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Potential energy is the capacity for doing work that a body possesses because of its position or condition. For example, a stone resting on the edge of a cliff has potential energy due to its position in the earth's gravitational field. If it falls, the force of gravity (which is equal to the stone's weight; see gravitation) will act on it until it strikes the ground; the stone's potential energy is equal to its weight times the distance it can fall. A charge in an electric field also has potential energy because of its position; a stretched spring has potential energy because of its condition. Chemical energy is a special kind of potential energy; it is the form of energy involved in chemical reactions. The chemical energy of a substance is due to the condition of the atoms of which it is made; it resides in the chemical bonds that join the atoms in compound substances (see chemical bond).
Kinetic energy is energy a body possesses because it is in motion. The kinetic energy of a body with mass m moving at a velocity v is one half the product of the mass of the body and the square of its velocity, i.e., KE = 1/2mv2. Even when a body appears to be at rest, its atoms and molecules are in constant motion and thus have kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules is measured by the temperature of the body.
The difference between kinetic energy and potential energy, and the conversion of one to the other, is demonstrated by the falling of a rock from a cliff, when its energy of position is changed to energy of motion. Another example is provided in the movements of a simple pendulum (see harmonic motion). As the suspended body moves upward in its swing, its kinetic energy is continuously being changed into potential energy; the higher it goes the greater becomes the energy that it owes to its position. At the top of the swing the change from kinetic to potential energy is complete, and in the course of the downward motion that follows the potential energy is in turn converted to kinetic energy.
It is common for energy to be converted from one form to another; however, the law of conservation of energy, a fundamental law of physics, states that although energy can be changed in form it can be neither created nor destroyed (see conservation laws). The theory of relativity shows, however, that mass and energy are equivalent and thus that one can be converted into the other. As a result, the law of conservation of energy includes both mass and energy.
Many transformations of energy are of practical importance. Combustion of fuels results in the conversion of chemical energy into heat and light. In the electric storage battery chemical energy is converted to electrical energy and conversely. In the photosynthesis of starch, green plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy. Hydroelectric facilities convert the kinetic energy of falling water into electrical energy, which can be conveniently carried by wires to its place of use (see power, electric). The force of a nuclear explosion results from the partial conversion of matter to energy (see nuclear energy).
An early source of energy, or prime mover, used by humans was animal power, i.e., the energy obtained from domesticated animals. Later, as civilization developed, wind power was harnessed to drive ships and turn windmills, and streams and rivers were diverted to turn water wheels (see water power). The rotating shaft of a windmill or water wheel could then be used to crush grain, to raise water from a well, or to serve any number of other uses. The motion of the wind and water, as well as the motion of the wheel or shaft, represents a form of mechanical energy. The source of animal power is ultimately the chemical energy contained in foods and released when digested by humans and animals. The chemical energy contained in wood and other combustible fuels has served since the beginning of history as a source of heat for cooking and warmth. At the start of the Industrial Revolution, water power was used to provide energy for factories through systems of belts and pulleys that transmitted the energy to many different machines.
Heat EnergyThe invention of the steam engine, which converts the chemical energy of fuels into heat energy and the heat into mechanical energy, provided another source of energy. The steam engine is called an external-combustion engine, since fuel is burned outside the engine to create the steam used inside it. During the 19th cent. the internal-combustion engine was developed; a variety of fuels, depending on the type of internal-combustion engine, are burned directly in the engine's chambers to provide a source of mechanical energy. Both steam engines and internal-combustion engines found application as stationary sources of power for different purposes and as mobile sources for transportation, as in the steamship, the railroad locomotive (both steam and diesel), and the automobile. All these sources of energy ultimately depend on the combustion of fuels for their operation.
Electrical EnergyEarly in the 19th cent. another source of energy was developed that did not necessarily need the combustion of fuels—the electric generator, or dynamo. The generator converts the mechanical energy of a conductor moving in a magnetic field into electrical energy, using the principle of electromagnetic induction. The great advantage of electrical energy, or electric power, as it is commonly called, is that it can be transmitted easily over great distances (see power, electric). As a result, it is the most widely used form of energy in modern civilization; it is readily converted to light, to heat, or, through the electric motor, to mechanical energy again. The large-scale production of electrical energy was made possible by the invention of the turbine, which efficiently converts the straight-line motion of falling water or expanding steam into the rotary motion needed to turn the rotor of a large generator.
Nuclear EnergyThe development of nuclear energy made available another source of energy. The heat of a nuclear reactor can be used to produce steam, which then can be directed through a turbine to drive an electric generator, the propellers of a large ship, or some other machine. In 1999, 23% of the electricity generated in the United States derived from nuclear reactors; however, since the 1980s, the construction and application of nuclear reactors in the United States has slowed because of concern about the dangers of the resulting radioactive waste and the possibility of a disastrous nuclear meltdown (see Three Mile Island; Chernobyl).
The demand for energy has increased steadily, not only because of the growing population but also because of the greater number of technological goods available and the increased affluence that has brought these goods within the reach of a larger proportion of the population. For example, despite the introduction of more fuel-efficient motor vehicles (average miles per gallon increased by 34% between 1975 and 1990), the consumption of fuel by vehicles in America increased by 20% between 1975 and 1990. The rise in gasoline consumption is attributable to an increase in the number of miles the average vehicle traveled and to a 40% increase in the same period in the number of vehicles on the road. Since 1990 average fuel efficiency has changed relatively little, while the number of vehicles, the number of miles they travel, and the total amount of fuel consumed has continued to increase.
As a result of the increase in the consumption of energy, concern has risen about the depletion of natural resources, both those used directly to produce energy and those damaged during the exploitation of the fuels or as a result of contamination by energy waste products (see under conservation of natural resources). Most of the energy consumed is ultimately generated by the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, and the world has only a finite supply of these fuels, which are in danger of being used up. Also, the combustion of these fuels releases various pollutants (see pollution), such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, which pose health risks and may contribute to acid rain and global warming. In addition, environmentalists have become increasingly alarmed at the widespread destruction imposed on sensitive wildlands (e.g., the tropical rain forests, the arctic tundra, and coastal marshes) during the exploitation of their resources.
The environmental consequences of energy production have led many nations in the world to impose stricter guidelines on the production and consumption of energy. Further, the search for new sources of energy and more efficient means of employing energy has accelerated. The development of a viable nuclear fusion reactor is often cited as a possible solution to our energy problems. Presently, nuclear-energy plants use nuclear fission, which requires scarce and expensive fuels and produces potentially dangerous wastes. The fuel problem has been partly helped by the development of breeder reactors, which produce more nuclear fuel than they consume, but the long-term hopes for nuclear energy rest on the development of controlled sources using nuclear fusion rather than fission. The basic fuels for fusion are extremely plentiful (e.g., hydrogen, from water) and the end products are relatively safe. The basic problem, which is expected to take decades to solve, is in containing the fuels at the extremely high temperatures necessary to initiate and sustain nuclear fusion.
Another source of energy is solar energy. The earth receives huge amounts of energy every day from the sun, but the problem has been harnessing this energy so that it is available at the appropriate time and in the appropriate form. For example, solar energy is received only during the daylight hours, but more heat and electricity for lighting are needed at night. Despite technological advances in photovoltaic cells, solar energy has not become a more significantly more financially competitive source of energy. Although several solar thermal power plants are now in operation in California, they are not yet able to compete with conventional power plants on an economic basis.
Some scientists have suggested using the earth's internal heat as a source of energy. Geothermal energy is released naturally in geysers and volcanoes. In California, some of the state's electricity is generated by the geothermal plant complex known as the Geysers, which has been in production since 1960, and in Iceland, which is geologically very active, roughly 90% of the homes are heated by geothermal energy. Still another possible energy source is tidal energy. A few systems have been set up to harness the energy released in the twice-daily ebb and flow of the ocean's tides, but they have not been widely used, because they cannot operate turbines continuously and because they must be built specifically for each site.
Another direction of research and experimentation is in the search for alternatives to gasoline. Possibilities include methanol, which can be produced from wood, coal, or natural gas; ethanol, an alcohol produced from grain, sugarcane, and other agriculture plants and currently used in some types of U.S. motor fuel (e.g., gasohol and E85, a mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline); compressed natural gas, which is much less polluting than gasoline and is currently used by a 1.5 million vehicles around the world; and electricity, which if ever practicable would be cheaper and less polluting, especially if derived from solar energy, rather than gasoline.
See G. R. Harrison, The Conquest of Energy (1968); F. Barnaby, Man and the Atom: The Uses of Nuclear Energy (1971); W. G. Steltz and A. M. Donaldson, Aero-Thermodynamics of Steam Turbines (1981); T. N. Veziroglu, ed., Alternative Sources of Energy (1983 and 1985) and Renewable Energy Sources (Vol. 4, 1984); G. L. Johnson, Wind Energy Systems (1985).
Vibrational energy retained by molecules even at a temperature of absolute zero. Since temperature is a measure of the intensity of molecular motion, molecules would be expected to come to rest at absolute zero. However, if molecular motion were to cease altogether, the atoms would each have a precisely known location and velocity (zero), and the uncertainty principle states that this cannot occur, since precise values of both position and velocity of an object cannot be known simultaneously. Thus, even molecules at absolute zero must have some zero-point energy.
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Energy released from atomic nuclei in significant amounts. In 1919 Ernest Rutherford discovered that alpha rays could split the nucleus of an atom. This led ultimately to the discovery of the neutron and the release of huge amounts of energy by the process of nuclear fission. Nuclear energy is also released as a result of nuclear fusion. The release of nuclear energy can be controlled or uncontrolled. Nuclear reactors carefully control the release of energy, whereas the energy release of a nuclear weapon or resulting from a core meltdown in a nuclear reactor is uncontrolled. Seealso chain reaction, nuclear power, radioactivity.
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Internal energy of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium (see thermodynamics) by virtue of its temperature. A hot body has more thermal energy than a similar cold body, but a large tub of cold water may have more thermal energy than a cup of boiling water. Thermal energy can be transferred from one body, usually hotter, to a second body, usually colder, in three ways: conduction (see thermal conduction), convection, and radiation.
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Radiation from the Sun that can produce heat, generate electricity, or cause chemical reactions. Solar collectors collect solar radiation and transfer it as heat to a carrier fluid. It can then be used for heating. Solar cells convert solar radiation directly into electricity by means of the photovoltaic effect. Solar energy is inexhaustible and nonpolluting, but converting solar radiation to electricity is not yet commercially competitive, because of the high cost of producing large-scale solar cell arrays and the inherent inefficiency in converting light to electricity.
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Energy stored by an object by virtue of its position. For example, an object raised above the ground acquires potential energy equal to the work done against the force of gravity; the energy is released as kinetic energy when it falls back to the ground. Similarly, a stretched spring has stored potential energy that is released when the spring is returned to its unstretched state. Other forms of potential energy include electrical potential energy, chemical energy, and nuclear energy.
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Sum of a system's kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy (PE). Mechanical energy is constant in a system that experiences no dissipative forces such as friction or air resistance. For example, a swinging pendulum that experiences only gravitation has greatest KE and least PE at the lowest point on the path of its swing, where its speed is greatest and its height least. It has least KE and greatest PE at the extremities of its swing, where its speed is zero and its height is greatest. As it moves, energy is continuously passing back and forth between the two forms. Neglecting friction and air resistance, the pendulum's mechanical energy is constant.
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Relationship between mass (math.m) and energy (math.E) in Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, expressed math.E = math.mmath.c2, where math.c equals 186,000 mi/second (300,000 km/second), the speed of light. Whereas mass and energy were viewed as distinct in earlier physical theories, in special relativity a body's mass can be converted into energy in accordance with Einstein's formula. Such a release of energy decreases the body's mass (see conservation law).
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Form of energy that an object has by reason of its motion. The kind of motion may be translation (motion along a path from one place to another), rotation about an axis, vibration, or any combination of motions. The total kinetic energy of a body or system is equal to the sum of the kinetic energies resulting from each type of motion. The kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and velocity. For instance, the amount of kinetic energy math.Kmath.E of an object in translational motion is equal to one-half the product of its mass math.m and the square of its velocity math.v, or math.Kmath.E =
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Amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule. There is an ionization potential for each successive electron removed, though that associated with removing the first (most loosely held) electron is most commonly used. The ionization potential of an element is a measure of its ability to enter into chemical reactions requiring ion formation or donation of electrons and is related to the nature of the chemical bonding in the compounds formed by elements. Seealso binding energy, ionization.
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Ratio of the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a body one degree to that required to raise the temperature of an equal mass of water one degree. The term is also used to mean the amount of heat, in calories, required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one Celsius degree.
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Amount of heat that must be added or removed during a chemical reaction to keep all substances involved at the same temperature. If it is positive (heat must be added), the reaction is endothermic; if it is negative (heat is given off), the reaction is exothermic. Accurate heat of reaction values are needed for proper design of equipment used in chemical processes; they are usually estimated from compiled tables of thermodynamics data (heats of formation and heats of combustion of many known materials). The activation energy is unrelated to the heat of reaction.
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Characteristic amount of energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in physical state that occurs without a change in temperature. Heat of fusion is the latent heat associated with melting a solid or freezing a liquid. Heat of vaporization is the latent heat associated with vapourizing a liquid or condensing (see condensation) a vapour. For example, when water reaches its boiling point and is kept boiling, it remains at that temperature until it has all evaporated; all the heat added to the water is absorbed as latent heat of vaporization and is carried away by the escaping vapour molecules.
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Device for transferring heat from a substance or space at one temperature to another at a higher temperature. It consists of a compressor, a condenser, a throttle or expansion valve, an evaporator, and a working fluid (refrigerant). The compressor delivers vapourized refrigerant to the condenser in the space to be heated. There, cooler air condenses the refrigerant and becomes heated during the process. The liquid refrigerant then enters the throttle valve and expands, coming out as a liquid-vapour mixture at a lower temperature and pressure. It then enters the evaporator, where the liquid is evaporated by contact with the warmer space. The vapour then passes to the compressor and the cycle is repeated. A heat pump is a reversible system and is commonly used both to heat and to cool buildings. It operates on the same thermodynamic principles as refrigeration.
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Any of several devices that transfer heat from a hot to a cold fluid. In many engineering applications, one fluid needs to be heated and another cooled, a requirement economically accomplished by a heat exchanger. In double-pipe exchangers, one fluid flows inside the inner pipe, and the other in the annular space between the two pipes. In shell-and-tube exchangers, many tubes are mounted inside a shell; one fluid flows in the tubes and the other flows in the shell, outside the tubes. Special-purpose devices such as boilers, evaporators, superheaters, condensers, and coolers are all heat exchangers. Heat exchangers are used extensively in fossil-fuel and nuclear power plants, gas turbines, heating and air conditioning, refrigeration, and the chemical industry. Seealso cooling system.
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Ratio of heat absorbed by a material to the change in temperature. It is usually expressed as calories per degree in terms of the amount of the material being considered. Heat capacity and its temperature variation depend on differences in energy levels for atoms. Heat capacities are measured with a calorimeter and are important as a means of determining the entropies of materials. Seealso specific heat.
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Energy transferred from one body to another as the result of a difference in temperature. Heat flows from a hotter body to a colder body when the two bodies are brought together. This transfer of energy usually results in an increase in the temperature of the colder body and a decrease in that of the hotter body. A substance may absorb heat without an increase in temperature as it changes from one phase to another—that is, when it melts or boils. The distinction between heat (a form of energy) and temperature (a measure of the amount of energy) was clarified in the 19th century by such scientists as J.-B. Fourier, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Ludwig Boltzmann.
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Power obtained by using heat from the Earth's interior. Most geothermal resources are in regions of active volcanism. Hot springs, geysers, pools of boiling mud, and fumaroles are the most easily exploited sources. The ancient Romans used hot springs to heat baths and homes, and similar uses are still found in Iceland, Turkey, and Japan. Geothermal energy's greatest potential lies in the generation of electricity. It was first used to produce electric power in Italy in 1904. Today geothermal power plants are in operation in New Zealand, Japan, Iceland, Mexico, the U.S., and elsewhere.
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Measure of the total combined energies within a system, derived from heats of transformation, disorder, and other forms of internal energy (e.g., electrostatic charges). A system will change spontaneously to achieve a lower total free energy. Thus, free energy is the driving force toward equilibrium conditions. The change in free energy between an initial and a final state is useful in evaluating certain thermodynamic processes and can be used to judge whether transformations will occur spontaneously. There are two forms of free energy, with different definitions and applications: the Helmholtz (see Hermann von Helmholtz) free energy, sometimes called the work function, and the Gibbs (see J. Willard Gibbs) free energy.
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Law of statistical mechanics stating that, in a system in thermal equilibrium, on average, an equal amount of energy is associated with each independent energy state. It states specifically that a system of particles in equilibrium at absolute temperature math.T will have an average energy of
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Principle of physics according to which the energy of interacting bodies or particles in a closed system remains constant, though it may take different forms (e.g., kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal energy, energy in an electric current, or energy stored in an electric field, in a magnetic field, or in chemical bonds [see bonding]). With the advent of relativity physics in 1905, mass was recognized as equivalent to energy. When accounting for a system of high-speed particles whose mass increases as a consequence of their speed, the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of mass become one conservation law. Seealso Hermann von Helmholtz.
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In chemistry and physics, a theoretical model describing the states of electrons in solid materials, which can have energy values only within certain specific ranges, called bands. Ranges of energy between two allowed bands are called forbidden bands. As electrons in an atom move from one energy level to another, so can electrons in a solid move from an energy level in one band to another in the same band or in another band. The band theory accounts for many of the electrical and thermal properties of solids and forms the basis of the technology of devices such as semiconductors, heating elements, and capacitors (see capacitance).
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Energy required to separate a particle from a system of particles or to disperse all the particles of a system. Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to separate an atomic nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons. It is also the energy that would be released by combining individual protons and neutrons into a single nucleus. Electron binding energy, or ionization potential, is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom, molecule, or ion, and also the energy released when an electron joins an atom, molecule, or ion. The binding energy of a single proton or neutron in a nucleus is about a million times greater than that of a single electron in an atom.
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Minimum amount of energy (heat, electromagnetic radiation, or electrical energy) required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which it is equally likely that they will undergo chemical reaction or transport as it is that they will return to their original state. Chemists posit a transition state between the initial conditions and the product conditions and theorize that the activation energy is the amount of energy required to boost the initial materials "uphill" to the transition state; the reaction then proceeds "downhill" to form the product materials. Catalysts (including enzymes) lower the activation energy by altering the transition state. Activation energies are determined by experiments that measure them as the constant of proportionality in the equation describing the dependence of reaction rate on temperature, proposed by Svante Arrhenius. Seealso entropy, heat of reaction.
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International organization officially founded in 1957 to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy. Based in Vienna, its activities include research on the applicability of nuclear energy to medicine, agriculture, water resources, and industry; provision of technical assistance; development of radiation safeguards; and public relations programs. Following the Persian Gulf War, IAEA inspectors were called on to certify that Iraq was not manufacturing nuclear weapons. The IAEA and its director general, Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 2005.
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International organization established in 1958 to form a common market for developing peaceful uses of atomic energy. It originally had six members; it now includes all members of the European Union. Among its aims were to facilitate the establishment of a nuclear energy industry on a European rather than a national scale, coordinate research, encourage construction of power plants, establish safety regulations, and establish a common market for trade in nuclear equipment and materials. In 1967 its governing bodies were merged into the European Community.
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Several different forms of energy, including, but not limited to, kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound energy, light energy, elastic, electromagnetic, chemical, nuclear, and mass have been defined to explain all known natural phenomena.
While one form of energy may be transformed to another, the total energy remains the same. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time.
Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy relative to the earth.
The concept of energy emerged out of the idea of vis viva, which Leibniz defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz claimed that heat consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter — a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. In 1807, Thomas Young was the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy." It was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the caloric) or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum.
He[who?] amalgamated all of these laws into the laws of thermodynamics, which aided in the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes using the concept of energy by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan.
During a 1961 lecture for undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology, Richard Feynman, a celebrated physics teacher and Nobel Laureate, said this about the concept of energy:
There is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing natural phenomena that are known to date. There is no known exception to this law; it is exact, so far we know. The law is called conservation of energy; it states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity, which does not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number, and when we finish watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same.| | |The Feynman Lectures on Physics
Since 1918 it has been known that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem).
The concept of energy is widespread in all sciences.
Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy which has been available since the Big Bang, later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available.
Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released which was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process which ultimately uses the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs. In a slower process, heat from nuclear decay of these atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat, which in turn may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the heat energy, which may be released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store which has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy which has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks; but prior to this, represents energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed stars created these atoms.
In another similar chain of transformations beginning at the dawn of the universe, nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy which can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight. Such sunlight from our Sun may again be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbine/generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement. Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy, when carbon dioxide and water are converted into a combustible combination of carbohydrates, lipids, and oxygen. Release of this energy as heat and light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire; or it may be available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action. Through all of these transformation chains, potential energy stored at the time of the Big Bang is later released by intermediate events, sometimes being stored in a number of ways over time between releases, as more active energy. In all these events, one kind of energy is converted to other types of energy, including heat.
In classical physics energy is considered a scalar quantity, the canonical conjugate to time. In special relativity energy is also a scalar (although not a Lorentz scalar but a time component of the energy-momentum 4-vector). In other words, energy is invariant with respect to rotations of space, but not invariant with respect to rotations of space-time (= boosts).
if there are no other energy-transfer processes involved. Here is the amount of energy transferred, and represents the work done on the system.
More generally, the energy transfer can be split into two categories:
where represents the heat flow into the system.
There are other ways in which an open system can gain or lose energy. In chemical systems, energy can be added to a system by means of adding substances with different chemical potentials, which potentials are then extracted (both of these process are illustrated by fueling an auto, a system which gains in energy thereby, without addition of either work or heat). Winding a clock would be adding energy to a mechanical system. These terms may be added to the above equation, or they can generally be subsumed into a quantity called "energy addition term " which refers to any type of energy carried over the surface of a control volume or system volume. Examples may be seen above, and many others can be imagined (for example, the kinetic energy of a stream of particles entering a system, or energy from a laser beam adds to system energy, without either being either work-done or heat-added, in the classic senses).
Where E in this general equation represents other additional advected energy terms not covered by work done on a system, or heat added to it.
Energy is also transferred from potential energy () to kinetic energy () and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy can not be created or destroyed, so the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:
The equation can then be simplified further since (mass times acceleration due to gravity times the height) and (half times mass times velocity squared). Then the total amount of energy can be found by adding .
Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (like systems with friction).
Type | Composition of Internal Energy (U) |
Sensible energy | the portion of the internal energy of a system associated with kinetic energies (molecular translation, rotation, and vibration; electron translation and spin; and nuclear spin) of the molecules. |
Latent energy | the internal energy associated with the phase of a system. |
Chemical energy | the internal energy associated with the different kinds of aggregation of atoms in matter. |
Nuclear energy | the tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself. |
Energy interactions | those types of energies not stored in the system (e.g. heat transfer, mass transfer, and work), but which are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, which represent gains or losses by a system during a process. |
Thermal energy | the sum of sensible and latent forms of internal energy. |
where the first term on the right is the heat transfer into the system, defined in terms of temperature T and entropy S (in which entropy increases and the change dS is positive when the system is heated); and the last term on the right hand side is identified as "work" done on the system, where pressure is P and volume V (the negative sign results since compression of the system requires work to be done on it and so the volume change, dV, is negative when work is done on the system). Although this equation is the standard text-book example of energy conservation in classical thermodynamics, it is highly specific, ignoring all chemical, electric, nuclear, and gravitational forces, effects such as advection of any form of energy other than heat, and because it contains a term that depends on temperature. The most general statement of the first law (i.e., conservation of energy) is valid even in situations in which temperature is undefinable.
Energy is sometimes expressed as:
which is unsatisfactory because there cannot exist any thermodynamic state functions W or Q that are meaningful on the right hand side of this equation, except perhaps in trivial cases.
This principle is vitally important to understanding the behavior of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (= is given new available energy states which are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics.
In a solid, thermal energy (often referred to loosely as heat content) can be accurately described by an ensemble of thermal phonons that act as mechanical oscillators. In this model, thermal energy is equally kinetic and potential.
In an ideal gas, the interaction potential between particles is essentially the delta function which stores no energy: thus, all of the thermal energy is kinetic.
Because an electric oscillator (LC circuit) is analogous to a mechanical oscillator, its energy must be, on average, equally kinetic and potential. It is entirely arbitrary whether the magnetic energy is considered kinetic and the electric energy considered potential, or vice versa. That is, either the inductor is analogous to the mass while the capacitor is analogous to the spring, or vice versa.
The two analyses are entirely consistent. The electric and magnetic degrees of freedom in item 1 are transverse to the direction of motion, while the speed in item 2 is along the direction of motion. For non-relativistic particles these two notions of potential versus kinetic energy are numerically equal, so the ambiguity is harmless, but not so for relativistic particles.
Work is roughly force times distance. But more precisely, it is
This says that the work () is equal to the integral (along a certain path) of the force; for details see the mechanical work article.
Work and thus energy is frame dependent. For example, consider a ball being hit by a bat. In the center-of-mass reference frame, the bat does no work on the ball. But, in the reference frame of the person swinging the bat, considerable work is done on the ball.
For example, consider electron-positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process - the inverse process is called pair creation - in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons.
In general relativity, the stress-energy tensor serves as the source term for the gravitational field, in rough analogy to the way mass serves as the source term in the non-relativistic Newtonian approximation.
It is not uncommon to hear that energy is "equivalent" to mass. It would be more accurate to state that every energy has inertia and gravity equivalent, and because mass is a form of energy, then mass too has inertia and gravity associated with it.
Classical mechanics distinguishes between potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object, and kinetic energy, which is a function of its movement. Both position and movement are relative to a frame of reference, which must be specified: this is often (and originally) an arbitrary fixed point on the surface of the Earth, the terrestrial frame of reference. It has been attempted to categorize all forms of energy as either kinetic or potential: this is not incorrect, but neither is it clear that it is a real simplification, as Feynman points out:
Mechanical energy is converted | |
into | by |
Mechanical energy | Lever |
Thermal energy | Brakes |
Electric energy | Dynamo |
Electromagnetic radiation | Synchrotron |
Chemical energy | Matches |
Nuclear energy | Particle accelerator |
The name "potential" energy originally signified the idea that the energy could readily be transferred as work—at least in an idealized system (reversible process, see below). This is not completely true for any real system, but is often a reasonable first approximation in classical mechanics.
The general equation above can be simplified in a number of common cases, notably when dealing with gravity or with elastic forces.
A more general expression for the potential energy due to Newtonian gravitation between two bodies of masses m1 and m2, useful in astronomy, is
Elastic potential energy is defined as a work needed to compress (or expand) a spring. The force, F, in a spring or any other system which obeys Hooke's law is proportional to the extension or compression, x,
This equation reduces to the one above it, at small (compared to c) speed. A mathematical by-product of this work (which is immediately seen in the last equation) is that even at rest a mass has the amount of energy equal to:
This energy is thus called rest mass energy.
Thermal energy is converted | |
into | by |
Mechanical energy | Steam turbine |
Thermal energy | Heat exchanger |
Electric energy | Thermocouple |
Electromagnetic radiation | Hot objects |
Chemical energy | Blast furnace |
Nuclear energy | Supernova |
Thermal energy (of some media - gas, plasma, solid, etc) is the energy associated with the microscopical random motion of particles constituting the media. For example, in case of monoatomic gas it is just a kinetic energy of motion of atoms of gas as measured in the reference frame of the center of mass of gas. In case of many-atomic gas rotational and vibrational energy is involved. In the case of liquids and solids there is also potential energy (of interaction of atoms) involved, and so on.
A heat is defined as a transfer (flow) of thermal energy across certain boundary (for example, from a hot body to cold via the area of their contact. A practical definition for small transfers of heat is
Despite the theoretical problems, the above definition is useful in the experimental measurement of energy changes. In a wide variety of situations, it is possible to use the energy released by a system to raise the temperature of another object, e.g. a bath of water. It is also possible to measure the amount of electric energy required to raise the temperature of the object by the same amount. The calorie was originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 °C (approximately 4.1855 J, although the definition later changed), and the British thermal unit was defined as the energy required to heat one pound of water by 1 °F (later fixed as 1055.06 J).
Electric energy is converted | |
into | by |
Mechanical energy | Electric motor |
Thermal energy | Resistor |
Electric energy | Transformer |
Electromagnetic radiation | Light-emitting diode |
Chemical energy | Electrolysis |
Nuclear energy | Synchrotron |
The electric potential energy of given configuration of charges is defined as the work which must be done against the Coulomb force to rearrange charges from infinite separation to this configuration (or the work done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this configuration to infinity). For two point-like charges Q1 and Q2 at a distance r this work, and hence electric potential energy is equal to:
If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be converted into other forms of energy (although some will always be lost as heat). The amount of electric energy due to an electric current can be expressed in a number of different ways:
Electromagnetic radiation is converted | |
into | by |
Mechanical energy | Solar sail |
Thermal energy | Solar collector |
Electric energy | Solar cell |
Electromagnetic radiation | Non-linear optics |
Chemical energy | Photosynthesis |
Nuclear energy | Mössbauer spectroscopy |
Calculating work needed to create an electric or magnetic field in unit volume (say, in a capacitor or an inductor) results in the electric and magnetic fields energy densities:
Electromagnetic radiation, such as microwaves, visible light or gamma rays, represents a flow of electromagnetic energy. Applying the above expressions to magnetic and electric components of electromagnetic field both the volumetric density and the flow of energy in e/m field can be calculated. The resulting Poynting vector, which is expressed as
The energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantized (has discrete energy levels). The spacing between these levels is equal to
where h is the Planck constant, 6.6260693(11)×10−34 Js, and ν is the frequency of the radiation. This quantity of electromagnetic energy is usually called a photon. The photons which make up visible light have energies of 270–520 yJ, equivalent to 160–310 kJ/mol, the strength of weaker chemical bonds.
Chemical energy is converted | |
into | by |
Mechanical energy | Muscle |
Thermal energy | Fire |
Electric energy | Fuel cell |
Electromagnetic radiation | Glowworms |
Chemical energy | Chemical reaction |
Chemical energy is the energy due to associations of atoms in molecules and various other kinds of aggregates of matter. It may be defined as a work done by electric forces during re-arrangement of electric charges, electrons and protons, in the process of aggregation. If the chemical energy of a system decreases during a chemical reaction, the difference is transferred to the surroundings in some form (often heat or light); on the other hand if the chemical energy of a system increases as a result of a chemical reaction - the difference then is supplied by the surroundings (usually again in form of heat or light). For example,
The chemical energy as defined above is also referred to by chemists as the internal energy, U: technically, this is measured by keeping the volume of the system constant. However, most practical chemistry is performed at constant pressure and, if the volume changes during the reaction (e.g. a gas is given off), a correction must be applied to take account of the work done by or on the atmosphere to obtain the enthalpy, H:
Since the industrial revolution, the burning of coal, oil, natural gas or products derived from them has been a socially significant transformation of chemical energy into other forms of energy. the energy "consumption" (one should really speak of "energy transformation") of a society or country is often quoted in reference to the average energy released by the combustion of these fossil fuels:
Simple examples of chemical energy are batteries and food. When you eat the food is digested and turned into chemical energy which can be transformed to kinetic energy.
Nuclear binding energy is converted | |
into | by |
Mechanical energy | Alpha radiation |
Thermal energy | Sun |
Electrical energy | Beta radiation |
Electromagnetic radiation | Gamma radiation |
Chemical energy | Radioactive decay |
Nuclear energy | Nuclear isomerism |
Nuclear potential energy, along with electric potential energy, provides the energy released from nuclear fission and nuclear fusion processes. The result of both these processes are nuclei in which strong nuclear forces bind nuclear particles more strongly and closely. Weak nuclear forces (different from strong forces) provide the potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay. The energy released in nuclear processes is so large that the relativistic change in mass (after the energy has been removed) can be as much as several parts per thousand.
Nuclear particles (nucleons) like protons and neutrons are not destroyed (law of conservation of baryon number) in fission and fusion processes. A few lighter particles may be created or destroyed (example: beta minus and beta plus decay, or electron capture decay), but these minor processes are not important to the immediate energy release in fission and fusion. Rather, fission and fusion release energy when collections of baryons become more tightly bound, and it is the energy associated with a fraction of the mass of the nucleons (but not the whole particles) which appears as the heat and electromagnetic radiation generated by nuclear reactions. This heat and radiation retains the "missing" mass, but the mass is missing only because it escapes in the form of heat and light, which retain the mass and conduct it out of the system where it is not measured. The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy, is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar matter per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, the number of total protons and neutrons in the sun does not change. In this system, the light itself retains the inertial equivalent of this mass, and indeed the mass itself (as a system), which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles or atoms are destroyed in the process of turning the sun's nuclear potential energy into light.
A minimal surface, for example, represents the smallest possible energy that a surface can have if its energy is proportional to the area of the surface. For this reason, (open) soap films of small size are minimal surfaces (small size reduces gravity effects, and openness prevents pressure from building up. Note that a bubble is a minimum energy surface but not a minimal surface by definition).
Energy can be converted into matter and vice versa. The mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc², derived by several authors: Olinto de Pretto, Albert Einstein, Friedrich Hasenöhrl, Max Planck and Henri Poincaré, quantifies the relationship between mass and rest energy. Since is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of mass (say, 1 kg) to other forms of energy can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ Joules), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (particles) are found in high energy nuclear physics.
In nature, transformations of energy can be fundamentally classed into two kinds: those that are thermodynamically reversible, and those that are thermodynamically irreversible. A reversible process in thermodynamics is one in which no energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, however, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible exitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomization in a crystal).
As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do produce work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.
Most kinds of energy (with gravitational energy being a notable exception) are also subject to strict local conservation laws, as well. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space, and all observers agree as to the volumetric density of energy in any given space. There is also a global law of conservation of energy, stating that the total energy of the universe cannot change; this is a corollary of the local law, but not vice versa. Conservation of energy is the mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time (that is, the indistinguishability of time intervals taken at different time) - see Noether's theorem.
According to energy conservation law the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system.
This law is a fundamental principle of physics. It follows from the translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable.
Thus is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.
In quantum mechanics energy is expressed using the Hamiltonian operator. On any time scales, the uncertainty in the energy is by
which is similar in form to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (but not really mathematically equivalent thereto, since H and t are not dynamically conjugate variables, neither in classical nor in quantum mechanics).
In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.
It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. However, in growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings"). Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.


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That was a bit disappointing. Too firm to apply easily, not enough pigmentation, didn't show up intensively on the waterline, wouldn't buy again!
More reviews by thegirlwiththeredlips
i just looooove this eyeliner which also doubles as a brow pencil for me. the waterproof feature is amazingly true- it can withstand a 2hr workout w/ sweat all over your face. i bought this mainly because the saleswoman was so convincing, she told me it would withstand even snorkeling. =)
i will still have to test that lol, but i will definitely repurchase.
More reviews by AntiqueGlitter
I'm an eyeliner freak with oily, hooded eyelids and very high eyeliner standards.
The only thing that really pleased me about this eyeliner is its staying power. Out of the tons of pencil eyeliners I've tried, this one has the best staying power. It doesn't stay as well as liquid eyeliners do, but I don't expect it to. Like I mentioned before, I have oily, hooded eyelids, so pencil liners tend to really smudge and transfer on me. This one, surprisingly, doesn't. This eyeliner lasted me a good 6 hours before it started to fade.
But I don't really like anything else about this eyeliner. It doesn't show up on the waterline (a lot of eyeliners don't, so this wasn't really a surprise), and the pigmentation isn't exactly the best. Raisin Noir is just a regular black. Instead of the rich, intense black I was hoping for, I just got a dull black.
The thing I really dislike the most about this eyeliner is that it tugs and pulls...a lot. Since I have hooded eyelids, I have a lot of extra skin on my eyelids, so tugging just means uneven application and having to hold my skin taut, which I dislike.
The smudger on the other end of this eyeliner is pretty much useless. I don't really like to smudge my eyeliner (I want the opposite effect, actually), but out of curiosity, I tried using the smudger, and it didn't really work because the staying power of the eyeliner is truly immense (it stays put)!
I got this eyeliner for $25.50 at the Lancome website (http://www.lancome-usa.com/), which, I must admit, is pretty pricey, considering that this isn't even a really good eyeliner.
Would I repurchase? No.
More reviews by tobacco_flower
Again mixed feelings about this one. Some days it doesn't smudge, others it does. I love the colour and the relative ease of application, but this pencil eyeliner still loses out to Maybelline's felt liner. Not repurchasing.
Terrific eye liner. Sharpens nicely, goes on smoothly, lasts all day and never runs.
I never use it or any liner on the bottom lid. That is a prescription for infection.
I own this pencil for about a week now and am very disappointed in the results. I bought this based on the reviews here and the fact that it didn't budge when I applied it to the back of my hand followed by rubbing (comes to show never to blindly follow reviews here on mua.. unfortunately).
The effect I was going for was a jetblack color that doesn't smudge as crazily as my MUFE eye khol and stays a good few hours on the waterline. This product disappears within minutes after applying on the waterline, and is not an intense black - even after reapplying several times. The good thing is it doesn't smudge (unless I rub my eyes). The smudger on the end is handy but not the right shape and a bit too hard feeling.
I would not buy this again.. especially because of the price! You'd expect so much better..
I was really disappointed by this eyeliner. The girl who sold me the product told me that it was a dark black that would stay on very long, and it wasn't the result I got AT ALL. I had to apply it a lot of times to get the intensity I wanted, and three hours later I had to apply it again because it had almost completely disappeared from my waterline, though it didn't smudge. The only thing I liked was the little sponge that I found very useful to correct mistakes!
I won't repurchase, I could get a better quality product at the drugstore and for far less money!
More reviews by menacexofxvanity
Overall, this eyeliner works pretty good. but it's not what I would call a perfect eyeliner. From what the other reviews said, it does appear very dark and the pencil is a good texture. but it doesn't last all day (it doesn't run, just kind of comes off) and typically I wouldn't mind reapplying it, but on the lancome website, the eyeliner is $28 (I got it for $20 on amazon, though) and if I'm paying almost 30 bucks for eyeliner you damn well I'm gonna be expecting a miracle eyeliner! This eyeliner works good I'm not planning on purchasing this again.
I own this liner in black, got it as a gift from my grandmother who found it too hard for her. I don't use this product daily since I don't have the money to buy it regulary, I only use it when I want a fifties pinup look. I have very oily lids and every eyeliner I've ever used creased, but this one stays put for days if necessary. I once applied it one morning (applies like a dream btw, glides on perfectly) and didn't remove it before I went to sleep. The next morning it hadn't faded one bit. To test if it was really waterproof I didn't remove it before I showered and it was still there after I showered. This really is a must-have for me.
1 out of 1 people found this review helpful. Did you? Yes No
I was looking for a black 'stay put' eyeliner for a long time and came across this at the lancome counter. It goes on very easy and doesn't drag which is brilliant. It does last and doesn't smudge. I would recommed to anyone looking for a black eyepencil which is easy to apply and has very good staying power.


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Counselor appointments, tours available daily
December 2 event includes faculty, staff
Indexed list of programs offered
Majors listed by College and School
UIW is providing Microsoft Office to every student free of charge. This means the latest version of the full Office productivity suite. As long as you're an active student here, you'll be able to use this software for free. To get started click below.
On-campus @ extension 2721
Locally @ 210-829-2721
Toll-free @ 1-866-614-5043
The Help Desk/Instructional Technology outreach sessions to inform students about Help Desk services, the UIW App, and answer general technology questions.
As we did last year, we have created a special UIW lounge for university faculty, student organizations, programs, and departments to showcase how they are using technology in teaching and learning. There are a limited number of booth spaces available, and invite you to reserve a space as soon as possible.
Stop by the Center for Teaching and Learning (AD 212) on Jan 13 and 14 from 10 am – 2 pm for a tour of the newly enhanced Blackboard LMS.
Technology training sessions are scheduled throughout the year. A schedule of current sessions appears in The Word Today. You may also request custom training through our Training Request Form.
UPDATE: 2:22PM 1/23, Phones should now be in normal operations... The university phone messaging system (Avaya) is currently down. We are currently working on this issue and will post an update when available.
The scheduled monthly maintenance has concluded. All services are operating normally.
Update: 11:00 AM January 9, 2015 The Information Resources Division is updating and replacing hardware to resolve the intermittent access issues the community has experienced accessing Banner, BannerWeb, Student Email, and OU Campus.
ADA/Section 504 | Contact | Directory | Faculty/Staff | Financial Aid | Map | H.R. | Support UIW | Campus Status: Normal
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The Louisville Decapitron Will Kill Zombies, Highlander Immortals
If you are shopping for a new weapon that will behead undead Zombies and immortals alike, there can be only one DIY project for you and this is it. The aptly named Louisville Decapitron will make short work of necks so that heads roll cleanly off of gently falling bodies.
It's a baseball bat and battle axe in one. It's that simple. A 20-inch blade mounted to a Louisville Slugger. Great idea. I'd love to see a new sport where Zombies are let onto a Baseball field and then players can just go wild on them. First you hack the heads off with the axe end while running around in the outfield, then the game goes back to the in-field where you try to play ball using the Zombie heads. Gruesome stuff, but the Pay-Per-View revenue would make me a millionaire.
The idea (as the creator of this weapon sees it) is that "the zombies can be dealt with at close range while the living, which is after the food supply, can be beat away with the other end without causing death." I like my idea better.
[GordsGarage via Hack-A-Day]
MORE:Geek Art + Craft | Just Plain Fun | Strange + Wonderful | axe | bat | diy | hack | Louisville Decapitron | louisville slugger | weapon | zombies
Comments (1):
As a member of the Louisville band, Decapitron, I'm a little upset about the name (partially because we used to be the only thing you found if you Google searched "Louisville Decapitron" and now our first hit isn't until page 2). Any possibility we might've been an inspiration for the name? And can we get a shout-out?


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By Greg R., member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), and student at Brigham Young University (BYU).
I am a student at Brigham Young University and am currently studying the book of scripture called the Doctrine and Covenants. This book of scripture contains many modern revelations given to a living prophet of God, Joseph Smith, when he restored the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ and organized The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (often mistakenly called the Mormon Church). Doctrine and Covenants 63:7–12 has been the center of many discussions in The Church of Jesus Christ concerning signs and faith:
And he that seeketh signs shall see signs, but not unto salvation. Verily, I say unto you, there are those among you who seek signs, and there have been such even from the beginning; But, behold, faith cometh not by signs, but signs follow those that believe. Yea, signs come by faith, not by the will of men, nor as they please, but by the will of God. Yea, signs come by faith, unto mighty works, for without faith no man pleaseth God; and with whom God is angry he is not well pleased; wherefore, unto such he showeth no signs, only in wrath unto their condemnation. Wherefore, I, the Lord, am not pleased with those among you who have sought after signs and wonders for faith, and not for the good of men unto my glory.
I ponder on my testimony each time I read this scripture or hear it in a talk at church. I have come to understand that obtaining faith is and will be a lifelong pursuit. It is tempting to seek for signs. I especially love to see the gospel in action. I would love to see someone raised from the dead, or a crippling disease healed in the twinkle of an eye. These would be marvelous things but would only convince me of the truth for a short time. The Lord, through Moses, used signs to convince Pharaoh to let the children of Israel go. It worked, but it wasn't long before Pharaoh came after the Israelites to kill them.
Today, I have seen the difference in my life between seeking for signs and confirming truth through faith. When I begin to desire to see or experience something special, I watch and examine myself to see what my true motivations are. I operate on this principle by reminding myself that I will not get what I am really searching for through receiving a sign from heaven. I am searching for the confirmation from the Holy Ghost which only comes to those who seek humbly for the will of the Lord. I must also be ready to act on the revelation I receive. Doctrine and Covenants 63:7 tells me that if I seek for signs, I will see them, but not unto salvation. I won't get anything lasting from seeing signs in this way. It is only when I first have faith that the gospel of Jesus Christ is true, conform my life to its teachings the best I can, and then ask Heavenly Father for a witness of the Holy Spirit to confirm to me what I believe that I will receive a sign from Heaven to the salvation of my soul. This is what I want, and I will do what I must to partake of this spiritual sustenance each day.
Forgiveness is one of the hardest principles to live in the gospel. I have seen this in general as I have watched my brothers and sisters interact with each other. As I have watched, I have noticed how ironically ludicrous it is to keep a grudge and harbor ill will toward one another for anything and for any length of time. Every time I forgive someone for what they have done to me, I feel much better. I believe that forgiving others is one of the best ways to act like the Savior:
Wherefore, I say unto you, that ye ought to forgive one another; for he that forgiveth not his brother his trespasses standeth condemned before the Lord; for there remaineth in him the greater sin. I, the Lord, will forgive whom I will forgive, but of you it is required to forgive all men. And ye ought to say in your hearts—let God judge between me and thee, and reward thee according to thy deeds (Doctrine and Covenants 64:9–11).
The most important work the Savior did for us while here on the earth was the Atonement, in which He suffered for our sins so that we might have the chance to overcome the effects of our mistakes. When we repent, He then forgives us of our wrongs and allows us another chance to get it right. As the most powerful being in the Universe, with our Father in Heaven, Jesus Christ takes the time and effort to forgive. If I want to become like Christ and exhibit his attributes, I need to practice forgiving other people.
In college, I have one of the best opportunities to forgive other people each and every day. College students haven't always shown themselves to be the most considerate of others' needs. This is the time where we are learning the most about how to interact with others our age, and I know that I figuratively step on others' toes all the time. I rely on them to forgive me, and I do my best to forgive other people. Almost daily, I have an opportunity to practice forgiveness for things from someone cutting me off on the way to school to someone else climbing over everyone in a crowded classroom to get to the seat in the middle. I have discovered a tool that helps me forgive other people easier. If someone does something that gets on my nerves, I have learned that if I get angry for no real logical reason, I have likely done that very same thing to someone else. To use the crowded classroom example, I have come in late before and climbed across other people to get to a seat; therefore, why should I get mad at someone else doing the same thing, when I am just as guilty and in need of others' forgiveness? If I want to be forgiven, I must first forgive.


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Modelo: Ana Karen Vaes. Ropa por: Carla Escareño. http://escarenosevende.tumblr.com
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"I love this recipe and today is going to be my third time to make it. I don't like to cook anything in my kitchen, that has no air-conditioning, for two hours, so I do it faster. I use cornstarch instead of flour so that saves cooking time, and I cook the onions for about twenty minutes so when I add the cheese sauce it is basically cooked..."


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I believe the 'gamification' of learning will be looked back in the years to come as a revolutionary innovation. As an educator and inventor, I have spent the majority of my career working on game-based learning (you can check out my math and memory game system Brainetics here: http://www.brainetics.com). I believe it is important to appeal to student engagement as well as the well-being of the student by using game-like formats and making learning fun. Overall, I think game-based learning is extremely versatile and can be used in multiple subjects and disciplines.
Great article,
Mike Byster
Inventor of Brainetics, Author of Genius, Mathematician, Educational Speaker


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Sun, May 12, 13 at 23:24
Hi all - One of the volunteers we worked with at Karen's daylily garden works with PeaceJam and wants to round up about 60 (!!!) youth volunteers for her in July. I have sent emails to no avail (email@example.com, email@example.com). Does anyone have another way of contacting her? Thanks, Amester |
Follow-Up Postings:
Amy - I sent you her phone number in an email. Marj |
Perfect! Thanks! |
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The Archaeology Museum is located in the famous Palais de Rumine located of the Place de la Riponne. This cantonal museum takes you through prehistory and history to nowadays with its permanent exhibitions. Temporary ones will go further in different exhibitions such as Greek or Egyptian antiquities. Closed on Monday, the museum welcomes you from 9am to 5pm daily.
- 15,000 years of history
- Located in Rumine Palace
- History and Archaeology
- Antiques


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Other Resources
WWU Resources:
Student Research Links:
Western Libraries - Resources for Communication Sciences and Disorders
Western Libraries - Finding CSD Journal Articles
ComDisDome - A research database for CSDSearch for CSD
University programs in Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
Links to CSD programs across the country as well as Australia, Puerto Rico, Canada and Europe.
The Soundry
The Science of sound--an interactive web site.
MedicineNet Medical Dictionary
Gross Anatomy of the Ear
3-D VRML models
Alternative Augmentative Communication (AAC) and Adapptive Technologies:
Adaptive Mall.com - Adaptive Furniture and more
Abledata - ABLEDATA is a federally funded project whose primary mission is to provide information on assistive technology and rehabilitation equipment available from domestic and international sources to consumers, organizations, professionals, and caregivers within the United States.
e-Special Needs - Adaptive equipment for people with ADHD, Asperger, Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Down Syndrome, Learning Disabilities, Spina Bifida, Traumatic Brain Injury and more including Special Needs Resources near you (by state)
Voice Amplification Systems:
Speech Amplifiers (Abledata Web Site)
Voice Amplification Products from Communicative Medical, Inc.
ChatterVox - Voice Amplification System
Helpful Sites:
ASHA - American Speech-Language Hearing Association
The Stuttering Home Page - many links about stuttering.
American Stroke Association - A division of the American Heart Association
Net Connections for Communication Disorders and Sciences - an Internet Guide by Judith Maginnis Kuster
LD Online - The Interactive Guide to Learning Disabilities for Parents, Teachers, and Children
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
Home page of the major professional association
John. D. Blankinship Fellowship for incoming Speech-Language Pathology graduate students
Cochlear Implant Links:
Cochlear Implant Information and Resources
(The Listen-Up Web)
C.I. Simulations:
Acoustic Simulations
(University of Texas at Dallas)
Acoustic Simulations
(House Ear Institute)
Acoustic Simulations
(Hearing and Speech Lab: University of California - Irvine)
C.I. Manufacturers:
AllHear Inc.
Advanced Bionics Cochlear Implants
Cochlear Implant Association, Inc.
Med-El Cochlear Implants
Cochlear Corporation
MXM Laboratories - Neurelec Implants
C.I. Support and Information:
Illinois Cochlear Implant Club
Pacific Northwest Cochlear Implant Club
Hearing Loss Association of Whatcom County
The Listen-Up Web - Cochlear Implant Support
FutureMed - PowerPoint presentation describing the use of our Futuremed Spirovision 3 Spirometer
OSHA - Spirometry prediction tables for normal males and females - 1910.1043 App C
Spirometry Procedure Manual
Centers for Disease Control


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Recent Comments:
12 Days of Winter Veil Giveaway Day 11: D.I.S.C.O. loot code {WoW}
Jan 2nd 2011 8:25AM Who doesn't want a disco ball? Gogo Disco gnome!!
12 Days of Winter Veil Giveaway Day 9: Fishing Chair loot code {WoW}
Dec 30th 2010 5:11PM My fishing gnome would love this. It would be neat to sit in when I fish in Mulgore.. well, I had to find a new fishing spot =(
12 Days of Winter Veil Giveaway Day 7: Goblin Weather Machine loot code {WoW}
Dec 29th 2010 4:00AM Something everyone can join? And a goblin weather machine, that sounds pretty cool
WoW Insider's Cataclysm launch giveaway: Landros' Gift Box {WoW}
Dec 6th 2010 4:33PM I would like to have it. Something to cheer me up since I can't play Cata until tuesday at 1900 ish.. =)
Loremaster achievement changes coming with Cataclysm {WoW}
Nov 22nd 2010 4:11PM I feel like adding that I got Loremaster a while ago, and at the time I got loremaster of Eastern Kingdoms, as Alliance, I completely skipped Stranglethorn Vale, as I was hated with the goblins. Of course I had done the kill some pirates, kill some zombies and a bunch of animal quests while leveling, but I still skipped 20+ quests, and I had alot of quests left to choose from. Kalimdor was harder of course, but had the new system been in place, I wouldn't have gotten my achievement the way I did.
(I had to grind back goblin rep for Mudsprocket, Gadgetzan and Ratchet when I switched continent of course)
Around Azeroth: Happy little trees {WoW}
Nov 11th 2010 2:23PM Hey there! Picture taker gnome here! *waves*
Know Your Lore: The peculiar tale of the Headless Horseman, page 2 {WoW}
Nov 1st 2010 3:46AM That was reallly good, /Applaud.
Breakfast Topic: What prompted your class choice? {WoW}
Oct 30th 2010 8:05AM I wanted a gnome hunter. I couldn't make one obviously, so I rolled a dwarf on my brother account, I was hooked, and got my own account, but I didn't want to redo those 15 levels on another dwarf hunter so I rolled a druid, leveled for abit, made a billion alts, and one day, I wasn't playing on any character except my mage. I deleted my druid, which I still kinda regret, but I now have a druid, to heal, and gnome warrior, to tank and my gnome Mage that's been with me for 3+ years now.
The Queue: BlizzCon expectations {WoW}
Oct 6th 2010 4:13PM Yes! Thank you! That's now my priority number one. I really really really want a tophat.
The Queue: BlizzCon expectations {WoW}
Oct 6th 2010 2:36PM I have a question.
Will non-worgen players, say my gnome, be able to get tophats?
Not necisarily from the beginning zone, since that instanced (no? yes?), but will there be a tophat for other players?


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Project Management Office
UNF Hall, Building 53, Suite 2340
Phone: (904) 620-2008
Fax: (904) 620-2041
Welcome to the UNF Project Management Office the university's main resource for project management support. The Project Management Office is responsible for leading large and organizationally complex implementations. The PMO
and its staff are also responsible for supporting the university's strategic IT portfolio planning process which is overseen by the Information Technology Governance Council (ITGC). The ITGC is made up the vice presidents from each of the
divisions across the university and currently meets monthly to review IT project requests submitted throughout the university.
For more on the university's governance structure, please select ITGC from the menu list to the left.
For more on the university's current projects currently being led by the Project Management Office, please select Current Projects from the menu list to the left.


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Self-Help: Personal Growth - Self-Esteem eBooks
There are over 200 eBooks in the category Self-Help: Personal Growth - Self-Esteem.
Use our eBook search to find a specific book or author.
Use our eBook search to find a specific book or author.
Top 10 Self-Help
- The Secrets To Increasing Your Power, Wealth and Happiness
- Invent It, Sell It, Bank It!: Make Your Million-Dollar Idea into a Reality
- MONEY Master the Game: 7 Simple Steps to Financial Freedom
- Confident Coaching: Teach Yourself
- Running on Empty: Overcome Your Childhood Emotional Neglect
- SEAL Survival Guide: A Navy SEAL's Secrets to Surviving Any Disaster
- Adversity and Awakening
- How to Deal with Emotionally Explosive People
- How Proust Can Change Your Life
- The POWER to STOP