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Latest from The Spokesman-Review
Facebook Page Backs Spokane Killing
The debate over the fatal shooting of a car thief in East Spokane is now heating up online. On Monday, 25-year old Brendon Kaluza-Graham was shot and killed while he stole an SUV. The owner of that SUV, Gail Gerlach, told investigators he fired at Kaluza-Graham because he thought he pointed a weapon at him. On Wednesday, a Spokane woman, who has been the victim of a burglary, launched a Facebook Page to show support for Gerlach. The creator of the page has asked to remain anonymous. But, agreed to an interview as long as KXLY didn't use her name or show her face. "I hope he understands that we are here for him, for the community," she said/Annie Bishop, KXLY. More here.
Question: How would Gerlach's use of deadly force been received by the community, if it had happened in Kootenai County rather than Spokane County?
Is it ok to kill my neighbor for my car?
First, we have issues in Spokane with overuse of power; then the mayor says that police are not going to respond to personal property crimes; then we have to protect ourselves; then nutso people run rampage with guns and kill several children; then we start campaigning about the right to own firearms; then someone comes into our yard and steals our car (albeit, we enabled them by having the key in it and having it running); and finally, we shoot that person and kill them.
And at the same time, a former mayoral candidate of Tuscon, Arizona has launched a prifately funded program to provide residents of crime-prone areas with free shotguns to protect themselves. http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2013/mar/28/program-would-provide-free-shotguns/
I have mixed emotions on this. We should never lose our right to protect ourselves nor lose the right to bear arms. Somehow, judgment needs to come into play.
My heart goes out to all the families impacted by the event here in Spokane.
What is the solution?
Thief Shooter Is Gun-Rights Activist
The man who shot a car thief Monday is 56-year-old Gail Gerlach, according to a search warrant returned Wednesday. Gerlach, of 1419 N. Lee St., owns a plumbing business and has no criminal record. Spokane County Prosecutors have not charged Gerlach in the shooting death of 25-year-old car thief Brendon Kaluza-Graham. Police say Kaluza-Graham drove away in a 1997 Chevy Suburban left idling in Gerlach's driveway. … Gerlach has been vocal on his social media accounts about his support of the Second Amendment. In his biography on his personal Twitter account, Gerlach describes himself as a "right-wing conservative"/Jennifer Pignolet, SR. More here.


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Harrah's Entertainment hired Cisco Systems to develop interactive room keys that help guide visitors. When the hotel room key touches digital signs at Caesars Palace, the signs display information on dining, spa and retail offers. "Our properties are massive and it can be hard finding out what we have," said Chris Chang, vice president of innovation and information technology for Harrah's.
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Helicopter Services Boston
30 Rowes Wharf, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02110
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Helicopter rides over historic Boston and Cape Ann. Fly over beaches, harbors, lighthouses. Enjoy Boston's skyline and famous landmarks from a unique perspective.
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Rock Harbor: An Off-Season Gem on Cape Cod
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recipe reviews for:
"Moist and tasty...with coconut, orange, and carrots."
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Chili, brats, and more to feed your hungry football fans.
Cheer on your team with a little something sweet.
Delicious recipes, party ideas, and cooking tips! Get a year of Allrecipes magazine for $7.99!
See how to make deliciously decadent no-bake treats.
These moist, cinnamony pumpkin bars have a rich cream cheese frosting.
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Wrapping up three great days of Pigstock in Traverse City, MI, and I'll write more about it, but had to quickly share the astonishing differences in breeds of hogs, and most important, the difference between a factory-farmed pig and a properly raised pig. Above Brian Polcyn shows four different breeds. On the left is the belly of a factory-farmed pig, breed not known. Notice how diminutive it is, how little fat is on that loin, which I guarantee tastes like cardboard when cooked. Compare it to the one he's holding up, a farm-raised Berkshire-Duroc mix. When you buy the one on the left, not only will it not be a pleasure to cook and eat, you have cast a vote for more just like it. When you buy a belly from a farm-raised Berkshire, you Read On »
Posts Categorized: Food Safety
Underground Meats
by Emilia |The Madison based company has a Kickstarter campaign to share their Hazards Analysis and Critical Control POints (HACCP) plans with everyone, via Food Tech Connect.
The NPR blog Salt started a small #chickenshitstorm Monday when Maria Godoy wrote about a Drexel University study and campaign (a campaign!) to end the dangerous practice of washing chicken in your sink at home. The story was picked up by Slate editor L.V. Anderson and spread from there. Reaching many, including television star and renowned post-it artist, Alton Brown, whose 5-post-it editorial sums up the feelings of many cooks and chefs. When I wrote to him asking to use the image here, he added a header to the email: "We all need to calm the fuck down!" I love that about Alton. He's right. And he's right to shout. This shit is getting out of hand. Why are so many people so fucking afraid of their food? Wash your chicken or don't wash it. Read On »
Raw Milk Debate
by Emilia |Minnesota farmer sells raw milk again and he may face jail time, via Minnesota Public Radio.
Frying Chicken
by Emilia |Frying chicken at home is easier then you think here are some tips that can help you out, via New York Times.


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Reader comments are listed below. Comments are currently closed and new comments are no longer being accepted.
Wow I am amazed ! When a lot of people spend so much time on a matter is a very good sign.
Few people know that FED...STOP...to publish the aggregate monetary index called M3 !!!!
So how many money are printed, no one knows ??? The funny thing is that has been stopped since 2007 guess what have a look at the deficit.
In US the Federal Deficit Budget exploded as follow:
2007-167 million USD
2008-457 million USD
2009-1400 million USD
In 3 years manage multiple x 9 the deficit can you immagine how many paper has been printed and what is the real value of USD !
Uk is in the same situation with quantitative easy they simply print more money..and the collective debt of private is aroung 250% of GDP and in 2 years the debt jumped from 35% to 60% of GDP !
The worst issue is that US and UK did not have any real asset to use as collateral...like the saving PIGS that are still plenty of state assets !
For me the crisis of Greece is the same a WMD of Iraq few years ago...well prepared to serve an objective !
Sorry the problem is in US and UK finance ...but strange both of them are still granted a GITFED AAA rating !
In an ultimate sense, there cannot be any artificial solution to excess production capacity and mis match between demand and supply. Looking at financial statement of most manufacturing companies of Europe in particular, one finds they depend heavily upon exports to North America to sell their products and services. In this they increasingly challenged by developed and developing Asia, some African and Latin American countries. Population growth in Europe is negetive, which is also a demand constraint. Immediate solution of over production is to shift their excess production to developing economies with a spirit to share rather than compete and sustain value to their manufacturing facilities. Implicit in this is the principle of optimal utilization of resources. As regards population, all European countries must adopt compulsorily four children or more norm for every couple.... better still free immigration policies to create internal demand. All attempts to resolve debt crisis by more credit is naive. If this is continued, European economies are pushing themselves fast to situation where they will have to sit together in a conference with a single point agenda- write off all debts.
And now for the details....
The first question is which is the first "tranche" for the Greeks to draw on, the 500 billion Euro tranche of the ECB or the US$200 billion tranche of the IMF. My guess is that is the Euro tranche which will be first drawn upon. The small print of the IMF loan is likely to be that is the last recourse.
What does this mean? Yes it is a big sum. But the European taxpayers will not necessarily be paying for it. More likely the ECB will "print money".
So? The Euro will fall - massively. Simple supply and demand. So garcons et femmes, get your imports now. You will be paying substantially more in the future!
Under a catholic peasant french Europe we are all buggered.
The international banking institutes... are a complete joke which serves their western government master more than providing any real global guidance to poor countries on economic matters.
Can someone give some advice what to do with euros versus US dollars? Is it a good time to convert dollars to Euros, or better to CHF? and should I convert most of euros to CHF? am talking about my own money, and am not looking to play with currencies , just to avert big loss if possible.
I live mainly in London, so I keep the GBP anyway.
Reading through all those blogs, one gets the impression that the demise of the euro is inexorably coming fast..
the kydland-prescott model of how CBs should act, the taylor' s rules and the policy of full transparency as a way to let people form rational expectations are not working anymore. speculators seem to be taking an advantage from it.. this might be the end of inflation targeting for ECB.
Monetary policy it' s a powerfull instrument to manage the crisis, but it s not sufficient since many european countries have enormous structural problems concerning real economy..in my opinion they re not doing much about it to ensure a quick recovery
The limits of the European project have been reached. How much political instability will we witness before the architects accept that they need firmer foundations and must demolish and rebuild.
See article that appeared in http://thewallstreetchallenger.com/
A Young - Europe's econmic prospects look grim despite its currency problems. Aging population, declining fertility rates, social welfare states, weak exports, no consumerism, austerity measures, higher taxes, lower quality of living, etc, etc, etc....
500 BILLIONS!!Wow!A simple question:who pays food and drink for this big party?
The price as compared to the one paid by what other central banker? So, the ECB has lost its virginity. It's now the same as the Federal Reserve and the Bank of England.
The interesting bit was to see how the ECB's role of being market maker of last resort for European sovereign debt--or the "rescue" fund agreed over the weekend--is being confused with support for the Euro as a currency. Those 750 billion Euros pledged by EU governments are peanuts in the foreign exchange markets. I would expect that the Euro will continue to decline, and no action taken by the ECB is to alter the rebalancing of Euro rate with the dollar. Nor is a revaluation even desirable for European economies.
The critical moment for the near future is to see if public spending can be cut back to offset the money supply increase supposedly "not" being masterminded by the ECB. In my country (Spain) our beloved Mr. Zapatero has been until this very week sending out a contrary message for national consumption: no spending cut-backs, no reduction of salaries for public sector workers, no adjustment to retirement age (65 so far), nor to pensions.
Improvisation is a national tradition, but I'm afraid that Mr. Zapatero's pragmatic solution will be to try to wait it out again and do (almost) nothing in the way of spending cuts. The government has spent years defending the need to spend instead save. If the government takes strong action now to cut civil servant salaries or almost anything else, voter support for the socialists in the regional elections that are just around the corner will drop sharply. Pragmatism can be a good thing if it not over-calculating. In Spain, I'm afraid pragmatism will mean politics as usual.
KKK and friends in the shade
I cannot imagine why you keep predicting the future of the Euro and the welfare state?
The Welfare state was started in 1870 by Bismark, and went through rough times like WWi, Dow crash, Depression, WWII.... and it is still here.
As far as the Euro is concerned NOT ONE SINGLE EUROPEAN BANK HAD ANY PROBLEM, when the US forked out gazillions for Goldman Sucks and other sinkholes like GM, etc. the FDR is printing 24/7 and the US is sinking not the EU.
In Scandinavia they have better welfare system, in the south not so much, but we, like Japan, enjoy life and are socially secure while you have nothing less then 42 mil people without health insurance!
We are so nice (and stupid) that we pay a 'sympathy budget" to the super power so the GIs on our land can eat. Like you love saying: This is now over. Go home and shut up Yankees, and wash your white cap before you lit the crosses.
Has anyone grow tired of Vinny L. comments except for me? All his posts are copy paste from other pages without even giving a reference, I will give you some samples:
Is Economist audience even thinking before recommending posts?
I have never understood why politicians are afraid of requesting people to pay for the government services they demand. Every law should have the financing overtly built in and openly explained. Any politician who drafts a law that enriches himself or his friends should be subject to criminal penalties. Countries should be capable of going bankrupt just as businesses do.
Apologies if this has been said before, but the section of the article which reads "One part is based on an existing €50 billion fund for non-euro countries with balance-of-payments problems, which is financed by European Union bonds that can be sold fairly quickly." is almost certainly wrong.
The EU Treaty is very clear that the existing fund cannot be extended to euro area member states. In addiition, the EU statement references Article 122 of the Treaty (the only get-out clause fo the no bailout rule) not Article 143 (which deals with the fund for non-euro countries) and the statement also says that this part of the package is based on an inter-governmental agreement among euro area member states. This means that it cannot be funded by EU bonds (which are guaranteed by all EU members). This part of the package appears to be simply astanding facility funded by euro area member states. The confusion (and there are plenty of newspapers and investment banks who are confused about this) appears to have arisen because the loans in the exisiting fund are mentioned immediately after the description of the new fund - but expanding the old facility is illegal.
The European social welfare state is now dying.
Given the fact that the U.S. has a similar Public Debt (as % of GDP), Budget Deficit and Trade Deficit as Spain, then America shuold be called the Big P.I.G. or P.I.G.U.S. Maximus...
@virtu: we are discussing monetary policy.
your language towards the US in unappropriate, unjust and hateful.
From Expat 44
This was a generally a well informed, interesting and educational exchange of views.
Some comments:
The idea that the banks are somehow responsible for the Greek crisis is highly questionable.
Surely the true source of the problem was the irresponsible demand from the Greek (and other PIGS) government to borrow more and more money which they knew they would be wasted.
True, the big EU banks have shown poor judgement, even reckless lending, but they are not the guilty parties in this mess. They have been financially exposed by their greed and mistakes and have dragged their countries' economies with them.
Secondly, I found it astonshing that no-one seems to be bothered about the 'democratic deficit' in all this.
If the ECB and Brussels are now to start ordering individual, sovereign states how to control their taxes and budgets - without the approval of those countries' voters and taxpayers - then I think we are in for trouble. The principle of "no taxation without representation" has led to blood being shed in the past and could well do so again.
Finally, the suggestion that this crisis is just what as needed, and that now Europe should somehow unite as one big happy mega-state, lacks support judging by the evidence of the current opinion polls and by the votes in France and the Netherlands, for example.
I cannot see any referendum on this gaining the necessary support of the various EU states' voting public and taxpayers in the present climate.
But do such little people matter any more to those who plot the destiny of millions?
When demanding responsabilities for this "fiasco" we should include practically everyone: Governements, Supervising agencies, Regulatory bodies, banks, individuals... Optimism and liquidity injected into a society that has the right to elect its governements, never in majority will vote for a sensible and rational sistem of control that udemines their immediate satisfactions, the right thing has in many instances is uncmfortable and no one will vote for it, that is why politicians avoid taking unpopular measures. The euro has mved southern europeans to overspend, but that has favored northen europeans who have ben selling their products at competitive rates underminig the competitive capacity of the south with lower prices specially in countries wher their main wealth isin the service industry, gemany sold BMWs while Greece could not sell hotel rooms at 3 times the priec of only three years ago, now they will pay for it through the loss of their credits. Greece cannot pay, it would take three generations of living miserably for a majority of the population, no government can stand that, Assume the cost: Greec moves of the Euro, devalues by 60%, becomes competetive and growth may continue. The nnams take their losses 50% and delay in payments. Tough but realistic, this solution is throwing good money at bad, in the end its worse, bot in the mean time political leaders dont bite the bullit.
Solothurn festival: Welcome to the Swiss film industry
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The Northeast storm causes package delivery delays
Retailers throughout New England close their offices but find a way to keep business moving.
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A survey of IDology clients found 87% suspect they have been targets of fraud attempts in the past year, up from 66% a year earlier.
Posted 11/06/2014AbCallardPost a comment
2Checkout's technology screens transactions for 300 variables as part of its payments-processing package.
Posted 03/13/2014Bill BriggsPost a comment
A new Forrester report advises e-commerce operators to use "big data" to combat online fraud, which cost $3.5 billion last year the U.S and Canada.
Posted 02/04/2014Thad RueterPost a comment
But the retail chain says online shoppers haven't been affected.
Posted 01/23/2014Thad RueterPost a comment
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An Imperva report says web attackers target retailers more often than financial institutions.
Posted 10/09/2014Thad RueterPost a comment
Forter, which recently raised $3 million, takes the loss if a transaction it approves turns out to be fraudulent.
Posted 04/08/2014Don DavisPost a comment
The process that turns payment card information into codes—now being used by Apple Pay—can prevent stolen card info.
Posted 10/30/2014Zak StamborPost a comment
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And a third of those consumers blame online merchants when that happens.
Posted 02/28/2014Thad RueterPost a comment
16% of consumers surveyed said they would definitely not shop at such retailers and 29% said they would probably not shop at a retailer that had been hit, according to a poll by CreditCards.com.
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Hackers may have penetrated the retailer's network through stores in the Northeastern U.S., Bloomberg reports.
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Online community for people who are interested in trucks or simulator games, such as Euro Truck Simulator 2, Scania Truck Driving Simulator, German Truck Simulator, 18 wos Extreme trucker and others.
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Officials at the National Institutes of Health have released a request for proposals for a 10-year, $20 billion solicitation for the CIO - Commodities and Solutions contract, Washington Technology reports.
The governmentwide acquisition contract will provide agencies with products and services related to general IT and health and life sciences IT capabilities, according to Washington Technology, one of FCW's sister publications.
Beyond health and biomedical research, CIO-CS will also offer services aligned with support for information management, operational and administrative needs, such as security, infrastructure, telecommunications and desktop applications.
CIO-CS will supersede NIH's Electronics Commodities Store III contract, which expires in November. Washington Technology reports that CIO-CS should increase NIH's total contract awards from 40 to 75. Responses to the RFP are due by June 11.
About the Author
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The law's certification and approval provisions empower CIOs to end outdated software development projects, says Agilex's Roger Baker.
The new chairman of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee extends an olive branch to the minority, but keeps subpoena power for himself.
FCW investigated efforts by the departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs to improve a joint data repository on military and veteran suicides. Something as impersonal and mundane as incomplete datasets could be exacerbating a national tragedy.
Despite delays, the program is at a critical point for determining the ultimate impact of cloud technology in the government space.
In an interview with FCW, the Department of Veterans Affairs' chief technology officer talks about overhauling the digital experience for VA customers.
The National Information Exchange Model's usefulness extends far beyond its origins in justice and law enforcement.
ACT-IAC'S Rick Holgate and Dan Chenok look ahead to what's next for federal IT in 2015.
A bill that will allow DHS to hire cybersecurity professionals faster and pay them more now heads to the president for his signature.
How NASA and other agencies are using contests to bring better ideas into acquisition.


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5 QualityGedster | 07/10/2009 | See all Gedster's reviews (12)Einaudi gets better and develops with each new release. A great CD and cracking tunes. Can't wait for the UK tour as I have tickets for The Sage in Gateshead!
5 Excellent.welshgje | 23/01/2010 | See all welshgje's reviews (1)I've bought all of the Einaudi albums over time and this one doesn't dissapoint. It's not Eden Roc, nor my favourite Le Onde, but it still has excellent piano playing and is well worth the money.Now I wait for the piano book to come out so I too can learn to play the tunes.Well done Ludo.
5 Discovered Einaudi by chance,kiriin | 08/01/2010 | See all kiriin's reviews (1)What a discovery, absolutly blown away.Only bought Nightbook so far but will definatly be filling my classical collection with his other works. iI you like things a bit differant buy this!
5 Superbdontbuyrubbish | 27/12/2009 | See all dontbuyrubbish's reviews (1)I recently experienced a performance of Nightbook by Einaudi & his fellow musicians at Bridgewater Hall in Manchester on the strength of hearing his music on youtube. I have now bought the album too.Interesting, different, lively, slow. Never "stuffy classical".The album seems to tell a story (I've no idea what it is about) rather than being just a collection of nice tunes.


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Steve Hicks, a University of Texas System regent who has been a vocal opponent of regents who have criticized the system's flagship campus in Austin, was reappointed to the board by Gov. Greg Abbott on Thursday.
City staff are planning to introduce the developer Feb. 3 at a meeting of the City Council's Housing and Economic Development Committee.
BBVA Compass has appointed Brian Happel, most recently the Fort Worth city president, its chief executive officer of Fort Worth.
Cuevas Distribution Inc., a minority- and woman-owned business in Fort Worth, is one of 20 small businesses nationwide to receive a $150,000 grant from Chase as part of the Mission Main Street program.
Arlington is moving closer to developing its Entertainment District north of AT&T Stadium.
Wise Regional Health System
Jason S. Finkelstein has reinvented the term "country doctor."
UNT Health Science Center Sealy Massingill believes that being a physician is more than the individual practice of medicine – it is a calling and a way of life.
That way of life has motivated him to become actively involved with other physicians on numerous levels.
Texas Health Springwood Hospital Hurst-Euless-Bedford How can we better serve our patients today?"
These are Ramona Osburn's first words when opening her weekly management team meetings. This respect and dignity for her patients is unmistakable at Texas Health Springwood Hospital Hurst-Euless-Bedford, a mental health hospital in Tarrant County where she is senior administrative director.
Margaret Dempsey, Tracy L. Harrington, Krista Kulesza and Neslihan Gul Chandler
Working with children who have neuro-developmental and behavioral issues can be a daunting task but the Psychology Team at the Child Study Center goes about its challenging demands with patience, dedication and professionalism. Through extensive testing and evaluation, the team helps place children in the proper education track so they can achieve their full potential.
Texas Health Harris Methodist Hospital Southlake
Trustworthy, committed, leads by example, encouraging… these words are a small sampling of the numerous ways colleagues describe Cynthia Ruddell, manager of infection prevention at Texas Health Harris Methodist Hospital Southlake.
Texas Rangers Baseball Foundation and Medical Center Arlington Abbi Miller, Owedia Kemp, Deborah Su, Patty Fearka, Rush Olson and Karin Morris Arlington elementary school students have discovered learning life-long health habits can be fun. Especially when they're taught by the Texas Rangers.
The Texas Rangers Baseball Foundation and Medical Center Arlington teamed up six years ago to form the Texas Rangers Medical Center Arlington Fitness All-Stars. The team, along with firefighters from the Arlington Fire Department, visits elementary schools within the Arlington Independent School District to promote health and fitness to fifth graders. The team has used mascot Rangers Captain – riding into the school parking lot on a fire truck with sirens blaring – as a focal point of the campaign against childhood obesity.
Methodist Mansfield Medical Center
An advanced certification nurse and continuing education instructor, Karen Yates has devoted the past 28 years furthering cardiac and stroke education in the pre-hospital and hospital community in the Dallas-Fort Worth area.
Pink Award
Volunteer of the Year
Tarrant County Commissioner Court, Precinct 3
Advocacy In Medicine Award
Ikor DFW
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Cook Children's Health Care System
Research in Medicine Award
UNT Health Science Center
Heroes Health Care Award
The Center for Cancer & Blood Disorders
Executive Medicine of Texas
Mark Anderson has used community and media outreach efforts to raise awareness of important health issues and to leverage an international profile for his corporate health care practice based in Southlake, Executive Medicine of Texas.
Fort Worth and Weatherford Plastic Surgery
Robert G. Anderson's devotion to health care transcends the operating room.
Nicoleta Bugnariu helps patients get on their feet.
Medical Missionary in Haiti
Texas Health Harris Methodist Hospital Fort Worth A health care hero is someone who not only uses her skills, dedication, compassion and quick thinking to make a difference for patients but also takes those qualities outside her job to assure the best possible outcome for others.
In August 2012, Christy Daae, an emergency nurse at Texas Health Fort Worth for 14 years, was at a neighborhood swimming pool with her two children when she spotted a 3-year-old girl and 4-year-old boy in trouble. The boy had jumped in the pool to help the girl after she fell into the deep end. Daae jumped into action, performing CPR on the boy with the help of another off-duty clinician who happened to be there. Once paramedics and firefighters arrived, she helped start an IV and give oxygen to the girl. Her quick response and willingness to get involved made all the difference for the girl. She did all she could for the little boy, reviving him so he could get to the hospital where his family could be with him. He later died but his organ donation saved six lives. In recognition of her heroic actions, Daae was named a Hometown Hero by the U.S. Air Force and flew with the Thunderbirds at the Alliance Air Show with a photo of the boy.
Lifetime Achievement Award


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Sproul responds to 10 common objections to Christianity.Reason to Believe is no collection of "pat answers with a few proof texts". Each of the questions is dealt with in a separate chapter, which includes a special capsule summary that gives the kernel of each argument. It is an excellent resource for those who want to do more than scratch the ... Read More Sproul responds to 10 common objections to Christianity.Reason to Believe is no collection of "pat answers with a few proof texts". Each of the questions is dealt with in a separate chapter, which includes a special capsule summary that gives the kernel of each argument. It is an excellent resource for those who want to do more than scratch the surface of Christian truths. Read Less
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Subtitled, A Response to Common Objections to Christianity, R.C. Sproul once again shows himself to be a master teacher and apologist (defender of the faith).He takes difficult concepts and explains the issues in an understandable way. He doesn't explain away hard questions like the existence of evil or the problem of suffering in a trite, one sentence answer. That would be unfeeling. He's not afraid to admit that some things are unknowable, but they are unknowable to the atheist as well. The difference is that underlying the big questions of life, the believer has hope that the atheist knows nothing of. Suffering has no meaning to an existentialist who has only this life.Sproul deals with objections to the Bible itself, the fallacy of thinking all religions are the same, what happens to those who have never heard, charges that the church is full of hypocrites or is only for weak people, the idea that we only have to try hard to do the right thing, the existence of God, the case for life after death, and the problem of evil and suffering.He does an excellent job of demonstrating the reasonableness of faith, while showing the futility and illogical conclusions of Christianity's detractors.Sproul explains these things in a way that we can retain, so we can "give a reason for the hope that lies within us." (1 Peter 3:15)
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We need to always be ready to give an answer to anyone who asks areason for thehope that is in us. R. C. Sproul does a very good job in:1) Identifying the 10 most common objections to the Christian faith.2) Providing solid Biblical answers to the basic objections and3) Communicating complex truth in a way the average layman can grasp.R. C. Sproul is abouot as good asit gets in Reformed Theology.The book could provide an excellent outline for a sermon series ora ten week seminr of apologetics. R. C. strikes this delecate balance:1) He realizes the value and potential benefit of Apologetics while at the same time,2) He realizes the limitations of Apologetics due to man's fallen nature.
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Present address: Departamento de Zoología, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C Concepción, Chile
Sexual conflict does not drive reproductive isolation in experimental populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura
Article first published online: 23 JUL 2007
DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01389.x
Additional Information
How to Cite
BACIGALUPE, L. D., CRUDGINGTON, H. S., HUNTER, F., MOORE, A. J. and SNOOK, R. R. (2007), Sexual conflict does not drive reproductive isolation in experimental populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 20: 1763–1771. doi: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01389.x
Publication History
- Issue published online: 23 JUL 2007
- Article first published online: 23 JUL 2007
- Received 21 March 2007; revised 17 May 2007; accepted 17 May 2007
- Abstract
- Article
- References
- Cited By
- copulation duration;
- mating speed;
- reproductive isolation;
- sexual conflict;
- sexual selection;
- sexually antagonistic coevolution;
- speciation
Sexual conflict has been predicted to drive reproductive isolation by generating arbitrary but rapid coevolutionary changes in reproductive traits among allopatric populations. A testable prediction of this proposal is that allopatric populations experiencing different levels of sexual conflict should exhibit different levels of reproductive isolation. We tested this prediction using experimentally evolved populations of the promiscuous Drosophila pseudoobscura. We manipulated sexual conflict by enforcing either monogamy, maintaining natural levels of promiscuity, or elevating promiscuity. Within each treatment, we carried out sympatric and allopatric crosses using replicated populations and examined pre-zygotic (number of mating pairs, mating speed and copulation duration) and post-zygotic (hybrid inviability and sterility) indicators of reproductive isolation. After 50 generations of selection, none of the measures conformed to predictions of sexual conflict driving reproductive isolation. Our results cannot be explained by lack of genetic variation or weak selection and suggest that sexual conflict may not be a widespread engine of speciation.
The notion that allopatric speciation can occur via sexual selection is appealing because sexual selection directly affects traits, such as courtship and sexual communication, involved in mate recognition (Lande, 1981; West-Eberhard, 1983; Kaneshiro & Boake, 1987; for recent reviews, see Panhuis et al., 2001; Turelli et al., 2001; Coyne & Orr, 2004). With sufficiently low gene flow, sexual selection could promote substantial and rapid differences among allopatric populations, resulting in pre-zygotic reproductive isolation (RI) when populations come into secondary contact. Pre-zygotic RI is therefore a byproduct of divergence in mating signals and preferences. While verbally appealing, the first theoretical treatment of how sexual selection might promote RI was not formalized until Lande's (1981) seminal work and empirical support has only been accumulating since the mid-1990s. Most of this evidence is indirect and only consists of positive correlations between measures of species diversification rates and indices of the strength of sexual selection (e.g. Barraclough et al., 1995; Mitra et al., 1996; Møller & Cuervo, 1998; Owens et al., 1999).
More recent models of speciation by sexual selection propose sexual conflict as an 'engine' of speciation (Parker & Partridge, 1998; Rice, 1998; Gavrilets, 2000; Gavrilets et al., 2001). Sexual conflict results when male and female fitness optima differ, which is suggested to be a ubiquitous feature of promiscuous mating systems (Parker, 1979). Conflict arises due to the fundamentally different ways the sexes increase their reproductive success. Males are limited by the number of females they mate with whereas females are limited by the number of progeny they can produce (Bateman, 1948; Trivers, 1972). Sexual conflict can lead to sexually antagonistic coevolution whereby iterative bouts of (typically) male manipulation of female reproductive biology to promote male reproductive success is followed by the evolution of female resistance to this coercion (Arnqvist & Rowe, 2005; Moore & Pizzari, 2005). Sexually antagonistic coevolution may target different male and female traits across allopatric populations (Pizzari & Snook, 2003, 2004) and one byproduct of these within-population processes can be the evolution of RI among populations (Gavrilets, 2000). Gavrilets (2000) mathematical model of this idea generates two primary predictions: (i) the rate of trait change within a population, and the degree of RI among populations as a consequence of that trait, increase with the intensity of conflict, and (ii) if the latter increases with population density, then stronger/faster RI will occur between higher density populations (Martin & Hosken, 2003).
Evidence supporting sexual conflict as an engine of speciation is limited. Monandrous clades of insects are less speciose than polyandrous clades, a pattern that was attributed to sexual conflict (Arnqvist et al., 2000). However, the frequency of speciation events in birds is not correlated with the intensity of sexual selection and potential conflict (Morrow et al., 2003). Interpreting comparative studies on this question can be problematic (e.g. Panhuis et al., 2001; Coyne & Orr, 2004) due to difficulties controlling for phylogenetic effects and extinction rates (e.g. Morrow et al., 2003); the latter potentially being elevated by sexual selection which imposes a reproductive load on populations (Holland & Rice, 1999). An alternative to comparative studies is to use experimental evolution in which sexual conflict has been manipulated in allopatric populations. This experimental design allows testing the prediction that mating/reproductive traits will differ between allopatric populations experiencing conflict whereas these types of traits will not diverge rapidly among monogamous allopatric populations. Experimental evolution allows these predictions to be tested within a single species and replicated. Unfortunately, even this approach has provided equivocal results. Martin & Hosken (2003) found support for greater incipient RI among populations experiencing greater conflict following 35 generations of experimental manipulation of sexual conflict in the dung fly, Sepsis cynipsea. In their selection lines, allopatric promiscuous populations appear to be more reluctant to mate compared to either sympatric promiscuous populations or monogamous populations regardless of sympatry or allopatry. However, Wigby & Chapman (2006) found no evidence of RI in experimentally evolved populations of Drosophila melanogaster after 40 generations of selection under varying levels of sexual conflict. There were no differences in the willingness of females to mate with allopatric or sympatric males, regardless of the strength of sexual selection/conflict imposed. It is difficult to determine exactly why there is this discrepancy, but these two studies tested predictions of RI via sexual conflict by examining just one potential index of RI, the propensity of females to mate with sympatric vs. allopatric males (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006). While this measure encompasses various signal/receiver traits that promote copulation, it represents just one of many pre-zygotic RI indicators. Additionally, the potential for sexual conflict to generate post-zygotic RI has so far been neglected.
Here we used experimentally evolved lines of the naturally promiscuous species, Drosophila pseudoobscura, to test the role of sexual conflict in promoting both pre- and post-zygotic RI by measuring several potential indicators of each. We imposed three treatments that manipulated the strength of sexual selection and therefore the extent of sexual conflict; enforced monogamy (M; one female housed with one male) where sexual selection was relaxed, control promiscuity (C; one female housed with three males) that mimicked natural levels of sexual selection experienced by this species (Anderson, 1974; Cobbs, 1977), and elevated promiscuity (P; one female housed with six males) which increased the variance in male reproductive success relative to the other treatments (Crudgington et al., 2005). Each treatment was replicated four times.
Our previous work on these experimental populations provides evidence that our treatments have responded as predicted for putatively sexually selected traits (Snook et al., 2005) and that sexual conflict is occurring (Crudgington et al., 2005; R. R. Snook & H. S. Crudgington, unpublished data). Courtship song evolved rapidly with P males initiating song and singing a faster song to females relative to C and M males (Snook et al., 2005). We also found that M males induced increased early productivity compared to P males (Crudgington et al., 2005) and P males were harmful to female lifetime reproductive success (R. R. Snook & H. S. Crudgington, unpublished data). One candidate mechanism underlying this finding is the elevated courtship rate of P males relative to M males (R. R. Snook & H. S. Crudgington, unpublished data). Previous experimental evolution work in D. melanogaster also found that promiscuous males courted females more than enforced monogamy males and suggested that elevated harassment rates may negatively impact female fitness (Holland & Rice, 1999). Given that our D. pseudoobscura populations are responding rapidly and as predicted by sexual selection and conflict theory we tested whether conflict was generating incipient RI.
Previous empirical research on sexual conflict driving pre-zygotic reproductive isolation assessed only the number of failed matings (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006). Here, we additionally measure mating speed (the period of time between combining the male and female to the onset of copulation) and copulation duration (time from initiation of copulation to its termination), two well-studied traits in D. pseudoobscura (Kaul & Parsons, 1965; Parsons & Kaul, 1966; Spiess et al., 1966; Kessler, 1968, 1969; Spiess, 1968; Parsons, 1974). Both traits are heritable in this species (Kessler, 1968, 1969). They also have been used to indicate reproductive isolation in other Drosophila species. Copulation duration in heterogamic matings between D. simulans females and D. mauritiana males is shorter than homogamic matings (Cobb et al., 1988; Price et al., 2001), mating speed is faster in homogamic compared to heterogamic crosses in the nasuta-albomicans Drosophila complex (Tanuja et al., 2001), and sexual isolation between D. santomea and D. yakuba is a function of both changes in mating speed and copulation duration (Coyne et al., 2002).
In allopatric populations of Drosophila, pre- and post-zygotic RI evolve at the same rate (Coyne & Orr, 1989, 1997). Post-zygotic measures of RI include hybrid inviability and sterility and in Drosophila, the initial appearance of these mechanisms follows Haldane's rule; that is, hybrid males, which is the heterogametic sex in Drosophila, are inviable and sterile (Coyne & Orr, 1989, 1997). We therefore also measured male 'hybrid' inviability and sterility in crosses between allopatric populations of the same experimental evolution treatment.
We provide specific predictions for these traits regarding the role of sexual conflict in generating RI that can be tested using experimentally evolved lines (Table 1). If sexual conflict promotes RI, then we predict that all measured variables in the C and P replicate populations will differ in allopatry compared to sympatry whereas responses should not differ between sympatric and allopatric M crosses. Following from other work on sexual conflict as a driver of RI (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006), different treatments should also vary in their responses as a consequence of sexual conflict, with predicted responses depending on the variable being measured (Table 1). Following 50 generations of selection, we found no evidence in any of our measured traits supporting these predictions for reproductive isolation driven by sexual conflict.
RI indicator trait | Prediction for treatment response | Prediction for comparisons of sympatric (s) and allopatric (a) populations | Rationale if conflict is a Driver of RI |
| |||
Mating speed | M < C < P | Ms = Ma; Cs < Ca; Ps < Pa | Due to the absence of conflict, females exposed to and mating with only a single male (M treatment) should be less reluctant to mate and so mating should be initiated faster than females from the moderate promiscuity (C), which is predicted to be faster than females from extreme promiscuity (P) populations. If conflict drives RI, then in the promiscuous treatments (C, P) allopatric females will not recognize males and so mating speed will be greater in allopatric crosses compared to sympatric crosses. |
Proportion of failed matings | M < C < P | Ms = Ma; Cs < Ca; Ps < Pa | Due to the absence of conflict, M females should be more willing to mate and so the proportion failing to mate should be less than C, then the P treatments. If conflict drives RI, then in the promiscuous treatments, C and P, allopatric females will not recognize males and so the proportion of failed matings will be greater in allopatric crosses compared to sympatric crosses. |
Copulation duration | M < C < P | Ms = Ma; Cs > Ca; Ps > Pa | Because copulation duration appears to be controlled by males in this species (Kaul & Parsons, 1965; Parsons & Kaul, 1966), sexual conflict associated with greater promiscuity should promote copulation durations that are longer. If conflict drives RI, then promiscuous allopatric males will not be able to manipulate females and therefore their copulation duration should be shorter compared to sympatric promiscuous males. |
F1 male inviability | M = C = P | Ms = Ma; Cs < Ca; Ps < Pa | Inviability should not differ between the treatments per se, however, if conflict generates RI, then in the promiscuous treatments allopatric crosses will result in post-zygotic RI. |
F1 male sterility | M = C = P | Ms = Ma; Cs < Ca; Ps < Pa | Sterility should not differ between the treatments per se, however, if conflict generates RI, then in the promiscuous treatments allopatric crosses will result in post-zygotic RI. |
Experimental evolution of Drosophila psuedoobscura and general experimental design
Our selection regime has been described in detail elsewhere (Crudgington et al., 2005) so we only highlight the design details here. We set up four replicate populations of each of three experimental evolution treatments; monogamous lines (M) in which one female is randomly housed with one male, control promiscuous treatment (C) in which one female is housed with one males, and an elevated promiscuity treatment (P) in which one female is housed with six males. Each experimental evolution population is maintained in family sizes of either 80 (M) or 40 (C, P). Doubling the family size within M lines was done to minimize inbreeding effects (Snook, 2001) and has been successful; there is no difference in microsatellite diversity between the treatments suggesting that Ne does not substantially differ between treatments (R. R. Snook, unpublished data). Replicate populations of each treatment were staggered when set up with replicate 1 oldest and replicate 4 youngest. Within the replicate populations of each treatment, 5-day-old virgin males and females are housed together for 10 days (one vial change after 5 days), after which adults are discarded. Subsequent virgin progeny are collected and used to propagate the next generation. Overall, generation time in these populations is 27 days. The replicate populations were derived from an original wild-caught population that we maintain in large equal sex ratio breeding groups in the laboratory. We refer to this as the ancestral population. Experimental virgin flies from these populations were collected by CO2 anaesthesia and housed in single sex groups, ten flies per food vial for 5 days until reproductive maturity.
We measured the traits outlined in Table 1 after 48–52 generations of experimental selection. Our experimental design mimicked the two previous experimental evolution studies testing whether sexual conflict drives RI (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006). This design is nested (Fig. 1) such that within each experimental evolution treatment (e.g. M, C or P), we either placed a 5-day-old virgin female and 5-day-old virgin male together from the same replicate population ('sympatric'; e.g. ♀M1 with ♂M1), or from different replicate populations ('allopatric'; e.g. ♀M1 with ♂M2, or ♂M3, or ♂M4) (Fig. 1). Therefore, within each experimental evolution treatment we have four crosses (one sympatric and three allopatric) replicated four times (Replicate populations 1–4). The sample size for sympatric crosses was 60 and each allopatric cross had 20 pairs for a total of 60 (Fig. 1). We refer to sympatric and allopatric crosses as 'cross-type'.
Pre-zygotic measures of reproductive isolation
In natural populations, it is likely that females are free to abandon costly or undesirable mating interactions. This scenario contrasts with laboratory trials in which each female is confined in a vial with a male. We therefore determined a threshold time within which to observe matings, which we defined as the time until 95% of a preliminary sample had mated. We determined the threshold by measuring mating speed (i.e. time to initiation of mating, measured in seconds) in a subsample of our populations and treatments using 27–32 pairs of 5-day-old virgin males and females. We placed one male and one female from the same treatment and replicate population together in a food vial and watched until mating occurred. One-way anova on log10-transformed data showed no difference among the different treatments in mating speed (F2,84 = 2.015, P = 0.140). The threshold was 586 s, approximately 10 min. In our experiment, we therefore watched pairs for 10 min to assess the number of successfully copulating pairs defined as those with a mating speed of 10 min or less, and classified those that failed to mate within this period as noncopulating.
Using our experimentally derived threshold, we assessed pre-zygotic measures of RI by placing a single 5-day-old virgin female and then a single 5-day-old virgin male in a food vial following the design outlined in Fig. 1. We performed these experiments within 60 min of the lights coming on in the incubator housing the flies. We determined the number of pairs copulating within the 10 min exposure threshold. When copulation occurred, we also measured mating speed and copulation duration. Pairs that had successfully mated were retained for 5 days and any productive vials were used subsequently to gain measures of post-zygotic RI.
Post-zygotic measures of reproductive isolation
Vials from all successful matings in the above experiment were kept and then scored subsequently for the presence or absence of male progeny (F1 male inviability). Of those vials in which male progeny enclosed, we took a random sample of 30 vials, collected one virgin male from each, and when they were 5 days old mated them to 5-day-old virgin females from the ancestral (noncoevolved) population. To determine F1 male sterility, we subsequently checked these vials for the presence or absence of larvae.
Statistical issues and analyses
Our experimental design mimics previous research that has used experimentally evolved populations to test incipient speciation arising from sexual conflict (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006). In these studies, all crosses were either within the same treatment and the same replicate population (which we refer to as the sympatry cross-type) or within the same treatment but between replicate populations (which we refer to as the allopatry cross-type). Importantly, for statistical interpretation, in all of these studies, crosses were always nested within a mating treatment (e.g. MxM, CxC and PxP for each replicate population; see Fig. 1) and never crossed among treatments. Given this design, we can ask if evolution under the same selection regime results in the same outcome; that is, we can compare the pattern between sympatry and allopatry within a treatment. However, because the design is nested (replicate population under cross-type), a statistical investigation of whether variation in sexual conflict yields a different effect on RI cannot be performed (i.e. you cannot statistically examine an interaction among selection regimes and cross-type). Previous studies (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006) have tested for this interaction despite it not having been experimentally performed and therefore the statistical model used in those studies is incorrect.
We used the following linear model to analyse our nested experimental design for mating speed and copulation duration (Fig. 1):
where yijk is the kth observation from the jth replicate population within the ith cross-type, μ is the overall mean of the response variable, αi is the effect of the sympatric or allopatric cross-type, and βj(i) is the replicate nested within cross type. Since cross-type is a fixed effect, αi is the difference between the overall mean and the mean for each cross-type. The nested factor, βj(i) is a random factor with zero mean and variance σ2, and ɛijk is the unexplained error associated with the kth observation from the jth replicate population within the ith cross-type. Regarding the potential role of sexual conflict as a driver of reproductive isolation, the hypothesis that we can test for all our variables is at the level of cross-type (see Table 1) and therefore the F-ratio for testing it has 1 degree of freedom in the numerator and 6 in the denominator. We cannot statistically test either the differences between the treatments or the interaction between treatments and cross-type. Sample sizes for mating speed and copulation duration varied among evolution treatments and cross-types as not all matings resulted in successful copulations. However, the level of imbalance was minor and the results from least squares analyses do not differ from restricted maximum likelihood and so we present the former. Each evolution treatment (M, C, or P) was analysed separately.
We used a G-test of independence (Sokal & Rohlf, 1995, pp. 715–724) to examine whether the number of failed matings depended on the cross-type for a given experimental evolution treatment, rather than the two-way anovas used incorrectly in previous studies. This test examines whether the different replicates within an evolution treatment vary in outcome and whether there are differences between cross-type within a given evolution treatment. Our tests of post-zygotic measures of RI, F1 male inviability and sterility, were designed to be tested using replicated G-tests as in the pre-zygotic mating success experiment above. However, for these traits, the level of failure was either non-existent (F1 male inviability) or low (F1 male sterility) so our analyses are limited.
Pre-zygotic reproductive isolation
We analysed the number of pairs that failed to mate using replicated G-tests. For each of the four replicate populations, we predicted that within a given evolution treatments (M, C, or P) the number of failed pairs should depend on cross-type (Table 1). This pattern is not observed (Table 2). In the M treatment, there was significant heterogeneity among the four replicates. Contrary to sexual conflict predictions (Table 1), there were significant differences between sympatric and allopatric crosses in two M replicates and furthermore, the two significant observations were opposite in direction (there were more failed matings in sympatry in replicate 2 whereas there were more failed matings in allopatry in replicate 4). In the C treatment, there was no significant heterogeneity indicating that all replicates responded similarly. However, contrary to predictions, there was no difference in the number of failed allopatric compared to sympatric matings (Table 1). In the P treatment, similar to M, there was significant heterogeneity, indicating no consistent pattern among the replicate populations and differences in response between cross-type that were opposite to those predicted if sexual conflict drives RI (Table 1). In none of the tests (M, C, or P) did the within-treatment pooled analyses differ significantly between sympatric and allopatric crosses (although C was marginally nonsignificant). Overall, there was no support for a greater likelihood of failed matings in allopatry than in sympatry for any of the evolution treatments.
Population | Mating type | G | d.f. | P-value | |
Sympatric | Allopatric | ||||
| |||||
Pooled | 57 | 67 | 1.088 | 1 | 0.297 |
Heterogeneity | 18.287 | 3 | 0.0004 | ||
Pooled | 57 | 40 | 3.750 | 1 | 0.053 |
Heterogeneity | 2.144 | 3 | 0.543 | ||
Pooled | 45 | 37 | 0.943 | 1 | 0.332 |
Heterogeneity | 8.683 | 3 | 0.034 |
We used separate mixed-effect nested anovas for each evolution treatment to test whether mating speed (time to initiation of mating) and copulation duration differed between allopatric and sympatric crosses (Table 1). Cross-type had no significant effect on mating speed in the M or C treatments (Fig. 2; Table 3a). In contrast, there was a significant difference in sympatric vs. allopatric matings in the P treatment (F1,6 = 7.525, P = 0.033; Table 3a), with faster mating speeds in allopatry than in sympatry (Fig. 2), contrary to what is predicted if sexual conflict drives RI. Cross-type had no significant effect on copulation duration for any treatment (Fig. 3; Table 3b).
Source | d.f. | MS | F | P-value | |
| |||||
(a) Mating speed | |||||
M | Cross-type | 1 | 0.0026 | 0.0071 | 0.9356 |
Replicate (Cross) | 6 | 0.3676 | |||
Residual | 348 | 0.1405 | |||
C | Cross-type | 1 | 0.5610 | 0.8824 | 0.3838 |
Replicate (Cross) | 6 | 0.6358 | |||
Residual | 375 | 0.1512 | |||
P | Cross-type | 1 | 2.2379 | 7.5072 | 0.0334 |
Replicate (Cross) | 6 | 0.2981 | |||
Residual | 390 | 0.1453 | |||
(b) Copulation duration | |||||
M | Cross-type | 1 | 0.3064 | 0.3632 | 0.5688 |
Replicate (Cross) | 6 | 0.8435 | |||
Residual | 322 | 0.0514 | |||
C | Cross-type | 1 | 0.2712 | 1.0261 | 0.3502 |
Replicate (Cross) | 6 | 0.2643 | |||
Residual | 342 | 0.0431 | |||
P | Cross-type | 1 | 0.1094 | 0.4709 | 0.5182 |
Replicate (Cross) | 6 | 0.2323 | |||
Residual | 370 | 0.0496 |
Post-zygotic reproductive isolation
Contrary to predictions regarding male inviability (Table 1), all matings resulted in the production of F1 male offspring thus no statistical test is necessary. This result provides no evidence of male inviability arising from allopatric crosses within any of the evolution treatments. Also contrary to predictions regarding male sterility (Table 1), the absence of larvae resulting from crosses between F1 males mated to ancestral females was observed in only 15 out of 720 vials, and were randomly distributed both among treatments and replicate populations and whether F1 males had derived from sympatric or allopatric crosses. Due to the small number of vials failing to produce larvae, a statistical analysis was not appropriate.
Our experimental manipulations of the strength of sexual selection and conflict have successfully shown the action of both (Crudgington et al., 2005; Snook et al., 2005; R. R. Snook & H. S. Crudgington, unpublished data). Therefore, following the predictions of a recent model (Gavrilets, 2000) and using the experimental designs of previous studies testing this idea (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006), we expected that a signature of incipient reproductive isolation would be associated with sexual conflict. However, after 50 generations of selection, which is longer than either of the previous studies, we see no evidence of either pre- or post-zygotic reproductive isolation as predicted by sexual conflict theory. In fact, when we do see variation in response between sympatric and allopatric crosses (Table 2; Fig. 2), they directly contradict the predictions of such theory. Our tests have been conservative, appropriately analysed, and we have examined more potential indices of RI than the previous studies (Martin & Hosken, 2003; Wigby & Chapman, 2006); we find nothing to indicate that rapid random changes have caused divergence in our populations experiencing higher levels of conflict compared to those with either lower levels of or absent conflict.
Several experimental factors, such as weak selection, insufficient evolutionary time, inbreeding, or not measuring the correct variable, could explain the lack of support for sexual conflict driving reproductive isolation in our study. However, we observed the action of sexual conflict by at least 21 generations of selection (Crudgington et al., 2005; R. R. Snook & H. S. Crudgington, unpublished data). Moreover, sexual selection on reproductive signalling appears to be strong. When we examined courtship song in our M, C and P treatments after 25 generations of selection, there were changes consistent with the action of sexual selection (Snook et al., 2005). We have controlled for differential levels of inbreeding among our evolution treatments through the experimental design (see Methods). Furthermore, not only we have measured more traits in more replicate populations than other studies but also we have measured those traits typically examined in studies of Drosophila reproductive isolation (Cobb et al., 1988; Coyne & Orr, 1989, 1997; Price et al., 2001; Tanuja et al., 2001; Coyne et al., 2002).
If sexual conflict is a strong engine of speciation, why then did we not observe incipient RI? We outline two potential explanations. First, if the mathematical model of sexual conflict and speciation is altered to incorporate costs associated with male manipulation and female resistance, then there is reduced potential for allopatric speciation to occur (Gavrilets et al., 2001). There are costs of reproduction for D. melanogaster males associated with increased mating activity, including wing vibrations and copulation attempts (Partridge & Farquhar, 1981; Cordts & Partridge, 1996). Male courtship costs are likely to be greater in populations undergoing more intense sexual conflict and indeed P D. pseudoobscura males court females more than M males (R. R. Snook & H. S. Crudgington, unpublished data). Such costs may mitigate the potential for conflict to generate RI in D. pseudoobscura. If such costs easily undermine any tendency to generate RI, then sexual conflict may not be as pervasive an engine of speciation as anticipated.
Second, the evolutionary trajectories of reproductive traits may not be arbitrary which would promote gene flow between populations. We see parallel evolution of courtship song in our replicate populations; that is the responses across all four replicate populations of each evolution treatment are qualitatively the same (Snook et al., 2005). The idea that sexual selection and conflict promotes RI is based on these selection pressures causing arbitrary (not parallel) trajectories in reproductive traits of allopatric populations. If male mating signals and coercion traits in replicate populations of the same sexual selection treatment fail to diverge along different trajectories as predicted, then individuals from these populations will not have different reproductive signals and therefore not have reproductive barriers to mating. We therefore would not expect to see RI in allopatric crosses. Parallel evolution of sexually selected traits has also been found in sticklebacks (Boughman et al., 2005). If parallel evolution of reproductive communication occurs frequently among allopatric populations then this will reduce the ability of sexual conflict, and sexual selection in general, to generate divergence and consequently RI.
In conclusion, understanding the forces that result in diversification has been problematic and burdened by the challenges of disentangling them (e.g. Coyne & Orr, 2004). Despite the current popularity of the idea that sexual conflict promotes speciation (e.g. Rice, 1998; Arnqvist et al., 2000; Gavrilets, 2000; Gavrilets et al., 2001), the available empirical evidence does not support this enthusiasm. While a comparative analysis has found correlative support for sexual conflict driving speciation (Arnqvist et al., 2000), there are interpretation issues with this result (Panhuis et al., 2001; Coyne & Orr, 2004) and other comparative work on birds (Morrow et al., 2003) and Goodeid fish (Ritchie et al., 2005) does not indicate that sexual conflict influences patterns of divergence. Although no prior study could compare across sexual selection treatments, within a treatment there are clear predictions regarding the trait response to sexual conflict as a driver of reproductive isolation (Table 1). In the three experimental evolution studies three different patterns of response have been seen; supportive (Martin & Hosken, 2003), no variation in response (Wigby & Chapman, 2006), and when responses are present, they are in opposite directions to those predicted by sexual conflict as a driver of RI (this study). Even if sexual conflict is a universal feature of promiscuous mating systems, it is not necessarily a widespread engine of speciation.
We thank NSF and NERC for funding, and Anthony Turner, Kate Hutchence, Daniel Bradshaw, Claire Cooper, Hannah Dixson, and Jen Stockdale for help during the experiment. The reviewers provided valuable comments that helped clarify our presentation.
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text:
Dr. James W. Kaehr, MD
Family Medicine, Madison Medical Center
- 214 Elm St
London, OH 43140 - 1 Office Location
- (740) 852-4100
Dr. James W. Kaehr graduated from the Ohio State University College of Medicine in 1995. He works in London, OH and specializes in Family Medicine. Dr. Kaehr is affiliated with Madison County Hospital.
Gender: Male
Years in Practice: 20 Years
Languages Spoken: English
Medical School: Ohio State University College of Medicine
Graduation Date: 1995
Hospital Affiliations: Madison County Hospital
Specialties: Family Medicine


text: Immediate family have the first level of responsibility to provide for the care of widows. The church is given responsibility to care for those widows who do not have family to make those provisions. The church is given specific instructions regarding the eligibility of those widows whom it becomes responsible for. The qualifications are given in regard to physical age, morals, and good works which are delineated for clarification. In summary, a godly woman over the age of 60 without family support who is a member of the local church would qualify for regular support by the church as needed including the financial and material realms.


text:
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Know how to use "fewer" and "less"? Find out.
word-forming element meaning "both, on both sides," from Latin ambi- "around, round about," from PIE *ambhi "around" (cf. Greek amphi "round about," Sanskrit abhitah "on both sides," Avestan aibi, Old English ymbe, German um, Gaulish ambi-, Old Irish imb- "round about, about," Old Church Slavonic oba, Lithuanian abu "both"). The PIE root probably is an ablative plural of *ant-bhi "from both sides," from *ant- "front, forehead" (see ante).
ambi- or ambo-pref. Both: ambilateral.


text:
Billing Questions?
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Lt. Commander
Join Date: Dec 2007
Posts: 120
# 127
I finally got a reply... all I can say is WTF! This is what is considered helpful, or "support"?
Issue Summary:
===== Ticket Submission Data =====
Game: Star Trek Online
Platform: Not Selected
Category: Account & Billing Services
My billing method keeps being declined, I have called my bank and this credit/debit card is good and valid. I have also used this exact same card for 4 other online games without incident. I have already been charged for the digital download, and would like to use the product I have already paid for.
Customer Service Responses:
I am sorry for any inconvenience or frustration this is causing you. I am not sure why your payment method is not working. Please attempt the purchase again or try a different payment method. Additionally the 30 days that came free with your purchase of the game have successfully been applied to your account. Thank you for playing, Cryptic Studios.
That's the exact copy and paste, so did the person reading my ticket actually notice that I said it "keeps being declined", maybe that was too subtle a hint that I had already tried again? Granted, I do not have a maters's degree in business administration, but it seems to me I would want my company to be as adaptable at receiving money as possible and not have customers jumping through hoops to pay me by telling them to "try a different payment method".
If I were the only one having an issue getting payment to go through, I could understand this customer service rep telling me they are "not sure" why my payment method is not working, however there are numerous threads and post, some over a year old detailing others with the same issue.
So I guess in the end I will keep searching these forums for any updates that might help answer the issue we are having, hope some of you had better luck with this.


text:
Scoring TDs inside 20 a priority
September 27, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Five things to look for as Penn State looks to remain unbeaten and welcomes back thousands of alumni for homecoming against Northwestern. No. more »»
Patience a virtue for RB Lynch
September 24, 2014 Akeel Lynch will be the man in Penn State's running game – next year. For now, as he continues to play behind seniors Bill Belton and Zach Zwinak, Lynch has no choice but to be patient. more »»
Ground game gets untracked in rout of UMass
September 21, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Blowouts are a blast, but they don't always serve a clear purpose for some teams. more »»
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September 21, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Bill Belton was enduring his postgame media request Saturday evening until a question came up concerning what he liked best about the Nittany Lions' 48-7 waltz over Massachusetts i... more »»
UMass-PSU highlights, lowlights
September 21, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Following are the highlights and lowlights from Penn State's 48-7 victory over Massachusetts on Saturday at Beaver Stadium: Play of the game: With Penn State leading 13-0, Nyeem... more »»
Offensive line finally gets chance to flex muscles
September 21, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Penn State's offensive linemen has taken a lot of shots in the first three games of the season. They decided to dish out a few in a 48-7 win over visiting UMass. more »»
UMass-Penn State notebook
September 21, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Penn State's defensive players have a knack for being ready to play at a high level right out of the gate, and they continued that Saturday by holding an opponent scoreless in the... more »»
Reserve quarterback makes most of his Penn State moment
September 21, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — D.J. Crook had a hoarse voice after Penn State's 48-7 win over UMass on Saturda. more »»
UMass-PSU scoring summary
September 21, 2014 FIRST QUARTER Penn State 3, UMass 0: The Minutemen put together a nice opening drive, sparked by an 18-yard reverse by PSU transfer and State College native Alex Kenney. more »»
Committing to run critical for PSU
September 20, 2014 By Cory Giger email@example.com Five things to look for as Penn State looks to improve to 4-0 as a heavy favorite against what appears to be an overmatched UMass team. N. more »»
Penn State crushes UMass, 48-7
September 20, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK -- Penn State (4-0) remained unbeaten by clobbering UMass on Saturday, 48-7, finally getting its running game going and taking advantage of its superior talent across the board... more »»
Rudel: Is Zwinak forgotten man?
September 20, 2014 Some gameday notes and observations while thinking this is the first 4 p.m. more »»
Issues on O-line easy to pinpoint
September 17, 2014 UNIVERSITY PARK — Penn State is 3-0 and favored by nearly four touchdowns this week, and in a sport where winning is all that matters, those are undeniably positive facts. more »»
Shoop's defense main reason Lions 3-0
September 15, 2014 Looking back on Saturday and ahead to this week and beyond for the Penn State football team. Looking back n Five things to like: 1. more »»
Hackenberg shows greatness
September 14, 2014 PISCATAWAY, N.J. — The great ones have short memories and thrive best in the clutch. more »»
Rutgers-PSU notebook
September 14, 2014 Lions intercept five passes PISCATAWAY, N.J. — Penn State's defense had a great night against Rutgers senior quarterback Gary Nova, intercepting five passes. more »»
PSU-Rutgers highlights, lowlights
September 14, 2014 PISCATAWAY, N.. more »»
Penn State-Rutgers scoring summary
September 14, 2014 SECOND QUARTER Rutgers 7, Penn State 0: PSU's Sam Ficken had a 34-yard field-goal try blocked by Kemoko Turay, and Rutgers drove 80 yards on the ensuing possession for a TD. more »»
Hawkeyes upset by state rival
September 14, 2014 IOWA CITY, Iowa — Cole Netten hit a 42-yard field goal with two seconds left and Iowa State rallied to beat Iowa 20-17 on Saturday, picking up its first win of the season. more »» |
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text: I don't normally review chain restaurants. But I have to make an exception! I was working with high schoolers on a holiday musical and they had a fairly short break in between shows to get dinner. We dashed out and I decided that 4 pm at Olive Garden would probably not be very busy and the kids could carb up... More


text:
Mount Sinai Hospital (Hartford)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mount Sinai Hospital in Hartford, Connecticut was a hospital founded in 1923. In 1995 it merged with Saint Francis Hospital & Medical Center. The facilities that once housed the hospital are now designated as the Mount Sinai Campus of Saint Francis Care.
- In 1923, the Jewish community organized Mount Sinai Hospital, the city's third general hospital. In 1990, the hospital became affiliated with Saint Francis to create a regional health system. It was the first recorded instance of collaboration between a Catholic and Jewish hospital in U.S. history. The two institutions completed the formal merger.
- In 1990, Saint Francis made history when it affiliated with Mount Sinai Hospital, the first recorded collaboration between a Catholic and a Jewish-sponsored hospital in the United States. Five years later, a formal corporate merger was completed. Today, the Mount Sinai Campus is a vital component of Saint Francis Care, a dynamic integrated health care delivery system.
Coordinates: 41°46′24″N 72°41′59″W / 41.7733°N 72.6997°W
This article relating to a hospital in Connecticut is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |


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