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Bromodomains are acetyl lysine binding modules found in many complexes that regulate gene transcription. In budding yeast, the coactivator complex SAGA (Spt-Ada-Gcn5-acetyl-transferase) predominantly facilitates transcription of stress-activated genes and requires the bromodomain of the Gcn5 subunit for full activation of a number of these genes. This bromodomain has previously been shown to promote retention of the complex to H3 and H4 acetylated nucleosomes. Because the SAGA complex mediates histone H3 acetylation, we sought to determine to what extent the Gcn5 bromodomain directly modulates histone acetylation activity. Kinetic analysis of SAGA-mediated acetylation of nucleosomal substrates reveals that this bromodomain: 1) is required for the cooperative acetylation of nucleosomes, 2) enhances acetylation of an H3 histone tail when the other H3 tail within a nucleosome is already acetylated, and 3) augments the acetylation turnover of nucleosomes previously acetylated at lysine 16 of the histone H4 tails. These results indicate that the Gcn5 bromodomain promotes the establishment of nucleosome acetylation through multiple mechanisms and more generally show how chromatin recognition domains can modulate the enzymatic activity of chromatin modifying complexes.
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Explore the beautiful, relaxing and inspiring
Explore Thames iPhone App
Explore Thames is an innovative, interactive iOS App for anyone visiting the River Thames. It is fully compatible with the iPhone, iPad and iPad mini range of Apple devices on iOS6 or later
Romantic Rooms With A View
Nothing can be more romantic than a special meal for two in a riverside setting. The River Thames provides the perfect place for a date for two on Valentine's Day or indulge yourselves and enjoy a romantic break.
Celebrating the arrival of the new luxury Linssen cruiser 'Midsomer' to Henley-on-Thames, Hobbs of Henley is offering two people the chance to win a 5-night stay worth £2,000
Family Fun on the River Thames
There are loads of ways to enjoy the River Thames with your family - we've come up with lots of ideas to keep your little ones entertained!

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Top First Responder: Peggy Fonseca
Sept. 26, 2012 at 4:26 a.m.
Peggy Fonseca was nominated by Pam Long, Jeff Rood and Sereniah Breland.
About Peggy Fonseca
Age: -
Position: Goliad County EMS Director / EMC
Family: Two West Highland Terriers
Peggy Fonseca was chosen as one of GC's Top 5 First Responders for her 16 years of work with the Goliad County EMS. Pam Long nominated her for strong work ethic and effort to seek and find funding for the county through various grant opportunities. In her nomination letter, she wrote, "Peggy Fonseca has brought professionalism to the County of Goliad that has allowed more training opportunities and an escalated view of public transparency for her department."
Meet the Top 5 First Responders
When did you decide to become an EMS director?
In 1996, I was recruited by a local physician to apply at Goliad County EMS after their director vacated the position. The county had just closed their hospital about six months before, and the EMS was the only 24-hour medical service available. He said they needed someone to help them recover and rebuild the medical trust in the community. I applied for the position and the rest is history.
How long have you been doing this?
With 16 years of service, I am the longest-serving EMS director in Goliad.
What is the most gratifying part of your job?
There are many but the top would be:
The rural medicine challenge, because nothing in a rural county is routine.
Creating that "small town partnership," by working with the entire community; they are the real reason for our existence. They depend on us as much as we depend on them.
Hardest part during your training?
You really do not train to be an EMS director, but you do want to enhance your "people skills." Because these aren't objective skills, they are harder to identify and develop. I was lucky, in that I had some really good EMS directors to assist me in transitioning from an employee to a supervisor. They offered their "wisdom" and "pearls," and I have always been thankful for that.
How do you de-stress from work?
I enjoy listening to music. Music has always been a way of clearing my mind; it is endless, and there is so much of it out there. I enjoy everything from classical to rock. With music, you don't have to make a great effort - just listen, relax, and enjoy.
What hobbies/interests do you have?
I like to scrapbook and to read. I started reading when I was 4, and I would read everything I could get my hands on. Not much has changed since then.
Who is your hero and why?
My heroes are the volunteers who serve our community. They leave their families during the holidays and special events. They serve without compensation, proving their dedication to the community.
Volunteers enhance the paid workers' efforts and make their jobs even easier. For example, the volunteer fire departments assist the EMS personnel at motor vehicle collisions. Without their assistance, we would not be able work as efficiently as we do.
With holidays around the corner, what is on the top of your wish list this year?
I would like to see the health and safety of my family, friends and employees.
Did you believe in Santa Claus when you were younger?
Yes, I believed in Santa Claus until I was in elementary school. I love Christmas. It is my favorite time of the year. I do think Christmas has become somewhat materialistic, and we have lost the true meaning of it along the way.
What are three things that you could not live without?
God, with him all things are possible.
Close friends, they make life fun.
My huge collection of music, because every life needs a soundtrack.


text:
quote:That is an understatement of biblical porportions.
quote:Power------65 Hitting------60
quote:Please tell me he won't be a draft eligible sophomore.
quote:Jones started CF. Then Foster did. Then Sciambra did. Then Fields did. Then Katz did. The problem was that Fields was already in the dog house and going south, and that Sciambra & Foster were too green to be stable hitters. So it was all about hitting, not fielding.
quote: Bregman steps in with some big shoes to fill in Austin Nola, who will go down as one of the best shortstops ever to play at LSU. The good news is Alex has a chance to become even better.
quote:he started getting the hits to fall
quote:The main point was to say that the extraordinary step of moving JaCoby from 2B to CF to start the season had little to do with needing more speed out there, and almost everything to do with not having a proven hitter who was a true centerfielder.
quote:I don't look at Sciambra's time in center as a failed trial.
quote:But that's all water under the bridge now. As far as coaching decisions go, now I'm all focused on making sure Ibarra works at 3B and finding ways to get Moore into the batting lineup.
quote:JaCoby has to learn how to hit a curveball.


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Journal of Sensors
Volume 2009 (2009), Article ID 979761, 12 pages
Surface Plasmon Resonance-Based Fiber Optic Sensors: Principle, Probe Designs, and Some Applications
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
Received 26 January 2009; Accepted 2 June 2009
Academic Editor: Christos Riziotis
Copyright © 2009 B. D. Gupta and R. K. Verma. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Surface plasmon resonance technique in collaboration with optical fiber technology has brought tremendous advancements in sensing of various physical, chemical, and biochemical parameters. In this review article, we present the principle of SPR technique for sensing and various designs of the fiber optic SPR probe reported for the enhancement of the sensitivity of the sensor. In addition, we present few examples of the surface plasmon resonance- (SPR-) based fiber optic sensors. The present review may provide researchers valuable information regarding fiber optic SPR sensors and encourage them to take this area for further research and development.
1. Introduction
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is one of the most promising optical techniques that find applications in different fields. The first sensing application of SPR technique was reported in 1983 [1]. Since then, numerous SPR sensing structures for chemical and biochemical sensing have been reported. In SPR technique, a TM (transverse magnetic) or p-polarized light causes the excitation of electron density oscillations (known as surface plasmon wave, SPW) at the metal-dielectric interface. When the energy as well as the momentum of both, the incident light and SPW, match, a resonance occurs which results in a sharp dip in the reflected light intensity. The resonance condition depends on the angle of incidence, wavelength of the light beam, and the dielectric functions of both the metal as well as the dielectric. If the wavelength is kept constant and the angle of incidence is varied, then the sharp dip appears at a particular angle and the method is called angular interrogation. In another method, called spectral or wavelength interrogation, the angle of the incident beam is kept constant and the wavelength is varied. In this method, resonance occurs at a particular wavelength. The resonance parameter (angle or wavelength) depends on the refractive index of the dielectric medium. Change in refractive index changes the value of the resonance parameter. To excite surface plasmons, generally, a prism is used [2–9]. The prism-based SPR sensing device has a number of shortcomings such as its bulky size and the presence of various optical and mechanical (moving) parts. Further, the prism-based SPR sensing device cannot be used for remote sensing applications. These shortcomings can be overcome if an optical fiber is used in place of prism. The additional advantage of optical fiber is that the SPR probe can be miniaturized which can be advantageous for samples which are available in minute quantity or are costly. Due to these advantages the surface plasmon resonance-based optical fiber sensors have drawn a lot of attention [10–23]. Both experimental and theoretical investigations have been reported in literature on the SPR-based fiber optic sensors. The performance of these sensors is, generally, evaluated in terms of sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio (or detection accuracy). As is known, the higher the values of these parameters, the better is the sensor.
The present review begins with a section on principle of the sensing technique. The section includes the description of the performance parameters of the sensor: sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio or detection accuracy. In the next section, we present the simplest SPR-based fiber optic sensor and discuss its modulation scheme. Section 4 of the present review deals with various designs of the SPR probe studied to enhance the performance of the fiber optic sensor. The designs include tapered, U-shaped and side-polished. The advantages of bimetallic coatings, addition of dopants in fiber core and the choice of the metals for coating have been discussed in the same section. In the last section, we review some of the SPR-based fiber optic sensors in details that have been reported in literature.
2. Principle
A metal-dielectric interface supports charge density oscillations along the interface which are called surface plasma oscillations. The quantum of these oscillations is given the name as surface plasmon. The surface plasmons are accompanied by a longitudinal (TM- or p-polarized) electric field which decays exponentially in metal as well as in dielectric medium. The electric field has its maximum at metal-dielectric interface. The TM-polarization and exponential decay of electric field are found by solving the Maxwell equation for semi-infinite media of metal and dielectric with an interface of metal-dielectric. The propagation constant () of the surface plasmon wave propagating along the metal-dielectric interface is given by where and are the dielectric constants of metal and the dielectric medium, respectively, ω is the frequency of incident light, and is the velocity of light. From (1) it may be noted that the propagation constant of surface plasmon wave depends on the dielectric constants of both the metal and the dielectric medium.
The surface plasmons can be excited by light with same polarization state as that of surface plasmons. The propagation constant () of the light wave with frequency ω propagating through the dielectric medium is given by Since (for metal) and (for dielectric), for a given frequency, the propagation constant of surface plasmon () is greater than that of the light wave in dielectric medium (). To excite surface plasmons, two propagation wave-vectors should be equal. Hence, the direct light cannot excite surface plasmons at a metal-dielectric interface. To excite surface plasmons the momentum and hence the wave vector of the exciting light in dielectric medium should be increased. This can be done if instead of a direct light, evanescent wave is used to excite the surface plasmons. To obtain the evanescent wave for the excitation of surface plasmons, a prism with high dielectric constant is used.
When a light beam is incident through one of the two sides of the prism at an angle greater than the critical angle at prism-air interface the total internal reflection of light beam takes place. In the condition of total internal reflection light beam does not return exactly from the interface. Instead it returns after penetrating in the lower refractive index medium (air in this case). The field in the lower refractive index medium is called evanescent field and the wave corresponding to this is called evanescent wave. The evanescent wave propagates along the prism-air interface and decays exponentially in the rarer medium (air). The propagation constant of the evanescent wave at prism-air interface is given by where represents the dielectric constant of the material of the prism and is the angle of incidence of the beam. Increase in the dielectric constant of the prism increases the propagation constant of the evanescent wave and hence this can be made equal to propagation constant of the surface plasmon wave to satisfy the surface plasmon resonance condition. Kretschmann and Reather [24] devised a prism-based configuration, shown in Figure 1, to excite the surface plasmons using evanescent wave. In this configuration the base of the glass prism is coated with a thin layer of metal (typically around 50 nm). The metal layer is kept in direct contact with the dielectric medium of lower refractive index (such as air or some other dielectric sample). When a p-polarized light beam is incident through the prism on the prism-metal layer interface at an angle equal to or greater than the critical angle, the evanescent wave is produced at the prism-metal interface. The excitation of surface plasmons occurs when the wave vector of evanescent wave exactly matches with that of the surface plasmons of similar frequency. This occurs at a particular angle of incidence . Thus the resonance condition for surface plasmon resonance is The excitation of surface plasmons at metal/dielectric interface results in the transfer of energy from incident light to surface plasmons, which reduces the intensity of the reflected light. If the intensity of the reflected light is measured as a function of angle of incidence for fixed values of frequency, metal layer thickness and dielectric layer thickness then a sharp dip is observed at resonance angle, , due to an efficient transfer of energy to surface plasmons as shown in Figure 2. The minimum of the reflected intensity can be quantitatively described with the help of Fresnel's equations for the three-layer system.
For a given frequency of the light source and the dielectric constant of metal film one can determine the dielectric constant () of the sensing layer adjacent to metal layer using (4) if the value of the resonance angle () is known. The resonance angle is experimentally determined by using angular interrogation method. It is very sensitive to variation in the refractive index of the sensing layer. Increase in refractive index of the sensing layer increases the resonance angle.
Sensitivity and detection accuracy or signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are the two parameters that are used to analyze the performance of an SPR sensor. For the best performance both the parameters should be as high as possible. Sensitivity of an SPR sensor utilizing angular interrogation method depends on the amount of shift of the resonance angle with a change in the refractive index of the sensing layer. For a given refractive index change if the shift in resonance angle increases this means an increase in the sensitivity of the sensor.
Figure 3 shows a plot of reflectance as a function of angle of incidence of the light beam for sensing layer with refractive indices and . Increase in refractive index by shifts the resonance angle by . Thus the sensitivity of an SPR sensor utilizing angular interrogation method is defined as
The detection accuracy or the SNR of an SPR sensor depends on how accurately and precisely the sensor can detect the resonance angle and hence, the refractive index of the sensing layer. The narrower the width of the SPR curve, the higher is the detection accuracy. Therefore, if is the angular width of the SPR curve corresponding to reflectance 0.5, the detection accuracy of the sensor is assumed to be inversely proportional to (Figure 3). The SNR of the SPR sensor with angular interrogation is, thus, defined as [25]
3. Fiber Optic SPR-Based Sensors
In the case of a prism-based SPR sensor evanescent wave required to excite surface plasmons is resulted due to the total internal reflection taking place at the prism-metal interface when the angle of incidence of the beam is greater than the critical angle. The evanescent wave is also present in an optical fiber because the light guidance in an optical fiber occurs due to the total internal reflection of the guided ray at the core-cladding interface. In the case of optical fiber the evanescent wave propagates along the core-cladding interface. Therefore, to design an SPR-based fiber optic sensor, the prism can be replaced by the core of an optical fiber. To fabricate an SPR-based fiber optic sensor, the silicon cladding from a small portion of the fiber, preferably from the middle, is removed and the unclad core is coated with a metal layer. The metal layer is further, surrounded by a dielectric sensing layer as shown in Figure 4. In an SPR-based fiber optic sensor, all the guided rays are launched and hence, instead of angular interrogation, spectral interrogation method is used. The light from a polychromatic source is launched into one of the ends of the optical fiber. The evanescent field produced by the guided rays excites the surface plasmons at the metal-dielectric sensing layer interface. The coupling of evanescent field with surface plasmons strongly depends on wavelength, fiber parameters, probe geometry, and the metal layer properties. Unlike prism-based SPR sensor, the number of reflections for most of the guided rays is greater than one in SPR-based fiber optic sensor geometry. The smaller the angle of incidence at the interface, the larger is the number of reflections per unit length in the fiber. In addition, the number of reflections for any ray also depends on the length of the sensing region and the fiber core diameter. The number of reflections is one of the important parameters that affect the width of the SPR curve. The intensity of the light transmitted after passing through the SPR sensing region is detected at the other end of the fiber as a function of wavelength. The SPR spectrum thus obtained is similar in shape to that shown in Figure 2. The sensing is accomplished by observing the wavelength corresponding to the dip in the spectrum (called resonance wavelength). A plot of resonance wavelength with the refractive index of the sensing layer is the calibration curve of the SPR sensor. The sensitivity and the detection accuracy are determined in the same way as determined in the case of angular interrogation. The angles are replaced by wavelengths in the definitions of sensitivity and detection accuracy.
4. SPR Probe Designs
Sensitivity, detection accuracy, reproducibility, and operating range of a sensor are the important parameters to compare it with other sensors. The best sensor is the one that has high sensitivity, detection accuracy and operating range, in addition to giving reproducible results. To achieve this various modifications have been carried out in the design of fiber optic SPR probe. We review some of these modifications in what follows.
4.1. Bimetallic Coating
For metallic coating on prism base or fiber core either silver or gold is used. Gold demonstrates a higher shift of resonance parameter to change in refractive index of sensing layer and is chemically stable. Silver, on the other hand, displays a narrower width of the SPR curve causing a higher SNR or detection accuracy. The sharpness of the resonance curve depends upon the imaginary part of the dielectric constant of the metal. Silver having the larger value of the imaginary part of the dielectric constant shows narrower width of the SPR curve causing a higher SNR or detection accuracy. On the other hand, the shift of the resonance curve depends on the real part of the dielectric constant of the metal. The real part of the dielectric constant is large in the case of gold than the silver and hence gold demonstrates a higher shift of resonance parameter to change in refractive index of sensing layer. The chemical stability of silver is poor due to its oxidation. The oxidation of silver occurs as soon as it is exposed to air and especially to water, which makes it difficult to give a reproducible result and hence the sensor remains unreliable for practical applications. Therefore, the treatment of silver surface by a thin and dense cover is required. In this regard, a new structure of resonant metal film based on bimetallic layers (gold as outer) on the prism base with angular interrogation method was reported [25]. The new structure displayed a large shift of resonance angle as gold film, and also showed narrower resonance curve as silver film along with the protection of silver film against oxidation. The same structure with spectral interrogation was extended to SPR-based optical fiber sensor for the selected and all guided rays configurations [19]. The sensitivity and SNR were evaluated numerically for different ratios of the thicknesses of silver and gold layers. Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the variations of SNR and sensitivity with percentage of silver in bimetallic combination, respectively [19]. As expected the SNR increases with the increase in the silver thickness. The variation is almost the same for both kinds of launching but the values of SNR for all guided rays launching are about 1.5 times higher than those corresponding to selected rays launching. As far as sensitivity is concerned, it decreases as the silver layer thickness increases or gold layer thickness decreases. Its variation with silver thickness is almost same in the two cases but in terms of values, the selected ray launching has higher value than the all guided rays launching case.
4.2. Choice of Metals
The capability of other metals such as copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al) for SPR sensor applications has also been analyzed. Both metals have the ability to be used for an SPR sensor. The copper has some limitations like silver. It is chemically vulnerable against oxidation and corrosion, therefore, its protection is required for a stable sensing application. The SPR sensing capabilities of different bimetallic combinations made out of Ag, Au, Al, and Cu were theoretically investigated for the design of SPR-based fiber optic sensors [26]. Figures 6(a) and 6(b) show the variation of sensitivity and SNR with the ratio of inner layer thickness to total bimetallic thickness for different bimetallic combinations, respectively [26]. The figure predicts that the sensor with single gold layer is the most sensitive whereas the sensor with single aluminium layer is the least. Further, Cu-Al combination provides the minimum sensitivity for any ratio of their corresponding thickness values. In all the combinations with gold, Ag-Au and Cu-Au combinations provide good sensitivity for the small thickness of the inner layer while the Au-Al combination provides larger sensitivity than all other combinations for the larger thickness of inner gold layer. It implies that a thick Au layer with very thin cover of Al layer (around 2–4 nm) provides quite a large sensitivity. As far as variation of SNR with inner layer fraction is concerned, Cu-Al is better among all the bimetallic combinations while the Ag-Au combination provides the minimum values of SNR. To achieve highest SNR, one should choose a thin Cu layer and a much thicker covering of Al layer. This study implies that there is no single combination of metals that provides high values of both SNR and sensitivity simultaneously.
4.3. Effect of Dopants
It may be noted from (4) that the SPR condition depends upon the refractive index of the material of the fiber core. Therefore, if an optical fiber is fabricated by adding dopants in the fiber core the sensitivity of the sensor can be enhanced or tuned. Generally, an optical fiber with pure silica core is used for SPR-based sensors. Sharma et al. [27] carried out theoretical modeling and analysis of SPR-based fiber optic sensor to evaluate the effect of dopants on the sensitivity and SNR. Germanium oxide (GeO2), boron oxide (B2O3), and phosphorus pent-oxide (P2O5) were used as dopants for pure silica. Figure 7 shows the variation of sensitivity with the refractive index of the sensing layer for different dopants with concentrations [27]. The simulation predicts an increase of about 50% in sensitivity between B2O3 (5.2) and GeO2 (19.3) dopants. Moreover, as the doping concentration of GeO2 is increased from a low of 6.3 mole % to a high of 19.3 mole %, a noticeable decrease in sensor's sensitivity is obtained. Further, the effect of dopants on the sensitivity of the fiber optic SPR sensor was reported to be same irrespective of whether a single metal layer or a bimetallic configuration is used.
4.4. Tapered Probe
Several groups have worked on the improvement of the sensitivity of a fiber optic SPR sensor by changing the shape or the geometry of the fiber optic SPR probe. Tapering the fiber optic SPR probe was one of the modifications reported in literature [18, 28]. A typical tapered fiber optic SPR probe is shown in Figure 8 [29]. The uses of dual-tapered and tetra-tapered fiber optic SPR probes for gas and liquid sensing have also been reported [18]. Changing the profile of the tapered SPR probe also affects the sensitivity of the sensor. Surface plasmon resonance-based tapered fiber optic sensor with three different taper profiles, namely, linear, parabolic, and exponential-linear, shown in Figure 9, was analyzed theoretically [29]. Figure 10 shows the variation of the sensitivity of the tapered fiber optic SPR probe with taper ratio for these three taper profiles [29]. Theoretical analysis predicts an increase in the sensitivity with the increase in the taper ratio. The study further shows that, for a given taper ratio, the exponential-linear taper profile provides the maximum sensitivity. The increase in sensitivity occurs because of the decrease in the angle of incidence of the guided rays with the normal to the core-cladding interface in the tapered region.
To further enhance the sensitivity, an SPR probe of uniform core (with metallic coating) sandwiched between two unclad tapered fiber regions, shown in Figure 11, was proposed [30]. The taper region 1 brings down the angles of the bound rays in the fiber close to the critical angle of the unclad tapered region while the taper region 2 reconverts the angles of these rays to their initial values so that all the guided rays can propagate up to the output end of the fiber. This was achieved by choosing the minimum allowed value of the radius of the uniform core in the sensing region. In the sensing region rays propagate close to the critical angle of the region. Figure 12 shows the variation of sensitivity with taper ratio for this kind of probe [30]. The sensitivity increases with an increase in the taper ratio as reported in other studies [29]. However, a significant sensitivity enhancement of more than 5 times was obtained for a taper ratio of 2.0 in comparison to conventional (TR = 1) fiber optic SPR sensor.
4.5. U-Shaped
The angle of incidence of the ray with the normal to the core-cladding interface can be brought close to the critical angle by using a U-shaped probe. An SPR-based fiber optic sensor with uniform semimetal coated U-shaped probe, shown in Figure 13, was analyzed using a bi-dimensional model [31]. To make the analysis simpler, all the guided rays of the p-polarized light launched in the fiber and their electric vectors were assumed to lie in the plane of bending of the U-shaped probe. Figure 14 shows the variation of the sensitivity of the probe with bending radius for different values of the sensing length of the probe. Increase in sensitivity with the decrease in the bending radius was obtained. The increase in sensitivity was up to a certain value of the bending radius below that it starts decreasing sharply. The decrease in sensitivity occurs because the angle of incidence of the last ray becomes less than the critical angle required for a ray to be guided in the bent region. Thus, there exists an optimum value of the bending radius at which the sensitivity of the SPR sensor based on U-shaped probe acquires a maximum value. The trend of variation was same for all the three values of the sensing length used. This is due to the independence of the angle of incidence on the sensing length. For a given bending radius the sensitivity increases as the sensing length increases. The increase in sensitivity, as mentioned earlier, is due to the decrease in the angle of incidence. The decrease in angle of incidence increases the number of reflections which causes the broadening of SPR curve and hence the decrease in the detection accuracy or SNR of the sensor. The enhancement in sensitivity obtained was much more compared to the decrease in the detection accuracy and hence the decrease in detection accuracy can be tolerated. In fact the maximum sensitivity achieved was several times more than that reported for an SPR-based fiber optic tapered probe.
4.6. Side-Polished Fiber
The SPR probes reported above use multimode optical fibers. A single mode fiber has also been used to fabricate fiber optic SPR probe. Surface plasmon resonance sensor using side-polished single mode optical fiber and a thin metal over layer is shown in Figure 15 [32]. The design of the probe is slightly different from that shown in Figure 4. In this configuration, the guided mode propagating in the fiber excites the surface plasmon wave at the interface between the metal and a sensing medium. The resonance occurs if the two modes are closely phase matched. Such single-mode optical fiber based SPR sensor is more sensitive and more accurate in comparison to those with multi-mode optical fibers. However, their fabrication is much more complex and sophisticated compared with those that use multi-mode fibers. The advantage of side-polished half block SPR sensor is that it requires a very small amount of sample for measuring the refractive index.
Recently SPR-based side-polished multimode optical fiber sensors have been reported [33, 34]. In these sensors the fiber was side-polished until half the core was closed. This increased the sensing area which is an advantage. Apart from side-polished single mode fiber, D-type single mode optical fibers have also been used for sensing applications utilizing SPR technique [35, 36]. These fibers also improve sensitivity. The other designs for SPR-based fiber optic sensor includes SPR probe at one of the ends of the fiber with the reflecting end face [37, 38] and a fiber tip [39, 40]. The photonic band-gap fiber based SPR sensors have also been reported very recently [41, 42].
4.7. Effect of Skew Rays
Most of the theoretical studies on fiber optic SPR sensors using ray optics and reported in literature do not consider skew rays in the analysis. These studies consider the propagation of only meridional rays in the fiber that makes the analysis simpler. However, apart from meridional rays, skew rays also exist in the fiber depending on the light launching conditions. These rays follow a helical path inside the fiber. To specify the trajectory of a skew ray, a second angle (known as skewness angle), in addition to the inclination of the ray with the axial direction of the fiber, is required. Recently, the effect of skew rays on the sensitivity and the SNR of a fiber optic SPR sensor were studied using spectral interrogation method [43]. Figures 16(a) and 16(b) show the variation of sensitivity and SNR with skewness parameter, respectively [43]. Both the sensitivity and the SNR decrease as the value of skewness parameter increases irrespective of the metal used for coating. The sensitivity is better in the case of gold whereas silver demonstrates better SNR as expected. The decrease in sensitivity for highest value of skewness parameter is about 6% in the case of both the metals. The effect of skew rays is more on SNR than on the sensitivity. In the case of gold film it is about 40% while in the case of silver it is around 30%.
5. Some Applications
The surface plasmon resonance-based fiber optic sensors have large number of applications for quantitative detection of chemical and biological species. These include food quality, medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring. These are detected by changing the refractive index of the medium around the metallic coating. The measurand changes the refractive index of the medium directly or indirectly. Here we present few SPR-based fiber optic sensors.
5.1. Temperature
Since the refractive index of a medium depends on its temperature, the SPR technique can be applied to sense the temperature of a medium. The temperature sensor based on surface plasmon resonance was proposed using a coupling prism and angular interrogation mode of operation [44]. It was suggested that for SPR technique to be used in temperature sensing, the sensing layer of large thermo-optic coefficient (such as titanium dioxide or silicon acrylate) should be used. Further, the penetration of surface plasmon wave should be restricted only to metal and sensing layers by taking an appropriate thickness of the two layers. The analysis was later extended to SPR-based fiber optic remote sensor for temperature detection [45]. The sensing layer was assumed to be of TiO2 (titanium dioxide). The outermost ambient medium was chosen as air, which adds to the flexibility of the sensor's design. Figure 17 shows the variation in resonance wavelength with temperature for silver and gold [45]. For both the metals, resonance wavelength shifts to shorter side with the increase in the temperature. However, there is no appreciable difference in resonance wavelength (and hence, in temperature sensitivity) for two metals used. This was suggested to be due to the similarity in the variation of physical properties of both the metals with temperature. Figure 18 depicts the corresponding variation in SPR curve width with temperature [45]. The SPR curve width increases with the increase in the temperature. This was reported to happen because the imaginary (absorption) part of the metal dielectric function increases with temperature. The effect of other parameters such as numerical aperture and the ratio of sensing region length to fiber core diameter on the sensitivity and detection accuracy were also reported. It was also reported that the fiber with smaller numerical aperture provides larger detection accuracy without affecting the temperature sensitivity. Similarly, the small values of the ratio of sensing region length to fiber core diameter give high detection accuracy. For SPR-based fiber optic temperature sensor smaller sensing region and highly multimode optical fiber was recommended.
5.2. Naringin
The processing of citrus fruit juice has faced formidable problems in terms of bitterness, thereby affecting its consumer acceptability. The bitterness is caused by excessive naringin contents in fruit juice. The presence of naringin in fruit juice can be detected using an SPR-based fiber optic sensor. An SPR-based fiber optic sensor relying on spectral interrogation method was reported for the detection of naringin [21]. The SPR probe was prepared by immobilizing the enzyme naringinase on the silver-coated core of the optical fiber. To immobilize, gel entrapment technique was used. The experimental set up for the characterization of the SPR-based fiber optic sensor is shown in Figure 19 [21]. Light from a broadband source (tungsten halogen lamp) was focused on the input face of the fiber using a circular slit and a microscope objective. The probe was mounted in a flow cell to keep the sample around the probe. The spectral distribution of the transmitted power for the sample around the probe was determined using a monochromator, a silicon detector and a power meter. The spectral distribution of transmitted light so obtained for a sample was divided by the corresponding spectral distribution obtained without any sample around the probe. The resultant SPR spectrum so obtained does not depend on the source spectral output, spectral sensitivity of photodetector and the spectral absorbance of the fiber. From the SPR spectrum resonance wavelength was determined. The calibration curve of the SPR-based fiber optic sensor obtained for the detection of naringin is shown in Figure 20 [21]. As the concentration of naringin increases the resonance wavelength increases. The increase in resonance wavelength was reported to be due to an increase in the refractive index of the immobilized layer which may occur due to the formation of a complex of naringin with the enzyme naringinase in the film.
5.3. Pesticides
Surface plasmon resonance-based fiber optic sensor for the detection of organophosphate pesticide, chlorphyrifos, was also reported recently using similar experimental method as used for the detection of naringin [46]. The probe was prepared by immobilizing acetylcholinesterase enzyme on the silver-coated core of the fiber. The principle of detection of pesticide was slightly different from that of naringin. It was based on the principle of competitive binding of the pesticide (acting as an inhibitor) for the substrate (acetlythiocholine iodide) to the enzyme. Figure 21 shows SPR spectra for pesticide concentration of 1.0 M and a substrate concentration of 2.5 mM for the two cases (A) without enzyme (control experiment) and (B) with enzyme in the film [46]. The dip in control experiment occurs due to the refractive index of the gel. The difference in two spectra implies that the enzyme is playing a role in changing the refractive index of the gel in the presence of pesticide. The resonance wavelength was obtained around 590 nm for 1.0 M pesticide concentration. Figure 22 shows the calibration curve of the sensor [46]. The trend is opposite to that reported for the detection of naringin. In this case, the SPR wavelength decreases with the increase in the concentration of the pesticide for the fixed concentration of the substrate. The results appear to be due to the decrease in the refractive index of the film as the concentration of pesticide increases.
Surface plasmon resonance-based fiber optic sensors have also been reported for other chemical species. These include measurements of salinity in water [22, 37], refractive indices of alcohols [17], BSA [34], vapor and liquid analyses [18]. In addition a single-mode waveguide surface plasmon resonance sensor has been developed for biomolecular interaction analysis [47]. Recently, fiber optic SPR sensors have been reported that uses either a series of long period grating [48] or Bragg grating [49]. The advantage of these designs is that these offer multiple sensing channels capability.
6. Summary
In this review article we have first described the principle of surface plasmon resonance technique. The technique is well established and will remain unchanged for years. In the beginning, the technique was used for prism-based SPR sensors but later when the advantages of optical fiber were realized, it was applied to optical fiber based sensors. Recently there have been significant advancements in both the design of fiber optic SPR sensors and strategies for the enhancement of the performance of the sensors particularly sensitivity. The probe designs include tapered, U-shaped, and side-polished fibers. These developments are likely to drive future trends in the research and development of optical fiber sensors. The unique optical properties of metal nanoparticles have also attracted the sensor community to develop localized surface plasmon resonance- (LSPR-) based sensors. The LSPR-based sensors have few advantages over bulk SPR-based sensors. However, the pace of collaboration of LSPR with optical fiber for sensing is at present slow but may gain momentum in coming years.
The present work is partially supported by the Department of Science and Technology (India).
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text:
By Dr. Michael W. Fox BVetMed, PhD, DSc, MRCVS*
Inspired by Veterinary Information Network Dr. Paul D. Pion's widely disseminated 2012 New Year's message concerning the future of the veterinary profession, and by several published discussions on this topic in American and British veterinary journals, I wish to offer my own personal perspective. Being part of the problem makes us part of the solution, provided we accept that we are not simply victims of the global economic crisis but also participants therein, and to varying degrees creators thereof!
Perhaps one of the reasons for the veterinary profession's current hard times and unclear future is its historical double- vision or conflicted mission, being torn between serving the best interests of the animals and those of society and animal-owning clients which may not be in accord with those of the animals. The American Veterinary Medical Association, founded in 1863, did not include any reference in their Veterinarian's Oath to animal welfare "as a priority of the veterinary profession" until 2011. I have long seen it torn by two often conflicting, but I believe resolvable forces and values---concern and responsibility for animal suffering, welfare and health (which is the 'calling' of most applicants to veterinary school), and the realities of the economy, costs of services and monetary rather than emotional and other value of animals. I find some grounds for optimism in the emerging One Health movement (1) where human health and well-being are at last being connected with animal health and welfare, and environmental/ecological health. . But for the One Health concept to be effectively implemented, the bioethics of equal consideration must be applied not only to humans but also to our treatment of animals and the environment. This is in accord with the moral imperatives of the animal rights and 'deep' ecology movements, long opposed by the biomedical, agricultural and other industries and business establishments.
One animal welfare resolution put forward in 2006 by over 50 veterinarians, who were members of the American Veterinary Medical Association, (AVMA) to the AVMA's House of Delegates to simply declare that it was the position of the AVMA that animal welfare is a higher priority than economic considerations was summarily rejected. (2). An animal's behavior is an important indicator of well-being, and integral to the formulation of welfare standards in animal production, handling, transportation and slaughter. It is no coincidence that the U.K.'s Farm Animal Welfare Committee is calling for more education within the veterinary profession and to pass on the practical fruits of farmed animal welfare science to farmer-clients (3).
In the Codex Veterinarius drafted by the German Veterinary Association for the Protection of Animals we find the statement:
"Veterinary action for the welfare and protection of animals is guided by the principle of respect for life and the awareness that the animal has a dignity which is to be respected. Therefore protection and care for an animal can not be dependent on its economical value. In situations of diverting interests between moral obligations and economical pressure it is essential to consider carefully the respect for life against the productive use of life in all its forms of existence--- Considering carefully the opposing interests and needs, the interests of the human being should not automatically be considered to be more important than those of the animal.--- When in doubt veterinary surgeons should let themselves be guided by the principle: In dubio pro animale!"(4).
There is a growing consensus that veterinarians have an ethical obligation to advocate compassionate care regardless of the context and situational ethics in which their services are required. This is because the bioethics of compassionate care is a fundamental human responsibility and every animal's basic right. Furthermore, compassionate care is vital to animals' health, welfare, and physical and psychological well being. It is therefore as essential a component of holistic and preventive veterinary medicine as is caring for the land a vital aspect of sustainable agriculture.
Dr. Andrew Fraser, one of the first veterinarians to address veterinary bioethics, writes: "Animal bio-ethics is a constitution of integrated ethical principles guiding animal welfare practices and serving to control suffering. The 4 broad principles of bio-ethics have been given as: 1) responsible animal management, with appropriate overall husbandry; 2) provision for physical comfort, basic behavioral function, and animal health; 3) prevention or relief of unnecessary pain or suffering; and 4) use of sentient animal life for fully justified reasons. The role of the veterinarian in these matters is obvious and traditional, and a strong veterinary involvement should continue." (5).
By being primarily a service profession for the livestock and other animal industries where economics and profit margins often take precedence over animal health and welfare, the veterinary profession in this sector has become marginalized by compromising its primary responsibilities as a voice of reason, sound veterinary medical science, bioethics and empathy for the animals. Animals can and do experience pain and pleasure, fear and terror (6).
One blatant example of economic concerns trumping animal welfare concerns is in the transportation of pigs to slaughter, where the economies of transportation justify extreme overcrowding that can result in some economic losses when some pigs succumb to the stress and their carcasses become unfit for human consumption, ( so called 'slimy cutters'). Likewise the economies of scale justify large dairy herds, huge hog and poultry factories, and massive beef feedlots. But the costs in animal welfare and health, as well as the environmental and public health costs, have been too long discounted.
In a 1981 article that I wrote for Modern Veterinary Practice (Jan. p 53-54) entitled "Is there a future for the veterinary profession" I observed that the farmed animal sector was being taken over by animal scientists developing intensive production systems. It was also around this time that the number of women being accepted into veterinary school began to increase, more than one Vet college dean and professor telling me that this was good because many would drop out or only work part-time during their child-bearing and rearing years so this would not saturate the profession with too many graduates. Certainly the gender-related empathy factor would be good for the animals I believed. Gender-linked differences in moral philosophy may well be a contributing factor associated with the evident shortages today of veterinarians in the food animal and laboratory animal medicine sectors (7).
Also in my travels around the U.S. at that time veterinarians shared their concerns to me that too many veterinarians were being graduated and seeking entry into the companion animal sector, leading to intensified competition and saturation in some urban and suburban areas. A study of the veterinary work force published in 1985 concluded that a 20% decrease in the number of veterinary college graduates was called for to balance workforce supply and demand, ( 8) but since then new schools have opened and classes grown larger. Several veterinary colleges in the U.S. are currently increasing class size to generate more revenue and to ostensibly provide more veterinarians for the food animal sector, according to Inside Higher Ed on-line, Feb 8, 2012. The opening of new veterinary schools, as in Utah and Arizona, may be unwise, even from a university business perspective.
The financial crisis affects so many people in all walks of life today, and comes down hard on new veterinary graduates carrying hefty student loans and who are finding it difficult to get a job and secure an income that comes close in inflation-adjusted dollars to meet their loan payments. Some may be forced to take jobs that are contrary to their ethics and professional aspirations. Assistance with these loans should be provided by veterinary schools that have encouraged larger classes and are in the business of producing ever more graduates---a profit-driven enterprise indeed—and have, arguably, been irresponsible in not fully considering the future employment opportunities for their students. Lobbying for better funding from government, industry and non-profit organization sources, scholarships for students, or debt-payments for pledging to work in much needed sectors such as overseas aid and development and emergency services, and in poor neighborhoods in the U.S. to help low-income animal owners (like the People's Dispensary for Sick Animals in the U.K.) might be enlightened professional self-interest. Opposition from private veterinary business enterprises that may feel threatened by such initiatives could, in many instances, be assuaged by engaging them in referrals and consultations.
To possibly help rectify the shortage of veterinarians in the food animal sector the multinational drug company Pfizer Animal Health has teamed with the American Veterinary Medical Foundation to award $2,500 scholarships to more than 225 veterinary students in the US (9). In a Jan. 19, 2012 press release from the AVMA, Dr Rene Carlson, AVMA president, stated "There are a number of economic issues, pressures and stresses impacting the profession, including cuts in state funding to veterinary schools and a decrease in the public's utilization and perceived value of our services. The challenges before us are complex, yet there are great potential opportunities for increased animal health and welfare if we pursue them. Over the past two years there have been $104 million in state cuts to veterinary medical education and those cuts directly impact the tuition that students pay. As a result, tuitions, on average, have doubled over the past ten years ($9,134 in 2001 for in-state students to $18,326 in 2011). In addition, the true overall cost of attending a veterinary medical program is about $41,000 per year, leaving students with an average debt of more than $140,000."
I see the tuition-free contracts being set up with drug companies and State funding for those students who will pledge to serve in the food animal sector as a stop-gap at best. The debate in the U.K to offer a non-clinical degree in veterinary science for graduates to work in various sectors of the business industry and government and to 'farm out' food animal medicine and surgery to select schools rather than have them all offer this section of the veterinary teaching curriculum as a cost-saving are not without some merit. But the latter, when coupled with the closing of state veterinary services (the U.S. government closing 259 USDA offices across the country in 2012), and ignoring demographics of concentrated farmed animal operations, could be a threat to both food safety and homeland security.
Evolve or perish is a biological aphorism relevant to the future of our profession which I would call 'noble' if it were not so caught up in some sectors as a mere service to animal-based industries that put economics before animal health and well-being. As the percentage of veterinary college graduates seeing advanced training increases, the DVM/VMD degree is being seen as an 'entry- level degree' (10). The net result of new DVM graduates feeling inadequate and compensating for a lack of practical clinical experience through mentorship and internship programs by electing instead to work toward board-certification in some specialty such as internal medicine or dermatology, aside from the promise of higher incomes, remains to be seen. As more graduates work toward certification in various specialty fields, particularly in the companion animal sector, we may soon find there is an increasing shortage of general practitioners in some demographic areas. This is a recognized regional problem in human health care industry. Increasing service costs to clients could mean fewer companion animals receive adequate veterinary care.
Veterinarian Jeffrey A. LaCroix (11) calls for a limited licensure where veterinary students would elect to specialize in either companion animal or food animal medicine, for example, at the start of their education rather than investing in subsequent postgraduate specialization. He contends that "In the current economic climate, there are even fewer pet owners willing and able to pay for this (specialist-referral) level of care. In this scenario, the specialist may find many more colleagues sharing a smaller pie."
There are surely veterinary students who would like to work with wild animals but not in a laboratory or conventional zoo and circus setting, or with farmed animals under organic and other humane husbandry systems, especially in the aid programs for 'developing' countries. But funding is often lacking in these sectors, and having to pay off hefty student loans can leave veterinary graduates with few options outside of the commercial and animal research industry sectors.
I find the collective indifference and historical support of organized veterinary medicine in the global proliferation of confined animal production operations (CAPOs) since the end of World War 2, as an egregious conflict of interest and abdication of primary responsibilities for animal health and welfare. It is in part responsible for the serious zoonotic pandemics arising from these inhumane animal production systems, notably swine and avian influenza, and food-born bacterial pathogens, many strains of which now have evolved multiple antibiotic resistance. The risks of antibiotics as livestock and poultry feed additives have been down-played for decades by animal industry pandering veterinary authorities and organizations.
To be charitable to the private food animal veterinary sector and put idealism aside, the fact remains that food animal veterinary practices were forced by the economic juggernaut of industrial agriculture's 'progress' to get either get out or get in and support their farming clients as thousands of family farms and rural communities went under (12). Many successfully transitioned through 'mixed' practice to exclusively companion animal and pleasure horse practice. But many impoverished rural communities today, like several counties in Minnesota, including those with thousands of animals in CAPOs and smaller livestock operations, have no veterinary services (13).
At the 2010 annual gathering of the American Association of Bovine Practitioners (14) concerns were voiced that certain veterinary procedures and treatments, once the profession's exclusive service-provisions to livestock farmers and horse owners, had been legally re-classified as animal husbandry practices in Oklahoma. An attempt to do the same in Iowa did not get out of committee. Such legislative initiatives to remove routine animal care from state veterinary practice acts are indeed alarming. But this is the ultimate way of the CAPO system which organized veterinary medicine still supports to its ultimate nemesis. Stock-keepers, for economic reasons, take on a para-veterinary role in these operations, and should have some State University certification perhaps. It might indeed be wise for State Veterinary Colleges to develop para-veterinary courses in animal husbandry, behavior, health care and welfare to certify the operators and animal care supervisors working in CAPOs, certification being mandatory 3-5 years after such state and federally funded initiatives are implemented
I find grounds for hope when veterinary schools develop and offer degree programs, postgraduate internships and residencies, as well as advanced degrees to enable students to work in the following emergent (and emergency) animal sectors that are calling for veterinarians to help with animal health and welfare problems, and also wildlife preservation and habitat restoration. These emergent sectors are notably in extensive, organic and other less intensive animal husbandry (including aquaculture) systems, and in wildlife medicine where veterinary expertise can be crucial in efforts to save endangered species and other wildlife and their habitats as well as addressing new 'emerging' zoonotic diseases. Specializing in 'exotic' animal medicine to serve those who keep various wild species as 'pets' or as a hobby, and who support the often illegal market trade in wildlife, is an ethically questionable professional pursuit. It is a justifiable veterinary specialty when it is rationalized that these animals often do need veterinary care, but in the process this indirectly encourages trade and ownership, and the omnipresent risks of zoonotic diseases and depredation of wild populations when the animals have not been bred and born in captivity.
Perhaps all first year veterinary students should take a basic introductory pre-clinical course in applied bioethics (15), with an emphasis on animal welfare science and the ecology, ethics, and economics of domestic and wild animal diseases that tie in with sustainable and healthful food production, soil, water and other resource management, conservation and preservation practices, and with genetic preservation in terms of the biodiversity of both seed-stock and breed-stock. Such a course could be revisited in the final year to help give clarity and resolution to their future professional goals. Learning the elements of indigenous wisdom especially concerning sustainable agricultural practices, medicinal and food plants, ---ethnoveterinary medicine---and the adaptive and productive traits of rare breeds and their inherent biological value, would broaden the vision of students if not also their future career choices and opportunities.
Veterinarians have been a unique association for millennia. As interlocutors between people, animals and their environments, the veterinarians' role and knowledge, both empathic and scientific, was highly valued by society. Indeed, according to Professor Calvin Schwabe in his book Cattle, Priests and Progress in Medicine, (16) the earliest veterinarians were the priest-healer members of ancient Egypt's many dynasties. But today fewer farm animals are being given the same individual attention or quality of veterinary care and husbandry that they once enjoyed. There are few veterinary experts with the knowledge of good livestock husbandry, ethology, pasture and range management, and ecological farming practices to advise society in these areas. Their value is no longer recognized and most have been forced out of business along with family farms as the decline in rural communities' quality of life followed the industrialization of western agriculture.
Veterinarians in companion animal practice, also dealing with 'exotic' animals, face ethical dilemmas on a daily basis, one recent survey (17) indicating "an urgent need for ethics educational tools and approaches specifically designed with veterinary surgeons in mind." This, in addition to escalating costs of 'state of the art' diagnostics and treatments, and the pressure to practice more costly, 'defensive' medicine in the light of the Texas court ruling (18) that animal owners can sue for "sentimental" or "intrinsic" damages following accidental death of an animal patient hopefully, not from gross negligence, make running a small animal practice increasingly challenging.
Real progress in veterinary and human medicine will come not in correcting the problems of dysfunctional and often over-capitalized animal and human health care business enterprises, but in client education, and in a paradigm shift toward a more holistic, integrative One Health approach to health care and maintenance, rather than profiting from treating disease and suffering, and in the process simply preserving the status quo. This status quo is protected to a significant degree by vested corporate interests, the influence of which in veterinary schools has increased significantly in recent years and is now being questioned (19).
I look to the veterinary profession to take a leadership role in this bioethical and One Health revolution revolution, or else, as public health veterinarian and epidemiologist Dr.P. Arambulo observes, it will 'be marginalized' as the one-health movement progresses, and "be stereotyped, tethered within their professional confines" (20).
At the community level in the U.S., as revelaed in the report by the Humane Society of the U.S. released Jan.27, 2012, entitled "Pets for Life---A New Community Understanding", there is great need and potential for economically blighted communities to link with veterinarians and animal shelters to help increase access to services by removing cost barriers to animal care and veterinary services so as to improve community animal health and reduce shelter overpopulation.
On a personal note, when I entered the U.K's Royal Veterinary College, on a full-tuition, board and lodging scholarship in 1956, and with a realistic view of the profession having been 'seeing mixed practice' for five years prior as a high school student, it was with the passionate conviction that animals' health and welfare must come first before human pecuniary interests: and that whatever academic and professional skills I might acquire from my formal education would be ultimately tested in-field (today referred to as evidence based medicine), and refined accordingly. I saw the human-animal bond in dire need of repair through education and a greater understanding of animal behavior, emotions, and socio-environmental needs. These were subjects not yet included in the veterinary teaching curriculum, but which were highly relevant to companion and farmed animal, as well as laboratory and zoo animal health and well-being.
It is a tragedy that animals wild and domestic suffer the consequences of economic hard times and the demands of an out of balance human population with its driving market economy of consumerism and underbelly of dire poverty. Re-defining the roles of the veterinary profession in these times is critical not only to the future of the profession but of civilization itself. Putting animals and nature first (21) may be enlightened self-interest for the establishment of civil society, but it is an admittedly improbable paradigm shift or evolutionary step considering the nature of the human psyche. But establishing a higher priority of concern for wild and domestic animals and the natural environment over trivial and harmful human needs and demands would be a significant step toward a more sustainable economy and a better world for all. I believe that this is the veterinary profession's challenge and duty today with its expertise (if not the authority in a reasonable world), to more effectively advocate.
1. Burns, Katie, Spreading the one-health concept JAVMA 240:112-115, 2012 and M.W.Fox, Healing Animals & The Vision of One Health. CreateSpace books & Amazon.com, 2011
2. JAVMA June 15, 2006, pages 1837-1839
3. Vet Rec 170:2-3, 2012
4. Burgermeister S, & Fikuart K., ALTEX. 15(4):209-212. 1998 Ethical guiding principles for veterinary behaviour with respect to the welfare and protection of animals. Tierärztliche Vereinigung für Tierschutz, D-Hamburg.
5. Fraser A. p. 932 in Merck Veterinary Manual. Rahway, NJ: Merck & Co. 1991
6. McMillan,Frank D., (ed), Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals. Ames Iowa, Blackwell, 2005.
7. Narver, Heather Lyons, Demographics, moral orientation, and veterinary shortages in food animal and laboratory animal medicine. JAVMA 230:1798-1804, 2007
8. Wise, J.K & Kushman, J.E. Synopsis of veterinary medical manpower study: demand and supply from 1980-2000. JAVMA 187:358-361, 1985
9. Larkin, M. Pfizer, AVMF partner to hand out hundreds of scholarships. JAVMA 235: 1022-1023, 2009
10. Nolen, R. S. More veterinary grads investing in their careers with additional training. JAVMA 2009 235: 1016-1018, 2009
11. LaCroix, Jeffrey A. Is it time for limited licensure? JAVMA. 235: 1401, 2009
12. Fox, Michael W. Agricide: The Hidden Crisis that Affects Us All. New York, Shocken Books, 1986
13. Minding the Herd: Does Minnesota face a food-animal vet shortage"? Minnesota: University of Minnesota Alumni Association magazine, Vol.10, No1/Fall 2010
14. JAVMA, Oct 15, 2010, p866-868)
15. Fox, Michael W. Bringing Life to Ethics: Global Bioethics for a Humane Society Albany, NY, State University of New York Press 2001
16. Schwabe, Calvin, Cattle, Priests and Progress in Medicine, Minnesota, University of Minnesota Press 1978
17. Batchelor, C.E.M. & McKeegan, D.E.F. Survey of frequency and perceived stressfulness of ethical dilemmas encountered in UK veterinary practice, Vet Rec 170: 19-20, 2012
19. Dally, Michelle, Ethical considerations raised by the provision of freebies to veterinary students. JAVMA 238:1551-1554, 2011.
20. Arambulo P 111. Veterinary public health in the age of "one health". JAVMA 2011;239:48-49.
21. Fox, Michael W. Animals and Nature First. CreatSpace books and Amazon.com 2011.


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a Trolox is a registered trademark of Hoffman- LaRoche.
b Basil oil (INCI: Ocimum Basilicum Oil) was obtained by Sigma-Aldrich, Milan.
c Thyme oil (INCI: Thymus Vulgaris Oil) is a product of Extrasynthese, Genay, France.
d The Fisons 9130-9000 series gas chromatograph is a product of Rodano, Milano, Italy.
e The Fisons EL980 processor is a product of Rodano, Milano, Italy.
f The MEGA SE52 poly-5% diphenyl-95%- dimethyl-siloxane bonded phase column is a product of Mega, Legnano, Italy.
g The HPLC filter used for this study was obtained from Chemtek Analitica, Bologna, Italy.
h The ACL and ACW kits used for this study are products of AnalytikJena, Jena, Germany.


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I used C# and WCF, but I could have just as easily used an ASMX web service. This code is fairly simple. No I didn't write it initially. I found it online (Hey, we all have to start somewhere). I massaged it a little to fit my needs and boom, here it is. I have decided to leave the comments for the original code sample in the post. Note: This code will not run as listed. You have to have a password. This code has that as a shared variable, but I'm not showing that to you, seriously. I hope that this is of some help to you.
[OperationContract] public void SubmitUserStatus(string username, string tweet) { // encode the username/password string user = Convert.ToBase64String(System.Text.Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(username + ":" + password)); // determine what we want to upload as a status byte[] bytes = System.Text.Encoding.ASCII.GetBytes("status=" + tweet); // connect with the update page HttpWebRequest request = (HttpWebRequest)WebRequest.Create("http://twitter.com/statuses/update.xml"); // set the method to POST request.Method = "POST"; // thanks to argodev for this recent change! request.ServicePoint.Expect100Continue = false; // set the authorisation levels request.Headers.Add("Authorization", "Basic " + user); request.ContentType = "application/x-www-form-urlencoded"; // set the length of the content request.ContentLength = bytes.Length; // set up the stream Stream reqStream = request.GetRequestStream(); // write to the stream reqStream.Write(bytes, 0, bytes.Length); // close the stream reqStream.Close(); }
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I used C# and WCF, but I could have just as easily used an ASMX web service. This code is fairly simple
Listed below are links to blogs that reference this entry: Russians blamed DoS attack on Twitter, Facebook, LiveJournal, Google Blogger and YouTube.
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Mott Foundation pledges $15.5 million
Strengthening Kettering University's leadership in the field of higher education and expanding its role as a strategic partner in the region's revitalization are the goals behind $15.5-million grantmaking initiative announced in August by the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. Mott's pledge of support, which is conditioned on Kettering successfully meeting certain criteria, is the largest ever received by the University.
The Foundation intends to provide a series of grants to Kettering over three or more years. The first of those grants – for $2,006,000 – was made in May 2012. The grants will support a set of strategies designed to help Kettering:
- grow student enrollment;
- nurture the school's economic impact on the Flint community;
- communicate the University's unique identity to a broad audience; and
- build alumni relationships and support for the school.
"Kettering has a longstanding tradition of academic excellence, highlighted by inspired teaching that offers a blend of classroom and real-world learning," said William S. White, president and CEO of the Mott Foundation. "Across Michigan we are seeing higher learning institutions play transformational roles, both in their home communities and throughout the entire state. These initiatives, with Mott support, will build on Kettering's strengths and help the institution lead the way in redefining the way colleges engage with their communities and educate young people for the 21st Mott grantmaking related to Kettering has totaled $29.6 million since 1983. That funding over the years has enabled the university to improve and expand its facilities, enhance and diversify its academic curriculums, provide scholarships to underserved students, and launch outreach efforts to engage and connect with the Flint community."
Mott grantmaking related to Kettering has totaled $29.6 million since 1983. That funding over the years has enabled the University to improve and expand its facilities, enhance and diversify its academic curriculums, provide scholarships to underserved students, and launch outreach efforts to engage and connect with the Flint community. Ways the pledge will make a difference:
- New laboratory space for Chemical Engineering
- A Campus Master Plan
- A FIRST Community Center
- Enhancement of academic programs, including a new Biology program
- An upscale community coffee shop and dedicated campus safety space
- Expanded programs to engage area high school students in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields
- Increased student enrollment, which will also strengthen Kettering's economic contributions to the region
- Strategies to revitalize the Flint community, including programs devoted to helping entrepreneurs and the redevelopment of properties adjacent to campus
- Activities to strengthen Kettering's name recognition in the U.S. and around the world
- Activities that will increase alumni support and participation
Read more on the Mott Foundation investment.
TRW Automotive Presents Research Grant
Officials from TRW Automotive, one of the world's leading automotive suppliers, were on the Kettering University campus July 20 to present a $62,000 research grant. The grant extends an ongoing relationship between Kettering University and TRW.
"TRW is looking ahead to the safety of rear occupants in frontal crashes," said Dr. Massoud Tavakoli, Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Principle Investigator for this research. "This is part of a long line of similar research done at Kettering with the support of TRW. Thanks to the dedicated work of my colleague, Dr. Janet Brelin-Fornari (director of Crash Safety Center) and our great crash lab team headed by Sheryl Janca, we have a unique program in crash safety here at Kettering complete with a crash sled lab."
TRW and Kettering University have a research relationship that dates back to the 1990s. In addition, TRW is one of the University's top co-op employers.
"TRW is very pleased to support Kettering's leading edge research in crash safety," said Steve Peterson, TRW Director of Engineering, North American Region, Global Systems. "This is an excellent collaborative partnership that allows Kettering to engage its students and faculty in significant research and assists TRW in a greater understanding of protecting rear seat occupants."
In addition to Peterson, other officials from TRW on hand to present the grant funds and tour labs in the C.S. Mott Building were Thomas Klena, Systems Manager; Paul Lange, Principal Product Engineer; and John Wilkerson, Senior Communications Manager. Peterson and Klena are both 1987 Kettering University graduates.
Robot presents check from GM Foundation
"Admiral" the robot rolled up to Kettering University President Robert McMahan with a special delivery — a $110,000 check from the General Motors (GM) Foundation – during the 13th annual Kettering Kickoff FIRST Robotics competition Sept. 22.
More than 800 people cheered as President McMahan snatched the $110,000 gift from the colorful robot that was hand built by students on Team 2337 at Grand Blanc High School. The $110,000 will be used by Kettering University to raise awareness of Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) and business careers and help to recruit women and minority students.
Yamaha President Makes Donation To SAE
Henio Arcangeli '86, President of Yamaha Motorsports Group North America and Kettering Board of Trustees member, orchestrated Yamaha's donation of two 2012 model WR450f motorcycles to the Kettering Formula SAE team. They will be used primarily for their engines in the development of the team's 2013 vehicle. Arcangeli did the same in 2011, donating two 2011 model bikes for the team's 2012 vehicle. The engines eliminated a costly expenditure from the team's budget and provided a platform upon which a more potent Formula SAE powertrain could be designed.
The team competed at the 2012 Formula SAE (MIS, Brooklyn, Mich.) and Formula North (Molson Center, Barrie, Ontario) competitions and will competing at the 2012 University of Toronto Shootout (Mosport, Bowmanville, Ontario) with their first Yamaha-powered car. 2013 team Chief Engineer William Carter has stated that the 2012 powertrain is the best he has experienced among Kettering Formula SAE cars dating back to 2006.
The Kettering SAE Collegiate Design Series competition teams owe a great thanks to Yamaha for its continued support throughout the years.
President's Council
$25,000 Level:
- Henio Arcangeli '86
- Robert H. Harder '66
- Lyn St. James
$10,000 Level
- Joseph B. Anderson
- Richard G. Bartram '57
- William H. Brockman '56
- Terrance Hopkins '60
- Raj Nair '87
- Clemens J. Nowak Sr. '50
- Mary Fletcher O'Neill '87
- Raymond E. Scott
- Robert J. Trew '6


text: With the exception of our reinforcing techniques and a few additives used for curing and workability, NatureCast Concrete is made up of sand, water and cement. These are the same primary ingredients that have been used for centuries to make concrete structures; some of which are still around and in use after 2000 years. By applying the most advanced technologies in reinforcement, curing and construction design, NatureCast Concrete has tensile strengths two times that of solid concrete, bending strength four times that of solid concrete and reaches compression strengths up to 11000 PSI. NatureCast Concrete also has 40% better water absorbing ratios than that of traditional concrete and can be used in both interior and exterior applications. This strength allows for unsupported overhangs on counters, hearths, mantles, etc. of up to 16 inches.


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We Know About Pets
Craigpark Veterinary Centre is located in Barrhead, East Renfrewshire on the South-West of Glasgow.
The Centre has been established here for nearly 30 years and is staffed by a team of highly dedicated and experienced Vets, Nurses and Receptionists.
Pet Insurance
Did you know 1 in 3 pets may require unexpected veterinary treatment each year?* Whilst advances in veterinary medicine mean we can do more for your pet, treatment costs can soon mount up. We recommend Petplan insurance to all our clients to help cover unexpected vets bills.
You may be surprised to hear that you are more likely to claim on your pet insurance than your car or household policies (Allianz Insurance plc). In fact, in our experience if you are one of the few people who don't need to claim on your pet insurance you really are very lucky indeed!
It's important to be aware that not all pet insurance is the same. Some policies limit the amount of time or money that you can claim for. Don't just shop around on price alone.
At Craigpark Veterinary Centre we recommend Petplan insurance for the following reasons:
Click here to find out more about the different types of pet insurance.
Why not try before you buy? For 4 weeks free Petplan insurance simply click here and quote our practice reference number 1100007494.
EMERGENCY CARE In the first instance please phone us on 0141 881 9499.
Emergency and urgent cases occurring during opening hours will always be attended to. If possible, try to phone ahead to let us know that you have an emergency case.
Out of Hours Care, including advice on urgent cases, is provided by Pets Accident and Emergency, 'Pets A+E', at Kinning Park. For more information click here.
APPOINTMENTS All of our appointments are scheduled for a minimum of 15 minutes ensuring that you have plenty of time to discuss your pet's problems. Phone us on 0141 881 9499 for an appointment. We have late appointments most days, and we are open on Saturday mornings.
WEB SITE DEVELOPMENT In between attending to many animals, both sick and healthy, and trying to go riding, we are going to add more to our website as regularly as we can. Please check back soon for the latest developments. If you have any suggestions for what you would like to see on this site then please let us know.


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Home Instead Senior Care
State College-Saxton
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What is Home Care?
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Understanding What Home Care Really Costs
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Request Senior Care Services
About Us
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Mary Maxwell Video
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Impact of Alzheimer's
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Become A CAREGiver
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Get in-home senior care for your aging loved one.
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How are CAREGivers selected?
First, the Home Instead Senior Care franchise network looks for people who have a passion for working with seniors to help them live independently. Then each potential CAREGiver must successfully complete a thorough personal and professional reference and criminal background check. Each CAREGiver is also bonded and insured.
How do you train your CAREGivers?
Home Instead CAREGivers participate in an exclusive senior care training program, which covers topics such as communicating with seniors, planning activities, recognizing illnesses, safety training and other issues and typical situations encountered in providing elder care. CAREGivers also benefit from regular team meetings and on-going training opportunities to enhance their skills.
What happens if my CAREGiver gets sick?
Home Instead Senior Care employs a CAREGiver team approach, so if one CAREGiver is ill, we make every effort to make another team member available to meet your home care needs.
Do you provide senior services to those in nursing homes or assisted living facilities?
Yes, Home Instead CAREGivers provide eldercare and companionship to seniors who may require additional attention and/or personalized long term care and reside in assisted living facilities and nursing homes.
What makes Home Instead Senior Care different from other companies?
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Who pays the CAREGiver, Home Instead Senior Care or me?
Your CAREGiver is employed by this local, independently owned and operated franchise, which means we handle all the billing, payroll, taxes, insurance and administrative responsibilities for your CAREGiver.
Why should I use Home Instead Senior Care rather than an individual with an ad in the newspaper?
There are several reasons why Home Instead Senior Care should be your choice for senior companionship and home care.
Our CAREGivers are screened, bonded and insured for your safety.
They are trained specifically in elder care and have demonstrated a sincere desire to work with seniors.
With Home Instead Senior Care, we handle CAREGiver payment and withholding taxes as required by law.
If you hire an individual, he or she may get sick or move away and you'll have to find someone new. The Home Instead Senior Care network's large staff of quality employees ensures there will always be a compatible and reliable CAREGiver there for your family member.
What are your rates and minimum hours of service?
Rates and service hours vary by office. Please contact us for specific rate information.
Is Home Instead Senior Care a cleaning company or maid service?
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Ingredients & Description
Food for the Ancient Aztecs = Super Nutrition for the modern lifestyleSpirulina is an exceptional food and an incredible source of concentrated, non-toxic, absorbable nutrients. It is a highly beneficial substitute for protein powders. The protein in Spirulina contains all 8 essential amino acids, making it a complete protein. Spirulina (a blue-green algae), also contains vitamins A, B-1, B-2, B-6, B-12, E, and K. In addition, Spirulina also provides minerals, trace minerals, cell salts, phytonutrients and enzymes, as well as an abundance of chlorophyll & other beneficial pigments.
Healthy Protein Powder, Plus So Much More! Raw meat is 27% protein, and even soybeans are 34% protein. Spirulina is 65% complete protein, making it the world's highest known source! Plus, our Spirulina Maxima is dried at low temperatures (enzyme active), so protein utilization is maximized versus a heated protein.
Spirulina is a water-grown, 100% vegetable plankton. It is a blue-green algae that grows in fresh water lakes throughout the world. Ancient Aztecs thrived on Spirulina from Lake Texcoco in Mexico.
HealthForce Spirulina is grown in the U.S.A. without the use of pesticides and processed at low temperatures (to retain enzymes and other heat-sensitive elements) HealthForce offers Spirulina of unsurpassed quality at a more affordable price. HealthForce Spirulina is packaged in amber glass bottles with a metal lid and oxygen absorber for optimum nutrient preservation. Spirulina is so nutritious that it can be used as a totally absorbable, whole food vitamin and mineral supplement, plus so much more!*