Mar Chandy was designated the Pazhayakuttukar, or "Old Party", while the branch affiliated with Mar Thoma was called the Puthankuttukar, or "New Party".[52][53][54][55] These appellations have been somewhat controversial, as both groups considered themselves the true heirs to the Saint Thomas tradition, and saw the other as heretical.[56]
After the Coonan Cross Oath, between 1661 and 1662, out of the 116 churches, the Syrian Catholics claimed eighty-four churches, and Archdeacon Mar Thoma I with thirty-two churches. The eighty-four churches and their congregations were the body from which the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and Chaldean Syrian Church have descended. The other thirty-two churches and their congregations were the body from which the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites & Orthodox), Thozhiyur (1772), Mar Thoma (1874), Syro-Malankara Catholic Church have originated.[57][full citation needed]
In 1665, Mar Gregorios Abdul Jaleel, a Bishop sent by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch arrived in India and the St.Thomas Christians belonging to the "New Party", under the leadership of the Archdeacon, welcomed him.[58][59][full citation needed] This visit resulted in the Mar Thoma faction claiming spiritual authority of the Antiochean Patriarchate and gradually introduced the West Syrian liturgy, customs and script to the Malabar Coast.[52] Those who accepted the West Syrian theological and liturgical tradition of Mar Gregorios became known as Jacobites.
The "Old Party", who continued with East Syrian and Latin theological and liturgical tradition and stayed faithful to the Synod of Diamper and the Roman Catholic Church came to be formally known as the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church from the second half of the 19th century onward. Syro-Malabar Hierarchy was established on 21 December 1923 with the Metropolitan Mar Augustine Kandathil as the Head of their Church.[52][60][61]
The foreign Jacobite prelate Mar Gregorios who came to Kerala in 1751 AD, consecrated Rev. Kurian Kattumangat as bishop Abraham Mar Koorilose in 1772 AD at Mattancherry church, Cochin.[62] He was driven into exile from the states of Travancore and Cochin where the majority of St. Thomas Christians lived, to Anjoor in the state of Malabar. He spent his days in prayer and meditation in a hut. A few relatives and friends joined him there.[58][63][64][65][66] This group was known as Thozhyoor Church later named as Malabar Independent Syrian Church, after a court verdict on 28 May 1863.[67]
British period[edit]
In 1795, the kings of Travancore and Cochin entered into tributary alliance with the British East Indian Company to repel the attacks from Tipu Sultan. The states soon became client regimes of the Company: both were forced to disband their military. The political order of the states also began to collapse. Saint Thomas Christians were hit hard by the loss of their privileged military role, their kalari network was dissolved and many families lost their livelihood.[68] The trading class, as well as the office bearers, also suffered the set back and many Europeans who visited the states between 1801 and 1820 noted the poor and depressed condition of Saint Thomas Christians. Some partisan fund allocation for the churches by the British officials triggered a breakdown in the relationship between Saint Thomas Christians and prominent Hindu castes, at least temporarily.[69] In 1815, the British Resident, Colonel John Munro, founded a seminary in Kottayam, for the theological education of Jacobite Christian priests and invited the Anglican missionaries to teach there. This could be regarded as the beginning of the relationship between the CMS (Church Mission Society) and the Saint Thomas Christians.[70]
Further divisions[edit]
As a protest against the interference of the Anglican Church in the affairs of the Malankara Church, the Metropolitan, Cheppad Mar Dionysius, convened a Synod at Mavelikara on 16 January 1836. There it was declared that Malanakara Church would be subject to the Syrian traditions and Patriarch of Antioch.[71] The declaration resulted in the separation of the CMS missionaries from the communion with the Malankara Church. However a minority from the Malankara Church, who were in favor of the reformed ideologies of the missionaries, stood along with them and joined the CMS. These Syrian Anglicans, were the first Reformed group from among the Saint Thomas Christians. They joined the missionaries in their evangelical activities among the non-Christians and worked along with the missionaries in their reformative and educational activities.[72] In 1879, the Anglican diocese of Travancore and Cochin was established, in Kottayam.[73] On 27 September 1947, a little over a month after the Indian independence, the Anglican Church in South India united with similar other reformed Churches in the region and formed the Church of South India (CSI);[74] an autonomous Indian church within the Anglican Communion.[75][76] Since then, the Syrian Anglicans have been members of the CSI, in which they practically stay ethnically distinct.
By June 1875, there were two factions in the Malankara Church (Oriental Orthodox): Jacobite Party (Bava) and Reform (Methran) Party. Mathews Mar Athanasius was the Malankara Metropolitan approved by the Governments of Travancore and of Cochin[77] and the group with him was known as "Reform Party" since Mathews Mar Athanasius was supportive to the reformation of Jacobite church with evangelistic ideologies.[78] The Syrian faction, under the leadership of Metropolitan Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II, opposed the attempts to do away with age-old traditions of the church, which resulted in a stir in the community.[78] Being invited by this faction, the Antiochene Patriarch Moran Mar Ignatius Peter III arrived in Kerala.[79] On June 1876, at the synod of Mulanthuruthy, presided over by the Patriarch, the Syrian faction formally came under the Antiochene Patriarchate.[80] The synod condemned Mathews Mar Athanasius for abstaining from it, but his followers stayed firm with him.[78] His successor Thomas Mar Athanasius and the bishop's faction lost the lawsuit to the Patriarchal faction in the Royal Court of Travancore on 12 July 1889.[81] Nonetheless, the Reform Party continued as an independent, Malankara Church and thereafter a series of suits arose on the rights over churches and associated properties. Later they chose the name Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church.[78]
In 1912, due to attempts by the Antiochean Patriarch to gain temporal powers over the Malankara Church, there was another split in the West Syrian community when a section declared itself an autocephalous church and announced the re-establishment of the ancient Catholicosate of the East in India. This was not accepted by those who remained loyal to the Patriarch, and this group, popularly known as Patriarch's Party recognized the temporal power of the Patriarch over the assets of their church, while the other side, known as Metropolitan Party, accepted the supremacy of Patriarch only over the spiritual matters. The two sides filed a series of lawsuits in the civil courts and some parallel attempts to reconcile both the parties also took place. In 1958, bishops of both the parties sealed their reconciliation and signed a treaty which in turn recognized the autonomy of reunited factions, with its own synod of bishops under the presidency of the Catholocos.[82] The verdict of Supreme Court of India in 1959, legitimizing the autonomy of Kerala church, was also instrumental to keep this formal reconciliation between two sides. Nonetheless, in 1975, both the parties split again with the decision of Universal Syrian Synod, held in Damascus, to depose the Catholocos in Kerala. Today the East Syrian community is divided into Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (in Oriental Orthodox Communion, autocephalous), Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church (in Oriental Orthodox Communion, under Antioch).[52]
In 1930 a section of the Malankara Church under the leadership of Mar Ivanios and Mar Theophilus left the Church[83] and came into communion with the Catholic Church. They are known as Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.
In 1961, there was a split in the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church which resulted in the formation of St. Thomas Evangelical Church.[84][85]
Since the later 20th century, neo-charismatic churches have attracted some St. Thomas Christians. These are typically churches with doctrines and practices similar to traditional Pentecostal or Charismatic churches but without a formal denominational tie. The neo-charismatic movement can be found both within established St. Thomas Christian churches, such as the Charismatic and gospel ministries of Syro-Malabar, Syro Malankara & Mar Thoma Syrian Church, and in newer independent denominations, including the New Apostolic Church, the Assemblies of God, the Indian Pentecostal Church of God (IPC), the New Life Fellowship, and the Manna Full Gospel Churches.[86]
Involvement in politics[edit]
Participation based on caste and community divisions and sympathies has been a feature of politics in the present day state of Kerala and its predecessor entities. Until the mid-20th century the primary cause of the divisions between the various communities was competition for rights and resources, rather than any dislike of each other, but in more recent times there has been a rise in violence and antagonism that has coincided with a promotion of Hindu politics.[87]
Like other communities, Saint Thomas Christians have been involved in regional politics on a community basis. In 1888, Travancore became the first princely state in India to establish a Legislative Council, which was reformed as the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly in 1904. A few Saint Thomas Christian leaders were elected to the Legislative Council but there was resentment that their share of the available seats was proportionately less than that of other prominent castes. This resentment led to a series of campaigns for equal representation both in the legislature and in government positions.[88] Newspapers such as Malayala Manorama and Nasrani Deepika disseminated the grievances.[89]
In 1918, Saint Thomas Christians formed the League for Equal Civic Rights, which sought the opening of all branches of government service to Christians, Muslims and avarna Hindus, as well as an end to the practice of untouchability. Their demands were partially met in 1922 when the Revenue Department was separated from the Devaswom, a semi-government organization that managed the Hindu temples, thus removing the restriction on non-Hindus and avarnas in the executive service. In the 1920s, Saint Thomas Christian leaders such as George Joseph were advised by Mahatma Gandhi to detach from Vaikom Satyagraha, an agitation for the temple entry rights of avarna Hindus, as he considered the issue to be one of concern to Hindus alone.[89][90]
With the institution in 1932 of a bicameral legislature in Travancore, four Saint Thomas Christians found a place in among the 24 seats of the lower house, but not comparable with other forward castes.[88] The partisan and oppressive behaviour of Diwan Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer, especially towards the Saint Thomas Christians, further provoked the community members. Iyer reflected a concern among Hindus that the Christian population was rising and that there was a consequent danger of Travancore becoming a Christian state. The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in 1820.[91] Some restrictions were imposed on Saint Thomas Christian parishes to start new schools and later on the Diwan attempted to take over the schools owned by the community.[89] In 1933, some prominent Saint Thomas Christians, including T. M. Varghese, worked to organize other communities on a common platform called the Joint Political Congress, which then decided to abstain from participation in the assembly elections, an action that has become known as the Abstention Movement. There followed a period of fierce confrontation between the Diwan and Saint Thomas Christians—many leaders were arrested, prominent news papers were banned and large banks owned by the community members were liquidated.[89][92] But the agitations continued and to resolve the issue, government appointed a franchise and delimitation commissioner to solve the problem of representation in the legislator with special reference to backward communities. Though there was no definite assurance to Saint Thomas Christians, Joint Political Congress decided to withdraw the agitation. According to the recommendations of commissioner, franchise power was extended beyond the caste bars. In 1937, general elections were held and Joint Political Congress played a significant role to attain much better representation for allied communities.[93] T.M. Varghese was elected as the Deputy President of the Assembly where Iyer was the ex officio President. But in 1938, he was ousted by Iyer for cooperating with rebels, which led to a worsening of relation between the Saint Thomas Christians and Iyer. On the collapse of Joint Political Congress due to internal conflicts, Saint Thomas Christian leaders allied with Nairs in a common platform- Travancore State Congress where they fought together for responsible government and also to oust Iyer.[88] Many Saint Thomas Christian bishops like Mar James Kalaserry and Metropolitans Abraham Mar Thoma& Yuhanon Marthoma, supported the nationalistic movements in 1930s and 1940s.Abraham Marthoma mobilised Syrian Christians against divans move not to unite with free India.[94] Following intense agitations by the Travancore State Congress, the Maharaja of Travancore announced plans to establish a responsible Government. As per the announcement on 4 September 1947, the new Assembly called the Representative Body was formed to function as a Constituent Assembly. The Assembly held its first sitting on 20 March 1948 with President A. J. John, Anaparambil, a Saint Thomas Christian leader in the chair. In the three-member Cabinet of Travancore formed after the first general elections in 1948, Varghese was a Cabinet Minister.[95] However the first Saint Thomas Christian to become a minister in the central government of India was Padma Vibhushan John Mathai, who served as India's first Railway Minister and subsequently as India's Finance Minister,[96] taking office shortly after the presentation of India's first Budget, in 1948.
On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed and the Communist Party formed the first government of the state in 1957 on winning the assembly elections.[97] Though the government initiated the legislation process for reforming the land and the education sectors, they were considered as infringements over the rights by the school managements and landowners, who were predominantly Saint Thomas Christians and Nairs. The disagreements of the Saint Thomas Christians got further widened and they allied with Nair Service Society to mobilize against the government, which culminated in the form of a violent struggle, called Liberation Struggle, in 1958.[98] The Communist government was dismissed on 31 July 1959 and the President's rule was imposed in the state under Article 356 of the constitution.
Socio-cultural and religious identity[edit]
St. Thomas Christians are a distinct community, both in terms of culture and religion. Though their liturgy and theology remained that of East-Syrian Christians of Persia, their life-style customs and traditions were basically Indian. It is oft-quoted: "Nazranis are Indian in culture, Christian in faith and Syrian in liturgy".[99]
The presence of Jews among the early Malabar Nasrani Christians had significant effects on the liturgy and traditions of the entire community.[2] The community maintained some of the original rituals of the early Jewish Christians, such as covering their heads while in worship. Their ritual services were and still are called the Qurbana, which is derived from the Aramaic term Qurbana (ܩܘܪܒܢܐ), meaning "sacrifice". Nasrani Qurbana used to be held in Syriac.[2]
Saint Thomas Christians typically followed the social customs of their Hindu neighbors, and the vestiges of Hindu symbolism could be seen in their devotional practices.[100] Social sins like Untouchability entered their practices and the Synod of Diamper abolished it.[101] The rituals related to birth, Vidyarambham, marriage, pregnancy, death etc. were also similar in both communities. Now also, tying Thaali, a Hindu symbol of marriage is the most important rite in the Christian marriages too. They used to learn temple arts[citation needed] like Kathakali, Kooth and Thullal and their own art forms like Margam Kali and Parichamuttukali have some resemblance to Yathra kali Pattu of Brahmins in Kerala.[100] In 1519, a Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa on his visit to Malabar commented on the practice of Saint Thomas Christian priests using Kudumi similar to that of Hindus, in his manuscript "Book of Duarte Barbosa".[102]
In the social stratification of medieval Malabar, Saint Thomas Christians succeeded in relating their social status with that of upper-caste Hindus on account of their numerical strength and influence and observance of many Brahmin customs.[101][103] In 13th and 14th century, many Saint Thomas Christians were involved in the pepper trade for the local rulers and many were appointed as port revenue officers. The local rulers rewarded them with grants of land and many other privileges. With growing numerical strength, a large number of Saint Thomas Christians settled in the inland pepper-growing regions.[104] They had the right to recruit and train soldiers and Christian trainers were given with the honorary title "Panikkar" like their Nair counterparts.[105] They were also entitled with the privilege to collect the tax, and the tax-collectors were honored with the title "Tharakan". Like Brahmins they had the right to sit before the Kings and also to ride on horse or elephant, like the royals.[101] They were protectors of seventeen underprivileged castes and communities and hence they were called Lords of Seventeen Castes.[101][106] They did not allow the lower-castes to join their community for fear that it could imperil their upper-caste status.[106][107] Between the 9th and 15th centuries, Saint Thomas Christians had a kingdom of their own, Villarvattom,[108] but this regal period ended when the community fell under the power of the Rajas of Cochin and Travancore.[109] They owned a large number of Kalaripayattu training centers and the Rajas of Travancore and Cochin, including the renowned Marthanda Varma, recruited trained Christian warriors to defend their kingdom.[110] The upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians took part in one another's festival celebrations and in some places in Kerala, the Hindu Temples and Saint Thomas Christian Churches were built on adjoining sites by the Hindu Kings. Until the 19th century, Saint Thomas Christians had the right of access to Hindu temples and some leading Saint Thomas Christians held the status of sponsors at Hindu shrines and temple festivals.[111] But in the 19th century, Saint Thomas Christian integration with the Hindu caste system was disrupted: their clean-caste status was questioned in some localities and they were denied access to many Hindu temples. They tried to retaliate by denouncing Hindu festivals as heathen idolatry. Clashes between upper-caste Hindus and Saint Thomas Christians occurred from the late 1880s, especially when festivals coincided. Internecine violence among various Saint Thomas Christian denominations aggravated their problems.[112]
Church architecture[edit]
The earliest documentary evidence is Tharisapally Copper Plate, which refers to the construction of the church of Tharisapally in Quilon between 823 and 849 CE. Antonio Gouvea, Portuguese envoy to Malabar, mentions in his 16th-century work Jornada that almost all the churches of Saint Thomas Christians followed the models of Hindu temples of that period, but were distinguished by the huge granite cross in the front yard of the church. Despite the external similarity with temples, the structuring of the interior space of the church always followed the East Syrian architectural theology. Thus the contemporary style is formed as an amalgamation of Indian architecture and Chaldean liturgical concepts.[113] The church is arranged east-to-west, with the interior structured into three levels: the madbaha (sanctuary), the qestroma (choir) and the haykla (nave).
The madbaha, arranged in the topmost platform at the eastern side of the building, represents Heaven. The primary altar is attached to the eastern wall. To the north of the madbaha is the diaqonikon (sacristry); to the south is the baptistery. The madbaha is protected with rails and is veiled by a red curtain most of the time; this is opened during the Holy Qurbana (Eucharist). An oil lamp within the sanctuary is kept glowing at all times to represent the presence of God. The madbaha is connected to the qestroma and haykla by a low-walled path called the sqaqona. The qestroma contains seats for the choir and lower clergy. The haykla contains an elevated platform or bema, which includes an altar, two lecterns for reading, and chairs for higher clergy. Worshipers stand before the altar, with separate seating for men and women. The main entrance is on the western side of the building; a vestibule, pillars, pilasters, and other architectural ornaments adorn the front end, and a flag mast stands in the front yard. One or two bells are installed in the back yard to signal the timing of ritual services, the death of a church member, or to inform the public of calamities.[114][115]
Nasrani symbol[edit]
The Saint Thomas Cross is widely perceived as the symbol of Saint Thomas Christians. It is also known as Nasrani Menorah[116] or Mar Thoma Sliba.[117] There are several interpretations for the Nasrani Symbol. The interpretation based on Christian Jewish tradition assumes that its design was based on Jewish menorah, an ancient symbol of the Hebrews, which consists of seven branched lamp stand (candelabra).[118]
The interpretation based on local culture states that the Cross without the figure of Jesus and with flowery arms symbolizing "joyfulness" points to the resurrection theology of St. Paul, the Holy Spirit on the top represents the role of Holy Spirit in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The lotus symbolizing Buddhism and the Cross over it shows that Christianity was established in the land of Buddha. The 3 steps indicate Calvary and the rivulets, channels of grace flowing from the Cross.[119]
Note that the Christian cross was not adopted as a symbol by Mediterranean and European Christianity until several centuries had passed.
Saint Thomas Christians today[edit]
Writing in 2010, Devika and Varghese noted that "[The St. Thomas Christians] are at present a substantial minority, a powerful presence in all fields of life in Kerala."[120]
Socioeconomic status[edit]
Even though the Saint Thomas Christians had to compromise their social and religious privileges in the aftermath of Portuguese subjugation, they started reemerging as a powerful community from the 19th century onward. They played a pioneering role in many spheres such as Banking, Commerce, Cash crops etc.[121] Among Saint Thomas Christians, 17.4% of the adult population are self-employed - the highest rate statistically among all the communities in the state of Kerala.[122] Saint Thomas Christians lead all others with respect to per capita ownership of land, with many of them owning large estates. With changing conditions, they have shifted from the agriculture of rice and coconut to plantation based agriculture and the trading of rubber, spices and cash crops. They also take a prominent role in the educational institutions of Kerala and throughout India.[123] They were quick to understand the benefits of academic education and in their educational achievements Saint Thomas Christians stand second to none. The educational accomplishments of the community have helped its members to attain a good proportion of the Central and State Government jobs.[121] With their level of education and limited employment opportunities within the state of Kerala, they became the community with the highest rate of migration. Their resultant foreign remittances have also helped the socioeconomic progress of the community. According to the Kerala Migration Survey (1998) by the Center for Developmental Studies, Kerala, Saint Thomas Christians top all other communities in Kerala with respect to the Socioeconomic Development Index which is based on parameters such as the possession of land,housing & consumer durables, education and employment status.[124]
Existing traditions, rituals and social life[edit]
Saint Thomas Christians still retain many of their ancient traditions and rituals, both in their social and religious life. Saint Thomas Christian services have many unique characteristics compared to others. Until the 1970s the Nasrani Qurbana was sung in Syriac. Many of the tunes of the Saint Thomas Christian worship in Kerala are remnants of ancient Syriac tunes of antiquity.[125] The Baptism is still known by the Aramaic term Mamodisa among Saint Thomas Christians and follows many of the ancient rituals of the ceremony. It is referred to in Malayalam as Njana Snanam ("Bath of Wisdom").[citation needed]
- Saint Thomas Christians observe Holy Thursday with high reverence. This day is referred to as Pesaha, a Malayalam word derived from the Aramaic or Hebrew word for Passover—Pasha or Pesah—commemorating the Last Supper of Jesus Christ during Passover in Jerusalem. The tradition of consuming Pesaha Appam after the church service is observed by the entire community under the leadership of the head of the family. Special long services followed by the Holy Qurbana are conducted during the Pesaha eve in the churches.[126][127]
- The community observes Lent, locally called the fifty days' fast, from Clean Monday to the day before Easter, abjuring all meat, fish and egg. They also traditionally observe the 25 days' fast which ends on the day of Christmas.[128]
- Generally, footwear is removed before entering the church and women cover their heads during worship.
- The ritual service (liturgy) is called the Holy Qurbana, which is derived from the Hebrew Korban (קרבן), meaning "sacrifice".
- The Holy Qurbana is mostly conducted and prayers recited in Malayalam. However, some parts of the Holy Qurbana are sung in Syriac. During the 20th century, the 'Qurbana-kramam' i.e. the 'book containing the order of worship', was translated into English, for the benefit of worshipers who lived outside Kerala, and did not know to read or write Malayalam.
- Another surviving tradition is the use of muthukoda (ornamental umbrella) for church celebrations, marriages and other festivals. Traditional drums, arch decorations and ornamental umbrellas are part of the church celebrations. Their use has become popular all over Kerala.
- The rituals and ceremonies of Saint Thomas Christians related to house building, astrology, birth and marriage have close similarity with those of Hindus in Kerala. Death rituals express Christian canonical themes very distantly and the influence of Hindu culture is quite noticeable. Much stress is given to ideas concerning life after death and the anticipation of final judgment.[129]
- Saint Thomas Christians do not marry close relatives. The rule is that the bride and groom must not be related for at least five generations.
- Saint Thomas Christians generally prefer arranged marriages and the prospective partners see each other in the Pennukanal (Bride Viewing) ceremony at bride's home.[130]
- Saint Thomas Christians did not use any iconography or statues of Jesus or the saints in their churches until after the arrival of the Portuguese, prior to which time the use of such symbols was deemed idolatrous.[citation needed]
- Saint Thomas Christians widely use Nilavilakku (a lighted metal lamp) in their houses and churches.[131]
- Saint Thomas Christians use terms like "Eashoa" (Jesus' name in Aramaic[132]), "Yeshu" (Hebrew name Yeshua) to denote Jesus Christ.
- The traditional dress of a Saint Thomas Christian woman is the Chatta and Mundu, a seamless white garment, which is now limited to older female adherents. Following the general trend, the Sari and Churidar have become predominant among the younger generations.[128][133]
Kunniparampil Zachariah notes that the 20th century was period of significant transition for the Saint Thomas Christians in terms of its demographic and socioeconomic status. Around 1900, the community was concentrated in a few areas, was geographically static and "... was characterised by very high death rate, very high birth rate, very early age at marriage, and 10 to 12 children per married woman". The population had increased eight-fold during the preceding century, from a base figure of about 100,000, and comprised nearly 50 per cent children. But, the population growth of Saint Thomas Christians came down drastically after 1960s, with the lowest birth rate, highest age at marriage, highest family planning user rate, and lowest fertility rate compared to other communities in Kerala. The proportion of children has come down to less than 25%. The absolute and relative size of the community is in a diminishing trend and is approaching a Zero Population Growth regime.[134]
As of 2001[update], in Kerala, more than 85 per cent of the Saint Thomas Christian population live in the six central districts of the state - Pathanamthitta, Alapuzha, Kottayam, Idukki, Ernakulam and Trissur. They have also migrated to other cities in India like Ooty, Mangalore, Bangalore, Chennai, Pune, Delhi, Mumbai, Coimbatore, Hyderabad and Kolkata.[124] Migration steeply increased in the post-independence period and major destinations were United States of America, Canada, Western Europe, Australia and the Middle East. According to a rough estimate, 20–25% of the Saint Thomas Christians live outside the state of Kerala.[124]
Caste status[edit]
Duncan Forrester observes that "... Nowhere else in India is there a large and ancient Christian community which has in time immemorial been accorded a high status in the caste hierarchy. [...] [Saint Thomas Christian] community operates very much as a caste and is properly regarded as a caste or at least a very caste like group."[135] Anand Amaladass also follows this view saying that "The Syrian Christians had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society for centuries and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy."[136] Saint Thomas Christians derive status within the caste system from the tradition that they descended from the elite Jews and Nambudiri Brahmins , who were evangelized by St. Thomas.[137][138] Christopher Fuller believes that Saint Thomas Christians, along with the Latin Christians and New Christians of the region, "may sensibly regarded as castes" but notes that "The word 'sensibly' is cautiously used for only as an ideal type can 'caste' be defined."[137] He considers them to be "part of the total segmentary caste structure and [...] ranked with respect to each other and to the Hindu castes".[139] George Mathew, writing of the practice of untouchability in Kerala, makes a similar distinction in saying that "Technically, the Christians were outside [the] caste hierarchy, but in practice a system of inclusion and exclusion was developed ...".[140] Saint Thomas Christians followed the same rules of caste and pollution as that of Hindus and sometimes they were even considered as pollution neutralizers.[106][139] They tend to be endogamous, and tend not to intermarry even with other Christian groupings.
Internal division of Saint Thomas Christians into Northists and Southists and also into a number of sects based on the ecclesiastical orientation makes the pattern of segmentation an exceedingly complex one.[135] Fuller believes that the caste hierarchy among these Christian groupings in Kerala is more polarized than the Hindu system of gradation and ascribes this relatively high polar nature to the limited number of castes among Christians while innumerable castes and sub castes are arranged in the Hindu hierarchical order.[137] Forrester suggests that the Northist-Southist division forms two groups within the Saint Thomas Christian community which are closely analogous to sub-castes.[135] At the same time, different Saint Thomas Christian denominations like Catholic, Jacobite, Mar Thomite, etc. are better regarded as sects, rather than sub-castes, since the recruitment to these sects cannot be strictly ascribed to birth.[135][137] Also, internal mobility is allowed among these Saint Thomas Christian sects and the caste status is kept even if the sect allegiance is switched (for example, from Syrian Orthodox to Syrian Catholic).[141] That is, despite the sectarian differences, Saint Thomas Christians share a common social status within the Caste system of Kerala and is considered as Forward Caste.[135]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Thomas Christians. |
- List of Saint Thomas Christians
- Suriyani Malayalam
- Rock crosses of Kerala
- Saint Thomas Christian Churches
- ^ "Eparchy of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Chicago (Syro-Malabarese)". Catholic-Hierarchy.org. David M. Cheney. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
- ^ a b c d Ross, Israel J. (1979) "Ritual and Music in South India: Syrian Christian Liturgical Music in Kerala." Asian Music. 11 (1): 80–98
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5 by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing - 2008. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.
- ^ The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. ISBN 965-278-179-7.
- ^ a b Županov, Ines G. (2005). Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th centuries), p. 99 and note. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11490-5
- ^ Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2 page 300
- ^ The Mappila fisherfolk of Kerala: a study in inter-relationship between habitat, technology, economy, society, and culture (1977), P. R. G. Mathur, Anthropological Survey of India, Kerala Historical Society, p. 1
- ^ Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity in India: a Historiographical Critique, p. 52. Media House Delhi.
- ^ a b Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 93. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II., Trichur.
- ^ Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 103. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Bayly, Susan Saints, Goddesses and Kings in South Indian Society Cambridge University Press 22 April 2004 ISBN 978-0-521-89103-5 [1]
- ^ Bornkamm, G. "The Acts of Thomas" in E. Hennecke, New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 2. London: Lutterworth, 1965.
- ^ Klijn, Albertus Frederik Johannes (2003). The Acts of Thomas: Introduction, Text, and Commentary. BRILL. p. 15. ISBN 90-04-12937-5. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 92. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ "The Song of Thomas Ramban" in Menachery G (ed); (1998) "The Indian Church History Classics", Vol. I, The Nazranies, Ollur, 1998. [ISBN 81-87133-05-8]
- ^ James Arampulickal (1994). The pastoral care of the Syro-Malabar Catholic migrants. Oriental Institute of Religious Studies, India Publications. p. 40.
- ^ Orientalia christiana periodica: Commentaril de re orientali ...: Volumes 17–18. Pontificium Institutum Orientalium Studiorum. 1951. p. 233.
- ^ Adrian Hastings (15 August 2000). A World History of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-8028-4875-8.
- ^ Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 103. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ a b c d e Baum, Wilhelm; Dietmar W. Winkler (2003). The Church of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. p. 52. ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, pp. 102–107; 115.. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Swiderski, Richard Michael (1988). "Northists and Southists: A Folklore of Kerala Christians". Asian Folklore Studies (Nanzan University) 47 (1): 76–80, 80–83. doi:10.2307/1178253. JSTOR 1178253.
- ^ Burjor Avari – India, the ancient past, Taylor & Francis, 2007, p.221, ISBN 0-415-35615-6
- ^ S.G. Pothan (1963) The Syrian Christians of Kerala, Bombay: Asia Publishing House pp.102–105
- ^ Werner Sundermann; Almut Hintze; François de Blois (2009). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 38. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
- ^ Baum, Wilhelm; Dietmar W. Winkler (2003). The Church of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
- ^ a b Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 112. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 105 & 110. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ # Silverberg, Robert (1996). The Realm of Prester John, pp. 29–34. Ohio University Press. ISBN 1-84212-409-9.
- ^ Fiey, J. M. (1993). Pour un Oriens Christianus novus; répertoire des diocèses Syriaques orientaux et occidentaux, p. 96. Beirut: Orient-Institut.
- ^ Wilmshurst, D. J. (2000). The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318–1913, p. 343 and 391. Louvain.
- ^ a b Baum, Wilhelm; Dietmar W. Winkler (2003). The Church of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 0-415-29770-2. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
- ^ Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity in India: a Historiographical Critique, p. 274. Media House Delhi.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, 122–124. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, 125–127. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, pp. 127–128. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, pp. 130–134. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ Neill, Stephen (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press. pp. 208–210. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
- ^ Neill, Stephen (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 January 2012.
- ^ a b Prasad, Rajendra (2009). A Historical-Developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume XII, part 2. Delhi, India: Concept Publishing Company. p. 484. ISBN 81-8069-595-6. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity in India: a Historiographical Critique, p. 78. Media House Delhi.
- ^ Van der Ploeg, J. P. L., O.P. The Christians of St. Thomas in South India and their Syriac Manuscripts. Rome and Bangalore: Center for Indian and Inter-Religious Studies and Dharmaram Publications, 1983.[page needed]
- ^ Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 136. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ a b Frykenberg, Eric (2008). Christianity in India: from Beginnings to the Present, p. 367. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826377-5.
- ^ a b Neill, Stephen (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press. pp. 316–317. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
- ^ a b c Neill, Stephen (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press. p. 319. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
- ^ Neill, Stephen (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press. pp. 320–321. ISBN 0-521-54885-3. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
- ^ Joseph Thekkedathu, pous cit pp96-100
- ^ Rev Dr Placid Podipara, The Hierarchy of Syro Malabar Church, in Collected works of Rev Dr Placid Podipara CMI, Vol I p 719
- ^ "Christians of Saint Thomas (Christian groups, India) - Encyclopedia Britannica". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2013-11-18.
- ^ a b c d Vadakkekara, p. 84; 86.
- ^ Frykenberg, p. 361.
- ^ Fernando, p. 79.
- ^ Chaput, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Vadakkekara, p. 84 and note.
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia- "St. Thomas Christians" The Carmelite Period, Dr. Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India"
- ^ a b Claudius Buchanan 1811; Menachery G; 1973, 1982, 1998; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956; Tisserant, E. 1957; Michael Geddes, 1694;
- ^ Dr. Thekkedath, History of Christianity in India"
- ^ Fr. George Thalian: The Great Archbishop Mar Augustine Kandathil, D. D.: the Outline of a Vocation, Mar Louis Memorial Press, 1961.
- ^ "History of Ernakulam Diocese". Ernakulamarchdiocese.org. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
- ^ Puthezhathu Ramon Menon, Sakthan Thampuran, (Malayalam) Kozhikode, Mathrubhumi, 1989 (3rd ed.) p.286.
- ^ N. M. Mathew, History of the Marthoma Church (Malayalam), Volume 1.(2006). Page 205-207.
- ^ Kochumon M.P. Saintly bishops of Kattumangat (Malayalam) p. 42-44.
- ^ K.C. Varghese Kassessa. History of Malabar Independent Syrian Church (Malayalam) p.45
- ^ John Fenwick. The Forgotten Bishops, Georgias Press, NJ, USA. 2009. p.200-246.
- ^ Michael Burgess – The Eastern Orthodox Churches, McFarland, 2005, ISBN 0-7864-2145-2, p.175
- ^ Susan Bayly – Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society – ISBN 0-521-89103-5, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 281–286
- ^ George Joseph, The life and times of a Kerala Christian nationalist, Orient Blackswan, 2003, pp. 33–39, ISBN 81-250-2495-6
- ^ Stephen Neill (2 May 2002). A History of Christianity in India: 1707-1858. Cambridge University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-521-89332-9. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
- ^ Cherian, Dr. C.V., Orthodox Christianity in India. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003.p. 254-262.
- ^ Stephen Neill (2 May 2002). A History of Christianity in India: 1707-1858. Cambridge University Press. pp. 247–249. ISBN 978-0-521-89332-9. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
- ^ Eyre Chatterton
- ^ Dr.Juhanon Mar Thoma Metropolitan. Christianity in India and a Brief History of the Marthoma Syrian Church. Pub: K.M. Cherian. 1993.
- ^ Author:Sushil Mittal, Gene Thursby -Religions of South Asia: An Introduction
- ^ "Anglican Communion official website – The Church of South India (United)". Retrieved 2008-06-21.
- ^ Agur, C.M. Church History of Travancore.1903.
- ^ a b c d Varghese A.P. – India: History, Religion, Vision and Contribution to the World, Atlantic Publishers 2008, ISBN 978-81-269-0903-2, pp, 376–378
- ^ M.P. Varkey, Pulikkottil Joseph Mar Dionysious II, Metropolitan of Jacobite faction of Malankara Church.(Malayalam), Malayala Manorama. 1901.
- ^ Cheriyan, Dr. C.V., Orthodox Christianity in India. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003. p. 294.
- ^ N.M. Mathew, History of the Marthoma Church (Malayalam), Volume II.(2007). Page 125.
- ^ A History of Eastern Christianity – Taylor & Francis, pp. 372–374
- ^ Cherian, Dr. C.V., Orthodox Christianity in India. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003.p. 354.
- ^ Rev. Thomas, P.T. & Rev. P.C. Zachariah. It Happened in The Mar Thoma Church. 1961.
- ^ Thomas, K.T. & Rev. T.N. Koshy. Faith On Trial. Ernakulam. 1965.
- ^ Burgess M., Stanley (January 2001). "PENTECOSTALISM IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW". Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 4 (1): 95–96. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
- ^ Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 5–8. Retrieved 27 April 2012.[dead link]
- ^ a b c Thomas Johnson Nossiter, Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation, University of California Press, 1982, pp. 78- 82, ISBN 0-520-04667-6
- ^ a b c d Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
- ^ Jeffrey, Robin (March 1976). "Temple Entry Movement in Travancore". Social Scientist 4 (8): 11–12. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 19–20. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
- ^ Donald Eugene Smith et al.- South Asian politics and religion, Princeton University Press, 1966, p.190
- ^ George Mathew – Communal Road To A Secular Kerala, Concept Publishing Company, 1989, ISBN 81-7022-282-6, pp.91–103
- ^ PR Saraswati – The Impact of Indian Christianity on Indian Society [2]
- ^ "www.keralaassembly.org". www.keralaassembly.org. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
- ^ Reflections on Finance Education and Society. Motilal Banarsidass Publication. p. 114. ISBN 9788120830752. Retrieved 2009-07-22.
- ^ Plunkett, Cannon & Harding 2001, p. 24
- ^ Thomas Johnson Nossiter (1982). Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation. University of California Press. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-0-520-04667-2. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ Amaladass, Anand (1993) [1989 (New York: Orbis Books)]. "Dialogue between Hindus and the St. Thomas Christians". In Coward, Harold. Hindu-Christian dialogue: perspectives and encounters (Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16. ISBN 81-208-1158-5.
- ^ a b Rajendra Prasad: A Historical-developmental study of classical Indian philosophy of morals – pp. 484–487, ISBN 81-8069-595-6 [3]
- ^ a b c d Rajendra Prasad: A Historical-developmental study of classical Indian philosophy of morals – pp. 482–483, ISBN 81-8069-595-6
- ^ Paul M. Collins: Christian inculturation in India – Page 142 ISBN 0-7546-6076-1
- ^ L.Krishna Ananthakrishna Iyer: Anthropology of Syrian Christians – pp. 205–219
- ^ Susan Bayly – Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society – ISBN 0-521-89103-5, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 246–247
- ^ S. G. Pothan – The Syrian Christians of Kerala, p. 58 Asia Pub. House, 1963
- ^ a b c Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity in India: a Historiographical Critique, pp. 325–330. Media House Delhi.
- ^ Amaladass, Anand (1993) [1989 (New York: Orbis Books)]. "Dialogue between Hindus and the St. Thomas Christians". In Coward, Harold. Hindu-Christian dialogue: perspectives and encounters (Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 15–19. ISBN 81-208-1158-5.
- ^ The Travancore State Manual II. Kerala Gazetteers Dept. ISBN 9788185499321.
in Authors list (help) - ^ Census of India, 1961, India. Office of the Registrar General, p. 290
- ^ Susan Bayly – Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, Cambridge University Press, 2004 – ISBN 0-521-89103-5, p. 273
- ^ Susan Bayly – Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, Cambridge University Press, 2004 – ISBN 0-521-89103-5, p. 274-279
- ^ Susan Bayly – Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society – ISBN 0-521-89103-5, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 310–315
- ^ Malekandathil, Pius (2010). Maritime India: Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian Ocean. Delhi: Primus Books. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-93-8060-701-6. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ Mateer, Samuel (1871). The Land of Charity: A Descriptive Account of Travancore and its People. London: J. Snow & Co. pp. 241–243. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ Bradshaw, Paul F. (2003). The New Westminster Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship. Westminster John Knox. p. 160. ISBN 0664226558. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
- ^ Paul M. Collins – Christian inculturation in India, pp.119, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, ISBN 0-7546-6076-1
- ^ "NSC NETWORK: Saint Thomas Cross- A Religio Cultural Logo of Saint Thomas Christians". Nasrani.net. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
- ^ Paul M. Collins: Christian inculturation in India – Page 119 ISBN 0-7546-6076-1
- ^ Dr. Geo Thadikkatt – Liturgical Identity of the Mar Toma Nazrani Church
- ^ Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. p. 11. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
- ^ a b A Kumar — Social Reforms in Modern India, p. 180, Sarup and Sons 2001, ISBN 81-7625-227-1
- ^ Kunniparampil Curien Zachariah et al. – Dynamics of migration in Kerala: dimensions, differentials, and consequences, pp. 85 – 89, Orient Blackswan, 2003, ISBN 81-250-2504-9
- ^ ('The Hindu' Syrian Christians are in a class of their own South Indian newspaper article 31 August 2001
- ^ a b c K.C. Zachariah — The Syrian Christians of Kerala: demographic and socio-economic transition in the twentieth century, Orient Longman, 2006
- ^ Palackal, Joseph J. Syriac Chant Traditions in South India. Ph.d, Ethnomusicology, City University of New York, 2005.
- ^ "NSC Network – Passover". Nasrani.net. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
- ^ Weil, S. (1982)"Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kerala. in Contributions to Indian Sociology,16.
- ^ a b "Syrian Christians in India". Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily. 2009. – via HighBeam Research (subscription required)
- ^ Rowena Robinson: Christians of India, p.106, ISBN 0-7619-9822-5
- ^ Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology Society, p. 258
- ^ Paul M. Collins – Christian inculturation in India, p.120, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, ISBN 0-7546-6076-1
- ^ http://www.v-a.com/bible/jesus.html
- ^ Anthropologica Vol 46, 2004, Canadian Anthropology Society, p. 262
- ^ Zachariah, Kunniparampil Curien (November 2001). The Syrian Christians of Kerala: Demographic and Socioeconomic Transition in the Twentieth Century. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. p. 3. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
- ^ a b c d e Forrester, Duncan (1980). Caste and Christianity. Curzon Press. pp. 98,102.
- ^ Amaladass, Anand (1993) [1989 (New York: Orbis Books)]. "Dialogue between Hindus and the St. Thomas Christians". In Coward, Harold. Hindu-Christian dialogue: perspectives and encounters (Indian ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 18. ISBN 81-208-1158-5.
- ^ a b c d Fuller, Christopher J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New Series (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland) 11 (1): 55, 68. JSTOR 2800388.(subscription required)
- ^ Fuller, C.J. "Indian Christians: Pollution and Origins." Man. New Series, Vol. 12, No. 3/4. (Dec., 1977), pp. 528–529.
- ^ a b Fuller, Christopher J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New Series (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland) 11 (1): 55–56. JSTOR 2800388.(subscription required)
- ^ Mathew, George (1989). Communal Road To A Secular Kerala. Concept Publishing Company. p. 22. ISBN 978-81-7022-282-8. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
- ^ Fuller, Christopher J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New Series (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland) 11 (1): 61. JSTOR 2800388.(subscription required)
Further reading[edit]
- Aprem, Mar. (1977) The Chaldaean Syrian Church in India. Trichur, Kerala, India: Mar Narsai, 1977.
- Brown, Leslie (1956) The Indian Christians of St. Thomas. An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1956, 1982 (repr.)
- Iyer, K.V. Krishna, Kerala's Relations with the Outside World, pp. 70, 71 in "The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume", Kerala History Association, Cochin, 1971.
- Joseph, T. K. The Malabar Christians and Their Ancient Documents. Trivandrum, India, 1929.
- Landstrom, Bjorn (1964) "The Quest for India", Double day English Edition, Stockholm.
- Mariamma Joseph (1994).Marriage Among Indian Christians.Jaipur: Rawat Publications
- Mathew, N. M. St. Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages. CSS Tiruvalla. 2003.
- Menachery, Professor George. (2000) Kodungallur – The Cradle of Christianity In India, Thrissur: Marthoma Pontifical Shrine.
- Menachery, Professor George(Ed.). (1982) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, VOL.I, Thrissur.
- Menachery, Professor George(Ed.). (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, VOL.II, Thrissur.
- Menachery, Professor George(Ed.). (2010) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, VOL.III, Ollur,Thrissur.
- Menachery, Professor George(Ed.with Ponnumuthan, Aerath). (2006) Indian Christians and Nation Building, CBCI-KCBC Kochi-Alwaye.
- Menachery, Professor George(Ed.with Snaitang). (2011) India's Christian Heritage, Church History Assn. of India, Bangalore (DVK).
- Menachery George & Chakkalakal Werner (1987) "Kodungallur: City of St. Thomas", Azhikode
- Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.
- Mundadan, A. Mathias. (1984) History of Christianity in India, vol.1, Bangalore, India: Church History Association of India.
- Philip, E.M. (1908) The Indian Christians of St. Thomas (1908; Changanassery: Mor Adai Study Center, 2002).
- Podipara, Placid J. (1970) "The Thomas Christians". London: Darton, Longman and Tidd, 1970. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St. Thomas Christians.)
- Poomangalam C.A (1998) The Antiquities of the Knanaya Syrian Christians; Kottayam, Kerala.
- Puthur, B. (ed.) (2002): The Life and Nature of the St Thomas Christian Church in the Pre-Diamper Period (Cochi, Kerala).
- Rawlinson, H. (1926) Intercourse between India and the Western World from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Rome
- Susan Visvanathan (1993) The Christians of Kerala: History, Belief and Ritual Among the Yakoba. New Delhi/Madras/New York: Oxford University Press
- Susan Visvanathan (1989) "Marriage, Birth and Death-Property Rights and Domestic Relationships of the Orthodox Jacobite Syrian Christians of Kerala", Economic and Political Weekly,Vol - XXIV No. 24, June 17, 1989.
- Susan Visvanathan (1986) "Reconstructions of the Past among the Syrian Christians of Kerala", Contributions to Indian Sociology (Sage Publishers), July 1986; vol. 20, 2: pp. 241–260.
- Susan Visvanathan (2010)."The Status of Christian Women in Kerala",in 'World Christianity:Critical Concepts in Religious Studies', edited by Elizabeth Koepping, London: Routledge, 2010.
- Susan Visvanathan (2011) "The Eucharist in a Syrian Christian Church", in T.N.Madan (edited) 'India's Religions : Perspectives from Sociology and History'.New Delhi: Oxford University Press
- Tamcke, M. (ed.) (2001) : Orientalische Christen zwischen Repression und Migration (Studien zur Orientalischen Kirchengeschichte 13; Münster: LIT).
- Thayil, Thomas (2003). The Latin Christians of Kerala: A Study on Their Origin. Kristu Jyoti Publications. ISBN 81-87370-18-1
- The Land of the Perumals, or Cochin, Its Past and Present – Madras: Gantz Brothers – 1863.
- Thomas, P. J; (1932) "Roman Trade Centres in Malabar", Kerala Society Papers, II.
- Tisserant, E. (1957) Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Trans. and ed. by E. R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
- Vellian Jacob (2001) Knanite community: History and culture; Syrian church series; vol. XVII; Jyothi Book House, Kottayam
- Veluthat, K. (1978). Brahmin settlements in Kerala: Historical studies. Calicut: Calicut University, Sandhya Publications.
External links[edit]
- Jacobite Syrian Christian Church
- The Syro Malabar Church
- Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church)
- Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church
- Christians of Kerala
- Population of Christians in India and Kerala based on 2001 report of Indian census
- Syrian christians are in a class of their own South Indian newspaper 31 August 2001
- The Nasrani Syrian Christian Network
- Project for preserving the manuscripts of the Syrian Christians of Kerala


text:
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
NASA's Presence in Russia
NASA has a large presence in the Moscow area, with offices at the U.S. Embassy, Star City, the Moscow Mission Control Center, and the Russian Federal Space Agency.
The NASA Moscow Liaison Office (NMLO) at the U.S. Embassy represents all of NASA's programs and offices in Russia. Contact and additional information can be found at: www.hq.nasa.gov
NASA and Russia have a long history of extensive and diverse cooperation, starting with space biology and medicine, geodesy and geodynamics in the 1960s. In 1972, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Agreement Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes ("Civil Space Agreement"), which expanded this cooperation into other areas, including space science, Earth science, satellite-based search and rescue, and, later, human space flight. The first docking in space between spacecraft from two different countries took place in 1975 when the crews of the U.S. Apollo spacecraft and the Soviet Union's Soyuz spacecraft opened the hatches between their vehicles for the historic "handshake in space" during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission.
In the 1990s NASA and Russia expanded cooperation into the field of aeronautics, including collaboration with the Tupolev Design Bureau on the Tu-144 Flying Research Laboratory, and with the Central Institute of Aviation Motors (CIAM) on scramjet experiments as well as a number of other projects.
The 1990s also saw NASA and Russia re-engage in the area of human space flight with the successful Shuttle-Mir Program during which seven NASA astronauts completed long-duration missions on the Mir Space Station. The Shuttle-Mir Program, which served as the first phase of the International Space Station (ISS), taught NASA and Russia how to work across international boundaries on complex human space flight operations, improved NASA's understanding of long-term space habitation, and led to more efficient assembly techniques for the ISS. The Shuttle-Mir Program proved an invaluable precursor to the ISS Program. By reducing risk through experience, it paved the way for ISS, much as the U.S. Mercury and Gemini programs helped prepare for the Apollo missions to the moon. As the new century dawned, cooperation between NASA and its Russian counterparts on Earth science, space science, life sciences, and human spaceflight continued and prospects for future cooperation remain optimistic. Current projects now focus on the study of Siberian boreal forests, the use of Russian instruments on NASA robotic probes to the Moon and Mars, research on Russian Foton bioscience spacecraft, and, of course, the continued success of the ISS. As NASA prepares to return to the Moon and eventually land humans on Mars, a promising future lies ahead for American/Russian collaboration and cooperation.
NASA's Russian Partners
Most of NASA's cooperation with Russia is conducted through Russia's Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos). Roscosmos was established in 1992 as the Russian Space Agency (RSA). In 1999, RSA's mandate was expanded to include the aviation industry, at which time its name was changed to Rosaviakosmos. In 2004, responsibility for the aviation industry was moved to the Federal Agency for Industry. Once again, space became the sole focus of the newly re-named Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos). The Head of Roscosmos is Anotolii Perminov. For human space flight activities NASA also cooperates with the following organizations: Rocket Space Corporation-Energia, Khrunichev State Space Science Production Center, Central Scientific Research Institute of Machine-Building (TsNIIMash), Moscow Mission Control Center (TsUP), Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center (TsPK), and the Institute of Bio-Medical Problems (IMBP). In Earth science and space science, NASA also cooperates with the Russian Academy of Sciences and many of its institutes.
Current Space Operations Cooperation
Cooperation on human space operations began with the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in the 1970s. Although U.S. and Soviet human space flight programs went their separate ways from the late 1970s, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s cooperation between Russia and the United States flourished through the Shuttle-Mir Program.
International Space Station: The ISS is a U.S.-led multinational effort with participation by Russia, Japan, Canada, and 11 member states of the European Space Agency (ESA). Permanent human presence began on November 1, 2000 with a crew of three. Russia's contributions to the ISS are significant, including the Zvezda Service Module launched July 2000; a Docking Compartment launched September 2001; the regularly-launched Progress resupply spacecraft; and biannually-launched Soyuz spacecraft. A Soyuz spacecraft always remains docked to ISS to serve as the crew return vehicle. In addition to these contributions, Russia built and launched the first element of the ISS, the Zarya FGB Functional Cargo Block, under contract to the Boeing Company.
Current Exploration Cooperation
With the establishment of the U.S. Vision for Space Exploration in 2004, NASA is undertaking a sustained human and robotic program to explore the solar system. Initial efforts will focus on building a human installation on the Moon as a prelude to further human exploration of the solar system. The United States views this as a long-term journey and invites international participation.
Global Exploration Strategy: In initiating the work to achieve the Vision, NASA realized that participation by many nations as well as commercial interests would be needed. Additionally, NASA wanted to better articulate the reasons to return to the Moon, and to understand the reasons that others might have for participation in such a mission. The Global Exploration Strategy, therefore, is the result of a lengthy dialogue among potential stakeholders. The discussion involved more than 1,000 individuals representing 14 of the world's space agencies, as well as non-government organizations and commercial interests. The Russian Federal Space Agency was one of the participants in the early development of the strategy.
Lunar Exploration: The Russian Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) is scheduled to fly on NASA's 2008 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) mission. Similar to the Russian High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft, LEND will search for the presence of frozen water on the lunar surface.
Current Earth Science Cooperation
NASA has cooperated with the USSR and Russia for over 30 years in the fields of Earth science, global-change research and environmental monitoring. The overall goal of this cooperation is to advance our understanding of the Earth's systems through the use of space-based sensors, which make quantitative measurements of the state and behavior of the Earth's atmosphere, ocean, land surface, biology, and interior. These activities include:
Siberian Boreal Forest Field Campaigns: This cooperative research effort with the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), V.N. Sukachev Institute of Forest Research, conducts joint field campaigns within the Siberian boreal forest and provides data to international programs, such as the International Geosphere Biosphere Program (IGBP). The objective of the campaigns is to characterize areas of fire and other forest disturbance by performing detailed measurements within sample plots of relief. NASA loaned equipment to RAS for long-term operation at study sites and to establish a weather station approximately 200 km from the city of Krasnoyarsk.
Space Geodesy: NASA is currently cooperating with the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) in efforts at Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) geodetic experiments. This cooperation includes the use of a NASA-loaned MARK-III VLBI system at the Institute of Applied Astronomy (IAA)/RAS geodetic observatory in Svetloe. The experiments focus on improved accuracy in VLBI measurements required for studies of Earth orientation, angular momentum, and crustal dynamics. As part of the joint experiments, data from the Russian observatories in Svetloe, Zelenchukskaya, and Badary that are a part of the international geodetic VLBI networ,will be correlated and archived in the Crustal Dynamics Data Information System (CDDIS) for availability to the international science community.
Aerosol Robotic NETwork (AERONET): NASA has loaned several sun photometers to various Russian institutions in support of the global AERONET program. The sun photometers measure vital aerosol optical properties and water vapor, which contribute to a more detailed understanding of global atmospheric change phenomena with a particular focus on the assessment of air quality.
The Northern Eurasia Earth Science Partnership Initiative (NEESPI): NEESPI is an active and evolving strategic program of internationally-supported, Earth systems science research, which has its focal issues in Northern Europe that are relevant to regional and global scientific and decision-making communities. Collaboration among NASA, NOAA, and the Russian Academy of Sciences provided fuel for the founding of NEESPI. This international program identifies critical science questions and coordinates research on the state and dynamics of terrestrial ecosystems. The program also analyzes data in order to identify the correlation between land-use in Northern Eurasia and its effects on the Earth's climate. With this knowledge, the program can develop predictive capabilities for carbon accounting and practical applications, track water resources, and analyze the impacts of changes in permafrost. The NEESPI study area is loosely defined as the region lying between 15 E Longitude in the west, the Pacific Coast in the east, 40 N Latitude in the south, and the Arctic Ocean coastal zone in the north. Former USSR territories, Fennoscandia, Eastern Europe, Mongolia, and North China are all included in this area.
Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE III)/Meteor 3M mission: The SAGE III/Meteor 3M mission is a recently completed major space cooperative activity with Russia in the area of Earth science. Complementing previous SAGE missions, SAGE III provided long-term, global measurements of key components of the Earth's atmosphere and facilitated important scientific investigations of the state of the ozone layer. The satellite was launched in December 2001 on a Zenit-2 rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. The Meteor-3M spacecraft experienced an anomaly in its transponder shortly after launch. Despite this, and other anomalies, the mission successfully collected data through its conclusion in early 2006.
Current Space Science Cooperation
NASA and the USSR Academy of Sciences began cooperation on space sciences in the 1960s and the international agreement on this cooperation served as the basis for the Civil Space Agreement of 1972. Major current activities include:
Mars Exploration: NASA has cooperated with Soviet and Russian space scientists on Mars exploration since the 1980s. In the past decade NASA and Roscosmos have collaborated on four Mars missions: 1) NASA 2001 Mars Odyssey; 2) NASA 1998 Mars Climate Orbiter; 3) NASA 1998 Mars Polar Lander; and 4) Russian Mars 96. Although the latter three missions were lost prior to completion, the Russian High Energy Neutron Detector (HEND) on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft has returned data that suggest the presence of substantial quantities of frozen water in the upper surface of Mars. Mars Odyssey remains in orbit around Mars, mapping the chemical composition of the planet's surface. NASA and its Russian counterparts are presently developing a Russian-provided Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) investigation for flight on the NASA 2009 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission. They also continue to explore cooperative possibilities for the future exploration of Mars.
Konus/Wind: Launched on November 1, 1994, NASA's Wind satellite remains in operation at the sunward Sun-Earth equilibrium point (L-1). It includes the Russian Konus experiment, which was the first Russian scientific instrument to fly on an American satellite. The Konus experiment provides omni-directional and continuous coverage of cosmic gamma-ray transients. The instrument monitors cosmic gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), soft gamma repeaters (SGRs), solar flares, and other transients with the moderate energy resolution available from scintillation spectrometers. In conjunction with other instruments, Konus has helped to rapidly determine gamma-ray burst locations allowing prompt further study of this elusive phenomenon.
NMLO Web Site Hot Links
NASA Organization and Missions
- NASA Homepage: www.nasa.gov
- NASA Field Centers and Missions: www.nasa.gov/about/sites/index.html
- Vision for Space Exploration: www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/main/index.html
- Mercury : www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov, www.hq.nasa.gov
- Gemini: www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov
- Apollo: www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov, www.hq.nasa.gov
- ASTP: history.nasa.gov,
- Shuttle-Mir: spaceflight.nasa.gov
Past and Present Cooperative Projects
- ISS: www.nasa.gov
- Zvezda: spaceflight.nasa.gov
- FGB: www.spaceflight.nasa.gov
- Science: science.hq.nasa.gov
- SeaWiFS: seawifs.gsfc.nasa.gov
- Aeronet: aeronet.gsfc.nasa.gov
- NASA Space Science: spacescience.nasa.gov
- Mars Exploration: mars.jpl.nasa.gov
- Mars Odyssey: mars.jpl.nasa.gov
Russian Partners
- Roskosmos: www.roscosmos.ru
- RSC-Energia: www.energia.ru
- Khrunichev: www.khrunichev.ru
- TsNIIMash: www.tse.ru
- TsUP: www.mcc.rsa.ru
- GCTC: www.gctc.ru
- IMBP: www.imbp.ru
- Russian Academy of Sciences: www.ras.ru
- IKI: www.iki.rssi.ru

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Now working out of Pioneer Square, I've taken an interest in exploring more of the quiet parts of the neighborhood beyond 1st Avenue and on one of the side streets just north of the stadiums I found the store for Ebbets Field Flannels – the maker of historical reproduction sports jerseys, hats, and jackets. I [...]
Recent Posts
45rpm Alden Barbour Brooks Brothers Coffee Drake's of London eBay Engineered Garments Filson Fishing Free & Easy Google Books Horween Hunting Iceland Illustrations J.Crew J.Press Knitwear L.L. Bean Leon Levi's LIFE Made in USA Margaret Howell Men's Ex Men's File Mister Freedom Motorcycles News Nigel Cabourn Panama Hat Pitti Uomo Ralph Lauren Rin Tanaka RRL Seattle Steve McQueen Superior Labor ts(s) Tweed Vintage Waste(twice) Woolrich Woolen Mills Yuketen


text:
NZXT HALE82 N 650-watt Power Supply Review
If you're on the market for an affordable yet reasonably well performing PSU, the HALE82 N might be worth some consideration.Introduction
Ever since NZXT entered the power supply market in 2008 with the launch of the NZXT HALE90 series, we've kept on eye on what they've offered starting with the HALE90 850W. Earlier this year, NZXT expanded their lineup with the HALE82 series which we also reviewed here and here. So far, we have been quite pleased with what we have seen from NZXT and were excited when offered a chance to look at their next power supply series before it even hit store shelves.
The unit on our bench today from NZXT is the HALE82 N 650W power supply. It is meant to provide power towards the lower end of the spectrum and does so without modular cabling and less connectors than the previously mentioned HALE82 power supplies. It is 80Plus Bronze rate for efficiency, hence the HALE82 branding, but the N denotes that all the cables are natively wired.
Don't let the name fool you though, as NZXT has done much more than just remove the modular cabling. The HALE82 N series of power supplies are a completely different design and share hardly any of the same components.
Let's get started on checking out what the new HALE82 N 650W power supply is all about.
Specifications, Availability and Pricing
NZXT delivers the majority of the power through the single 50A 12V rail capable of up to 600W of power. The minor rails are both capable of 28A each and share a combined total output of 150W. This is rather beefy for a 650W power supply and is nice to see. Power for the 5VSB rail is available up to 3.5A for a total of 17.5W. Maximum combined output of the unit is 650W.
For an entry level power supply, the NZXT HALE82 N really delivers where it matters. It may not be rated for 100% continuous output at 50C or have modular cabling, but the power supply isn't meant for users interested in such features. It has all of your voltage, current, power and temperature protections and that is what matters. The HALE82 N is also rated for 80Plus Bronze efficiency with fully sleeved native cables.
Pricing information for the unit isn't available at this time, but we would expect this to be priced just a tad below the HALE82 series units. This should put the unit somewhere close to the $59-$79 price range. NZXT backs the unit with a five year warranty.
- Page 1 [Introduction, Specifications, Availability and Pricing]
- Page 2 [Packaging]
- Page 3 [Inside the Box]
Related Tags
Further Reading: Read and find more Cases, Cooling & PSU content at our Cases, Cooling & PSU reviews, guides and articles index page.
Do you get our RSS feed? Get It!
Latest News Posts
- Rock Band 4 announced, will hit the Xbox One and PS4 end of this year
- Harrison Ford crash update: Actor "Battered, but fine"
- This beautiful collaboration between ASUS and Bitspower should be seen
- AMD to unveil its next-gen Radeon R9 390X at Computex in June
- Mike Ey, Microsoft HoloLens designer killed in hit-and-run
Forum Activity
- Patriot Supersonic Rage 2 256GB USB 3.0 Flash Drive Review
- New Asrock EPC612D4U-2T8R: Xeon 2011 v3 or v2?
- Going into BIOS
- X99 UD3 wont post, will then reboot
- ASRock P67 Transformer
Press Releases
- Antec Announces VPF Series Power Supplies
- Valve Announces Link, Source 2, SteamVR, and More at GDC
- MSI Unveils an Arsenal of New GAMING Products
- AMD Announces New LiquidVR Technology
- Sonnet Introduces Two New Handy Thunderbolt Adapters


text:
Pmarchive. Stories from female founders and women entrepreneurs – Join us for the PITCH Conference on February 14 in Mountain View, CA – Details at. Welcome to Strictly Startup blog ! Hands-on startup advice for emerging entrepreneurs. Business - Start a Startup. Ready to turn your ideas into a reality? The "Start a Startup" IntentPage provides the ins and outs of what is involved in Starting your own Startup Company, from idea conception to building your team, to raising money. To Start or Not. Everything you ever wanted to know about advisors, Part 1. Nivi · January 31st, 2008 Here are answers to some frequently asked questions about advisors.
If you have additional questions, email us at email@example.com. Table of Contents General (answers follow) Thoughts on startups by investors that fund them & entrepreneurs that run them. The two sites you mentioned are both secondary listing services, for later stage companies.
For a new angel investor, by far the best thing to do is to join a local angel investor group that belongs to the Angel Capital Association. There are hundreds of them, with at least one in every state. Guy Kawasaki: Get it out there & enchant. Startup2Startup's Channel. Upload Subscription preferences Loading...
StartupCaffeine's Channel. Venture Hacks - Good advice for startups. Daniel R. Odio - A Tech Entrepreneur in Silicon Valley. Startups Wiki: Ask YC Archive. This pages is an archive of quality Hacker News "Ask YC" posts grouped by subject.
"Quality" means posts that are a) generally relevant to startups and b) contain a decent amount of useful discussion/advice. All posts on this page have been looked at manually. 5 reasons why the UNTHINK Experiment is over – and 6 pieces of advice for new start-ups « interacter. When I received an invitation to join the latest social network as it took its fledgling steps, I promised that I'd give it a month to see how it worked out.
Fast forward six weeks – not only have I discontinued use but I've deleted my account as well. Here are the five reasons why – and some advice for future social media start-ups.Reason One: The technology wasn't ready. When I originally blogged about UNTHINK, I criticised the load times. This hasn't improved – today's load for example took around 8seconds on IE over a 10mg broadband line. Firefox meanwhile took 9.522s. (Founder Stories) Kevin Systrom On Instagram's Launch, "I Have Never Felt So Sick Ever" Best Questions on Startup Advice and Strategy.
AppMakr Raises $1 Million To Help You Build Custom iPhone Apps. AppMakr, a service that makes it easy to generate your own custom, native iPhone application, has closed a $1 million seed round.
The round includes angel investors and VCs: Mitch Kapor (founder of Lotus), Bill Lee, Rich Chen, Charles River Ventures (George Zachary & Bill Tai), Brian McClendon (angel, VP of Engineering at Google), Kima Ventures (Jeremie Berrebi & Xavier Niel), Warren Hellman (previously at Lehman Bros), Ben Narasin (TriplePoint Ventures), Pietro Dova, Sean Glass (Top Floor), Transmedia Capital (Chris Redlitz & Peter Boboff, of Kicklabs incubator). We've written about AppMakr a few times in the past — the startup launched in early 2010, allowing users to put together an iPhone application with a surprisingly small amount of work involved. COO Daniel Odio says that applications built using AppMakr now represent around 1% of the apps on the App Store — or around 3,000 applications.


text:
Scotch Single Malt - Speyside - 2014
International Wine & Spirit Competition
Nose: Exotic spices, apple that's just begun to caramelise and dried grapes. Coffee and leather develop, running into crème brûlée, golden barley and soft toffees. Rum and raisin surfaces too, along with more spices and butterscotch.
Palate: Pleasantly thick but not too much so. Wood spice, a hint of cumin and luxurious cigar box, coffee and caramel notes with just a touch of smoke.
Finish: Long lasting with nutmeg, crushed nuts, fine cigars and whispers of fruit; lychee, raisin and a little dried apricot perhaps.
Overall: Dignified, but by no means tired. An exquisite and complex fine whisky that's been matured, extraordinarily, for half a century.
Please enter your details to make it easier for us to help you further.


text:
NYSDOT Reminds You of Ongoing Bridge Deck Replacement Over Cold Brook in Town of Homer
Saturday, November 10, 2012
The New York State Department of Transportation is reminding motorists of the ongoing bridge deck replacement project on Route 281 over Cold Brook in the Town of Homer.
Work began this week, and traffic is being rerouted onto Route 11 in Homer, those needing to access the north side of the bridge should use Little York Crossing.
Work on the bridge deck is expected to continue until the end of the year.
During construction, the bridge will remain closed to all traffic.
Your browser does not support script
Internet Explorer Users Click Here To See What's On-Air
Contest Rules
Contact Us
Copyright 2014. Eves Broadcasting Inc.
Site Designed and Maintained by MME
Local News
Submit A News Photo Or Video
Help us out! If you see news take a picture and or video and submit it here!
'Like' Us On Facebook
Music News
On-Air Now
Listen Live With Our App


text:
March 2, 2015
Friday, July 19, 2013
ATLANTA (AP) -- Atlanta police are investigating the burglary of baseball great Hank Aaron's Atlanta home while he and his wife Billye were away.
A police report obtained by the Atlanta Journal-Constitution (http://bit.ly/1dKoZeG ) says the 79-year-old Aaron missed a call from his alarm company Sunday night and asked a neighbor to check on his house Monday morning. The neighbor saw a broken window and called police, and officers arrived to find two BMWs missing from the garage and closets that had been ransacked.
Jewelry and car keys were the only other items taken.
Police have located both vehicles and said they expect to make an arrest soon.
A Mobile, Ala., native, Aaron played from 1954 to 1976 for Milwaukee and Atlanta.
As an Atlanta Brave, Aaron broke Babe Ruth's record of 714 career home runs on April 8, 1974. His home run record of 755 home runs stood for nearly three decades.
Copyright 2013 Associated Press
Click Here to access the online Public Inspection File
Viewers with disabilities can get assistance accessing this station's FCC Public Inspection File by contacting the station with the information listed below. Questions or concerns relating to the accessibility of the FCC's online public file system should be directed to the FCC at 888-225-5322, 888-835-5322 (TTY), or firstname.lastname@example.com.


text:
The banjo has long been a very fascinating beast to me. I think the first banjo player I ever heard was Sonny Osborne. I had a great Osborne Brothers album when I was about 6 years old that I played constantly. It never really occurred to me while listening to those staccato tones that it would be a difficult or different thing from playing the guitar. By that age I had already displayed my prodigious abilities on the flat-top and I suppose I was so young that I couldn't see what was so different about this instrument except that the sound of it made me want to hoot and holler and dance. Again, this is prior to me seeing anyone's standard reaction to the instrument. I think the banjo just makes you naturally happy. It is such a joy to hear that rolling, thundering sound; like a set of church bells going off right beside your head. It seems to jolt you right into some other realm where everything is about joy and rebelliousness and how great it is to be around others of like mind.
Take Five – A Banjo Collection (2006)
Train 45 / We Can Work it Out / Banjomusk / Ole Miss / Invention / Little Sadie / Randy Lynn Rag / Twin Sisters / The Tenor Set # 1 / Midnight Flyer / Les Barricades Mysterieuse / The Flying Dutchman / Angeline the Baker / Nashville Blues / Shady Grove / Tenor Set #2 / Monique's Hornpipe / Leavin' Heavy on my Mind / Graveyard Shift