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In valuing risk reduction and human life extension, the substantive
regulatory problems encountered by benefit-cost analysts are often signif-
icant but are far from standardized. They vary in terms of the legal and
administrative context in which they appear, the types of potential threats
they pose to life and health, and the characteristics and availability of infor-
mation about those threats. The family of approaches and techniques we
have labeled benefi~-cost anahysis has not been systematically evaluated for
its application to specific topical and conceptual problems in environmental
health and safety. Moreover, as practiced in regulatory contexts, benefit-
cost analysis is limited by the complex administrative, legal, and political
process that characterizes health and safety policy making. The steering
commmitee, on the basis of its conference papers and discussions, believes
that the current challenge for those who perform or use benefit-cost analysis
is twofold:
� to acknowledge and adequately identify the limited role of benefit-
cost analysis and analysts in the entire process of regulatory policy
formation and enforcement and
to distinguish systematically applications of current risk-control
approaches and techniques that are appropriate for specific types
of regulatory issues.
These themes run through the comments of many conference partic-
ipants, including those with sharply opposing views on specific topics de-
bated in the various sessions. Several scholars, for example, point out that
benefit-cost analysis is a small part of a very large, continuous decision-
making process for health and safety regulation that also encompasses
Congress, many administrative agencies and interest groups, scientists, the
courts, and public perceptions. Some question the ability of those charged
with valuation analyses to convey adequately uncertainties associated with
the underlying scientific information on the risks of pollutants and toxins.
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Others focus on the need for decision makers and analysts to consider a
broader range of factors, including the concerns of future generations, in
current analyses and decisions. Still others express a disbelief in the ability
of any analysis that depends on trade-offs at the margin to reach what are
considered by them to be absolute goals, such as health and environmental
protection. Some practicing benefit-cost analysts wonder if they are asked
to do too much with a set of tools that does not yet enable them to meet
those expectations.
Taking into account the range of perspectives present at the conference,
the steering committee noted several problems related directly to the role of
analysis and analysts and the need to distinguish appropriate applications.
For example, there is serious disagreement among scholars, analysts, and
others familiar with the use of benefit-cost analysis as to whether current
approaches to characterizing and valuing risks can or should be asked to
accommodate the full range of factors that decision makers must implicitly
take into account, especially for those problems involving intertemporal
or purely qualitative comparisons. Even those who would support what
they believe to be appropriate use of benefit-cost analysis in environmental
policy making express the view that current methods can be employed more
effectively in evaluating some types of issues than others- for example,
employment effects compared with quality-of-life effects. In particular,
there may be an irreducible tension between a desire to reduce value
considerations to a single metric and a desire for symbolic protective action
in health and safety regulation.
A related problem is the one of expectations versus constraints in
doing benefit-cost analysis for regulatory policy making. For any area
of regulation, legal, administrative, and political factors can set severe
constraints on the conduct of analysis, as well as on the weight given to
analytic results. In contrast, there are incentives, some in response to these
constraints, for analysis and analysts to broaden their scope to show that
all relevant factors have been treated.
Consequently, benefit-cost analysis cannot now be considered to be a
formal decision-making mechanism accounting, for example, for the need
for symbolic action or the full range of qualitative costs and benefits asso-
ciated with policy alternatives. Benefit-cost analysis is more appropriately
used in conjunction with other factors as a set of information-gathering and
organizing tools that may be used to support both decision making and the
presentation of information to the public.
Therefore, we believe there is a need to develop commonsense criteria
for applying current methods to problems encountered in health and safety
regulation, by defining in terms helpful to both analysts and critics alike
the limits to analysis and by developing systematic application of analytic
approaches and techniques to appropriately matched policy issues. Of
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great interest to analysts and decision makers is the practical impact of
these issues on their work. In particular, conference participants returned
repeatedly to the implications of considering benefit-cost analysis as a set of
approaches intended to clarify and simplify certain parts of difficult prob-
lems raised in the course of environmental, health, and safeW regulation.
Much discussion focused on the current and potential roles for agency staff
analysts in increasing understanding among decision makers and the public
of the costs and benefits of regulation, including dilemmas and trade-oRs
inherent in real decisions.
Expression of these concerns, as well as suggestions for dealing with
them, fall largely into five categories reflecting the most important aspects
of the analytical process for environmental and other regulatory decisions:
the administrative and legal context in which analysis is done,
including its purpose;
� the overall approach that is or should be taken in benefit-cost
issues related to the specific analytic procedures and techniques;
� the adequacy of underlying scientific information on risk (e.g., dose
response or exposure); and
� the way in which decision makers incorporate risk assessments and
analyses intended to clarify or support policy making.
Conference participants were asked to identify opportunities for im-
proving risk-control analyses by practical suggestions for analysts and deci-
sion makers at EPA and other regulatory agencies charged with integrating
the full range of intangible factors bearing on health and safety regulation.
In considering this question, they were asked to define the limits of formal
risk-control approaches and techniques.
Participants were not expected to nor did they reach consensus on any
recommendation for a single set of analytical procedures or on a single
appropriate role for analysis and analysts in the regulatory policy process.
The cross-cutting concern for most participants remains the improvement
of benefit-cost analysis as a practical set of tools for policy making. We
believe that improving analysis involves careful consideration of underlying
assumptions, concepts, and methods. It also involves assignment of ap-
propriate types and levels of responsibilities to analysts (and to decision
makers) in light of the analytical capabilities available at present.
No actions within organizations take place in a vacuum the context
limits the possibilities or even favors the opportunities available to the
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analyst or the decision maker. These forces originate both outside the or-
ganization (e.g., in statutory pre- or proscriptions) and inside (e.g., in policy
priorities). In terms of environmental decisions by the federal government,
the interplay between the departments or agencies and the Congress con-
stitutes one important set of external constraints. Statutes and legislative
history, which vary considerably between agencies (and sometimes between
programs within agencies) in terms of their approach to benefit-cost anal-
ysis and other valuation techniques, constitute another set of constraints.
The reaction of the courts to the uses of valuation approaches in support
of environmental regulation decisions is another, the activities of environ-
mental interest groups and other organizations represent still another, and
the particular policy goals of agency leaders are another. In his paper on
the contextual setting for benefit-cost analysis, Melnick details the sources
of several significant constraints and their major effects on the conduct
and use of benefit-cost analysis for environmental decisions. In particular,
the adversarial tone associated with policy making for much of health and
safety regulation has the effect of providing extremely strong, but rarely
singular, messages to benefit-cost analysts regarding how analysis should be
done and used.
Statutes, court decisions, congressional intentions, and executive
branch directives provide multiple, sometimes conflicting, guidance to
agency decision makers and analysts on whether or how to include benefit-
cost considerations in risk-management activities. Many key environmental
health statutes operate with admonishments to "protect health" or "use best
available control technology (BACT)," rather than offering a calculus that,
where appropriate, includes trade-offs and cost-based alternatives. Ken as
a whole, judicial rulings and opinions have likewise exhibited inconsistency
across agencies, statutes, and even specific policy arenas. Congressional
attitudes are often negative toward valuation approaches, while OMB has
pressured decision makers and analysts to more fully integrate such ap-
proaches into risk management.
Regulatory analysis reflects these characteristics, in that many of its
underlying assumptions are constrained by these legal, administrative, and
political features. For example, an analysis of fugitive arsenic emissions
from copper smelting would vary considerably depending on whether it
is deemed important to preserve the industry in question (see the ap-
pendix, which takes up this question). It is clear that few expect federal
health, safety, and environmental regulation to become more consistent and
consensual, either legally, bureaucratically, or politically, without major leg-
islative intervention. The most compelling questions concern prospects for
major intervention and how environmental analysis might be done in light
of these characteristics. For example:
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� How can benefit-cost analysis be integrated into statute-based reg-
ulatory management practices that present a wide range of stances
toward analysis (e.g., BACT versus health-based standards)?
Can we expect benefit-cost analysis to become more politically
feasible or acceptable?
In response to these questions, there were two types of action-oriented
approaches expressed at the conference, one focusing on changing the
environment for benefit-cost analysis and the other focusing on improving
analysis in response to key criticisms of its assumptions and techniques.
In particular, participants discussed the need and prospects for (1) creat-
ing a more consistent and conducive context for valuation approaches by
amending the key environmental health statutes and (2) modifying analyti-
cal techniques and/or including additional variables in valuation approaches
in order to generate support for the results of benefit-cost analysis among
the public agencies, the courts, and Congress.
Achieving improved statutory and judicial consistency and encourage-
ment for the use of valuation approaches in health and safety decisions
would most likely rest on three things. First, general agreement among
policy makers would be needed that there is a compelling need to com-
pare gains in environmental health with the cost of achieving those gains.
Second, agreement would be needed that previous improvements in the
techniques of benefit-cost analysis now enable sophisticated assessments
of variables, such as human life extension, temporal effects, and other
important issues. Third, acknowledgment would be needed that benefit-
cost analysis is or can be decoupled from political motivations, such as
the perception that valuation approaches may support or justify policies
favoring industry or other special groups to the detriment of the wider
public. However, agreement on the need for cost reduction and/or greater
efficiency in protective regulation clashes with concerns that efficiency can
be used inappropriately as a rhetorical device justifying efforts to remove
or reduce needed regulations regardless of their allocative implications.
While benefit-cost analysis cannot now be considered to be a single
set of valuation approaches, techniques, and procedures, there is a core of
common understanding among many analysts based on shared assumptions
regarding expected utility, the implications of scarce resources, and other
concepts. Indeed, explicit techniques for valuing risks, costs, and benefits
have existed for several decades. However, one effect of multiple, conflict-
ing guidance from the regulatory context- even for a single agency is that
regulatory requirements and practices for the use of valuation approaches
are accompanied by political and policy forces favoring or opposing their
application. Consequently, the burden to develop criteria matching appro-
priate approaches and valuation techniques to specific types of problems
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may be too large. For example, many believe that the use of benefit-cost
analysis is not consistent with the Clean Air Act (benefits can be examined
but not costs) and the Clean Water Act (analysis of costs but not bene-
fits is allowed), and yet benefit-risk analyses are required by the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act.
There are at least two different sets of perspectives on these questions.
One view is that the crux of the battle over acceptability of benefit-cost
analysis is a debate about how much power should be given to those who
favor and perform such analyses. According to this view, the battle rages
between Congress and the regulatory agencies, as well as between groups
residing within the regulatory agencies. Another view reflecting genuine
puzzlement in the case of environmental trade-offs sees polarization and
controversy emerging from institutions (e.g., Congress, the bureaucracy)
that are considered on most subjects to be moderating and consensus
For both views, it may be that the use of benefit-cost analysis for
environmental health touches on basic unresolved differences regarding the
appropriateness of applying cost considerations to certain classes of public
goods, such as those described in the papers by Railton and MacLean. If
so, these issues must be addressed at the level of institutions (i.e., Congress,
the President, and the courts), and possibly through the conduct of further
research, before specific guidance can be supplied to regulatory decision
makers and analysts. Such a resolution might emerge over the long term
or as the result of a major environmental or economic crisis. But, in the
absence of a crisis, public opinion and institutions might continue to have
difficulty integrating fully the protection of human health and safety and the
consideration of costs and benefits in allocating scarce economic and other
resources. Signals from the legal and administrative context, furthermore,
suggest that agencies may continue to find both strong supporters and
strong critics of attempts to enunciate agency-specific or government-wide
approaches to risk-control analysis for regulation.
On the second question- whether future improvements in analytic
techniques, approaches, and theories could prove compelling to the policy-
making system and therefore generate additional support for the consistent
use of valuation approaches support for (or opposition to) benefit-cost
analysis may not always be based on assessments of technical features.
Therefore the contextual forces for regulatory benefit-cost analysis may
not respond to technical improvements with greater support for its use in
regulatory decision making.
Nevertheless, it was clear to many participants that any advances in the
application of evaluation approaches must be grounded solidly in the quality
of the analysis and its ability to speak to values considered important by
citizens and policy makers, regardless of whether they are easily discussed
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analytically. Consequently, much of the conference focused on ways to
account for these additional variables and questions in valuation approaches
used in benefit-cost analysis.
The term approach refers here to the way issues are conceptualized in
terms of a general framework for analysis. Benefit-cost analysts, as Melnick
notes, typically see policy issues in terms of opportunity costs, incentives,
and the expense associated with eliminating risks. He characterizes lawyers,
in contrast, as more likely to give preference to concepts of "command and
control," of establishing standards and penalties to be imposed if those
standards are not met. At least some environmentalists and politicians, he
says, are more likely to see the issues in terms of an absolutist, health-only
stance for which no level of effort is too great. 1b the extent that these
characterizations are accurate, they influence the way analytic studies of
valuation are viewed.
In order to agree on an approach to valuing health effects, we would
want it to pass three tests: (1) accuracy, (2) verifiability, and (3) accept-
ability or feasibility. Much of the technical work to advance health-effect
valuations has focused on improving the accuracy and verifiability of the
scientific data and benefit-cost techniques. MacLean, however, describes
some of the reasons why this third test presents special difficulties. He
points out that there are substantial differences in the positions favored by
different groups, differences that are difficult to resolve through appeals to
either basic moral principles or empirical preferences. MacLean describes
what for many makes the issue absolutely unique: human life is sacred, a
fact with many ramifications. For example, although few disagree that it
makes sense to discount expenditures or the opportunity costs of health
effects, MacLean claims that there are moral and logical difficulties when
the value of life per se is discounted. He argues that the existence of eco-
nomic consequences of health and safety decisions does not justify treating
human life as if it were exchangeable.
There remain unavoidable comparisons, however, of how many re-
sources should be devoted to improved physical well-being compared with
energy conservation, greater economic growth, or other outcomes. One
view is that such comparisons can be made more efficiently by relying on
a common metric to characterize all important possibilities rather than
examining the relative value of risk reduction in each case. Yet even within
the community of professional analysts, there is disagreement about the
best way of doing so. For example:
� Where are improvements most needed in valuation approaches?
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Are there viable alternatives to formal valuation approaches to
support environmental decisions?
As the above discussion of contextual issues indicates, a major chal-
lenge for analysts is to develop and employ appropriate approaches to
analysis when there is disagreement regarding basic policy problems and
goals. For example, some have proposed that air and water pollution could
be reduced more rapidly by making standards less stringent. The reasoning
is that, in some cases, current standards so far exceed current attainment
levels that there is little chance additional efforts will lead to complete
compliance. Therefore, the argument goes, fewer such efforts are under-
taken than would be if standards were set at a lower level. This reasoning
is rejected by those who believe that high standards should be met. Still
others would acknowledge the difficulty of meeting some current standards,
but hold that they act as a necessary spur to obtaining even the most modest
pollution reduction results. In this context, how does the analyst choose
between methods of analysis appropriate to obtaining relative reductions
or to meeting the more absolute goals?
In addition, some analysts and observers are concerned about the ac-
cessibility of analytic approaches. Many accept that an important attribute
of an ideal approach should be that it generate results people can un-
derstand and can analyze and argue about. In this sense, Railton refers
to benefit-cost analysis as an information-yielding device rather than a
decision-making tool. There remains, of course, the question of accessibil-
ity and training. Results easily understood by another benefit-cost analyst
may not be fathomable by an interested, educated, but untrained person
or even by environmental scientists trained in other disciplines.
Machina presents what might be considered by some to be an unusual
position with respect to the various parts of the analytical process that
need adjustment. He argues, for example, that recent theoretical and em-
pirical findings pertaining to how people actually evaluate risks and assign
probabilities ought to be reflected in the way preferences are analyzed,
but not in the analysis of probable outcomes. As he states it, observed
"departures from the strictures of probability theory should be corrected
but . . . (systematic) departures from the strictures of expected utility theory
should not". This is because the former involve the determination of the
risks associated with alternative actions or policies, which are in fact mat-
ters of accurate representation, while the latter involve the willingness of
individuals, organizations, and society to bear these risks, which is a matter
of preference. He concludes that analysis must be designed to account for
actual preferences, even those that depart from the strictures of expected
utility theory.
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Considerable support for this view is emerging among economists
and other risk-control analysts. However, there appears to be little or
no consensus at present regarding specific valuation approaches that need
reforming in light of this new evidence on preference formation and little
consensus as to how such approaches, once identified, might be modified to
systematically account for observed departures from expected utility theory.
Furthermore, there is little agreement as to alternatives to formal
valuation approaches in support of environmental decisions. Although
many decry weaknesses in current analytic approaches, few alternatives are
proposed. MacLean discusses several reasons that a single analytic method
for making environmental decisions should not be applied universally.
This is principally because the necessity to involve symbolic elements in
comparisons and trade-offs makes such decisions very dependent on their
context. He concludes that it may be necessary to treat different values
differently and that situational specificity, not measurement difficulty, is
the fundamental problem in such comparisons. As Railton points out, an
approach that yields more information can increase accuracy yet at the
same time be less decisive.
Regardless of the valuation approach used, most participants seemed
to favor greater provision of information, even at the cost of decreased
decisiveness. Still, there is also a recognition of the need to systematically
differentiate analytical-approaches in light of the problems or values they
are meant to address.
Procedure, as used here, refers to the way the benefit-cost analyst
actually goes about systematically examining values. The choice of specific
methods, metrics, and measures will play an important role in provid-
ing understandable, believable information for decision makers and other
interested parties in protective regulation. For example, the concept of
willingness to pay (i.e., setting the value of a good or service according to
what people are willing to forgo in order to have that good or service) has
gained adherents and wider use in health and safety regulation in recent
years. When used in hypothetical markets (e.g., environmental decision
making), it is nevertheless a troublesome procedure to those who would
prefer to incorporate the notion of experience in some way, and who would
attempt to discover what people, with enough experience, would want. An-
other possibility would be to balance willingness to pay with a measure of
willingness to sell (how much people would have to receive in order to give
up the good or service), but such a concept also runs into measurement
problems in hypothetical markets.
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Questions are raised also about the advisability of relying on tort law
to determine the value of intangibles, especially because jury awards appear
to be highly skewed in liability cases. Another possibility is to search for
valuation methods and/or procedures that account for distributional effects,
for example, assigning premiums to consequences based on income. Other
questions include:
� Can balanced procedures, possibly including a combination of val-
uation techniques and nonquantitative factors, be found that would
meet the approval of Congress, OMB, and the courts?
� Is the use of a simple or single metric appropriate when there is
variation among individuals, not just in terms of how much of a
value is wanted or can be tolerated, but in terms of whether they
want that particular value at all?
� Are there ways to capture certain difficult conceptual problems,
such as intergenerational equity, in analytic terms?
In his keynote address in this volume, Russell describes the necessity
of making what he calls "cruel choices." In terms of the accommodation
sometimes needed to reach agreement about such choices, it may seem as
though valuation techniques make trade-offs too explicit. Fuzziness some-
times appears to have a positive function in that it allows the participants
to believe in the myth of successful joint accommodation. Russell argues,
however, that better information needs to be presented to the public, and
that our system is predicated on the legitimacy flowing from the support of
an informed citizenry. Presenting these trade-offs is a critical part of that
One procedure for simplifying, analyzing, and presenting trade-offs is
the transformation of a range of value observations into a single set of
common metrics. In analytic practice, this most often means the use of
monetary value as the common numerator or denominator, or both. Railton
discusses the difficulty of relying on an expert-determined metric when
issues of welfare are involved. Scientists, he says, have more knowledge
about natural phenomena and thus would be more reliable than the rest
of us in describing events. But the most reliable source for describing
people's welfare outcomes may be those individuals themselves. It may
be quite difficult to develop a metric that adequately captures individuals'
perceptions of their well-being. Nevertheless, in practice the regulatory
process does implicitly differentiate certain factors. Some have observed
that regulators are willing for society to expend more to protect individuals
who are involuntarily at risk than to reduce those risks borne by people
who are easily able to make choices regarding their own exposure. This
corresponds, by the way, to many people's preferences concerning a variepr
of risks.
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Similarly, the problem of comparing well-being across a significant
span of time (e.g., intergenerational comparisons of health) has provoked
considerable controversy about the acceptability of analytic procedures.
There are regulatory actions involving human health and life for which
there is a need to consider costs and benefits that might accrue in the
future. The traditional method- for comparing costs and benefits over
time-discounting" is predicated on the belief that costs borne by and
benefits accruing to individuals and society in the future should be adjusted,
or discounted, to make comparison with current expenditures or costs valid.
In the area of human health and safety, the sacredness of human life, as
MacLean and others characterize it, can make it difficult for policy makers
to agree with methods that seem to say that a life saved today should be
worth more than a life saved 50 years from now. On the other side of
the coin, if resources are limited, then some allocation must occur. Under
those circumstances, the hard question is: What is the best way to deal
with policy problems for which actions taken or not taken today will have
human health effects in the distant future?
In answer to these difficulties and questions, there is at present no
broad consensus among those interested in health and safetr regulation.
Some oppose discounting altogether, others would apply discounting to
costs but not benefits, and many would support the use of a very small
discount rate far below that often used in analyzing costs and benefits of
other government and private programs.
It is important to note that although (as previously discussed) benefit-
cost analysis may be only a small component of the entire regulatory
process, analytic procedures must be constructed to account for the major
characteristics of decision making. Harris raises the point that, whereas
the usual way of thinking about analysis is as an input to decision making,
decision making often effectively provides input for subsequent analysis,
and that the best strategy may be to treat the whole process as dynamic.
The factors that ought to be considered may be too complex to model
adequately using current analytic methods, and the only way of developing
appropriate information about outcomes may be to take action that can be
reversed if necessary.
The potential conflict between risk assessment and risk-control analysis
is often realized. In the schema of key components of regulatory agency
policy making presented in the introduction to this volume (see Figure 1),
risk assessments depend on assessments of data from epidemiologic, bio-
logical, and engineering studies. In turn, benefit-cost analysis depends on
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the application of valuation analyses to scientific assessments of risks associ-
ated with health and safety problems. Both risk assessment and risk-control
analyses inevitably involve simplification of processes and outcomes in or-
der to achieve clarity, meet regulatory deadlines, or because the underlying
data are insufficient. For example, scientists frequently complain that risk-
control analyses fail to capture adequately the factors they judge important
in scientific determinations, whereas analysts express disappointment at be-
ing prevented from achieving the ideal in risk assessment, accurately and
precisely portraying the risks of concern to policy makers and the public.
This, both claim, is because some factors can be quantified with confidence
while others remain matters of judgment. Scientists, if generalization may
be permitted, tend to distrust the policy analysts as oversimplifiers, and
the analysts are frustrated because the scientists cannot provide clear-cut
answers. Several practical questions are embedded in this caricature:
Is it possible to adequately reflect scientific judgment in analytic
valuation studies?
Can uncertainties or gaps in data be adequately incorporated?
Can conflicting models or interpretations be integrated into analytic
valuation studies?
How can values or policy judgments be integrated into analytic
valuation studies?
The ways different disciplines treat data, uncertainty, and judgment
may underlie these issues. For example; some natural scientists point out
that their colleagues are currently unable to come up with a method for
quantifying,- for example, the carcinogenicity of arsenic that would satisfy
analysts interested in determining the costs and benefits of policy options
for dealing with fugitive emissions associated with copper smelting. These
scientists were greatly disturbed that an enormous body of information,
mechanistic as well as epidemiologic, about the neurotoxicologic effects of
arsenic was ignored in the analysis of the substance as a human carcinogen
because it is judgmental and therefore difficult to express in quantitative
In his paper on information and regulation, Harris raises a related issue
having to do with the timing and sequence of new scientific information
as it becomes available for benefit-cost analysis. The question is knowing
when to act and when to wait for additional information that might lead
to a different action (including no action). The challenge shared by the
scientist, the analyst, and the decision maker is to construct procedures
for knowing when to recommend action, further information gathering, or
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Scientists, analysts, and decision makers, however, point out a number
of other issues that follow from an expansion of the concept of risk assess-
ment to include other factors. For example, some emphasize the distinction
between narrow technical uncertainty associated with any scientist's esti-
mate of risk and the broader structural uncertainty associated with differing
estimates of risk by various scientists. Most important, others argue that a
major reason why better scientific estimates of health and safety risks are
not available for example, estimates of the risks of noncarcinogens is
that decision makers and the public have not demanded them. Estimates
of the risks of carcinogens are relatively more available largely because
Congress, the courts, and the public have demanded that resources be
committed to producing those estimates.
Finally, there is a significant argument that risk information is often
inadequate because scientists are reluctant to make estimates in light of
limited data. This may be a major contributing factor in the conflict between
analysis and scientific risk assessment. Benefit-cost analysis is often driven
by the need to make a decision, while those who perform scientific risk
assessments are reluctant to guess when information is deemed inadequate.
It may be that scientists will always be distrustful of benefit-cost anal-
yses, which, in order to reduce, simplify, and meet tight schedules, rely
on summary characterizations rather than detailed information and accept
increased level of uncertainty and a reduced level of subtlety in under-
standing any single piece of the whole picture. There is a conflict, however,
between presenting complete information that is so detailed and complex
that only the experts can understand it, and simplifying presentations so
that those without the technical training can understand but lose the detail
and subtlety of the data. There does not appear to be a quick technical
or procedural fix that satisfies both scientific sophistication and simplicity.
But many would insist on making evidence, and especially the assumptions
underlying conclusions, regarding both risks and the valuation of risks as
open and explicit as possible. This would both encourage careful question-
ing of those assumptions and contribute to trust among scientists, analysts,
decision makers, and the public.
A widely shared expectation is that an individual or small group, usually
at the apex of the regulatory agency, holds responsibility for the decisions
and actions of that agency. Another shared expectation is that a policy
decision should be based on the relevant evidence. As indicated previously
in this discussion, the role of the agency analyst, as well as that of the agency
decision makers at the apex, is often limited by a context in which myriad
other voices, both outside and inside the agency, speak strongly. Moreover,
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these two expectations can conflict, particularly when it is difficult to gain
general agreement on the type and quality of evidence needed to support
a decision or when some important evidence is qualitative, implicit rather
than explicit, or missing altogether.
In this type of setting, agency political appointees, rather than analysts,
are responsible for factoring in a full range of considerations bearing on
a problem in effect, to act on behalf of the agency and the public by
applying an informal metric trading off the economic, political, ethical, and
etiological concerns raised in the foregoing papers and then to produce a
decision reflecting the results.
Within this framework, benefit-cost analysis can be used to provide
more explicit information about some (e.g., economic) priorities and trade-
offs as input to a decision, or it can be used to justify decisions already
reached. It is not intended, however, nor can it give equal emphasis to all
possible considerations bearing on a regulatory decision. Rather, analysis
traditionally focuses on a few factors the decision maker would like to make
explicit or those few for which quantitative values are available.
� What are the prerequisites for analysis that informs rather than
appears to supplant the prerogative of the decision maker?
There is some ambiguity regarding how much authority we wish to
grant to the process of providing information and the experts who provide
it. Both analysts and policy makers have experienced pressure to use
benefit-cost analysis to treat explicitly a broader range of relevant factors.
This includes direct statutory and administrative pressures for agencies
to broaden or to restrict their analytical coverage of values, including
economic, Biological, ethical, and administrative concerns. In addition,
strong criticisms and attacks on risk-control analysis by those mistrustful of
the assumptions, approaches, and results of valuation approaches may play
a role in stimulating theorists and practitioners to increasingly incorporate
and analyze as many issues and aspects bearing on a decision as possible.
The analyst, consequently, faces incentives to include a wider range
of considerations within the analytical framework, considerations that may
be difficult to treat formally (e.g., ethical and political variables). How-
ever, as the number of variables to be addressed increases and as their
character changes (e.g., inclusion of variables that are intangible or those
that raise questions of interpersonal comparisons), the analyst's challenge
is to prevent the problem under consideration, as well as the set of al-
ternative decisions, from becoming fuzzier and less well defined. Some
worry that, as the analyst incorporates an increasing number of factors, in-
cluding those factors not often treated quantitatively, a formal but limited
OCR for page 189
set of approaches and techniques is being substituted for the more infor-
mal approach provided by the politically and legally accountable decision
Three principal prerequisites are often cited as expectations for analytic
studies: knowledge, candor, and clarity. With regard to the first prereq-
uisite, most studies need three kinds of knowledge: technical knowledge,
economic knowledge, and legal knowledge. There is a lot of uncertainty
in all three areas, and whatever is presented to the decision maker must
reflect the degree of confidence in the knowledge in those three areas.
Second is candor. If the people doing the studies know that there
are some weaknesses or driving assumptions embedded within them, they
should frankly state that to the decision maker. At issue is the generation
of trust among those who experience the effects of regulation, among the
decision makers, and among valuation analysts. Much has been written in
recent years about the decline in trust in government and other institutions.
We need not repeat that discussion here, other than to point out that many
factors affect trust and that it is important for analysts to demonstrate
substantive competence, lack of bias, and openness in their work.
Finally, whatever is presented to the decision maker should be clear.
Studies may be clear to the leading workers in the field and their peers,
but not to decision makers.
The peer review system represents one possible way to promote ac-
curate knowledge, candor, and clarity in the use of benefit-cost analysis in
regulation. Review by h~owledgable experts can help reveal inaccuracies,
weaknesses, driving assumptions, and so on. But it may not be capable of
ferreting out the technical and other jargon that confuses nonexperts. Con-
ference participants pointed out that, although peer review is commonly
used to examine the methods, data, and results of risk assessment, formal
peer reviews of benefit-cost analysis are rarely undertaken within regulatory
Few would support applying a mechanical, strict benefit-cost rule to en-
vironmental regulation that is not tempered by judgment and consideration
of other factors. The major role of benefit-cost analysis in environmental
regulation should be as an organizing concept and as a way of helping the
decision maker think about the factors that need to be looked at. A process
involving peer review of benefit-cost analysis could assist decision makers
by malting assumptions clear and by noting the strengths and weaknesses
of results.
Railton's suggestion that benefit-cost approaches be treated as informa-
tion-yielding rather than decision-making devices has several implications
for the way scientific data and judgment could be integrated into decision
processes. Most important, it would suggest disaggregated information and
error bands or ranges rather than point estimates. It also suggests the
OCR for page 189
importance of presenting information about several alternatives. Harris,
moreover, points out that the best strategy may be to undertake actions
that are reversible before complete information is available, because imple-
menting regulatory or other control actions may be the only way to obtain
relevant information. Information generation may be an excellent role for
benefit-cost analysis in such a dynamic process.
The conference was intended to explore a set of philosophical, political,
informational, and administrative issues in the use of benefit-cost analysis
for environmental decision making. This broad scope yielded an equally
broad mix of ideas, approaches, and conclusions in both the papers and
the conference discussions. The ideas discussed at the conference and
presented in these papers may contain a few seeds that could bear fruit if
they are nurtured and developed. Certainly they include several concepts
and comments that speak directly to the practice of benefit-cost analysis.
Emerging from conference discussions is a strong sense that, at present,
the challenge in improving the application of benefit-cost analysis is to
design practical procedures and techniques that accommodate (1) consid-
erable situational variation; (2) the fairly limited role played by formal
risk-control analysis in the full process of identifying, regulating, and en-
forcing solutions to health and safety problems; and (3) the tendency for
both critics and supporters of analysis to-overemphasize its influence in the
regulatory process.
The problems of health and safety regulation are far from standardized.
Similarly, benefit-cost analysis is really a family of related techniques and
approaches, only a few of which have been systematically evaluated for
their application to specific topical and conceptual issues in health and
safety regulation.
Consequently, the application of benefit-cost analysis must be sup-
ported by better systematic distinctions or situational conditions that reflect
accurately key variations among regulatory responsibilities and problems
facing health and safety decision makers. For example, can we systemat-
ically distinguish among situations involving potential loss of life, sickness
and injury only, or both?
Once a set of systematic distinctions has been drawn, it would then be
important to identify attributes of benefit-cost analysis techniques appro-
priate to those situational conditions. At the simplest level, for example,
are there some problems for which the use of formal analytical techniques
are not currently appropriate? At another level, is it appropriate to use
discounting of future costs and benefits when human life is not at stake?
OCR for page 189
Finally, it is important to formulate processes for encouraging the
development, within the various federal regulatory arenas, of agreement on
systematic scientific distinctions, techniques, and approaches to valuation
of risks, costs, and benefits.
Taking account of the fact that some conference participants generally
support the use of formal analysis whereas others generally oppose its use,
the committee was nevertheless able to reach the following conclusions.
1. Among both those who would general) support the use of benept-cost
analysis and those who would oppose its current use, there is a common
recognition of genuine moral and ethical dilemmas underwing evahtaiion of
the costs and benefits of programs to regulate health and safer nsks.
a. Current approaches to characterizing and valuing risks cannot accom-
modate with validity the ~11 range of factors that decision makers are asked
to take into account, particularly those drawing comparisons across time.
Statutes and administrative orders requiring major regulatory decisions to
be based on least cost/most benefit analyses have, according to one view,
stimulated a new emphasis on cost reductions in regulatory decision mak-
ing. According to another view, such requirements fail to acknowledge that
the general approach to benefit-cost analysis is not developed well enough
to fully account for important factors, such as public opinion, quality of life,
and other social, psychological, and institutional issues important in any
program of regulation. Similarly, considerable disagreement exists about
the ability of risk-control approaches to adequately consider future gener-
ations with current techniques for discounting. Supporters have proposed
careful analysis of long-term impacts of regulatory policies and the use of
nonmonetary measures, such as lives saved/deaths prevented, in calculating
impacts. Critics are concerned that equity cannot be discerned and com-
pared across time in ways that can be formally measured. This suggests a
need for further development in the areas of temporal and nonquantitative
factors as a contribution to improvement in benefit-cost analysis.
b. Serious concerns enlist regarding the appropriateness of formalizing
approaches to issues such as intertemporal equip. At the heart of this
recognition is the belief that there is an irreducible tension between a
desire to reduce value considerations in regulation to a single metric and a
desire for symbolic action. This conflict emerges most clearly with respect
to issues involving human life (preventing deaths/saving lives) in regulatory
decision making. There is a concern that, even if benefit-cost analysis
approaches and techniques could be developed to account systematically
for a broader range of issues on a broader range of regulatory topics, it
may be morally or ethically incorrect to place values such as human life
next to other economic factors.
OCR for page 189
2. Formal benefit-cost amass of health and safety risk in regulation Is
at present on) a limited and incomplete part of a large, complex anemic and
dec~sion-making process. This process largely determines the weight to be
given to benefit-cost analysis in policy making, and it sets limits on what
can and cannot be accomplished with formal evaluation of risks, costs,
and benefits. For example, the character of statutes, regulations, court
decisions, and enforcement can all constrain the assumptions, methods,
and data that can be used in a formal analysis. And, once completed, the
scientific quality of the analysis is only one factor influencing reactions to
the analytical results.
3. There are often misperceptions regarding the influence of benefi~-
cost analysis in decision making. Critics often express the need to curb
the power of benefit-cost analysis in decision making, while supporters
would increase its influence. There are at least two general reasons why
this polarization and possible overemphasis may occur. First, the current
adversarial character of regulation for health and safety issues encourages
some to seek ways to challenge (or defend) outcomes on whatever grounds
may prove successful. Under these circumstances, analysis can become a
target or a pawn of advocates. Second, there may be standards and/or goals
set for analysis that it cannot in all instances meet. In a policy process
in which analysis seems to offer ways of treating difficult issues, there is
a tendency to transform political disputes into scientific or analytical ones
and then to expect the analytical process to substitute for the political
process. The consequence is to expect benefit-cost analysis to be able to
accommodate a wide range of important factors bearing on a problem
and then to be critical when it is more difficult to treat formally some
factors than others. The result can be to politicize benefit-cost analysis and
polarize positions (e.g., those who would increase the use of analysis and
those who would eliminate it in favor of absolute standards, such as the
Delaney Amendment and the Clean Air Act).
4. We believe that, among agency decision makers, the courts, Congress,
and analysts, there is no consensus regarding the use of a specific set of
analytical techniques for a specific purpose. At present there are a range of
techniques available for use in benefit-cost analysis of morbidity, mortality,
and other health and safety ejects. There is agreement among many
practitioners and scholars regarding the importance of considering a wide
range of costs and benefits of alternative policies; there are also, in many
instances, a number of technical procedures and methods that analysts can
use to estimate those costs and benefits. But there is little agreement on
decision rules an agency might use in choosing one procedure or method
over another in specific cases. In the analysis of programs to prevent
deaths- the example is regulation to restrict fugitive arsenic emissions from
copper ore smelting- an agency analyst might choose techniques based on
OCR for page 189
willingness-to-pay. It is well known that this approach emphasizes different
types of costs than would other approaches. For example, techniques based
on willingness-to-pay will emphasize expressed preferences, while those
based on human capital models emphasize forgone earnings. Although
there is considerable debate within some agencies and among some analysts
as to the appropriateness of specific techniques for valuing lives, there is a
need to evaluate both the types of regulatory problems and the attributes
and implications of techniques for benefit-cost analysis, in order to develop
a more systematic basis for deciding when to apply which technique.
Based on these conclusions, the steering committee makes three rec-
ommendations for improving the use of benefit-cost analysis in health and
safety regulation:
1. Benefit-cost analysis should be thought of as a set of information-
gathering and organizing tools that can be used to support decision making
rather than as a decision-making mechanism itself. Beating the approach
in this way has several implications for the way it is applied. It empha-
sizes disaggregated information and range rather than point estimates. It
encourages development of information about several alternatives rather
than a single policy. It also encourages viewing both analysis and decision
making as dynamic rather than static processes.
2. There is a need to more systematically match analytic methods and
techniques to Apes of health and safety problems encountered in the regulatory
process. Researchers and analysts recognize that techniques associated
with benefit-cost analysis emphasize quantifiable factors, especially those
that can be characterized in monetary terms. In addition, benefit-cost
analysis is most applicable to those health and safety problems or elements
of problems in which externalities are relatively limited and opportunity
costs are relatively clear. For example, the economic impacts of closing
a plant may be easier to characterize succinctly than its effects on the
quality of life in the surrounding community. This implies (a) the need
to improve benefit-cost analysis so that a more complete range of impacts
and factors can be considered systematically and (b) the need to identify
systematically sets or types of problems according to their susceptibility to
benefit~ost analysis. Therefore, blanket determination of whether a single
analytic approach should be taken to all regulators decisions does not seem
appropriate at this time.
3. Regulatory agencies should consider expanding the use offormal peer
review mechanisms in the area of benefit-cost analysis for health and safer
decisions. The steering committee believes that benefit-cost analysis should
be subject to systematic, consistent, formal peer review, which can be
used to assess appropriateness of assumptions, techniques, and approaches;
limitations of data and methods; and the formal or informal treatment
OCR for page 189
of moral and ethical concerns. Traditionally, the Office of Management
and Budget has been asked to assess major regulatory benefit-cost analyses
as part of its mission to encourage greater use and improved quality
in analysis, but it is not appropriate to ask OMB to devote its limited
resources to accomplish a full range of review that is necessary for a
complicated valuation. OMB could be asked to respond to plans for
expanding peer review for valuation analyses.- Such an expansion would
complement existing agency peer reviews for scientific risk assessment prior
to agency decision making.


text:
Dr. Felix Zwiebel, MD
Neurology, Minneapolis Clinic Of Neurology
- 3400 W 66th St Ste 150
Minneapolis, MN 55435 - 1 Office Location
- (952) 920-7200
Dr. Felix Zwiebel graduated from the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine in 1971. He works in Minneapolis, MN and specializes in Neurology. Dr. Zwiebel is affiliated with Mercy Hospital and Fairview Southdale Hospital. He speaks English and Russian.
Gender: Male
Years in Practice: 44 Years
Languages Spoken: English, Russian
Medical School: Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine
Graduation Date: 1971
Hospital Affiliations: Mercy Hospital, Fairview Southdale Hospital
Specialties: Neurology

subset: commoncrawl


text:
How to get India back on track
A playbook for how Indian policymakers can return the country to a path of high and sustained economic growth.
Modi's engagement with the United States is driven fundamentally by considerations about India's national interests, just as Obama's outreach to Modi was driven by his judgement about India's importance for American interests in Asia.
The upcoming summit could be the moment when India and the United States find the necessary political will to turn opportunities that have been at hand for years into tangible agreements.
For the foreseeable future, Washington must be reconciled to the fact that the success of the bilateral relationship will require asymmetrical American contributions to India.
Closing in on the first 100 days in office, Federica Mogherini embarked on her trip to the United States as the EU's top diplomat. Her visit was an uneasy one due to one topic: Russia.
U.S.-India relations have not meandered because of a lack of ideas; they've ebbed and flowed thanks to over-hyped pledges followed by half-baked implementation.
If Japan is to contribute positively to maintaining Burmese progress in political reform, it must closely examine several core tenets of its engagement-based approach toward Burma.
The Davos Alpine retreat is both absurd and worthy-but it cannot achieve its goals as long as it is primarily a guy thing.
Barack Obama's return to India as the first U.S. president invited to India's Republic Day celebrations promises to rejuvenate the bilateral relationship.
The projected growth in the use of nuclear power worldwide creates new opportunities for deepening and expanding existing U.S.-South Korean collaboration to promote the civil uses of nuclear energy in third countries. This expansion can build on the cooperation that is already taking place.
The narrow technical disagreements stalling the renegotiation of the U.S.–South Korea nuclear cooperation agreement mask a far larger and more complicated set of issues and interests that challenge both the future of bilateral nuclear cooperation and the nonproliferation regime.
Chinese economic growth will continue to slow. Although many economic analyses are based on the success of economic reforms, near-term growth is more accurately forecast in terms of balance sheet constraints.
U.S. President Barack Obama's return to India in January 2015 carries the hope that Washington and New Delhi may succeed in placing their cooperation on firmer foundations.
Governmental corruption often sparks outrage and creates support for dangerous ideologies.
Barack Obama's participation in India's Republic Day celebration is rich in symbolism. It is also a major opportunity to reboot the U.S.-India relationship and set ambitious new goals for the partnership.
As Modi and Obama expand the scope of the India-U.S. partnership, they have a rare opportunity to strengthen bilateral engagement on regional issues in the subcontinent, including the stability of Pakistan.
More than four months after the start of an international airstrikes campaign against the Islamic State, the organization continues to expand—going beyond the geographical areas of Syria and Iraq.
The Middle East is vital to China's present and future energy interests, but the region's thorny geopolitics make Chinese state-owned firms hesitant to make large investments there.
The outcome of Greece's January 25 election will be pivotal for the country. The way Europe's political elites respond will have a profound impact on the future of the EU, too.
Corruption is a cause—not a result—of global instability.
The outcome of Greece's election and the country's potential exit from the eurozone will have profound implications for Europe's future prospects.
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text:
Etta Gilmore, 91 - November 07, 2007
Services were held on Monday, Nov. 5, at Morell Funeral Home at Larned, KS. Burial took place at Farmington Cemetery at Macksville.
Gilmore was born on June 24, 1916, near Macksville, the daughter of Albert and Myrtle Evans Wilson.
On June 10, 1933, she was united in marriage to C.J. "Jack" Ward at Macksville. He died July 19, 1978.
On April 4, 1986, she married Glen Gilmore at Larned. He died June 29, 2001.
She was a resident of Larned from 1969 until 2002, when she moved to Gothenburg to be with family.
Gilmore was a retired food service worker at the Larned State Hospital.
She was a member of the Ft. Larned Lions Club, Good Sam's and the Welcome Inn Seniors, all of Larned.
Gilmore was an avid bowler and enjoyed the sport, according to family members.
She was preceded in death by: two infant sons—Robert and Ronald; a brother, James Wilson; seven sisters—Eula Dibble, Hazel, Ella Wilson, Velma Wilkerson, Ethel Kell, Bertha White and Laura Love.
Survivors include: two sons—Dwayne Ward of Boise, ID, and Wesley Ward of Louisville, CO; three daughters—Marietta Miller and Carol Cheetsos, both of Gothenburg, and Donna Sever of Modesto, CA; 14 grandchildren, 11 step-grandchildren, 27 great-grandchildren and two great- great-grandchildren.
Memorials are suggested to the Welcome Inn Senior Center, in care of Morell Funeral Home, P.O. Box 124, Larned, KS, 67550-0124.
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text:
Posigraf printers: Trees
Our paper* is to preserve the environment.
(*A Brazilian expression meaning "job")
Advertising Agency: MarketData Direct & Digital, Curitiba, Brazil
Creative Director: Cristhian Stange
Art Director: Vinicius Dissenha Claudino
Copywriter: Mariana Sanchez
Illustrator: Yolanda Fumika Shimizu
Released: October 2008
6 comments
jorge00Mar 09, 2009 - 11:58
and by that you're wasting a lot of material and wood doing these little trees, to encourage environmental awareness?
very smart...
BOOBJOB LOOBCANNONMar 09, 2009 - 12:54
It should have been done with that paper which has seeds in and grows. Otherwise, like jorge00 says its missing the point.
We're going to need more lube.
Jaap GrollemanMar 09, 2009 - 20:02
how can paper preserve the envoriment indeed. tree's can, not paper, paper is dead tree


text:
Designed to provide customers with a wellness resource, ShopRite's retail dietitian program offers free assistance with shopping or meal planning as well as small group and one-on-one counseling. ShopRite of Hoboken also hosts a LiveRight calendar of events for people of all ages. Heart Month events include a friendly fats demonstration and information session, toddler gourmet session and heart-healthy cooking classes.
Based in Mahwah, N.J., Inserra Supermarkets is one of the largest supermarket chains in the metropolitan area. Established in 1954 by Patsy Inserra as a privately held business, Inserra Supermarkets remains true to its roots as a family-owned grocery chain committed to serving families and children. In 1980, under the entrepreneurial guidance of the late Lawrence Inserra, Sr., the company grew to eight stores and experienced a banner year in 1981, growing to 14 stores.
Today, the company owns and operates 22 ShopRite supermarkets located in Bayonne, Columbia Park, Emerson, Fair Lawn, Hackensack, Hillsdale, Hoboken, Jersey City, Lodi, Lyndhurst, New Milford, Northvale, Palisades Park, Passaic, Ramsey, Wayne and West Milford in New Jersey and in Rockland County, N.Y., in Garnerville, New City, Stony Point, Tallman and West Nyack.
For information about upcoming ShopRite of Hoboken classes, recipe demonstrations, pantry makeover seminars and in-store aisle tours, call (201) 819-4972 or email Jenna.Stock@


text:
Dr. Kermit D. Hoyme, MD
Urological Surgery, Associated Urological Specialists
- 10400 Southwest Hwy
Chicago Ridge, IL 60415 - 2 Office Locations
- (708) 423-8706
Dr. Kermit D. Hoyme graduated from the University of Illinois, Chicago College of Medicine in 1968. He works in Chicago Ridge, IL and 1 other location and specializes in Urological Surgery. Dr. Hoyme is affiliated with Advocate South Suburban Hospital, Advocate Christ Medical Center and Palos Community Hospital. He speaks Arabic, English and Spanish.
Gender: Male
Years in Practice: 47 Years
Languages Spoken: Arabic, English, Spanish
Medical School: University of Illinois, Chicago College of Medicine
Graduation Date: 1968
Hospital Affiliations: Advocate South Suburban Hospital, Advocate Christ Medical Center, Palos Community Hospital
Specialties: Urological Surgery
*This physician has multiple office locations. See Appointments for details.


text:
You're leaving Wedding Paper Divas to see the Deal of the Day at our parent site, Tiny Prints.
You won't be able to dismiss this by usual means (escape or click button), but you can close it programatically based on user choices or actions.
"I ordered bridal shower invites but wanted to change the format to saywedding shower invites because I am including the groom on th invite. The team got back to me within one business day for two separate changes I made. They were very prompt and did everything exactly as I asked. On top of that the product is great quality and I'm very pleased. Would definitely recommend them and would use them again myself!"
"This card is beautiful. We opted for a special trim and I am so happy with the results. The colors are very close to the wedding colors also (pink and grey). The paper is of very high quality and I liked how the name of the bride stands out."
"Color was perfect. Card paper is great quality. Only issue was there wasn't matching thank you cards. But found cards that were just as good a match."
"I love this invitation. I only wish the words "Bridal Shower" and my daughter's name were a little darker. Overall, I am very pleased with the product and the delivery. I would definitely order from this site again and recommend it to family and friends."
"When I received the bridal shower invitation that I ordered, I was pleased to see it was better than I had expected! The invitations were exactly as the proof showed, however, the paper was heavier than I thought it would be, which was a pleasant surprise! I am not a first time customer and I will continue to order custom invitations and other things in the future. I was extremely satisfied!"


text:
Reviews written by registered user
| 6196 reviews in total |
This low-budget movie was released in 1961 and featured no actors
you've ever heard of. Well maybe one - Tor Johnson, who was a regular
in Ed Wood's cheapie sci-fi flicks. He was the "guest star," which also
tells you how bad this was. Most of the dialog is in the form of
narration and it is so corny it makes you wince. The "score" is ultra
dramatic throughout the film and gets to be laughable after awhile.
Some IMDb reviewers called it the longest hour of film ever. Many said
it was "the worst film ever made." Ha ha. I don't know about that, but
it was terrible - some of the worst production values ever. The actors
must have been so bad that they - get this - they never showed them
speaking. Their backs were always turned. This dawned on me about 45
minutes in, so I doubt the voices were even those of the actors. Since
it was filmed outdoors, they probably didn't have the money to have it
miked outdoors.
The "beast" is just a huge fat guy (Johnson) with some goo pasted to
his face. He throws some rocks and waves a stick and tries to chase
some kids but can't movie very well. That's about it. Oh.....I forgot:
he strangles people, too. The strangulations are the funniest (and
worst acting) parts of the film. You actually will scoff and laugh!
However, despite a gazillion holes in this story start-to-finish, I
found it so bad it was somewhat entertaining.... so it has some (very
little) value!
This is a decent sci-fi flick from the Fifties ('57). It's entirely
watchable, in that it had enough varied action to keep one's interest
and didn't overdo any sappy romance angle, although there was one
This is no Jurassic Park when it comes to showing dinosaurs but, hey,
the film was made over 55 years ago and special-effects were primitive
back then. They're still not bad....in fact, good for that period.
That, and this was most likely a low-budget film. It also may be a
no-name cast for many readers here although those who grew up in the
'50s might remember Jock Mahoney from the western"Yancy Derringer."
Still, the acting was fine, the story acceptable and, as mentioned, it
moved well with a couple of surprising twists. I liked the fog-shrouded
lost-world atmosphere and I was glad to see this in a widescreen DVD
format with a good transfer.
If you're a fan of this genre, or hokey '50s sci-fi films, this is a
movie to check out.
Frankenweenie was a pleasant surprise: a very entertaining film that
was fun for a number of reasons. The story featured drama, comedy,
suspense, action and even a little romance.....it had everything. Plus,
it had a terrific black-and-white palette. The stop-motion animated
movie looks gorgeous.
Anyone who is familiar with the original Frankenstein film and Bride of
Frankenstein had to get laughs out of the references to those 1930s
classics. I know I did, laughing out loud several times. There also
were touches in here of other pretty famous movies such as Godzilla,
Gremlins, Gremlins 2, The Mummy and probably a couple of others that
don't immediately come to mind.
All of that is involved in this story about a young "Victor
Frankenstein," whose beloved dog "Sparky" is killed and then brought
back to life by the young kid scientist (who went on to bigger things,
as you know.) In this story, it's fairly mild until a bunch of weird
schoolmates want to cash in on Victor's secret for re-animation. Then
it gets tense/dark......probably a little too much for young viewers,
so parents beware. However, for teens and up - particularly adult film
buffs - this is a fun flick, start-to-finish.
1 out of 1 people found the following review useful:
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
GOOD - Gorgeous photography, beautiful small town and fall
foliage.....likable lead character in young boy "Timothy," played
winsomely by CJ Adams. For a kid with little acting experience, he's
very good. The story is somewhat interesting and hooks you in early,
making you care what happens to that boy. However, when it's all said
and done, you just know that this film could have been so much more,
because the premise is a good one. Nice, sweet ending in which Disney
is always good at doing, leaves one with a nice feeling but it doesn't
save the film.
BAD - The typical goofy Disney parents. Hollywood can't quite get
"normal people," because those never seem to exist in movies. In this
case, they are wacky and the two actors - Jennifer Garner and Joel
Edgerton - both overact to the point of nausea at times. Timothy's
girlfriend, "Jon." played by pretty Odeya Rush, is in the same grade as
Timothy? She is obviously two or three years older. While he is about
11-12, she has the face and body of a 15-16-year-old. Most of the
adults are all cartoon-like characters and unlikeable, except for
"Uncle Bub" and his wife, "Aunt Mel."
Speaking of Uncle Bub, it was good to see character actor M. Emmet
Walsh again. The man's getting up there in age but always fascinating
to watch in his minor roles.
This film got better and better and went along. By the midway point, I
thought it was okay, but nothing special, but by the end it turned out
to be an entertaining film overall. In another words: a strong second
Make no mistake: this is a kids movie. However, there are things an
adult can enjoy. While I found very few laugh-out-loud things, it still
kept a smile on my face for a decent part of it.....and the colors were
astounding. Please see this on Blu-Ray, if you have the opportunity. I
don't have a 3-D player so I can't comment on that aspect. Bet it looks
Overall, a fun film that I'd watch more than once.
I enjoyed this the first time but on the second, I really appreciated
this film and am very glad it won the awards it did. What superb
acting, direction and cinematography. What an interesting - and
different - story.
I know Colin Firth won the "Best Actor" Oscar but I just loved Geoffrey
Rush in here as the speech therapist, "Lionel Logue." He was riveting,
throughout the movie (not that Firth wasn't great as King George VI).
Helen Bonham-Carter was very good, too, in an understated role as the
king's wife, the famous Queen Elizabeth.
Kudos to Director Tom Hooper and Director Of Photography Danny Cohen.
They made the picture just stunning to view.
Don't let the storyline fool you. Yes, it's about a king who had a
stuttering problem and the man who helped him. Sounds boring, but it
isn't. It's well worth your time.
Sequels are supposed to get weaker and weaker but I have found just the
opposite with Men In Black. I think they've gotten better with each
film.....at least, entertainment-wise. MIB3 is simply the funniest of
the lot and has a nice little unexpected sentimental ending.
Good stuff.
If you simply want a fun 100-or-so minutes of escapism with a bunch of
laughs and outrageous scenes, this movie will deliver that.
A highlight to me was the performance of Josh Brolin, playing a young
"Agent K." Man, did he have Tommy Lee Jones' character down pat -
voice, inflection, mannerisms.....just incredible. Kudos to Brolin.
Yes, the movie is over 75 years old and dated....but the story is
excellent and powerful..... and one that anyone can enjoy in any era.
"If it's good in the past, it's still good," as Sly & The Family Stone
commented at 1969's famous Woodstock concert.
To me, the biggest attraction of the film is the involving story. From
early on, you really care about "Marcus" (Preston Foster) and then his
adopted son "Flavius" (DavidHolt/John Wood). Foster is good in his lead
role and very convincing as the hard-luck and bitter man who turns into
a gladiator and then rich entrepreneur, so to speak. As hard a man as
he is, he has a really soft spot for his family and will do anything
for them (either wife or kids, depending on where you are in the
All the characters are interesting. The only one who was a little
bizarre to me was Basil Rathbone's "Pontius Pilate." I've never seen
Pilate portrayed in such a sympathetic, friendly light as he was here,
as Marcus's boss and then friend. Now Pilate may not have been the
totally evil man many people perceive him to be, but he's no "good
guy," that's for sure, and yet he was portrayed as such.
Regardless, the film is a good one with a dramatic ending and good
special-effects for the mid 1930s. The most important "special effect,"
though, was not the eruption of Mount Vesuvius but the transformation
of "Marcus's' hard heart. This was truly a man who "saw the light" near
the end of his life, thanks to one Man.
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
Well, if you liked the original Taken, and if it is suspense and action
you crave, look no further than this sequel. You should wind up very
Liam Neeson plays the same role in a similar scenario. Instead of going
to France to rescue his daughter "Bryan Mills" now is in Turkey on
business and winds up attempting to rescue his ex-wife and keep his
daughter safe at the same time. They joined him for a little R&R after
things got tense at home. They were in for a surprise. The Romanian
family of all the people "Mills" killed in the first film are out for
revenge.They have waited six years and when they hear that Mills is in
nearby Istanbul, they go after he and his family.
The length of this movie just about right, An hour-and-a-half - with
the last hour almost non-stop action, is fine. Any more than that would
have been too much. It would have been overkill, you could say.
Actually, it's overkill already. This is escapist fare with little
credibility (Neeson kills an unknown slew of foes while none shoots
him, his daughter changes quickly from someone who can't pass her
driving exam to a professional stunt car driver in unfamiliar and
crowded streets, etc.).
Nonetheless, it's fun to watch and the 90 minutes go by fast.
2 out of 2 people found the following review useful:
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
I'm so sorry this begins the final year of this entertaining program.
As always, this opening episode deals with the story that ended the
previous year. In this case, Natalie is locked in a car's trunk while
the car speeds off a pier into the ocean. Nearby Horatio has been shot
in the chest/abdomen area and is lying on the pier.
Of course, everyone knows our heroes aren't going to die, so the
question is how they survived and how they capture the people
responsible. In this story, there are two guys to go after.
In real life, there is no way "H" could do the things he does despite a
serious injury, but - hey - it's all make-believe solely for dramatic
purposes....and it's fun to watch.
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Send Christian a message explaining your needs and you will receive a response by email. Have you already emailed Christian or another tutor? If so, you have an account! Sign in now
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Hi! My name is Christian, and I'm a PhD student in philosophy at the University of Maryland. I've been tutoring a wide range of students for about the last four years, primarily in two major groups: first, college students in undergraduate- and graduate-level logic courses, and second, middle and high school students in general courses including math, English, history and science. In addition, I've been coaching high school debate since graduating high school, and consequently have a lot of experience working with kids in the 7th-12th grade range on skills including research, writing and public speaking. In the time I've been coaching, my students have won two national championships in Lincoln-Douglas debate, for what that's worth.
There are a few niche subjects that are special areas of interest for me, and that I would be thrilled to get the chance to tutor. Those include (of course) logic and philosophy, but also astronomy, ancient, medieval and American history, and paleoanthropology/human evolution. But I also just enjoy the process of teaching, especially in one-on-one or small-group contexts with motivated students, so I'm happy to tutor any subject for which I'm qualified. My formal background is strongest in math and history, but I have a solid general grounding in other subjects as well, and have tutored before in English, the sciences, and other topic at the middle and high school levels. I also have some, albeit limited, experience working with special needs students, and am happy to do that as well.
References are available on request, and depending on the subject area you're interested in, I can probably provide references specific to that subject. My default rate is $40 per hour, but that's negotiable based on circumstances. Feel free to get in touch with me if you have any questions!
Christian is a great tutor. He is very patient, and spends the extra time to figure out ways to help make sure you get a better understanding of the subject. I would recommend Christian to anyone who is looking for an outstanding tutor.
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I have coached high school debate, and been involved to a lesser extent with high school speech competition, since graduating high school six years ago. I participated in both activities as well, placing 7th at the National Forensics League national tournament in Lincoln-Douglas debate as a senior and winning a national competition that involved both a written essay and a public debate about topics in philosophy (the 2005 Kids' Philosophy Slam). As a coach, I have had two students ranked number one in the country for high school Lincoln-Douglas debate, and my students have won national championships at both the high school and middle school level. I am currently the head debate coach at Hopkins High School, and work for two national summer institutes as an instructor and lecturer.
Great Tutor — Christian is a great tutor. He is very patient, and spends the extra time to figure out ways to help make sure you get a better understanding of the subject. I would recommend Christian to anyone who is looking for an outstanding tutor. ...
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Kettlebell Exercises For Weight Loss
More Kettlebell, Please! 9 Calorie-Torching Exercises
Kettlebell fans love the heavy, round-shaped weights for a reason — kettlebell exercises combine cardio and strength training for a time-saving calorie burn. The amount of calories you can burn using kettlebells can be amazingly high: a study by the American Council on Exercise found that the average person burns 400 calories in 20 minutes when doing kettlebell exercises. More research has found that regularly exercising with kettlebells significantly reduces back, neck, and shoulder pain by strengthening core and upper body muscles.
Does all that convince you to add more kettlebell to your life? Read on for tips on choosing the right kettlebell and a few calorie-torching exercises to try.
Source: Thinkstock
Strength Training
Beginner Fitness Tips
I agree with everyone's comments on the swing. I would like to add though that you should not inhale on the concentric. You always exhale on the concentric phase. "Exhale-Explode" is the saying. Inhaling during a powerful movement is not beneficial and could be harmful.
there are many ways to do a swing w the kettlebell, and you can incorporate a squat into it. Theres just way too many different opinions on kettlebell training to be sure what the "right" way is.
It is SO DANGEROUS to squat when doing a kettlebell swing! You can seriously injure your back. Please update this information!
The girl doing the kettlebell swing is doing it improperly. Plus you do not squat to swing you hinge to swing. I would update this information a little :)
Kettlebell swing girl is doing it wrong. A swing is not a squat + extended position should be fully upright as the hips are used to propel the weight forward.
- Indulge on game day without the guilt with these healthy snacks — Greatist
- The squat variation that could finally give you your dream butt — Women's Health
- 7 essential tips for running your first race — Health
- 22 healthy lunch ideas to keep your resolutions on track — Cooking Light
- 6 healthy and delicious Winter smoothies to brighten your morning — Real Simple
- The mental trick to make exercise more comfortable — Shape
- How to incorporate this new antioxidant-packed health trend into your diet — Self


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July 1, 2012
By Rod Machado
I knew my article in the April 2012 issue of AOPA Pilot ( "License to Learn: In Defense of Stick-and-Rudder Training") was a hot topic, but I didn't know how sizzling it was until the letters rolled in. Every letter I received—except one—supported emphasizing stick-and-rudder basics during primary flight training.
The one letter disagreeing with me came from a retired FAA manager involved with the newer, higher-order training strategies. He said, "As for training pilots to be 'mini airline pilots,' that's probably a good thing to do if they fly a Cirrus or similar airplane." That's a difficult position to support when you consider that Cirrus accident data over the past year suggests that 46 percent of accidents in visual conditions were primarily rooted in poor stick-and-rudder skills.
I'm perplexed by the fact that there are a number of prominent individuals who support the integration of airline training strategies into presolo curriculums at a time when many students can barely keep an airplane in straight-and-level flight. It's instructive to see what highly experienced instructors and examiners have to say about the need to emphasize stick-and-rudder training over the FAA's higher-order training strategies.
One multi-thousand-hour flight instructor wrote, "I'm 55 years old with a CFII. The effects of scenario-based training, as opposed to actual flight instruction—landing the airplane in a crosswind, not visualizing it; spinning, not visualizing it; stalling, not visualizing it—are making students less-capable pilots."
Another high-time instructor with a doctorate in aviation science advocated teaching basic airmanship skills during primary flight training. He said, "I train my students that way from the beginning, including training in spin recognition, avoidance, and recovery procedures, and flight without reference to any instruments in the cockpit. Although these are not normal procedures, the skills developed in learning to fly with one's head out the window and being able to recognize an impending stall will serve my students well in the future."
The good doctor suggests that there are two types of pilots. "There are stick-and-rudder pilots who can fly by looking outside the cockpit using their visual, tactile, and kinematic senses. Then there are panel pilots, who rely on instrument indications to fly their airplanes. There's no doubt in my mind who makes the safer pilot."
A retired airline pilot with a great deal of instructional experience had this to say about the FAA's higher order training strategies for GA pilots: "My initial reaction was that, as an overview, FITS [FAA Industry Training Standards] appeared to be an attempt to reconcile what was being done (in my opinion, overdone) in air carrier simulator sessions with the basic training environment. The assumption appeared to be that the GA community had a sufficiently matured skill set and was regularly assessing and refining it. The reality, I fear, is something else. Just how much does the average private pilot fly in a year? I'd bet that an active pilot is lucky to fly 100 hours a year. Consider that an average air carrier pilot probably flies somewhere between 650 and 800 hours, 24/7, 365 days per year. The number of competency checks is also substantially in excess of the flight review standard we rely on in GA. It was fairly difficult to get really rusty flying the line. That said, some of the younger crewmembers rarely spent much time manipulating the controls. The FMC/FMS systems are wonderful devices for denigrating basic skill sets. Coupled with line-oriented flight training, scenario-heavy training sessions, the overall stick-and-rudder skill set is also suffering at the air carrier level."
The captain makes my point that we're using airline-type training methods for student pilots long before those students have acquired the basic skill set upon which the same airline training strategies are based. If this were even close to being a good idea, we'd surely see fewer stick-and-rudder-type accidents in technically advanced aircraft than in non-technically advanced aircraft. Unfortunately, we don't.
Several pilot examiners chimed in, with one fellow who said, "After 55 years as a pilot, 47 years as an active CFI and pilot examiner, I see pilots who constantly chase the airspeed on final approach, who can't take off or land in a crosswind, can't hold a heading using...visual references, [and] can't keep the wings level without an attitude indicator. The average private or commercial pilot applicant seems to think the rudder pedals are there to rest their feet on, except when taxiing."
Finally, one lady recalled her experience flying with pilots trained in World War II—a time when you had to have stick-and-rudder skills to survive. She said, "I started teaching in 1958 and checked out several World War II-trained pilots and they were, hands down, the best stick-and-rudder guys I ever flew with!"
Visit the author's blog.
Topics Flight Training, Pilot Training and Certification, Aviation Industry, Advanced Training, Learn to Fly, Pilot Youth and Introductory, CFI, Pilots
Cessna Aircraft staff gathered around the first production Citation Latitude to celebrate another step toward certification of an aircraft important to the firm's future.
New draft airman certification standards are available for review on the FAA's website. In addition to releasing the draft standards, the FAA also announced that it would be deleting questions from the private pilot airplane knowledge test, effective Feb. 9.
A California charter school has teamed up with a glider school to give students a potentially life-changing opportunity.


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Name | Updated | Category | Author | Stage | |
Name | Updated | Category | Author | Stage | |
Eagle Eye |
Mar 22, 2014 | ElectronGuigui | Release | ||
Know what happens on your server ! EagleEye is a very simple and lightweight plugin who logs the events which happen on the server. It puts this infos in text files so you can find out what happened just by clicking on a file. These things are written in log files, with the date they have been made: when a player connect/disconnect/is kicked (display player IP and world) when a player speak in the chat (display the message and if this message whas modified or created by a plugin or by the... |


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This Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) page is a work in progress. Ideally it will contains useful information related to the various themes and plugins that call this their home.
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Tag: Update
Pinup Meets Grunge Updated to Version 2.2Mostly minor items were addressed but the latest review of Pinup Meets Grunge should now better meet the WordPress Theme Review Requirements and Recommendations even if it still remains under suspension for Adult Content(?!) You can download this version from its GitHub repository here. Enjoy! Like this:Like Loading… Related posts: Ground Floor Updated to Version […]
BNS Login Version 2.3.3Just a quick update … this plugin just seems to do what it needs to do and not much more ever really get requested or considered to be added to it. That being the case, this plugin will also most likely be moving to a twice yearly release; unless, of course, a great idea comes […]
BNS Featured Category Version 2.6There were some interesting requests and a few discussions since the last release of this plugin and I have adopted some of those into this version. Also to note, this plugin will also likely be going into a more "mature" development cycle which basically means I will be looking at twice yearly releases going forward. […]


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Article ID: 133385 - View products that this article applies to. This article was previously published under Q133385 This article has been archived. It is offered "as is" and will no longer be updated. On This PageSUMMARY
Because the Systems Management Server Executive is a wrapper containing the
actual Systems Management Server services for many functions in the Site,
they are run as threads and are, therefore, not subject to many of the
convenient Performance Monitor (PERFMON.EXE) features available to process-
level statistics.
This article describes how to monitor each thread for certain counters and how to isolate performance issues within the Executive. MORE INFORMATION
To use Performance Monitor and the Windows NT Registry Editor to monitor
and isolate Systems Management Server Executive performance issues to
certain threads:
WARNING: Using Registry Editor incorrectly can cause serious, system-wide problems that may require you to reinstall Windows NT to correct them. Microsoft cannot guarantee that any problems resulting from the use of Registry Editor can be solved. Use this tool at your own risk.
More Troubleshooting TipsTo watch each task the identified thread component performs and the associated %Processer Time usage, use the SMSTrace tool and monitor the component log file beside the Performance Monitor window. When the log file goes idle, expect the %Processer Time usage of the component's thread to go idle also.To learn about other statistics of the thread, look at additional counters, for example, %User Time, etc. Properties |


text: Created 1 year ago by peoneill Studied by 34 people MikeSwaka TankStarV2 scubadiving123 Taylorbrant1 jennydiaz07 katiekordeck sstepanovich superswimmer98 emmlong AyeshaK62 DeannaSoftball11 r-sabbah pandasmasher burkep737 gknor cassidycusick nicksynko kbobalik brookie126 pickett5 +14 2 Thanks! Don'tMove! HighFive? Viewable By Everyone Editable By Only peoneill Classes MHS O'Neill ICP Munster High School · Munster, IN Language Chemistry


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Lucas van Valckenborch
Lucas van Valkenborch (also Valckenborch, Valkenborgh; c. 1535 – 2 February 1597) was a Flemish painter of mainly landscapes, portraits and allegorical scenes.
Van Valckenborch was born in Leuven. The 17th-century biographer Karel van Mander stated that Lucas van Valckenborch learned to paint landscapes in Mechelen, which was known as a center for oil and water-colours and especially landscape painting.[1] At the time of the Beeldenstorm in 1566 he left Antwerp with his brother (or nephew) Marten van Valckenborch and they made a trip from Luik to Aachen along the Meuse (river), painting river valley views.[1] When William the Silent revolted against Spanish rule, they returned to the Southern Netherlands. They were able to create works that sold well.[1] Van Mander wrote that Lucasbecame patronized by Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor because of his skill as a portrait painter and travelled with him down the Danube as far as Linz.[1]
He was the cousin of the painters Frederik and Gillis van Valckenborch, and the nephew or brother of the painter Marten van Valckenborch.[2][3]
He became the teacher of Georg Flegel. He died in Frankfurt am Main.[2]
He is known for landscapes, portraits and allegorical paintings. His style was close to Pieter Brueghel the Elder, but he modified this influence in a personal manner and was not a slavish copyist. His work was rooted in the same Flemish tradition, without following the newer Mannerist movement.
His landscapes generally followed the conventions of composition, with panoramic scenes from a high viewpoint. He relied, however, more on first-hand observation of nature and he made paintings of actual places, rather than the fantastic landscapes of other Flemish landscape painters. He also created some close-up representations of forest landscapes. He also painted some a series of large pictures depicting the labours of the months in the mid-1580s.
He also painted portraits for his patron Emperor Matthias. He was further a figure painter as is shown in a series of nine allegories of the seasons painted in Frankfurt from 1592.[3]
- Landscape in Spring
- Landscape in Summer
- Landscape with a Rural Festival
- The Massacre of the Innocents
- Mountainous Landscape
- Rocky Landscape
- The Tower of Babel
- View of Antwerp with the Frozen Scheldt
- View of Huy from Ahin
Cultural reference[edit]
Lucas van Valkenborch is mentioned by the German writer W. G. Sebald in his book Austerlitz describing the painting View of Antwerp with the Frozen Scheldt (1590).
View of Antwerp with the frozen Scheldt (1590) in the Städel Museum
- ^ a b c d Lucas van Valckenborch in Karel van Mander's Schilder-boeck, 1604 (Dutch)
- ^ a b Lucas van Valckenborch at the Netherlands Institute for Art History (Dutch)
- ^ a b Alexander Wied and Hans Devisscher. "Valckenborch, van." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 14 Jul. 2014
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucas van Valckenborch. |
- Lucas van Valckenborch from Artcyclopedia.
- Lucas van Valckenborch paintings from Web Gallery of Art.
- Lucas van Valckenborch on Artnet


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AC Milan have confirmed that veteran striker Filippo Inzaghi has undergone successful surgery on his serious knee injury.
Inzaghi damaged cruciate knee ligaments during AC Milan's 3-1 victory over Palermo on 10th November.
Milan have revealed that Inzaghi is now on the road to recovery but will miss the remainder of the season.
Inzaghi joined Milan from Juventus in 2001 and has twice won the UEFA Champions League with the club.
Milan are currently top of the Serie A table by three points, with the team seeking a first league title since 2004.


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WINES, SPIRITS, CIGARETTES, TOBACCO, ANIMALS, FAKE DVD's, CD's or VIDEOS, GUNS, KNIVES, FOOD, CAKES, SANDWICHES, DRINKS, FRUIT, VEGETABLES, CRISPS and SWEETS of any kind, without the express permission of CARBOOTSCORNWALL and with the approval of CORNWALL COUNCIL HEALTH AUTHORITES and TRADING STANDARDS!
Arrived at Padstow for the Car Boot Sale yesterday and it ended up with only 6 sellers wanting to get their stall set-up. I gave them a FREE stall and 10 minutes before I allowed the buyers to buy. All six of the sellers took over £100.00 each and one of them took £178.00 and one hour later they went home the most content 6 sellers of the week! On the 15th (next Wednesday) is the last this season at Padstow-its FREE again. Geoff