text:
Dyslexia | |
Classification and external resources | |
DiseasesDB | 4016 |
MedlinePlus | 001406 |
Patient UK | Dyslexia |
MeSH | D004410 |
Dyslexia, also sometimes known as alexia[2] or developmental reading disorder,[3] is characterized by difficulty with learning to read and with differing comprehension of language despite normal or above-average intelligence.[4][5] This includes difficulty with phonological awareness, phonological decoding, processing speed, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, language skills/verbal comprehension, and/or rapid naming.[6][7]
Dyslexia is the most common learning difficulty.[8] Some see dyslexia as distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with hearing or vision, or poor reading instruction.[9][10] There are three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia (auditory, visual and attentional), although individual cases of dyslexia are better explained by specific underlying neuropsychological deficits (e.g. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, a visual processing disorder) and co-occurring learning difficulties (e.g. dyscalculia and dysgraphia).[11][12] Although it is considered to be a receptive (afferent) language-based learning disability, dyslexia also affects one's expressive (efferent) language skills.[13]
Internationally, dyslexia is designated as a cognitive disorder related to reading and speech. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke definition describes it as "difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding."[5] There are many published definitions, and many of them are purely descriptive or embody causal theories, that encompass a variety of reading skills, deficits and difficulties with distinct causes rather than a single condition.[14]
Acquired dyslexia, alexia, can be caused by brain damage, stroke, and atrophy. Forms of alexia include: surface dyslexia, semantic dyslexia, phonological dyslexia, and deep dyslexia.[15][16] Acquired surface dyslexia arises after brain damage in a previously literate person and results in pronunciation errors that indicate impairment of the lexical route.[17][18] Numerous symptom-based definitions of dyslexia suggest neurological approaches.
Signs and symptoms[edit]
In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delays in speech,[19] letter reversal or mirror writing, difficulty knowing left from right and difficulty with direction,[20][21] as well as being easily distracted by background noise.[22] This pattern of early distractibility is sometimes partially explained by the co-occurrence of dyslexia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although this disorder occurs in approximately 5% of children, 25–40% of children with either dyslexia or ADHD meet criteria for the other disorder.[23][24]
Dyslexic children of school age may exhibit signs such as difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in words (which depend on phonological awareness).[25]They may also show signs of difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds or blending sounds to make words (phonemic awareness).[26] Difficulty with word retrieval or with naming things also feature.[27][28] They are commonly poor spellers, which has been called dysorthographia or dysgraphia (orthographic coding). Whole-word guesses and tendencies to omit or add letters or words when writing and reading are considered tell-tale signs.[29]
Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may be accompanied by trouble summarizing stories as well as with memorizing, reading aloud, and learning foreign languages. Adult dyslexics can read with good comprehension, although they tend to read more slowly than non-dyslexics and perform worse at spelling and nonsense word reading, a measure of phonological awareness.[30][31]
A common misconception about dyslexia assumes that dyslexic readers all write words backwards or move letters around when reading. In fact this only occurs among half of dyslexic readers.[32]
The complexity of a language's orthography (i.e., its conventional spelling system, see orthographic depth) has a direct impact upon how difficult it is to learn to read that language. English has a comparatively deep orthography within the Latin alphabet writing system, with a complex structure that employs spelling patterns of several levels: principally, letter-sound correspondences, syllables, and morphemes. Other languages, such as Spanish, have mostly alphabetic orthographies that employ letter-sound correspondences, so-called shallow orthographies, making them relatively easy to learn. English, by comparison, presents more of a challenge.[33] Logographic writing systems, notably Japanese and Chinese characters, have graphemes that are not linked directly to their pronunciation, which pose a different type of difficulty to the dyslexic learner.[34][35] Different neurological deficits may cause varying degrees of difficulty in learning one writing system when compared to another, as the neurological skills required to read, write, and spell can vary between systems.[34]
Associated conditions[edit]
Several learning disabilities often occur with dyslexia, but it is unclear whether these learning disabilities share underlying neurological causes with dyslexia.[36] These disabilities include:
- Dysgraphia – A disorder which expresses itself primarily through writing or typing, although in some cases it may also affect eye–hand coordination, direction- or sequence-oriented processes such as tying knots or carrying out a repetitive task. In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter writing automaticity, finger motor sequencing challenges, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word form which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.[37][38]
- Attention deficit disorder – A significant degree of co-morbidity has been reported between ADD/ADHD and dyslexia/reading disorders;[39] it occurs in between 12% and 24% of those with dyslexia.[40] Research studying the impact of interference on adults with and without dyslexia has revealed large differences in terms of attention deficits for adults with dyslexia, and has implications for teaching reading and writing to dyslexics in the future.[41]
- Auditory processing disorder – A condition that affects the ability to process auditory information. Auditory processing disorder is a listening disability.[42] It can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems[43] and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Auditory processing disorder is recognized as one of the major causes of dyslexia.[44][45]
- Developmental coordination disorder – A neurological condition characterized by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, kinesthetic coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with short-term memory and organization are typical of dyspraxics. [19]
Researchers have been trying to find a biological basis of dyslexia since it was first identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881[47] the term dyslexia was coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin.[48][49] An example of one of the problems dyslexics experience would be seeing letters clearly, this may be due to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.[50]
In the area of neurological research into dyslexia, modern neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) have produced a correlation between functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. Some individuals with dyslexia show less electrical activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and middle and ventral temporal cortex.[51] Brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in understanding of the neural basis of language over the past decade. A neural basis for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed,[52] with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural).[53] fMRIs in dyslexics have provided important data supporting the interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures.[54][55]
Genetic research into dyslexia and its inheritance has its roots in the examination of post-autopsy brains of people with dyslexia.[56][57] When they observed anatomical differences in the language center in a dyslexic brain, they showed microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias and more rarely vascular micro-malformations, and in some instances these cortical malformations appeared as a microgyrus. These studies and those of Cohen et al. 1989[58] suggested abnormal cortical development which was presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development.[59] Abnormal cell formations in dyslexics found on autopsy have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.[57][60] MRI data have confirmed a cerebellar role in dyslexia.[61]
Gene–environment interaction[edit]
Research has examined gene–environment interactions in reading disability through twin studies, which estimate the proportion of variance associated with environment and the proportion associated with heritability. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education[62] and teacher quality[63] have determined that genetics has greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.[64] Instead, it may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome, because environmental risk factors that affect that outcome have been minimized.[64] As the environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability. Animal experiments and measures of gene expression and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes, both of which have many limitations in extrapolating results for application to the human brain.[65]
The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s.[66] This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud, with output of both mechanisms contributing to the pronunciation of a written stimulus.[17][67] One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure.[66][68] The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word. This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example how a string of neighboring letters sound together.[66][68]
Central dyslexias[edit]
Central dyslexias include surface dyslexia, semantic dyslexia, phonological dyslexia, and deep dyslexia. [69][70] ICD-10 reclassified the previous distinction between dyslexia (315.02 in ICD-9) and alexia (315.01 in ICD-9) into a single classification as R48.0. The terms are applied for developmental dyslexia and inherited dyslexia along with developmental aphasia and inherited alexia, which are now read as cognates in meaning and synonymous.[71]
Surface dyslexia[edit]
In surface dyslexia, words whose pronunciations are 'regular' (highly consistent with their spelling e.g. mint) are read more accurately than words with irregular pronunciation, such as colonel.[73] Difficulty distinguishing homophones is diagnostic of some forms of surface dyslexia.[73] This disorder is usually accompanied by (surface) agraphia and fluent aphasia.[73]
Phonological dyslexia[edit]
In phonological dyslexia, patients can read familiar words but have difficulty reading unfamiliar words (such as invented pseudo-words). It is thought that they can recognize words by accessing lexical memory orthographically but cannot 'sound out' novel words. Phonological dyslexia is associated with lesions in varied locations within the territory of the middle cerebral artery. The superior temporal lobe is often also involved. Furthermore, dyslexics compensate by overusing a front-brain section, called Broca's area, associated with aspects of language and speech.[72] Research has pointed towards the theory that phonological dyslexia is a development of deep dyslexia. A treatment for phonological dyslexia is the Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program (LiPS). This program is based on a three-way sensory feedback process. The subject uses their auditory, visual, and oral skills to learn to recognize words and word patterns. This is considered letter-by-letter reading using a bottom-up processing technique. Case studies with a total of three patients found a significant improvement in spelling and reading ability after using LiPS.[74]
Deep dyslexia[edit]
Patients with deep dyslexia experience semantic paralexia (para-dyslexia), which happens when the patient reads a word, and says a related meaning instead of the denoted meaning.[73] Deep alexia is more recently seen as a severe version of phonological dyslexia. Deep dyslexia is caused by lesions that are often widespread and include much of the left frontal lobe. Research suggests that damage to the left perisylvian region of the frontal lobe causes deep dyslexia.[73]
Peripheral dyslexias[edit]
Peripheral dyslexias have been described by Bub as "impairment to processes that convert letters on the page into an abstract representation of visual word forms". These include hemianopic dyslexia, neglect dyslexia, attentional dyslexia, and pure dyslexia (also known as dyslexia without agraphia).[70]
Pure dyslexia[edit]
Pure dyslexia, also known as agnosic dyslexia, dyslexia without agraphia, and pure word blindness, is dyslexia due to difficulty recognizing written sequences of letters (such as words), or sometimes even letters. It is 'pure' because it is not accompanied by other (significant) language-related impairments. Pure dyslexia does not include speech, handwriting style, language, or comprehension impairments.[75] Pure dyslexia is caused by lesions on the visual word form area (VWFA). The VWFA is composed of the left lateral occipital sulcus and is activated during reading. A lesion in the VWFA stops transmission between the visual cortex and the left angular gyrus. It can also be caused by a lesion involving the left occipital lobe and the splenium of the corpus callosum. It is usually accompanied by a homonymous hemianopsia in the right side of the visual field.[73] Multiple oral re-reading (MOR) is a treatment for pure dyslexia. It is considered a top-down processing technique in which patients read and re-read texts a predetermined number of times or until reading speed and/or accuracy improves a predetermined amount. The idea behind MOR is to learn how to use context, syntax, and semantics of the text to process written information rather than using bottom-up processing techniques in which letter by letter (LBL) reading is necessary. The theory that the MOR technique only uses top-down processing has been questioned and some studies have shown that in fact, bottom-up processing is in part responsible for reading improvement. This has been proven by reading tests that are engineered to use as few of the same words as possible that are used in training texts during MOR treatment. In these studies, patients did not significantly improve in reading speed or accuracy when reading untrained passages. Untrained passages are defined by having differing vocabulary from the texts used in reading practice. This supports the findings that MOR also has bottom-up processing components.[75]
Hemianopic dyslexia[edit]
Commonly considered to derive from visual field loss due to damage to the primary visual cortex. Sufferers may complain of slow reading but are able to read individual words normally. This is the most common form of peripheral alexia, and the form with the best evidence of the (possibility of) effective treatment.[76]
Neglect dyslexia[edit]
In neglect dyslexia, some letters are neglected (skipped or misread) during reading – most commonly the letters at the beginning or left side of words. This alexia is associated with right parietal lesions. Use of prism glasses in treatment has been demonstrated to produce substantial benefit.[77]
Attentional dyslexia[edit]
People with attentional dyslexia complain of letter crowding or migration, sometimes blending elements of two words into one. Patients perform better when word stimuli are presented in isolation rather than flanked by other words and letters. Using a large magnifying glass may help as this should reduce the effects of flanking interference from nearby words; however, no trials of this or indeed any other therapy for left parietal syndromes have been published.[78]
Through compensation strategies and therapy, dyslexic individuals can learn to read and write with educational support.[79] There are techniques and technical aids that can manage or even conceal symptoms of the disorder.[80] Removing stress and anxiety alone can sometimes improve written comprehension.[81] For dyslexia intervention with alphabet writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching him or her to blend the sounds into words. It has been found that reinforced collateral training focused towards visual language (reading) and orthography (spelling) yields longer-lasting gains than mere oral phonological training.[82] Intervention early on while language areas in the brain are still developing is most successful in reducing long-term impacts of dyslexia.[83] There is some evidence that the use of specially tailored fonts may provide some measure of assistance for people who have dyslexia.[84][85] Among these fonts are Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic, which were created with the notion that many of the letters in the Latin alphabet are visually similar and therefore confusing for people with dyslexia.[86] Dyslexie, along with OpenDyslexic, put emphasis on making each letter more unique to assist in reading.[86]
The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown; with estimations varying greatly between 1% to 33% of the population.[87] It is often estimated that the prevalence of dyslexia is around 5–10 percent of a given population although there have been no studies to indicate an accurate percentage.[40][88] Internationally, there are differing definitions of dyslexia, but despite the significant differences between the writing systems, Italian, German and English speaking populations suffer similarly from dyslexia.[89] Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters into sounds, but Chinese dyslexics have difficulty in extracting shapes of Chinese characters into meanings.[90]
Dyslexia was identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881,[92] but the term dyslexia was coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin, who was an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart.[48] He used the term to refer to a case of a young boy who had a severe impairment in learning to read and write in spite of showing typical intellectual and physical abilities in all other respects. In 1896 W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness". This described the case of Percy, a 14-year-old boy who had not yet learned to read, yet showed normal intelligence and was generally adept at other activities typical of children that age.[93] Castles and Coltheart describe phonological and surface types of developmental dyslexia (dysphonetic and dyseidetic, respectively) to classical subtypes of alexia which are classified according to the rate of errors in reading non-words.[59][94] The surface/phonological distinction is only descriptive, and devoid of any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms.[95] Studies have, however, alluded to potential differential underlying brain mechanisms in these populations given performance differences.[96][97]
The majority of currently available dyslexia research relates to the alphabetic writing system, and especially to languages of European origin. However, substantial research is also available regarding dyslexia for speakers of Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, as well as other languages.[95][98]
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- ^ Cao, F; Bitan, T; Chou, T. L.; Burman, D. D.; Booth, J. R. (October 2006). "Deficient orthographic and phonological representations in children with dyslexia revealed by brain activation patterns". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 47 (10): 1041–50. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01684.x. PMC 2617739. PMID 17073983.
- ^ Chertkow, H; Murtha, S (1997). "PET activation and language". Clinical Neuroscience 4 (2): 78–86. PMID 9059757.
- ^ McCrory, E; Frith, U; Brunswick, N; Price, C (September 2000). "Abnormal functional activation during a simple word repetition task: A PET study of adult dyslexics". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12 (5): 753–62. doi:10.1162/089892900562570. PMID 11054918.
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- ^ Rae, Caroline; Harasty, Jenny A; Dzendrowskyj, Theresa E; Talcott, Joel B; Simpson, Judy M; Blamire, Andrew M; Dixon, Ruth M; Lee, Martin A; Thompson, Campbell H; Styles, Peter; Richardson, Alex J; Steine, John F (2002). "Cerebellar morphology in developmental dyslexia". Neuropsychologia 40 (8): 1285–92. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00216-0. PMID 11931931.
- ^ Galaburda, A. M.; Kemper, T. L. (August 1979). "Cytoarchitectonic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia: A case study". Annals of Neurology 6 (2): 94–100. doi:10.1002/ana.410060203. PMID 496415.
- ^ a b Galaburda, A.M.; Sherman, G.F.; Rosen, G.D.; Aboitiz, F.; Geschwind, N. (August 1985). "Developmental dyslexia: four consecutive patients with cortical abnormalities". Annals of Neurology 18 (2): 222–223. doi:10.1002/ana.410180210. PMID 4037763.
- ^ Cohen, M; Campbell, R; Yaghmai, F (June 1989). "Neuropathological abnormalities in developmental dysphasia". Annals of Neurology 25 (6): 567–70. doi:10.1002/ana.410250607. PMID 2472772.
- ^ a b Habib, M (December 2000). "The neurological basis of developmental dyslexia: an overview and working hypothesis". Brain 123 (Pt 12): 2373–99. doi:10.1093/brain/123.12.2373. PMID 11099442.
- ^ Livingstone, Margaret S.; Rosen, Glenn D.; Drislane, Frank W.; Galaburda, Albert M. (1991). "Physiological and Anatomical Evidence for a Magnocellular Defect in Developmental Dyslexia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 88 (18): 7943–7. Bibcode:1991PNAS...88.7943L. doi:10.1073/pnas.88.18.7943. PMC 52421. PMID 1896444.
- ^ Rae, Caroline; Lee, Martin A; Dixon, Ruth M; Blamire, Andrew M; Thompson, Campbell H; Styles, Peter; Talcott, Joel; Richardson, Alexandra J; Stein, John F (20 June 1998). "Metabolic abnormalities in developmental dyslexia detected by 1H Magnetic resonance spectroscopy". The Lancet 351 (9119): 1893–52. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)99001-2. PMID 9652669.
- ^ Friend, A; Defries, J. C.; Olson, R. K. (November 2008). "Parental Education Moderates Genetic Influences on Reading Disability". Psychol Sci. 19 (11): 1124–1130. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x. PMC 2605635. PMID 19076484.
- ^ Taylor, J.; Roehrig, A. D.; Hensler, B. Soden; Connor, C. M.; Schatschneider, C. (2010). "Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading". Science 328 (5977): 512–4. Bibcode:2010Sci...328..512T. doi:10.1126/science.1186149. PMC 2905841. PMID 20413504.
- ^ a b Pennington, Bruce F.; McGrath, Lauren M.; Rosenberg, Jenni; Barnard, Holly; Smith, Shelley D.; Willcutt, Erik G.; Friend, Angela; Defries, John C.; Olson, Richard K. (January 2009). "Gene × Environment Interactions in Reading Disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Developmental Psychology 45 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1037/a0014549. PMC 2743891. PMID 19209992.
- ^ Roth, Tania L.; Roth, Eric D.; Sweatt, J. David (September 2010). "Epigenetic regulation of genes in learning and memory". Essays in Biochemistry 48 (1): 263–74. doi:10.1042/bse0480263. PMID 20822498.
- ^ a b c d Pritchard SC, Coltheart M, Palethorpe S, Castles A; Coltheart; Palethorpe; Castles (October 2012). "Nonword reading: comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data". J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 38 (5): 1268–88. doi:10.1037/a0026703. PMID 22309087.
- ^ Yamada, J; Imai, H; Ikebe, Y (July 1990). "The use of the orthographic lexicon in reading kana words". J Gen Psychol 117 (3): 311–23. PMID 2213002.
- ^ a b Zorzi, Marco; Houghton, George; Butterworth, Brian (1998). "Two routes or one in reading aloud? A connectionist dual-process model". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 24 (4): 1131–1161. doi:10.1037/0096-15184.108.40.2061.
- ^ Harley, Trevor A. (2001). The psychology of language: from data to theory. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-86377-867-4.
- ^ a b Coslett HB (2000). "Acquired dyslexia". Semin Neurol 20 (4): 419–26. doi:10.1055/s-2000-13174. PMID 11149697.
- ^ Brandler, William M.; Paracchini, Silvia (2014). "The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders". Trends in Molecular Medicine 20 (2): 83. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008. PMID 24275328.
- ^ a b Heim, Stefan; Wehnelt, Anke; Grande, Marion; Huber, Walter; Amunts, Katrin (May 2013). "Effects of lexicality and word frequency on brain activation in dyslexic readers". Brain and Language 125 (2): 194–202. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2011.12.005. PMID 22230039.
- ^ a b c d e f Friedman, Rhonda B.; Hadley, Jeffrey A. (1992). "Letter-by-letter surface alexia". Cognitive Neuropsychology 9 (3): 185–208. doi:10.1080/02643299208252058.
- ^ Beeson, Pélagie M.; Rising, Kindle; Kim, Esther S.; Rapcsak, Steven Z. (April 2010). "A Treatment Sequence for Phonological Alexia/Agraphia". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 53 (2): 450–68. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0229). PMC 3522177. PMID 20360466.
- ^ a b Starrfelt, Randi; Ólafsdóttir, Rannveig Rós; Arendt, Ida-Marie (2013). "Rehabilitation of pure alexia: A review". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 23 (5): 755–79. doi:10.1080/09602011.2013.809661. PMC 3805423. PMID 23808895.
- ^ Schuett, Susanne (2009). "The rehabilitation of hemianopic dyslexia". Nature Reviews Neurology 5 (8): 427–37. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2009.97. PMID 19581901.
- ^ Angeli, V; Benassi, MG; Ladavas, E (2004). "Recovery of oculo-motor bias in neglect patients after prism adaptation". Neuropsychologia 42 (9): 1223–34. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.01.007. PMID 15178174.
- ^ Bogon, Johanna; Finke, Kathrin; Stenneken, Prisca (16 October 2014). "TVA-based assessment of visual attentional functions in developmental dyslexia". Frontiers in Psychology. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172. PMC 4199262. PMID 25360129.
- ^ Jody Swarbrick; Abigail Marshall (10 September 2004). The Everything Parent's Guide To Children With Dyslexia: All You Need To Ensure Your Child's Success. Everything Books. pp. 93–. ISBN 978-1-59337-135-7. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
- ^ Nicola Brunswick (10 April 2012). Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-470-97479-7. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
- ^ Thomas Richard Miles (15 January 2004). Dyslexia and stress. Whurr. ISBN 978-1-86156-383-5. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
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- ^ Chenault, Belle; Thomson, Jennifer; Abbott, Robert D.; Berninger, Virginia W. (2006). "Effects of Prior Attention Training on Child Dyslexics' Response to Composition Instruction". Developmental Neuropsychology 29 (1): 243–60. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2901_12. PMID 16390296.
- ^ Nalewicki, Jennifer (31 October 2011). "Bold Stroke: New Font Helps Dyslexics Read". Scientific American. Scientific American, a Division of Nature America, Inc. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
- ^ de Leeuw, Renske (December 2010). "Special Font For Dyslexia?" (PDF) (in English/Dutch). University of Twente. p. 32. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011.
- ^ a b Sawers, Paul. "Dyslexie: A typeface for dyslexics". Retrieved April 9, 2012.
- ^ David Crystal. 1987. The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
- ^ McCandliss BD, Noble KG; Noble (2003). "The development of reading impairment: a cognitive neuroscience model". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 9 (3): 196–204. doi:10.1002/mrdd.10080. PMID 12953299.
- ^ Ziegler, J.C.; Perry, C.; Ma-Wtatt, A.; Ladner, D.; Schulte-Korne, G. (2003). "Developmental dyslexia in different languages: Language specific or universal?". Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 86 (3): 169–193. doi:10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00139-5. PMID 14559203.
- ^ Pilcher, Helen (1 September 2004). "Chinese dyslexics have problems of their own". Nature. doi:10.1038/news040830-5.
- ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/649670/writing/53657/Types-of-writing-systems
- ^ Berkhan O (1917). "Über die Wortblindheit, ein Stammeln im Sprechen und Schreiben, ein Fehl im Lesen" [About word blindness, adyslalia of speech and writing, a weakness in reading]. Neurologisches Centralblatt (in German) 36: 914–27.
- ^ Snowling, Margaret J (November 1996). "Dyslexia: a hundred years on". BMJ 313 (7065): 1096–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.313.7065.1096. PMC 2352421. PMID 8916687.
- ^ Boder E (October 1973). "Developmental dyslexia: a diagnostic approach based on three atypical reading-spelling patterns". Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 15 (5): 663–87. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1973.tb05180.x. PMID 4765237.
- ^ a b Galaburda, A. M.; Cestnick, L (February 2003). "Dislexia del desarrollo" [Developmental dyslexia]. Revista de Neurología (in Spanish) 36 (Suppl 1): S3–9. PMID 12599096.
- ^ Cestnick, Laurie; Coltheart, Max (March 1999). "The Relationship Between Language-Processing and Visual-Processing Deficits in Developmental Dyslexia". Cognition 71 (3): 231–55. doi:10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00023-2. PMID 10476605.
- ^ Cestnick, Laurie; Jerger, James (October 2000). "Auditory temporal processing and lexical/nonlexical reading in developmental dyslexics". Journal of American Academy of Audiology 11 (9): 501–513. PMID 11057735.
- ^ Elbeheri, Gad; Everatt, John; Reid, Gavin; al Mannai, Haya (2006). "Dyslexia assessment in Arabic". Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs 6 (3): 143–52. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2006.00072.x.
External links[edit]
- Dyslexia associations
- International Dyslexia Association
- British Dyslexia Association
- European Dyslexia Dyslexia Association
- Australian Dyslexia Association


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World English Bible (WEB) | New International Version (NIV) |
25 that you shall be driven from men, and your dwelling shall be with the animals of the field, and you shall be made to eat grass as oxen, and shall be wet with the dew of the sky, and seven times shall pass over you; until you know that the Most High rules in the kingdom of men, and gives it to whoever he will. | 25 You will be driven away from people and will live with the wild animals; you will eat grass like cattle and be drenched with the dew of heaven. Seven times will pass by for you until you acknowledge that the Most High is sovereign over the kingdoms of men and gives them to anyone he wishes. |
The World English Bible is in the public domain. (The World English Bible Online) | Scripture quoted by permission. Quotations designated (NIV) are from THE HOLY BIBLE: NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica. All rights reserved worldwide. (New International Version Bible Online) |

subset: commoncrawl


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At the New York Times's Dot Earth blog, Andrew Revkin looks into an often-ignored potential natural disaster: meteor strikes. Monday marks the 100th anniversary of the Tunguska event, in which a meteor estimated to be as small as a few dozen yards across exploded over Siberia, creating a blast capable of destroying a large metropolitan area.
Gavin Schmidt at RealClimate dissects the media attention over forecasts that the North Pole could become ice-free for the first time this summer. Schmidt, a climate modeller at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, asks "[W]hy do stories about an geographically special, but climatically unimportant, single point traditionally associated with a christianized pagan gift-giving festival garner more attention than long term statistics concerning ill-defined regions of the planet where very few people live?"


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Give Now
Many bird-of-paradise species have evolved colorful plumage - a result of special eating habits and behaviors.
Over one hundred and seventy different species of bird have been observed sun-bathing.
Most birds you see standing on only one leg are doing an impressive balancing act while tucking the second leg into their feathers. Why do they do that?
Have you noticed how male birds seem to be more brightly colored with more variation in feathers than female birds? Learn why on this Moment of Science.
A female godwit has logged the longest non-stop bird flight ever recorded. Learn more on this Moment of Science.
Have you ever wondered or asked yourself the question if birds have teeth or
You might hire a nanny to take care of your kids while your out, but did you know that some animals do too?
One common misconception people have regarding evolution is that the gradual changing of physical forms always benefits the species in question.
If you keep a winter bird feeder, you might have noticed that blue jays seem to dominate the scene and bullying other birds away. Where's this behavior from?


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Unbiased Reviews by Real People
In the same year that my mother was born, Rear Window was also born. Rear Window is one of many films directed by the legendary Alfred Hitchcock, with whom I am about as familiar as I am the back of Clark Gable's hand. I saw Vertigo when I was like 15 and thought it sucked monster donkey balls. I'm sure my opinion would differ today. Anyway, when Super Mario Kart Double Dash!! didn't show up at the video store, I picked up Rear Window instead. Now I see why it's ranked #13 on IMDb.com's Top 250. You ever notice how much you can learn about people just by watching them, even when you can't hear anything they say? Well I sure hope so, because that's what a good 2/3 of this movie is. Miss Lonely Hearts lives on the first floor and greets imaginary boyfriends at her door. On the second floor is a miserable salesman with a nagging wife. On the third floor is a couple who sleep on a mattress out on the fire escape, incidentally "escaping the fire" of the three-digit temperatures inside. Just to the left is a ballet dancer who dances around like there's no tomorrow. Below her is a sculptor, and in the building just to the left is a pair of unsure newlyweds. Across the courtyard is a musician who feigns happiness, but plays on, and no one complains. Ah, those were the good old days. Jeff is a feisty news reporter who will stop at nothing to get his story from the greatest angle possible, even if it means getting hit by a wayward racecar. Now, he's stuck in a cast for eight weeks, living off the breeze that comes in his rear window. Everyday, he wakes up and has nothing to do but watch these people all day. Even without the murder angle, that would've been enough to pique my interest. (Oops, did I say "murder"?) Rear Window is told entirely through Jeff's point of view, during his eighth week. You see these people over and over again, almost never hearing a word that they say, but always knowing exactly what they are thinking. Hitchcock (and all the fine actors) make superb use of body language, music, light, shade, shades, and even the space between apartment windows. The acting is elegant and formal at times, satirical at others, and it even gets downright sexy. I guess my problem is that when I think of old movies, I think of a bunch of guys sitting around reading cue cards. Not once did I gather such an impression here. James Stewart is charming, stubborn and hard to get as Jeff, Grace Kelly is (needless to say) gorgeous, but possesses the three S's -- sweet, sensitive and spunky. Thelma Ritter (as Stella) oozes sarcastic wit and is funny without being unbelievable as an actual person. The best thing about Rear Window is its script (by John Michael Hayes). Much like 12 Angry Men which also takes place in confined quarters, Rear Window has to keep your attention with interactions. Those would be between Jeff and his caretaker Stella, as well as Liza his girlfriend (we think), and detective Tom Doyle, none of whom buy into Jeff's theories about the people he sees. At least, not at first. The conversation Jeff has with Stella at the beginning is one to watch for; I wonder why I ever thought they couldn't be witty in the fifties. This stuff is not outdated, if that's what you're worried about. There is no cat jumping out from behind a trash can, jarring sound effect, or sudden appearance of a deformed face with a scar that he got two decades ago from the protagonist's pet ferret. The suspense here is all psychological. Mystery is an integral part of power, and thankfully, Hitchcock keeps the mystery intact for as long as possible, with some remaining even after the credits roll. You shouldn't miss this one. ========================= This review has been brought to you as part of sleeper54's Lean-N-Mean write-off, in which we keep the number of words in our reviews down below the mark of the big D, 666. Wwwwhoa. To read more of these short but scintillating entries, point your browser in this direction, you may fire when ready. WHAT?


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Tag: before watchmen
Showing results 92-98 of 98
Adam Hughes Weighs In On "Before Watchmen: Dr. Manhattan"
In a post on his personal blog, artist Adam Hughes expounds on his excitement to be working on DC Comics' "Watchmen" prequel miniseries featuring Dr. Manhattan.
POLL: How Do You Feel About "Before Watchmen?"
Now that you've read all about "Before Watchmen," what are your feelings on DC Comics moving forward with the franchise without Alan Moore and/or Dave Gibbons involvement?
DC Releases All Eight "Before Watchmen" Covers
DC Comics has released hi-resolution images of all eight "Before Watchmen" covers, and ROBOT 6 has the full gallery for your Rorschach, Silk Spectre and Ozymandias viewing pleasure.
POLL: Which "Before Watchmen" Series Are YOU Most Excited About?
The word is out, now it's time for the fans to weigh in! Which of DC Comics' announced "Before Watchmen" series are you most looking forward to?
"Before Watchmen" Creators on Bold Moves, Alan Moore & More
In the wake of DC Comics' "Before Watchmen" announcement, ROBOT 6's Kevin Melrose has a round-up of quotes from various creators involved in the prequels, from Brian Azzarello to Darwyn Cooke and more.
EXCLUSIVE: JMS Talks "Before Watchmen: Dr. Manhattan"
In an exclusive first interview, J. Michael Straczynski tells CBR why "Before Watchmen" is a good idea with or without Alan Moore and how he views Dr. Manhattan. Plus, a first look at Adam Hughes' art for the project.
DC Comics To Publish "Before Watchmen" Prequels
Brian Azzarello, J. Michael Straczynski, original "Watchmen" editor Len Wein and colorist John Higgins and more team to tell more stories from the world of Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons 1986 classic. UPDATED with Moore's reaction.
Archives: All | Comic Books | TV/Film | Video Games | Web Comics


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Bill Monroe reports on a joint decision by Oregon and Washington fish and wildlife officials to delay a popular catch-and-keep winter sturgeon season on the Willamette River that was due to open Jan. 1.
Officials are seeing fewer legal sized sturgeon in the Columbia River Basin for the second year in a row, and have cut back catch limits accordingly (the expected Willamette catch limit is 2,550 for 2011, down from 3,600 this year). The Willamette retention sturgeon fishery will remain closed until at least February, but catch-and-release fishing is open on both the Willamette and the Columbia.
Fish and wildlife biologists have noted a growing number of Steller sea lions are taking a bigger bite of the sturgeon population on the Columbia, and Oregon and Washington have requested to have the Stellers removed from the Endangered Species list. That would allow officials to haze them as they do the California sea lions, which have been lethally removed from below Bonneville Dam to protect listed salmon.
« SEC: Nuclear power doesn't come from press releases
Kitzhaber: Sunrise for natural resource industries »


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Very nice place to hang out after work in downtown. Service is great . We tried lamb skewers( so soft and tender) temperance burger ( so big and delicious) , Cesar salad was also tasty .It has a patio , overall very nice.
Very nice place to hang out after work in downtown. Service is great . We tried lamb skewers( so soft and tender) temperance burger ( so big and delicious) , Cesar salad was also tasty .It has a patio , overall very nice.
I just went here for drinks for several hours. The weather was great and the outdoor seating was perfect. This is located just across the street from the TRUMP where we were staying.
Everytime we travel to Toronto we have to stop here! I love how busy it is at all times! The bruschetta is to die for, Same with the steak frites. Unreal service as well! Go here!
I used to frequent South of Temperance at lunch with coworkers when I had time to take a lunch. That was a year ago, and a year ago this place was great. The servers were friendly and they had great food (Not Your Grandmother's Grilled Cheese was my favourite, which is no longer on the menu). I went for lunch... More
We went for meal here as part of our holiday. The patio area was full but we were happy to sit inside. Food is good, tasty and a good selection. The atmosphere is vibrant and pleasant. Like some reviews, it is the service that lets it down. Waitresses all look and dress the same, suited perhaps to the main clientele... More
Just got back from dinner here- love going to this place for a lunch with work friends or after work drinks. Patio is a good time but it fills up quickly.
We came here to celebrate my birthday. What a mistake! After waiting almost an hour for a table that I had reserved a week in advance, we were completely ignore by our waiter and I had to speak with a manager just to get menus. We decided to settle up the bill for our table inside (while we waited for... More
South of Temperrance is a refreshing change from the typical lunch venues in the area. I like the food for several reasons: (a) the menu has a good mixture of standard fare and slightly more exotic fare, (b) the food is predictable and the same from one visit to the next and (c) the portions are a respectable size. Despite... More
The only great thing in there was the terasse and the nice tempeture that day. Reading the reviews prior going to this restaurant, we were up for a good evening, what a deception it was. First of all we both asked for a longIsland Iced tea. Working for several years in the restaurant business it was not a long island... More
busy busy busy and then at 8 not - i gather they must catch the go. Food is great, service is great, very packed when packed, but you can spend a great weekend afternoon enjoying it with a few friends (not a bad brunch). Mon-Fri just suits and those looking for suits.
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Style notes
Say hello to your new favourite jeans. With a high-rise fit and patch detail, these straight-leg jeans by Aries are flattering and cool in equal measure. Wear them full length or roll up the legs for a casual feel.
Shown here with Stella McCartney Falabella small grey three-chain bag, Aurélie Bidermann Silver-plated vintage lace cuff and Balenciaga Arena stud leather sandals.Details
- These blue-denim jeans have a high-rise, a straight-leg and feature two matching blue-denim knee patches with a top button and zip front fastening.
- The relaxed fitting jeans have the classic five pockets, distressed edging and belt loops with a logo embossed black-leather back detail.
- 100% cotton.
- Machine wash.
Size and fit
View this item's measurements Size Guide
- Model is 5ft 10in/ 1.78m, is a UK 08 and wears a size 26in waist. Please refer to size guide for further help.
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- Waist 28in/71cm
- Half hem opening 6in/15cm
- Front rise 9.5in/24cm
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What does FREPA stand for?
What does FREPA mean? This page is about the various possible meanings of the acronym, abbreviation, shorthand or slang term: FREPA.
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FREPA | Frente Patriótico Anticomunista |
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"FREPA." Abbreviations.com. STANDS4 LLC, 2015. Web. 30 Jan. 2015. <http://www.abbreviations.com/FREPA>.


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Welcome to
Expressways To Learning®!
Expressways To Learning® – TN
"An Alternative to Traditional Tutoring"
Irlen Diagnostician
Colored Irlen Spectral Lenses & Colored Overlays
and click on our new link to celebrate 26 years of serving the Nashville Community!
PO Box 150752
Nashville, TN 37215
Expressways To Learning® celebrates unique learning styles everyday. In our learning centers, your child will decode information to reformat his or her learning language. Through intensive brain training, we can help unlock your child's true potential. Our proven techniques make learning fun while simultaneously boosting your child's confidence and self image.
Step 1
Call our office or email us to schedule an appointment at one of our locations,
(Apx. 1 1/2 hours which includes reviewing test results and recommendations.)
(615) 851-9703
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We will review test results the same day and make recommendations of how many sessions will be necessary for your child to reach necessary goals.
Step 3
Schedule classes or begin a Home Study Program where we will license your computer and provide Home Study Check In appointments every 2 to 4 weeks. Weekly sessions are also available along with Home Study programs.
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Within 2 weeks you will begin to see long term memory results. Each child takes "Ten's Tests" which review all skills taught in a 2 week time frame and you will receive regular progress reports.
Step 5
Begin 2014 - 2015 school year with SUCCESS for you, your child, and your family!


text: 4 Nice T-Shirt. Good value @ 4.99shargazer | 07/01/2010 | See all shargazer's reviews (23)Nice quality, lovely bright red color, the tranfer seems to be of a good quality (although I have yet to wash the tshirt).I bought the LARGE which is stated as a size 14. I am a size 12 in tops, and this fits fine. Im not too keen on really tight fitting tops, with this there is room to move without it looking silly.The tshirt is quite short in the body. You may want to wear a vest underneath.


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Mon, 5 Jan 2015
965 The Buzz
Glass Animals, Bleachers, Banks, Misterwives and Outsides
Cage the Elephant, Cold War Kids, Beautiful Bodies and The Architects
Fri, 7 Nov 2014
Alt-J Accoustic
Mon, 3 Nov 2014
Halloweenie Roast Night 2, October 29th 2014, featuring Alt-J. Thanks for coming out!
Fri, 30 Jan 2015
indigo girls: 2:20
university students: 0:37, 5:53
kevin costner: 5:04
Mon, 29 Dec 2014
Latest blog entries for krbz2 station
Garbage Man Weed Story Follow Up Afentra's Headlines
Thu, 29 Jan 2015
Starting at #12 George Ezra - Budapest Andrew McMahon in the Wilderness - Cecillia and the OMG so much typing for this song Bleachers - Rollercoaster Spoon - Inside Out Jamie T - Don't You Find Bad Suns - Salt Melanie Martinez - Dollhouse Awolnation - Hollow Moon Vance Joy - Mess is Mine ...
In headlines today the guys discussed sex dreams, insurance fraud and the Biebs. And now a feel good story. Dads... Betting on the Super Bowl? YAY!!! Restaurant reports! Thanks for listening today! Love Ya, Meredith email@example.com
Buzz Briefs iPod Shuffle Weed Story BVSW


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A physical place can be filled with such meaning. Just think of your hometown; do you have recollections of your favorite spot? Or maybe you couldn't wait to get away and that feeling is still palpable. Returning to places that I have lived before, I have a sense memory of how to get around and I associate feelings and memories with specific locations. In a city as large as Manhattan, the sheer number of these feelings and remembrances must be infinite, many times the number of inhabitants.
As we head to Manhattan this week with our newest collection, this conversation feels especially interesting. Our own personal map of the city, marked with new clients and boutiques, will guide us as we write another chapter into the Alabama Chanin story.
In 2007, Becky Cooper became interested in locations and maps after studying Italo Calvino's Invisible Cities and she was inspired by an internship with non-profit organization CultureNOW, where she worked to map Manhattan's public art spaces. She told the New York Times, "I'm really bad at geography. But I think it helped me to see maps more as a biography."


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Drug Debt
Dark Fantasy, Authoritarian, BDSM, Bestiality, Coercion, Cruelty, Discipline, Enema, Extreme, Humiliation, Male Domination, Older Male / Female, Prostitution, Rape, Torture, Violence, Water Sports/Pissing, Young
Author's infos
Gender: N/A Age: N/A Location: N/A
Posted 4 days ago
This was a request, parts true, parts made up. Give me feedback on what you do and don't like
Owen and I met when I was 12 and had begun dating a month before my 13th birthday, he had just turned 17. Shortly after my birthday, I gave it up to him. It wasn't anything great at first, but it got better. He fucked me almost every day, nothing too rough or fantastic, not even any anal yet. It was summer, so we mostly smoked pot, went to the skate park, played video games, partied, and fucked.
On a Friday, Owen ran out of bud. He scrounged together a little bit of money and we headed over to his dealer's house. I had been to the house once before, out in the country, about 20min outside of town. But, Owen had made me wait in the mini-van while he went in. This time when we pulled up, he asked me to come in with him, he looked nervous and kind of sweaty. I got out and walked up to the door, holding his hand. We rang the bell and a man let us in and directed us to the living room. The house was fucking giant; I was a little uncomfortable at how lavish things looked. From the outside, it didn't look so expansive. We sat down, Owen looked so uncomfortable. It threw me off, he was always so cool and collected, I was nervous just looking at him.
Then a very handsome man, with a smile on his face walked into the room. Owen shifted in his seat. The man approached us and introduced himself to me as Eric; he took my hand in his and gently kissed it. Was this guy really the dealer that made Owen so nervous, he looked so warm and welcoming. He stood at about 6'6''; he was slim, yet muscular. His hair was jet black with just a speckling of silver, his skin was olive and beautiful, his smile gleamed white. His warm voice was thick with a Latin accent, it was smooth and wonderful. There was something alluring about him, an immediate attraction and a need to please him. When he turned to Owen, his smile faded and coldness hit his eyes. "You came here, knowing you owe me 1k. Did you bring it?" he asked in a firm tone that seemed so far from the warmth I felt when he introduced himself to me. Owen stumbled over his words, "N-n-no, I just thought maybe we could work something out, I just some grass this time."
Eric sighed and shook his head, "I spotted you last time with the ice, and I cannot do that again. I am a business man, not a charity. Is that why you brought her in with you this time, knowing how I appreciate young, beautiful creatures not yet spoiled and jaded? You thought seeing her would be enough to distract me, make me forget what you owe?" I had never had someone talk about me like that, as though I wasn't in the room, like I was an object Owen owned, rather that the girl he was dating. But, the way he did it wasn't completely off-putting. Owen just shook his head, unsure of what to say. "I could make a deal with you, a bargain. You owe me a considerable sum, your payment is overdue and I doubt you have any hope in getting the money together. Am I correct?" Eric asked. "I don't have the money, sir, and I don't know how to get it. What bargain would you like to make? Like, I work it off or something?" Owen seemed confused. Honestly, I couldn't imagine what a man like Eric could want from a kid like Owen. What they could bargain that was worth 1k.
"As I see it, you have two choices. You'll accept my offer, or you will be escorted out back by my security team. I can't guarantee that you will leave there; they can get carried away. My offer is this; I want her from now until Monday morning at 6am. You both agree that she stays here and follows my every demand; your debt is squared away. I suppose her choice will depend on how much you mean to her and your choice on how much your life means to you," Eric said this so coolly, without any hesitation. I was at a loss for words, as they both turned to me. Owen's eyes misty and Eric's twinkling. I could get lost in those hazel eyes. I snapped back to reality. Anything could happen to me here, from now until Monday. But, if I said no, Owen's life was surely in my hands. "I'll do it," I couldn't believe I was saying it, my mouth just opened and the words spilled out. I had some sort of trust in Eric, and yet I feared him. I had seen how quickly and easily he turned from the warm, charming man to the cold, ruthless one.
"You may leave now, Owen, your debt is payed," Eric said as two men grabbed Owen and headed to the door, shoving the bag of pot into his hands. Eric beckoned me to him after we heard the front door slam. I walked over to him and he patted his leg, I sat. "Now my pet, we're going to have fun this weekend," with that he kissed me deeply, I had never been so turned on by a kiss, ever. Then he promptly shoved me down to the floor and took off his pants and underwear. "Eat my asshole, bitch," he commanded of me. I had never done anything like that, I started to crawl backwards, and he grabbed me by the hair, slapped my face and spit on me. "You'll learn very quickly in life that your place is please men. You are my bitch for the weekend, you will call me master, and you will obey everything I say, or you will regret it. You are my personal fuck toy. I will use you however I want, if you're smart you'll learn to love it. When you please me I will reward you, like the bitch that you are," he sneered as he said these words. They sunk in and tears flowed from my eyes, I had never in my life been treated to terribly, and a part of me loved it. He then shoved my face in his ass and I began to lick all around his tight hole. He moaned and pressed me closer to him, "fuck it with your tongue, cunt." I started to press my tongue into his hole; it tasted so bitter I could smell his sweat. I reached up and pushed my palm into his taint, massaging him as I drove my tongue deep into his asshole, curling it and swirling it. He moaned and began to ram his ass up and down on my tongue, his cock hardening. I started to rub his balls, roll them gently in my palms. He grabbed my hand and placed it on his shaft, "jerk me," was all he said. I kept my tongue deep in him, finding it hard to breathe as he forced his ass onto my face. My hand pumped is cock hard, twisting my wrist as I jerked him off. After what seemed like ages, but was probably 15min, he pulled me back, one hand still wrapped in my hair, the other under my chin grabbing hard as he forced me to look at him. "Keep your fucking eyes open, whore, and look at me. Open you damn mouth and stick out your tongue. You are going to jack me onto your face and in your mouth. When I'm done, you make sure it all gets in your slutty mouth, show it me and swallow every drop. When I gift you with my cum, you thank your master," he told me. I did as he said, he shot the first glob, it hit right on my tongue, the next in my mouth and finally right below my mouth. I had never seen so much thick, hot cum in my life. I took my finger and scooped it all in my mouth, showed him, and then swallowed. It tasted so fucking good; I couldn't believe how much I loved it. "Thank you, master," I said timidly. "Good girl, next time you tell me what you're saying thank you for and how much you love it. Now kiss my cock to thank it. It's your master too. I have a few gifts for your obedience, gutter whore," he said in a warm tone. The next thing I knew, he was putting a silver choke collar around my neck, I shivered when the cold metal hit my skin, I erupted in goose bumps and my nipple hardened. It felt wonderful to wear his collar. "Strip," Master said. I did.
I stood there naked and turned in slow circles as he watched. He reached out and lightly stroked my clit. I purred and shivered as he rubbed me. I loved feeling him touch my fully shaved pussy. Pulling it open and staring. Before I knew it he shoved two fingers in me. It hurt to have such a large intrusion in my tight cunt. I was surprised by how wet I already was and how good it felt as he finger fucked me, wiggling his fingers on my g-spot as he roughly shoved them in and out of me. I came in two minutes, my legs got weak, but he stayed inside of me, now shoving a third finger and going deeper, and harder. His face full of anger, "You think you can fucking cum whenever you please? You cum when you are granted permission, tramp. Bitches get to cum when their master feels generous, it is earned. Now you will be punished." His fingers hurt so bad, I began to cry and tried to apologize. He slapped me with wet fingers when I tried to speak. He fucked me hard again with three fingers. Then shoved them in my mouth and made me lick them clean. He pushed me down onto my hands and knees then shoved two almost dry fingers deep into my ass. I screamed out, that seemed to encourage him, for the next twenty minutes he raped my ass with his fingers. When he finished I lay on the floor panting and crying so hard. He kicked me in the ribs, grabbed my collar and started to drag me up the nearby stairs. When we reached his room, I was dropped on the floor next to his bed. He grabbed a box and walked into the master bath, ordering me to get my ass in the air and stay that way with my eyes closed. When he returned, I felt something rubber enter in anus, heard a snap and then felt something hot and liquid begin to enter me. He stepped on my shoulders with one foot, holding me there. I began to get the worst cramps as my first enema entered my bowels. He was laughing as I was shaking. He had heated the solution to a scorching temperature and emptied 2 quarts into me. When it was all in me, he shoved a lubed 5inch around plug into my tight, virgin ass. I remember hearing screams of torture and feeling the worst cramps inside of me, until he slapped me, I had no idea that I was the one screaming. He flipped me over, and attached a bar in between my ankles, then handcuffed my wrists to it. The position hurt so fucking bad, I was sobbing. Then he moved over to me on his knees, lined up his hard cock to my pussy lips and began fucking me. I thought the pain was already the worst in my life, and then it tripled as he pounded me, palm pushing on my abdomen. He asked me if I liked my punishment and applied all his weight on my stomach until I told him I loved the way it felt and begged to hold it in longer and take it like this every day. I hated myself in those moments, and I hated him. Then he resumed fucking me and ordered me to cum around his dick. Five minutes later, I had the greatest orgasm of my life while he raped my pussy, his head pounding into my cervix. I cried harder after I came, humiliated that I could enjoy what he was doing to me. Then everything went black.
I woke up the next morning to him fucking my sore, tight pussy. Master explained that I had blacked out from the pain, then I was showered and the enema let out and then he let 3 men rape me over and over. I was told I became lucid for parts of it, but I have no memory of that night. He pushed my head down and told me to wrap my lips around him if I wanted breakfast. He came and I swallowed it greedily, I began to pull back when he was done, but was held in place. He pissed down my throat and held me there, unable to breathe until I swallowed it all. Then I was allowed to go take a shower.
When I got out, Master drug me out of the room and shoved me down the stairs, at the bottom, his guard grabbed me and drug me out back. I was hooked up to a lead and a water dish was set out. I was ordered to stay on my hands and knees and that if I was caught picking up the water bowl, it would be taken away. Then he pulled down his pants and started to piss on my back. He then walked inside. I began lapping up the water, I was so thirsty. Another man walked outside, silently he got behind me on his knees and started fucking my dry ass, I screamed, to silence me, he shoved my face in the water, pulling me up as I was about to pass out. Giving me only a few breaths and then shoving me back down. When he left another came, then another, and endless stream of men, I stopped counting after 20, came and fucked me in every hole, in every way, torturing me, cumming in me; making me thank them afterwards. Night had fallen; I'd been out here all day. Soon, Men came and set up 50 chairs or so, in a circle. I was drug to the center and made to wait there. Then the seats started to fill with men, one after another. Some would come up to me, spread me, prod me, and treat me like the prized bitch in a dog show. I was fastly figuring out, that was exactly what I was. Then last of all, Master came out, patted my head, smiled at me and sat down. Then into the circle came a giant white dog, with a huge red cock hanging out. I tried to run when I saw it, the handlers held me down, led it to me. I felt his paws around my ribs, holding so tight, claws digging deep. Then I felt his heat jabbing around down near my pussy. Hit hot cock hit my clit and I shivered, a few men laughed at me. Then he hit the spot, his long shaft hammered into my tight cunt. His dick was so hot, and he was fucking me so hard, I tried to get away and he bit the back of my neck, I cried out. The dog continued to assault me mercilessly. As his steaming dick pistoned out of me, I began to feel it, my orgasm. I tried to hold back, to tell myself how disgusting this was. But my body took over, my cunt spasmed and I came so hard, squeezing his doggy cock. He shot burning ropes of cum inside my hot pussy, I came over and over again, hating myself for how good it felt. Then I felt him get still and he started getting bigger. I started freaking out, he was fucking knotting inside of me, I screamed for help, looked around and saw every one of the men was rubbing their hard dicks and watching my humiliation. It felt like a baseball was inside of me. It hurt worse than anything my pussy had endured. The dog tried to pull out; he whined in my ear and bit my neck again, struggling. He turned around so that we were ass to ass and began dragging me. Men were laughing and grunting while they watched our struggle. Finally with a loud pop, his dick was out of me, and it felt like gallons of liquid seeped out of my cunt. I knew I was gaping. Then flashes started to go off, pictures, and to my horror, a video camera I hadn't noticed. Soon the audience slowed down, as another dog was led out. I took 3 dogs in my cunt that night, and two in my ass. My holes were wide open afterwards. The men took turns fisting me, taking my degradation even further. I cried more than ever. Then they all stood around me once more and began to jerk themselves. I begged them not to, knowing what was to come, literally. I was covered in at least a hundred ropes of cum by the end. It was all recorded on video and in pictures.
The men left, I was hosed off with freezing water, a few pills shoved down my throat. Then master made me worship his cock for an hour with my mouth, choking me before allowing me to taste his delicious cum and go to sleep.
The next morning I was taken to an empty room, tied suspended from the ceiling by my wrists. A bucket of ice cold water thrown on me and another set in the room. Master came in with a leather belt. He dipped the belt in the water, wrapped it around his hand and hit me with full strength on the ass, buckle side. I screamed. He made me count out loud. Was to get 50 on my ass, 50 on my pussy and 50 on my tits and stomach, if I counted each blow aloud and didn't try to turn from him, it would go smoothly. Each time I couldn't count the number or tried to turn away, or failed to thank him for the beatings, the set he was working on would begin again. Altogether from my mistakes, my involuntary movements, and my screams I ended up with 400 whips from the buckle end of his belt. I was covered in bruises and cuts, from the neck down. He then wrapped the belt around my neck and made me fuck him with my ass and pussy until he came inside each. I had cum dripping from me all down my legs. Then he pissed again on me, all over me.
"Did you learn anything from me, whore?" he asked. "Yes, master, I am nothing except a play toy for men. I am to obey and love pleasing them, making them cum, and in return they may favor me with pleasure. But my real pleasure is theirs," I responded. "Good girl, he stroked my cheek. I called Owen; you get to leave early because I must leave for business tonight. But, I will purchase your body for my pleasure from him again, because he truly owns you. Mmmm, right, bitch?" he asked. "Yes, Master, he owns my body. Thank you for the use and the training," I said in a flat tone.
He left the room; I must have passed out hanging there, because the next thing I knew, Own was there. He gently untied me and picked me up, crying and quietly apologizing to me, Eric handed him a DVD, envelope of pictures and $500 on our way out. The DVD and pictures were of me. A note was attached to the money, "For my cum dumpster," was all it said.
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18 comments
anonymous reader
2013-10-26 13:14:57
1z0DVb Looking forward to reading more. Great article.Really thank you! Keep writing.
anonymous reader
2013-04-23 02:53:22
Maybe he DID owe him for ice, instead of weed, lost of people use more then one drug… just a thought… the story was amazing, i loved it, keep writing please
anonymous reader
2013-01-22 13:40:02
i agree the part about weed was bs
anonymous reader
2012-12-19 07:57:25
Nice and hot...Liked it a lot...Great job...I love abusing young little underage sluts...Especially when I get to rape them hard...
anonymous reader
2012-04-10 02:35:43
It's good but I would recommend you do a re-write and some spell checking.
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FairPlay Media has launched a game based on everyone's favorite improvising crime-solver from the 8-s: MacGyver! In MacGyver Deadly Descent, players make a descent into a labyrinth of deadly puzzles in a laboratory that's quickly running out of air. They will have to act quickly and solve a variety of puzzles to save the day.
MacGyver Deadly Descent is available now for $2.99, with proceeds from sales of the game going toward the MacGyver Foundation, which "aims to encourage and support individuals and organizations throughout the world who utilize self-reliance, non-violence, and sustainability to improve people's lives."


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When Walter P. Chrysler set out on his own in 1924 he owed nothing to the established design terms of American automobiles. As a... More
Chryslers 300 was nothing less than a sensation. A quiet comfortable and elegant luxury car it concealed blistering performance behind restrained styling and thrust... More
In December of 1941 the United States entered the Second World War and by February of 1942 civilian automobile production throughout the country had... More


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Comfort Inn & Suites Kamloops 1810 Rogers Place Kamloops, BC Canada V1S 1T7 Phone: 250-372-0987 Toll-Free: 1-888-556-3111 Fax: 250-372-0967 info@comfortinn kamloops.com
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Cooking Light MAY 2011
1. Preheat oven to 325°.
2. Heat a large skillet over medium-high heat. Add oil; swirl to coat. Add onion; sauté 5 minutes or until tender. Place onion in a large bowl.
3. Cook rice in a large pot of boiling water 5 minutes. Drain.
4. Stir rice and next 5 ingredients (through allspice) into onions. Spoon onion mixture into an 8-inch square glass or ceramic baking dish coated with cooking spray. Sprinkle evenly with Parmesan cheese. Cover and bake at 325° for 40 minutes. Uncover and bake an additional 5 minutes. Top with parsley, if desired.
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Holman Christian Standard (CSB) | New International Version (NIV) |
1 Then they came to the other side of the sea, to the region of the Gerasenes. | 1 They went across the lake to the region of the Gerasenes. |
Holman Christian Standard Bible ® Copyright © 2003, 2002, 2000, 1999 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. (Holman Christian Standard Bible Online) | Scripture quoted by permission. Quotations designated (NIV) are from THE HOLY BIBLE: NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica. All rights reserved worldwide. (New International Version Bible Online) |


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Who do you think looks best today? (5 photos)
The best street style from London Fashion Week: http://ow.ly/p48HS via @StyleCaster
Jessica Biel knows how to make a sartorial statement without sacrificing comfortstudded loafers add edge to any outfit and are easy to slip off and on at airport security.
Studded slip-ons, Jeffrey Campbell, $165; jildorshoes.com.Read MoreLess


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Here's the official album artwork for Cee- Lo's album The Lady Killer,dropping November 9th. The track list is now available as well along with 30 seconds snippets to each song. 1. The Lady Killer Theme (Intro) 2. Bright Lights Bigger City 3. Forget You 4. Wildflower 5. Bodies 6. Please (Feat. Selah Sue) 7. Satisfied [cont.]
God bless record labels. With no cover art or imagery to show for it, Cee-Lo Green's The Lady Killer will arrive in stores a month ahead of schedule, pushed up to November 9th, from it's original December 7th release date. Assorted t-shirt, poster, CD, and vinyl packages are available here.
Here's a first look at Cee-Lo's forthcoming Fuse show, Lay It Down, which premieres on October 20th. Guests will inlcude Janelle Monae, Ludacris, and N.E.R.D.
Facebook gets the world premiere of Cee-Lo's viral smash, "Fuck You". See it here.
Cee-Lo speaks on his infectious single and the next Gnarls Barkley LP.
Filmdrunk.Com has put together this video of some of the most inspiring, memorable, and quotable "fuck you's" ever to appear in cinema. Great, but they should have let the scene from Half Baked ride on out. Bonus points for anyone who can name all the films in the clip in the comments section.
Well, that didn't take long. 50 adds a quick sixteen to Cee-Lo's ridiculous new single which blew up the internet this past weekend, playing the part of the little boyfriend. If you can't beat 'em, join 'em! 50 Cent + Cee-Lo – "F**k You" (MP3)
Wow – this one's going to be a hit, we think. If they can find a clever way to clean it up for radio, this could surpass Gnarls Barkley's "Crazy" with ease. This is the "lyric video" – a full video for the track will be released later. Taken from his upcoming Cee-Lo Green Is [cont.]
Cee-Lo tweeted this image of his new chain, with lipstick tipped bullets. Cee Lo Green Is The Lady Killer coming soon.
Vocal pop sensation Bruno Mars ventures out on his own with this video from his It's Better If You Don't Understand EP.
Cee-Lo Green delivers the first video from his forthcoming third LP, Cee-Lo Green Is the Lady Killer. High drama on this one kids. And nudity.
Cee-Lo cashes his Twilight check on George Lopez with a peformance of "What Part Of Forever". Notice the all-girl band.
Here we have a liver performance from Cee-Lo for his track "What Part of Forever," off the Twilight 3 soundtrack…Summer of Vampires in 2010….
This leaked over the weekend while we were busy rocking nightclubs and sipping on Patron. Meanwhile, Cee-Lo's got a new album called The Lady Killer, coming soon. TRACKLIST: 01. Goldschläger (Produced by The Grey Area) 02. You Don't Shock Me Anymore (Produced by The Grey Area) 03. Cho Cha the Cat (with the B-52's) (Produced [cont.]
Only a few days after Cee-Lo's new single drops we get this track which will appear on the upcoming soundtrack to the movie Twilight: Eclipse. The new album from Cee-Lo Green, The Lady's Man comes out later this year. LISTEN: Cee-Lo Green – "What Part Of Forever"
New Cee-Lo Green, which is a ode to the state that raised him, and made him who he is (his words). First official single from Cee-Lo off his upcoming album The Lady Killer. LISTEN: Cee-Lo Green – "Georgia"
Cee-Lo celebrated his birthday out here in the city that never sleeps at Light Group's new Haze Nightclub at Aria. Here, he performs a set of GB classics, "Smiley Faces", "Gone Daddy Gone", "Crazy" and "Run"? Ya'll know this shit?
You see what happens when you stop buying music? Your favorite artists have to go do songs for movies like Twilight: Eclipse to insure they get paid. All jokes aside, Cee Lo's going to be eating well for the next year off royalties from the soundtrack, which includes a new song from the Goodie Mob [cont.]
With the Goodie Mob preparing One Monkey Don't Stop No Show for a spring release, it's a little more than obvious that they are sour about Cee-Lo's departure from the group. And with good reason - Thomas Callaway (better known to most as Cee-Lo Green) was the glue that kept the crew together! While this has [cont.]
Dungeon Family affiliate Cee Lo's solo venture, Cee-Lo Green and his Perfect Imperfections is a delicious barrage of contradictions. From doing work with Outkast, Goodie Mob, and the Dungeon Family, Cee-Lo has acquired more than enough experience and credibility to venture out on his own, and he states his independence boldly, rapping, writing, and producing all [cont.]
- Curren$y "Pilot Talk III" Artwork Revealed
- G-Unit – "The Beast Is G-Unit" [Cover Artwork Revealed]
- Cannibal Ox "Blade Of The Ronin" LP [Cover Art + Tracklist]
- Run The Jewels "Lie, Cheat, Steal" Live On Conan + Marvel Comic Covers Unveiled
- Tech N9ne Announces "Special Effects" LP
- Public Enemy Songs in Super Bowl Commercial, Selma Trailer
- Here Are The First Snippets Of Meow The Jewels
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The New York Times fronts a story saying that recent food-market problems are eroding resistance to genetically modified crops. With prices soaring for staples like rice, once-skittish consumers and industry groups are modifying their principles.
Even Europe is lowering its guard, the Times reports, resulting in our Quote of the Day:
The chairman of the European Parliament's agriculture committee, Neil Parish, said that as prices rise, Europeans "may be more realistic" about genetically modified crops: "Their hearts may be on the left, but their pockets are on the right."With food riots in some countries focusing attention on how the world will feed itself, biotechnology proponents see their chance. They argue that while genetic engineering might have been deemed unnecessary when food was abundant, it will be essential for helping the world cope with the demand for food and biofuels in the decades ahead.
The Times says if the trend continues, it will be a big boost for American farmers, who grew half the world's biotech crops in 2007.
British bailout
The Bank of England will inject $100 billion into the country's banking system in an effort to keep its institutions lending and its economy moving.
Like the Federal Reserve, it's taking as collateral stuff that just about no one will touch—the mortgage-backed securities that sparked the financial crisis—but it will hold on to them for much longer instead of the month or so the Fed does. The U.K. is facing a housing bust similar to that of the U.S., though The Wall Street Journal on A2 says futures markets expect American homes to fall an average 27 percent, roughly twice as far as they expect British homes to depreciate.
The Financial Times says the British government is at pains to insist this is not a government bailout, and it says the banks will hedge their risk by valuing the securities at lower than face value.
Nat City bailout
A group of investors is about to bail out Cleveland bank National City to the tune of $6 billion to $8 billion, the papers say. The investors, led by private-equity firm Corsair Capital, will get shares in the tenth-biggest U.S. bank for $5 apiece, about 40 percent below their price on the market at close on Friday.
The Plain Dealersays the bank saw "strong demand", but the Journal says that other banks kicked the tires of their weakened competitor, whose shares are off 78 percent in the last year, but passed. They would have had to take massive write-downs of National City's loans they assumed.
It's yet another big-time dilution of value for bank shareholders, who will also see their dividends slashed 95 percent. Washington Mutual and Wachovia each took similar-sized recapitalizations earlier this month.
Small-bank woes
The Journal on page one looks into the problems facing the country's smaller banks. It finds that plenty have them but that not many observers are predicting a repeat of the scale of bank failures of the late 1980s savings-and-loan crisis.
By historical standards, the U.S. banking system appears overwhelmingly sound. At the end of 2007, FDIC-insured financial institutions had a combined $1.35 trillion in capital, with an overall capital ratio of 12.8%. Federal regulators consider banks well-capitalized if that ratio—the percentage of capital to risk-weighted assets—is more than 10%.
But how much of that capital is already worth less than face value and will have to be written down?
Dodgy bookkeeping
The WSJ in a C1 Heard on the Street column says that Wall Street banks are delaying the impact of billions in securities write-downs and investors are starting to ask why.
The paper says banks are using a legal accounting trick to keep from reporting the write-downs on their income statements. It mentions Merrill Lynch, which last week took $6.6 billion in write-downs in the first quarter that resulted in a $1.9 billion loss. But the firm has another $3.1 billion in write-downs, too, but didn't count those as a loss.
Analysts also are sounding the alarm that these losses may eventually come back to bite investors, even if they are presently tucked away in a little-noticed corner of the balance sheet. In a recent report, Credit Suisse analyst David Zion estimated that companies in the Standard & Poor's 500-stock index were sitting on about $80 billion of these unrealized losses as of the end of last year.After Merrill reported its results, Punk Ziegel & Co. analyst Richard X. Bove threw up his hands in frustration over the way corporate results were being masked by accounting practices, including the ability to book some losses in shareholders' equity rather than profit.


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This is the thirteenth installment of the 2013 edition of My Farm Roots, Harvest Public Media's series chronicling Americans' connection to the land. Click here to explore more My Farm Roots stories and to share your own.
Matt Pauly has traveled the world – he's lived in New York, Paris, South Korea – but he's still a farm boy at heart.


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Something is Eerie in the State of Denmark: Elmgreen & Dragset Plan Unsettling "Little Merman" for Elsinore
Copenhagen's melancholic statue "The Little Mermaid," the most famous public artwork in Denmark — so famous, in fact, that it was transported to China to be displayed in the Danish pavilion at Expo 2010 — won't be lonely much longer. This summer, Puckish European art duo Elmgreen & Dragset will install a new permanent public sculpture on the Elsinore waterfront of a similarly posed boy, "Han," made of shiny stainless steel, who will blink creepily once every hour.
Like its sister sculpture 28 miles to the south, the duo's new work will be seated on a rock at the water's edge. Unlike its iconic predecessor — which was commissioned by Calsberg founder Carl Jacobsen in 1909 and is based on Hans Christian Andersen's short story "The Little Mermaid" — Elmgreen & Dragset's sculpture won't be made of bronze, but rather of polished stainless steel, as will the rock on which it will be seated, so that the entire installation will be highly reflective.
This choice of material is certain to make an uncanny spectacle already, but the eeriest effect will surely be the sculpture's once-an-hour blink — which will last for a mere split second — an effect accomplished via a hydraulic system inside the work. The statue of the blinking boy by the sea, which was commissioned by the city of Elsinore and funded by the Danish National Arts Council, will gaze out over the harbor from the foot of the Castle of Kronborg (which happens to be a UNESCO world heritage site).
Though intended as a response to Copenhagen's Andersen-inspired sculpture, Elmgreen & Dragset's new statue can't help but evoke another famously self-reflexive and melancholy young man who lived in Elsinore, Shakespeare's Hamlet. "O that this too too solid flesh would melt" indeed.
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New Entry Regulations in Thailand
by Sail Staff, Posted August 9, 2008Since July 1, boats clearing into Thailand have been issued bright orange pennants marked with an identification number and the words "Phuket Immigration". Theses flags must be flown for the duration of the boat's stay in Thai waters and returned upon departure.
Armed Thai officials are conducting regular checks to ensure that all foreign vessels have properly cleared customs.
The End of the World
by Sail Staff, Posted August 8, 2008The change in the weather is as emphatic as it is fast. One moment we're meandering along, running wing-and-wing before a light northerly breeze that's just enough to get our heavy 56-footer trundling along at 5 knots. The next, the sky to the west takes on a gunmetal hue and the jib shakes itself as the
Hanse 400e
by Sail Staff, Posted August 8, 2008FULL STORY
Charting a Charter
by Amy Ullrich, Posted August 8, 2008If you've done any sailing outside your home waters, you already know how invaluable a cruising guide can be. I suppose it's possible to tough it out with just the chart and the chart checkout, but at the very least this means you'd be reinventing the wheel when it comes to choosing an anchorage, figuring out what time you should arrive there, finding groceries, and much more.
Lagoon 620
by Sail Staff, Posted August 8, 2008The main saloon is designed to be