text:
Management of depression
This article addresses the management of the psychiatric syndrome known as major depressive disorder or often called simply "depression". This syndrome is being diagnosed more frequently in developed countries, where up to 20% of the population is affected at some stage of their lives.[1] According to WHO (World Health Organization), depression is currently fourth among the top 10 leading causes of the global burden of disease; it is predicted that by the year 2020, depression will be ranked second. [2] Over-diagnosis of depression may be common, because while the prevalence of major depressive disorder has remained unchanged, its diagnosis has doubled in 20 years. Depression is more likely over-diagnosed than under-diagnosed in primary care, resulting in patients without evidence of major depressive disorder being prescribed medications.[3] The elderly may be at more risk of over-diagnosis.[4] Patients are usually assessed and managed as outpatients, and only admitted to an inpatient mental health unit if they are considered a risk to themselves or others.
Though psychiatric medication is the most frequently prescribed therapy for major depression,[5] psychotherapy may be effective, either alone or in combination with medication.[6] Antidepressant medications fail to consistently demonstrate superiority over placebo pills, or their benefit is small. Likewise, psychotherapy has been unable to demonstrate substantial superiority over no-treatment. Combining psychotherapy and antidepressants may provide a "slight advantage", but antidepressants alone or psychotherapy alone are not significantly different from other treatments, or "active intervention controls". Given an accurate diagnosis of major depressive disorder, in general the type of treatment (psychotherapy and/or antidepressants, alternate or other treatments, or active intervention) is "less important than getting depressed patients involved in an active therapeutic program."[7]
Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice in those under the age of 18, with medication offered only in conjunction with the former and generally not as a first line agent. The possibility of depression, substance misuse or other mental health problems in the parents should be considered and, if present and if it may help the child, the parent should be treated in parallel with the child.[8]
- 1 Psychotherapy
- 2 Pharmaceutical drug treatment
- 3 Medical devices
- 4 Other treatments
- 5 References
There are a number of different psychotherapies for depression which are provided to individuals or groups by psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, counselors or psychiatric nurses. With more chronic forms of depression, the most effective treatment is often considered to be a combination of medication and psychotherapy.[6][9] Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice in people under 18.[8]
The most studied form of psychotherapy for depression is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), thought to work by teaching clients to learn a set of cognitive and behavioral skills, which they can employ on their own. Earlier research suggested that cognitive behavioral therapy was not as effective as antidepressant medication in the treatment of depression; however, more recent research suggests that it can perform as well as antidepressants in treating patients with moderate to severe depression.[10]
A systematic review of data comparing low-intensity CBT (such as guided self-help by means of written materials and limited professional support, and website-based interventions) with usual care found that patients who initially had more severe depression benefited from low-intensity interventions at least as much as less-depressed patients.[11] One of the websites included in the study is MoodGym.[12]
For the treatment of adolescent depression, one published study found that CBT without medication performed no better than a placebo, and significantly worse than the antidepressant fluoxetine. However, the same article reported that CBT and fluoxetine outperformed treatment with only fluoxetine.[13] Combining fluoxetine with CBT appeared to bring no additional benefit in two different studies[14][15] or, at the most, only marginal benefit, in a fourth study.[16]
Behavior therapy for depression is sometimes referred to as behavioral activation.[17] Studies exist showing behavioral activation to be superior to CBT.[18] In addition, behavioral activation appears to take less time and lead to longer lasting change.[19]
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), a mindfulness form of CBT, which has its roots in behavior analysis, also demonstrates that it is effective in treating depression, and can be more helpful than traditional CBT, especially where depression is accompanied by anxiety and where it is resistant to traditional CBT.[20][21][22]
A review of four studies on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), a recently developed class-based program designed to prevent relapse, suggests that MBCT may have an additive effect when provided with the usual care in patients who have had three or more depressive episodes, although the usual care did not include antidepressant treatment or any psychotherapy, and the improvement observed may have reflected non-specific or placebo effects.[23]
Interpersonal psychotherapy focuses on the social and interpersonal triggers that may cause depression. There is evidence that it is an effective treatment for depression. Here, the therapy takes a structured course with a set number of weekly sessions (often 12) as in the case of CBT; however, the focus is on relationships with others. Therapy can be used to help a person develop or improve interpersonal skills in order to allow him or her to communicate more effectively and reduce stress.[24]
Psychoanalysis, a school of thought founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the resolution of unconscious mental conflicts,[25] is used by its practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression.[26] A more widely practiced technique, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is loosely based on psychoanalysis and has an additional social and interpersonal focus.[27] In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials, psychodynamic psychotherapy was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression.[28]
Pharmaceutical drug treatment[edit]
To find the most effective pharmaceutical drug treatment, the dosages of medications must often be adjusted, different combinations of antidepressants tried, or antidepressants changed. Response rates to the first agent administered may be as low as 50%.[29] It may take anywhere from three to eight weeks after the start of medication before its therapeutic effects can be fully discovered. Patients are generally advised not to stop taking an antidepressant suddenly and to continue its use for at least four months to prevent the chance of recurrence.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as sertraline (Zoloft, Lustral), escitalopram (Lexapro, Cipralex), fluoxetine (Prozac), paroxetine (Seroxat), and citalopram, are the primary medications considered, due to their relatively mild side effects and broad effect on the symptoms of depression and anxiety, as well as reduced risk in overdose, compared to their older tricyclic alternatives. Those who do not respond to the first SSRI tried can be switched to another. If sexual dysfunction is present prior to the onset of depression, SSRIs should be avoided.[30] Another popular option is to switch to the atypical antidepressant bupropion (Wellbutrin) or to add bupropion to the existing therapy;[31] this strategy is possibly more effective.[32][33] It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSA) antidepressant mirtazapine (Zispin, Remeron) can be used in such cases.[34][35][36] Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia can also help to alleviate the insomnia without additional medication. Venlafaxine (Effexor) may be moderately more effective than SSRIs;[37] however, it is not recommended as a first-line treatment because of the higher rate of side effects,[38] and its use is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents.[39] Fluoxetine is the only antidepressant recommended for people under the age of 18, though, if a child or adolescent patient is intolerant to fluoxetine, another SSRI may be considered.[39] Evidence of effectiveness of SSRIs in those with depression complicated by dementia is lacking.[40]
Tricyclic antidepressants have more side effects than SSRIs (but less sexual dysfunctions) and are usually reserved for the treatment of inpatients, for whom the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline, in particular, appears to be more effective.[41][42] A different class of antidepressants, the monoamine oxidase inhibitors, have historically been plagued by questionable efficacy and life-threatening adverse effects. They are still used only rarely, although newer agents of this class (RIMA), with a better side effect profile, have been developed.[43]
Stephen M. Stahl, renowned academician in psychopharmacology, has stated resorting to a dynamic psychostimulant, in particular, d-amphetamine is the "classical augmentation strategy for treatment-refractory depression" [44]
Physicians often add a medication with a different mode of action to bolster the effect of an antidepressant in cases of treatment resistance; a 2002 large community study of 244,859 depressed Veterans Administration patients found that 22% had received a second agent, most commonly a second antidepressant.[45] Lithium has been used to augment antidepressant therapy in those who have failed to respond to antidepressants alone.[46] Furthermore, lithium dramatically decreases the suicide risk in recurrent depression.[47] Addition of atypical antipsychotics when the patient has not responded to an antidepressant is also known to increase the effectiveness of antidepressant drugs, albeit at the cost of more frequent and potentially serious side effects.[48] There is some evidence for the addition of a thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine, in patients with normal thyroid function.[49]
Table 1: Regulatory Status of, Efficacy and Tolerability of Adjunctive treatments in Major Depressive Disorder[edit]
|MHRA approved as an adjunct?[50]
|FDA approved as an adjunct?[51]
|TGA approved as an adjunct?[52]
|† for non-response over antidepressant monotherapy[53]
|‡ for MADRS[53]
|‡ for HAM-D[53]
|† for leaving the study early due to any reason[53]
|† for leaving the study early due to adverse effects[53]
|† for significant weight gain[53]
|‡ for weight gain (kg)[53]
|† for sedation[53]
|0.48 (0.37-0.63)
|-3.04 (-4.09,0.00)
|1.21 (0.86, 1.71)
|2.59 (1.18, 5.71)
|5.93 (2.15, 16.36)
|1.07 (0.30, 1.84)
|3.42 (0.66, 17.81)
|No. But listed in the Australian Medicines Handbook as an accepted use of lithium treatment.[55]
|0.47 (0.27-0.81)
|Yes (in combination with fluoxetine)
|0.70 (0.48, 1.02)
|-2.84 (-5.84,-0.20)
|-7.90 (-16.63, 0.83)
|1.22 (0.82, 1.83)
|3.51 (1.58, 7.80)
|12.14 (0.70, 208.95)
|4.58 (4.06, 5.09)
|3.53 (1.64, 7.60)
|0.66 (0.51, 0.87)
|-2.67 (-4.00, -1.34)
|-2.67 (-3.79, -1.55)
|0.75 (0.26, 2.14)
|5.59 (1.47, 21.26)
|3.06 (1.22, 7.68)
|1.11 (0.56, 1.66)
|8.79 (4.90, 15.77)
|0.57 (0.36, 0.89)
|-1.85 (-9.17, 5.47)
|-1.69 (-4.13, 0.74)
|1.04 (0.59, 1.83)
|2.11 (0.79, 5.68)
|3.32 (0.99, 11.12)
|1.80 (0.95, 2.65)
|1.10 (0.31, 3.99)
ND - No data available
An important note with the data in the above table is that most of the data for lithium is for when it is combined with tricyclic antidepressants.
† (Odds Ratio) and 95% CI (bracketed)
‡ (Mean difference) and 95% CI (bracketed)
Efficacy of medication and psychotherapy[edit]
Antidepressants are statistically superior to placebo but their overall effect is low-to-moderate. In that respect they often did not exceed the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence criteria for a "clinically significant" effect. In particular, the effect size was very small for moderate depression but increased with severity, reaching "clinical significance" for very severe depression.[56][57] These results were consistent with the earlier clinical studies in which only patients with severe depression benefited from either psychotherapy or treatment with an antidepressant, imipramine, more than from the placebo treatment.[58][59][60] Despite obtaining similar results, the authors argued about their interpretation. One author concluded that there "seems little evidence to support the prescription of antidepressant medication to any but the most severely depressed patients, unless alternative treatments have failed to provide benefit."[56] The other author agreed that "antidepressant 'glass' is far from full" but disagreed "that it is completely empty". He pointed out that the first-line alternative to medication is psychotherapy, which does not have superior efficacy.[61]
Antidepressants in general are as effective as psychotherapy for major depression, and this conclusion holds true for both severe and mild forms of MDD.[62][63] In contrast, medication gives better results for dysthymia.[62][63] The subgroup of SSRIs may be slightly more efficacious than psychotherapy. On the other hand, significantly more patients drop off from the antidepressant treatment than from psychotherapy, likely because of the side effects of antidepressants.[62] Successful psychotherapy appears to prevent the recurrence of depression even after it has been terminated or replaced by occasional "booster" sessions. The same degree of prevention can be achieved by continuing antidepressant treatment.[63]
Two studies suggest that the combination of psychotherapy and medication is the most effective way to treat depression in adolescents. Both TADS (Treatment of Adolescents with Depression Study) and TORDIA (Treatment of Resistant Depression in Adolescents) showed very similar results. TADS resulted in 71% of their teen subjects having "much" or "very much" improvement in mood over the 60.6% with medication alone and the 43.2% with CBT alone.[64] Similarly, TORDIA showed a 54.8% improvement with CBT and drugs verses a 40.5% with drug therapy alone.[64]
S-Adenosyl methionine (SAMe) is available as a prescription antidepressant in Europe and an over-the-counter dietary supplement in the US. Evidence from 16 clinical trials with a small number of subjects, reviewed in 1994 and 1996 suggested it to be more effective than placebo and as effective as standard antidepressant medication for the treatment of major depression.[65]
Experimental treatments[edit]
Research on the antidepressant effects of ketamine infusions at subanaesthetic doses has consistently shown rapid (4 to 72 hours) responses from single doses, with substantial improvement in mood in the majority of patients and remission in some. However, these effects are often short-lived, and attempts to prolong the antidepressant effect with repeated doses and extended ("maintenance") treatment have resulted in only modest success.[66]
The amino acid creatine, commonly used as a supplement to improve the performance of bodybuilders, has been studied for its potential antidepressant properties. In an open study of 8 volunteers taking several grams of creatine a day, six improved, and two bipolar patients developed hypomania or mania.[67] More recently, a double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial focusing on women found that creatine, when used along with an antidepressant, exerted a powerful and rapid antidepressant effect.[68] Studies on mice have found that the antidepressant effects of creatine can be blocked by drugs that act against dopamine receptors, suggesting that the drug acts on dopamine pathways.[69]
The dietary supplement L-Acetylcarnitine has been shown to exert an antidepressant effect.[citation needed] The effect was very rapid- occurring within a few days- and persisted several weeks after the drug was withdrawn.
Medical devices[edit]
A variety of medical devices are in use or under consideration for treatment of depression including devices which offer electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, and cranial electrotherapy stimulation. Use of such devices in the United States requires approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) after field trials. In 2010 a FDA advisory panel considered the question of how such field trials should be managed. Factors considered were whether drugs had been effective, how many different drugs had been tried, and what tolerance for suicides should be in field trials.[70]
Electroconvulsive therapy[edit]
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), formerly known as electroshock, is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in patients to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses.[71] ECT is usually used as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, mania and catatonia.[72] A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations across weeks, months and years. It was first introduced in 1938 by Italian neuropsychiatrists Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini, and gained widespread popularity among psychiatrists as a form of treatment in the 1940s and 1950s.[73][74]
In western fiction, it is usually depicted as a painful procedure, but in western countries ECT is usually administered under anesthetic with a muscle relaxant.[75]
About 70 percent of ECT patients are women, since they are at twice the risk of depression as men.[71][76][77] Although a large amount of research has been carried out, the exact mechanism of action of ECT remains elusive, and ECT on its own does not usually have a sustained benefit. Administration is most commonly bilateral, in which the electrical current is passed across the whole brain, and which seems to have greater efficacy but greater risk of memory loss, or less commonly, unilateral, which has less efficacy but also reduced risk of memory loss.[78][79] The World Health Organization (2005) advises that it should only be used with the informed consent of the patient or their proxy, only with adequate analgesia and muscle relaxants, and never on children.[80] Psychiatrists and other mental health professionals differ on when and if ECT should be used as a first-line treatment or if it should be reserved for patients who have not responded to other interventions such as medication and psychotherapy.[81] ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.[82]
Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus. These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission. After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some patients receive maintenance ECT. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, drug therapy usually is continued during ECT.[72]
Deep brain stimulation[edit]
The support for the use of deep brain stimulation in treatment-resistant depression comes from a handful of case studies, and this treatment is still in a very early investigational stage.[83] In this technique electrodes are implanted in a specific region of the brain, which is then continuously stimulated.[84] A March 2010 systematic review found that "about half the patients did show dramatic improvement" and that adverse events were "generally trivial" given the younger psychiatric patient population than with movements disorders.[85] Deep brain stimulation is available on an experimental basis only in the United States; no systems are approved by the FDA for this use.[86] It is available in Australia.[medical citation needed]
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation[edit]
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) use in treatment-resistant depression is supported by multiple controlled studies, and it has been approved for this indication in Europe, Canada, Australia, and the US.[83] A 2008 meta-analysis based on 32 trials found a robust effect of this method on depression, and it appeared similarly effective for both uncomplicated depression and depression that is resistant to medication.[87] However, it was inferior to ECT in a side-by-side randomized trial.[88]
Vagus nerve stimulation[edit]
Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) uses an implanted electrode and generator to deliver electrical pulses to the vagus nerve, one of the primary nerves emanating from the brain. It is an approved therapy for treatment-resistant depression in the EU and US and is sometimes used as an adjunct to existing antidepressant treatment. The support for this method comes mainly from open-label trials, which indicate that several months may be required to see a benefit.[83] The only large double-blind trial conducted lasted only 10 weeks and yielded inconclusive results; VNS failed to show superiority over a sham treatment on the primary efficacy outcome, but the results were more favorable for one of the secondary outcomes. The authors concluded "This study did not yield definitive evidence of short-term efficacy for adjunctive VNS in treatment-resistant depression."[89]
Cranial electrotherapy stimulation[edit]
Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES, electrosleep) devices currently on the market have been granted marketing authorization by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) because a sufficiently similar device had been marketed before 1976, when new regulations requiring controlled testing were introduced.[90] The FDA considers them to be class III devices—"devices for which insufficient information exists to ... provide reasonable assurance of safety and effectiveness"[91] The effects of CES on depression were inconclusive or negative in multiple double-blind studies of psychiatric patients.[92][93][94][95][96] In one of them, four out of six clinically depressed patients dropped out of the study because of the massive worsening of depressive symptoms, with two of them becoming actively suicidal.[96] One of the authors of the latter study cautioned that CES "should not be used as a treatment of choice" for patients with a primary diagnosis of depression, "and should be used with caution if this diagnosis is suspected."[97]
Other treatments[edit]
Bright light therapy[edit]
A meta-analysis of bright light therapy commissioned by the American Psychiatric Association found a significant reduction in depression symptom severity associated with bright light treatment. Benefit was found for both seasonal affective disorder and for nonseasonal depression, with effect sizes similar to those for conventional antidepressants. For non-seasonal depression, adding light therapy to the standard antidepressant treatment was not effective.[98] A meta-analysis of light therapy for non-seasonal depression conducted by Cochrane Collaboration, studied a different set of trials, where light was used mostly in combination with antidepressants or wake therapy. A moderate statistically significant effect of light therapy was found, with response significantly better than control treatment in high-quality studies, in studies that applied morning light treatment, and with patients who respond to total or partial sleep deprivation.[99] Both analyses noted poor quality of most studies and their small size, and urged caution in the interpretation of their results. The short 1–2 weeks duration of most trials makes it unclear whether the effect of light therapy could be sustained in the longer term.
Clinical trials involving subjects with major depressive disorder suggest a modest short-term improvement in mood from exercise. Several studies have shown that exercise is equally effective as medication and more effective than a placebo, though medication provides more immediate relief from severe depression.[100][101] The evidence for any long-term improvement in major depression is poor.[102]
Mindfulness meditation programs may improve symptoms of depression.[103]
Music Therapy[edit]
A 2009 review by Gold and colleagues found a significant dose effect of music therapy on depressive symptoms, with small improvement after 3 to 10 sessions and greater improvement after 16 to 51 sessions.[104]
St John's wort[edit]
A 2008 Cochrane Collaboration meta-analysis concluded that "The available evidence suggests that the hypericum extracts tested in the included trials a) are superior to placebo in patients with major depression; b) are similarly effective as standard antidepressants; c) and have fewer side effects than standard antidepressants. The association of country of origin and precision with effects sizes complicates the interpretation."[105] The United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine advice is that "St. John's wort may help some types of depression, similar to treatment with standard prescription antidepressants, but the evidence is not definitive." and warns that "Combining St. John's wort with certain antidepressants can lead to a potentially life-threatening increase of serotonin, a brain chemical targeted by antidepressants. St. John's wort can also limit the effectiveness of many prescription medicines."[106]
Depression is sometimes associated with insomnia - (difficulty in falling asleep, early waking, and waking in the middle of the night). The combination of these two results, depression and insomnia will only worsen the situation. Hence, good sleep hygiene is important to help break this vicious circle.[107] This would include measures such as regular sleep routines, avoidance of stimulants such as caffeine and management of sleeping disorders such as sleep apnea.[108]
Smoking Cessation[edit]
Stopping smoking cigarettes is associated with reduced depression and anxiety, with the effect "equal or larger than" those of antidepressant treatments.[109]
Total/Partial Sleep Deprivation[edit]
Sleep deprivation (skipping a night's sleep) has been found to improve symptoms of depression in 40% - 60% of patients. Partial sleep deprivation in the second half of the night may be as effective as an all night sleep deprivation session. Improvement may last for weeks, though the majority (50-80%) relapse after recovery sleep. Shifting or reduction of sleep time, light therapy, antidepressant drugs, and lithium have been found to potentially stabilize sleep deprivation treatment effects.[110]
Tryptophan and 5-HTP[edit]
The amino acid tryptophan is converted into 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) which is subsequently converted into the neurotransmitter serotonin. Since serotonin deficiency has been recognized as a possible cause of depression, it has been suggested that consumption of tryptophan or 5-HTP may therefore improve depression symptoms by increasing the level of serotonin in the brain.[111] Both tryptophan and 5-HTP are sold over the counter in the United States, but requires prescription in Canada and Europe. Small studies have been performed using 5-HTP and tryptophan as adjunctive therapy in addition to standard treatment for depression. While some studies had positive results, they were criticized for having methodological flaws, and a more recent study did not find sustained benefit from their use.[112] The safety of these medications has not been well studied.[111] Due to the lack of high quality studies and preliminary nature of studies showing effectiveness and the lack of adequate study on their safety, the use of tryptophan and 5-HTP is not highly recommended or thought to be clinically useful.[111][112]
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Matt Pietrek
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int myFoo = foo( "Hello", 42 );
Skipping global methods for the moment, the next logical step down in the metadata hierarchy is types. A typical use of a type from C++, Visual Basic, or the Java language is to represent a class. Other types include enumerations and interfaces. A .NET interface is a logically related set of methods that is not bound to any single implementation. Essentially, they're the same thing as COM interfaces. If it helps, you can mentally substitute the term class for type in the description that follows. .NET types only support single inheritance. The type metadata contains information about what type a descendant type extends from. The base type can be defined in the same assembly or in another assembly. Languages that support multiple inheritance (such as C++) need to find some way of representing their additional inheritance information. That topic is far beyond the scope of this article. Each metadata type contains zero or more methods, fields, properties, and events. Each of these items has its own metadata that can be read for more details. A method can be either a regular method with a this pointer, or it can be a static method, not associated with any particular instance of a type. A field is a data member of a type. It also can be static (that is, it will be shared across all instances of a particular type). Collectively, the union of a type's methods and fields are called its members, and there are metadata APIs for getting common properties of a type's members. However, this information is limited to the details that are common to both methods and fields (such as a name). Other APIs let you get the details specific to a method or field. For instance, a method has a calling convention, while a field doesn't. The method-specific metadata APIs can tell you the calling convention, while the field-specific APIs don't. A type property is similar to properties in Visual Basic. That is, a property represents data. Unlike a field, though, accessing a property isn't done by directly reading or writing the property's memory. Instead, special methods with names like get_Foo and set_Foo are used to read and write the property's value. With a compiler that targets .NET, you can refer to a property directly by its name, and the compilers will automatically substitute the correct get_XXX or set_XXX method as necessary. A property can optionally be backed by a field. That is, the memory accessed by the get_ or set_ methods is the same memory used for a field. Type events should also be familiar to you if you use Visual Basic. When an object sees that an event has occurred, the object can fire a method call indicating that a specific event has happened. Events support the ability for your code to add or remove requests to be notified when the event occurs. These add or remove requests are made through special methods called AddOn and RemoveOn. A type's methods, fields, and properties all have additional information that can be inspected. For starters, they all have some sort of type information. Here, I mean type in the traditional sense such as int, bool, pointer to float, and struct foo. Fields and properties both have a single type associated with them. This information is encoded in a type signature. I'll come back to type signatures later, but for now a type signature is simply a variable-length string of bytes that represent the type. Methods are more complex than fields or properties for obvious reasons. Methods don't have a single type associated with them (such as bool). Instead, they have a set of zero or more parameters, with each parameter having its own type. In addition, a method can have a return value that also has an associated type. Metadata allows overloaded methods (two or more methods with the same name, but different parameters). In the metadata, each method of a type has a unique type signature, a scheme similar to the way the C++ compiler uses name decoration. There's one small detail about parameters and metadata worth mentioning since it confused the heck out of me at first. A method's type signature includes the number and types of each of the parameters. However, when additional information about a parameter is needed (such as its name or marshaling information), a compiler can emit a parameter definition as well. The metadata parameter definition and type signature are two different views of the same data. You shouldn't rely on parameter definitions being available for methods. However, you can always depend on a method to have a type signature. The type signature is what the runtime uses when resolving a call to a method.
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long FirstFunction( long j, float k);
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void SomeVoidFunction( long j, float k)
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For this article, I'm not interested in the disassembly capabilities of ILDASM. By running "ILDASM /?", you'll get a help screen that displays all of its command-line options. Among the options is the ability to filter which items are shown, using visibility as the criteria. Another option tells ILDASM to write its output to a file, rather than display it in a window. Another simpler tool for dumping metadata is MetaInfo.EXE. This tool is included with the PDC Tech Preview build, in the .\NGWSSDK\tool developers guide\samples\metainfo directory. You'll have to build the source to get a runnable .EXE, but it's worth the effort. MetaInfo leaves no stone unturned in its search to hunt down and display every last scrap of information in the metadata. To add to the official Microsoft tools, I've written two demo applications for this article. The first program, Meta, uses the unmanaged API. The second, ReflectMeta, uses the Reflection API. Both Meta and ReflectMeta display an assembly's types, methods, fields, and properties. You can download the demos from the link at the top of this article. Beyond these basics, Meta and ReflectMeta show different information. For example, type signatures are readily available to the unmanaged API, so Meta displays them. In contrast, type signatures aren't obtainable (to my knowledge) via the Reflection API. Instead, ReflectMeta shows how easy it is to get a human-readable representation of a parameter type. To do the equivalent using the unmanaged APIs in Meta would take hundreds of lines of code. Both Meta and ReflectMeta are console-mode applications, written in Visual C++ with managed extensions. For input, they take the name of an assembly file (typically an EXE or DLL), and write their output to the standard out file. Both are intentionally simple, and I didn't labor to display every last scrap of information. Instead, I focused on the big picture and tried to keep the code simple enough to be read easily. The Meta program doesn't use the .NET common language runtime. It begins by displaying some basic information about the assembly manifest, including a list of other referenced assemblies. This informa tion comes from the IMetaDataAssemblyImport methods. Next, Meta displays all of the TypeDefs. For each TypeDef, it displays the methods, fields, and properties, along with their tokens and type signature bytes. After the TypeDefs, Meta switches to displaying the TypeRefs (that is, types imported from other assemblies). For each TypeRef, the MVID of the referenced assembly is shown along with the mdTypeDef token for the type within the assembly. The last part of each TypeRef is the MemberRefs. A MemberRef represents an individual method, field, or property of the referenced type. Only those items actually used from the type appear in the MemberRef list. The final thing Meta shows is the ModuleRefs, which are the modules to which the assembly contains references. The list will include any non-.NET DLLs that are called via PInvoke. The ReflectMeta demo program is much simpler, and uses the .NET common language runtime. I intentionally didn't try to use all the snazzy .NET output and formatting classes, and focused instead on making the code easy to understand. This includes my decision to use printf for output. Since printf isn't a .NET method, the PInvoke mechanism is used to call the printf function exported from MSVCRT.DLL. Other than the spot where I do a sysimport to declare printf, calling printf is just the same as calling a managed method. ReflectMeta begins by calling Assembly::Load for the command-line argument. If an invalid file is passed, the method throws an exception, which is handled in main. If a file containing metadata was successfully loaded, the code iterates through all of the modules in the assembly. Typically, each assembly only contains one module. For each module, ReflectMeta calls my DumpGlobalMethods function, which displays the module-level methods. Next, ReflectMeta calls Module::GetTypes to get a list of Types in the module. For each Type, the code calls Type::GetMembers, which returns an array of MemberInfo pointers. Each MemberInfo represents a method, constructor, field, or property. Although not well known, a MemberInfo pointer can be downcast to an appropriate MethodInfo, ConstructorInfo, FieldInfo, or PropertyInfo pointer, which you can use to get more detailed information than the MemberInfo class can provide. For each MethodInfo instance, ReflectMeta uses MethodInfo:: GetParameters to get an array of ParameterInfo objects. As you can see in the code for my FormatParameterString function, it's trivial to get the parameter's type and name as human-readable strings. Warning: the FormatParameterString code is probably a less than optimal use of the .NET StringBuilder class. At the present time, good examples of string formatting in .NET are difficult to find. After enumerating through all the modules and Types, ReflectMeta returns to the manifest-level information available through the Assembly class. It displays the same list of referenced assemblies that you can get from the Meta program. Finally, it displays the resource files that are part of the assembly. Obviously, the ReflectMeta program could be easily extended to do more than it currently does. My goal was simply to touch on most of the major areas available via the Reflection API.
From the October 2000 issue of MSDN Magazine.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
We are currently implementing SSL Explorer see this post for more.
What i am after is some from of Remote Storage device which will sit on the network and users will access from anywhere internally of the school network. But when they are at home they are able to remotely access the same box from home through the internet (possibly VPN). Has any one managed to do something similar at there schools? and if so how, what equipment did you use and who set it up?
Thank you
We use Cisco VPN, you can use schools laptops and have full access or web-based VPN for partial access.
We use WebDav. It includes connections to users' home folders. Permissions are as per domain security.
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OMNOVA Solutions Announces New Business Group Management Structure Within Its Performance Chemicals Segment
FAIRLAWN, Ohio, June 20, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- OMNOVA Solutions (NYSE: OMN) announced a new business group management structure within its Performance Chemicals segment with the objective of more effectively leveraging its extensive technology and product capabilities and global infrastructure for stronger, more sustainable global growth.
As part of the new structure, Specialty Chemicals will include three globally-managed business groups that represent high growth market opportunities for the Company. The three business groups are Oilfield Solutions, Coating Specialties and Specialty Ingredients. The global Paper and Carpet business has been renamed Performance Materials and will be more broadly focused on higher growth packaging and specialty paper applications.
"This new structure better reflects the global company OMNOVA has become, and allows the Performance Chemicals segment to more readily deploy our growth strategies and mobilize resources worldwide to serve our customers," said Jim Hohman, President, Performance Chemicals.
Oilfield Solutions, led by Jeff Chaapel, General Manager, will build upon the Company's strong position in technologies for oil and gas drilling fluids and well cementing applications. In addition, OMNOVA will look to extend its differentiated chemistries into exciting new applications for the oilfield market. Jeff Chaapel recently joined OMNOVA Solutions with nearly 20 years experience in drilling chemicals and production.Coating Specialties, led by Rick Sandford, General Manager, will leverage OMNOVA's strong brands and deep history in coating resins for architectural/infrastructure applications, as well as other high performance applications such as in-mold coatings used in compression molded composites. In addition, this business group will continue to develop value-added solutions for the home and personal care market, such as floorcare polymers and opacifiers used in soaps and cosmetics. Specialty Ingredients, led by Frank Nataro, General Manager, will focus on new growth options for existing and adjacent global markets and capabilities, including polymers used in durable and consumable nonwovens, tape and adhesive systems, fabric reinforcement for tires and other rubber goods, molded rubber components, elastomeric modification, and stabilizer systems for ABS, PVC and natural and synthetic latices. OMNOVA's Paper and Carpet business has been renamed Performance Materials, and will continue to be led by Robin McCann, General Manager. This global business will be more broadly focused on higher growth packaging and specialty paper applications. OMNOVA Solutions Inc. is a technology-based company with 2012 sales of $1.1 billion and a global workforce of approximately 2,400. OMNOVA is an innovator of emulsion polymers, specialty chemicals, and functional and decorative surfaces for a variety of commercial, industrial and residential end uses. Visit OMNOVA Solutions on the internet at www.omnova.com. SOURCE OMNOVA Solutions
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Rebels, troops clash at air base
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BEIRUT (AP) — Syrian rebels seeking to topple President Bashar Assad fought intense battles with his troops on Sunday to try to seize control of three military air bases in the country's north and curtail the regime's use of its punishing air power, activists said.
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The Best Of The Rest: Julib.com
The sheer number of venues where writers can publish their work never ceases to amaze me. I find walking into a magazine store inspiring because there are so many options. Furthermore, the growth of the Internet has exponentially increased this number. Some of the outlets are covered in our excellent How To Pitch archives. (Self-promoting? Yes. Absolutely true? Certainly.) Others, for any number of reasons, are not. To rectify this situation, I'll use this space to highlight venues for freelancers that might not otherwise see the light of day. It will be fun, I promise.
On tap today, Julib.com.


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MCCRACKEN COUNTY, Ky. (6/13/14) — At approximately 1:17 p.m. the McCracken County Sheriff's Department investigated an accident in the 3900 block of Old Mayfield Road.
Investigation showed Amy M Wood, 44 years of age of Benton, Ky., was operating a 2005 Chevrolet Malibu.
Mrs. Wood was traveling north on Old Mayfield Road when for unknown reasons she crossed the center line. Mrs. Wood struck Tracy L. Wurth, 45 years of age and her passenger Jonathan Vaughn, 22 years of age, both of Paducah. Mrs. Vaughn was operating a 2002 Chrysler PT Cruiser.
Mrs. Wurth and Mr. Vaughn were transported to an area hospital for treatment of non-life threatening injuries. Mrs. Wood was also injured, however was going to seek medical attention on her own.The McCracken County Sheriff's Department was assisted by Hendron Fire and Mercy Regional.
SurfKY News
Information provided by Deputy Kevin Carter
© Copyright 2014 SurfKY News Group, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, or rewritten without permission. SurfKY News encourages you to share this story by using one of the social media links below.
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If it seems to you that just about every year the powers-that-be change the classes in Le Mans racing, well, you're not far off. The racing categories for various vehicles is constantly in flux, with organizers at the ACO forever seeking out the right balance between various categories to keep ...
2010 Porsche 911 GT3 R - click above for high-res image galleryOver its nearly half-century of its existence, the Porsche 911 seems to have spawned nearly as many racing variants as production models. The newest one announced is the 911 GT3 R, which, as the name implies, is targeted at GT3 class ...
2009 ALMS at Long Beach – Click above for high-res image galleryThe American Le Mans Series is responding to economic conditions and the decline in the diversity of racing machinery on the grid by changing up the racing classes in its ranks for next season. Rather than imposing spending ...


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Organic supply chain (OSC) companies that dissemble organic raw material (beef, pork, poultry, and agricultural products), have very specific requirements that generic process ERP systems cannot address, and ERP vendors have not taken the time to develop a solution with the flexibility to manage the variability needed by an OSC company. This paper presents the unique issues and requirements found in this special market.
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Summerfield 45, Morenci 33
PETERSBURG — Things didn't look good for Summerfield's girls when they fell behind 21-13 after the first quarter.
But the Bulldog basketball team held Morenci to 12 points the rest of the night and came back for a 45-33 Tri-County Conference win Friday night.
Hayley Wahl scored a career-high 27 points and was 8-for-10 from the foul line in the fourth quarter. Alison Manley was a force underneath with 13 rebounds.
"It was a great win. The girls were determined tonight to come out with a win," said coach Josh Sweigert. "Hayley Wahl had a fantastic game.
"Morenci shot very well in the first quarter and hit four 3-pointers. After that our defensive pressure really stepped up."
More like this story
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med cert
May 21 is deadline to begin using National Registry doctors
Todd Dills | February 12, 2014
A somewhat new map-search tool at the registry site is now populated with registered examiners around the country for look-up / forward planning purposes.
UPDATED: Medical certification confusion — and a state by state resource guide for meeting Jan. 30 reporting deadline
Todd Dills | December 23, 2013
Clearing up some of the confusion around self-reporting of CDL holders' medical certifications. Reporting deadline: Jan. 30, 2014; Kansas, Idaho here update their procedures since original story aired.
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text: - Turn your smartphone into a Dual SIM and Dual standby device. - Allows your android tablet/ipad/ipod to make calls and send SMS. - Extremely lightweight, compact and slim. - Wireless communication through Bluetooth. - Vibration function. - iOS devices: Jailbreak and access to Cydia are required - SIM ... Read more


text:
DFDS grew 2011 pre-tax profit by 36 percent from a year ago to a record $133 million, but the company expects higher oil prices and tougher competition on North Sea roll-on, roll off routes to push down 2012 earnings
Europe's largest short-sea shipping and logistics company revenue was up 18 percent year-over-year to $2 billion, partly reflecting the contribution from Norfolkline, its $470 million acquisition from Denmark's A.P. Moller-Maersk in 2010. The Copenhagen-based company's operating profit also increased by 18 percent to $269 million, driven by synergies from the merger with Norfolkline and improved efficiency.
"In 2011 we succeeded in achieving our two most important strategic objectives: the planned synergies from Norfolkline were reached, and then some, and the profit from logistics activities was improved significantly by more than 100 million kroner [$17.9 million]," said CEO Niels Smedegaard.
"It looks as if market conditions are set to become more challenging in 2012. We therefore foresee limited organic growth, but envisage opportunities to grow by acquisitions. We are ready for new growth, also financially."
DFDS expects North Sea traffic to decline by around3 percent in 2012, while the more robust Baltic region likely will grow by 2 to 4 percent. The company forecast unchanged revenue in 2012 and a pre-tax profit before special items of $80 million $89.6 million.
-- Contact Bruce Barnard at email@example.com.


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Lets you connect multiple devices, even with big power converters, to a single outlet.
Lets you connect multiple devices, even with big power converters, to a single outlet.
Little known fact: the USB peripheral ports on your computer (the cables going to printers, cameras, etc.) carry low-volt electrical power. This means you can use the big battery in your lap as a big recharger for a gadget. Globetrotting road-warriors have discovered they can carry one less adapter/recharger by packing this small cable. Plug one end into the USB port and the other into the cell phone. As long as you have power in your laptop, you can recharge your phone.
[If you can recommend a good, reliable alternative to this device, which is not currently available, please let us know in the comments below or via the submit page -- SL]
|Recently Asked
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|Well Water contains sand/silt
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Regularly Purchased Together
Browse Model Power
117 realistically detailed, styrene parts molded in 6
different colors.
Optional windows or cargo doors.
Superb terra cotta shingle details.
Rain gutter and down spout details.
Nicely detailed lamps.
Acetate sheets with "glass-like" clarity.
(1) Building Kit
Cement for plastics (TESR3512)
Hobby Knife (RMXR6901)
Scale: HO 1:87
Length: 7.3"
Width: 8.5"
Height: 5.7"


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Police searching for Garfield 10-year-old last seen on Friday
Pittsburgh police are asking for help in finding a missing Garfield boy.
Kasuantae Moore, 10, was last seen about 6 p.m. Friday leaving his grandmother's house on Weldin Way in Garfield.
He was last seen wearing dark blue dress pants, a dark blue shirt and black and yellow tennis shoes. He is black with brown hair and eyes, weighs 80 pounds and stands 4 feet 5 inches tall.
Call 911 or police headquarters 412-323-7800 with any information.
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Select () or exclude () categories to narrow your recipe search.
As you select categories, the number of matching recipes will update.
Find exactly what you're looking for with the web's most powerful recipe filtering tool.
Sort by: Date | Rating | Most Helpful
"These were amazingly soft!! We substituted white chocolate chips and added dried cranberries and almond slivers. Yum!!!"
"These are always a hit! I usually lay a slice of ham on top of the spread before rolling, as suggested and also use a whole grain tort - yummy!"


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My guess would be that installing it would be similar to CS3 installs, where you have to have xml files with the valid details in?
The lovely people at Adobe supply Premiere Elements as an MSI... excellent I thought!
Then the problems started... I installed an admin install point using msiexec /a and it asked me all sorts of questions but didn't allow me to specify the serial number. Of course this means that a silent install fails at the point where the serial number is requested.
I can successfully populate the serial number field using the SERIALNUMBER property tagged onto the msiexec command line. Hosever, using Orca to create a transform to set this property does not work... simply giving me invalid serial number errors during a silent install and not populating the field during an interactive install.
Any help would be much appreciated.
My guess would be that installing it would be similar to CS3 installs, where you have to have xml files with the valid details in?
There is a file Abcpy.ini where in you can enter the licence details. This file is supplied along with the CD
Did you ever manage to get this working @Ric_ ?
I now have the same task to do... Also, how did you go about installing the templates?
@localzuk: I ended up using SCCM to do a silent install as part of the build process. I then had to copy files into c:\program files\common files\adobe to get the license activation to work. PITA!
Of course that is all from memory.
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About This Activity
Sports Club is designed for those who want to take their game or skills to the next level. Instructors welcome all players from the Seasonal Sports activity to join the park's sports club, which provides practice time and prepares players for seasonal local tournaments with winners advancing to a citywide championship. This activity meets once a week in preparation of upcoming tournaments.
Map & Direction
Thursday, April 4, 2013
Sherman Park 1301 W. 52nd St. Chicago, IL, United States of America 60609Get Directions


text:
VOF Week 1: (Women Fingers Free Talk!)
As a woman lives in a community that does not recognize women contribution to public life as general, citizen journalism and Web 2.0 applications represent a life-saving opportunity for women's voices to be heard.
Women experienced great difficulties and real dilemma, having to choose between their homes, families, marriages and public life activities, like performing arts, singing, acting, dancing, or express freely their feelings, and ideas through poetry. Though the same community harshly criticizes men for the free expression when it comes to politics, religion and sex, but women always have to pay a quite higher price. The punishment of the man for such community-disapproved acts comes after the action was made. While with women, it starts before reaching the audience! As the punishment will be prevention from access to audience by the authorities, including the family of course, or by media institutions. That doesn't mean women of my country and similar environments have given up, but their fight still running, towards equal opportunities to be heard.
Web 2.0 and citizen electronic journalism and the cyberspace as general has opened a new horizon for women to look up to, by offering an uncensored media outlets, free expression tools, and a fabulous opportunity to interact with similar as well as different minds meetings, beside an unlimited networking possibilities. Further to these advantages the Web 2.0 and similar tools provided for almost no cost, since the internet connection become a backbone common communication facility, that could be found every everywhere every time. If not at home, could be accessed at public net cafés.
Women who were constantly ignored not only in policy forming, and decision making processes, but also in the development plans made by the governments, are now looking up for innovative ways to make their voices reaches the world. And place their participation through public speeches, accessible by everyone and anyone, in the largest media outlet of the Internet. In a magical theme, a woman from the heart of the desert in Somalia, can write up a blog about the life of nomad women life in the civil war devastated country, sharing with every possible interested person the news of that part of the world, focusing on women, the forgotten and marginalized true half of the community of mankind through the history. In a space where questions are posed by both sides, information are acquired, help is arranged, ideas are exchanged, questions are answered, friends are bound, and conferences are almost held multiple times, oh then women should grab this amazing world and get closer!
Globally people realized the difference between communities, and issues of development, empowerment, poverty, health, education, and human rights, but they have always realize that the solutions are most of the time similar, strategies and plans approaches to deal with a specific issue like education for example, so workers in women issues and women empowerment can have direct dialogue with each other around the world, they can also make their awareness programs reach further audience by posting it on the internet through Web 2.0 to make it available for women and women actors around the worlds, opening the room for more women to participate in the discussion. Women with Web 2.0 do no more require spending on travel to meet with women empowerment specialists, or to participate in a conference, or training, they are now on the same table with whomever they might need to speak, listen to and learn, plus making all that available for interested people to benefit of, and to discuss and participate too.
In a personal level, I have learned the first ABC of social work over the internet, through the Taking It Global initiative, five years ago, I realized and empowered by what I have learnt through the internet, and find my way to be an active social worker in refugee context, using the email and online networking to facilitate the advocacy and learning among community actors and members. It was always of almost no cost, and easy to comprehend, easy to share, to inform and always inspiring. Web 2.0 being a source for information, communication and circulation of ideas and information, providing a tool for live interaction, discussions, debates and forum, connection with experts and trainers, along with free voices of women from all over the world is creating an excellent and resourceful environment for empowerment that encourage me to talk loudly and fearlessly using my TEN fingers.
My honor to be one of your Listeners...
Dear Omaima,
What joy for me to be reading your first assignment!
A few phrases really struck a chord with me:
"In a magical theme, a woman from the heart of the desert in Somalia, can write up a blog about the life of nomad women life in the civil war devastated country, sharing with every possible interested person the news of that part of the world, focusing on women, the forgotten and marginalized true half of the community of mankind through the history."
I immediately Googled "Somalian Nomadic Women" because I wanted to have a visual connection with that phrase. I love the image I found: http://tinyurl.com/cfb94b
I also love the way you end your article, "...creating an excellent and resourceful environment for empowerment that encourage me to talk loudly and fearlessly using my TEN fingers."
I wish you had a profile picture so I could imagine you at your keyboard, loudly and fearlessly using your Voice! What an image!
I checked your word count and it looks like you are 235 words over the limit. I think one possibility for reducing your word count, while expanding on your own personal story - which is what will really draw a reader in - might have been to remove the 1st two paragraphs and start with your 3rd paragraph.I know I would have liked to have read more about your experience with Taking It Global. What was the program? What do you mean by social work over the Internet? Anyway, these are merely suggestions. For the next assignment, if you are over the word count again, you might consider posting early and asking for feedback from the community. That's what we are here for!
Thank you for your using voice, Omaima. I am honored and blessed to witness you.
Jennifer Ruwart
Chief Collaborator
JR Collaborations
Power of words
Dear friend,
I enjoyed reading your piece. Your passion and excitement are evident in your writing. I especially enjoyed some of the examples you wrote about, like a woman in the heart of the dessert in Somalia writing a blog.
I hope that most, if not all, of the web 2.0 site are free to users. I certainly appreciate that PulseWire lets us take part in this community for free. I haven't come across many sites that charge anymore.
I wish you had described a bit more of your experiences with web 2.0. Maybe you will get the chance in the future,


text:
New to Typophile? Accounts are free, and easy to set up.
So I found a setting to "show nodes on mask layer" in the preferences>glyph window>appearances panel, but I was wondering, is there any way to show the control vectors/points of the mask layer while still on the main layer?
It would be really helpful for matching up certain parts of a character in the mask layer without switching back and forth from looking at the mask to the main glyph.
opps, figured it out!
For anyone else who wants to know, you just have to select the whole mask and then switch back to the main glyph and it will show the mask points as little dotted x points.


text:
Monday, December 22, 2014
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Hundreds of volunteers are sorting and packing thousands of backpacks to get school supplies to needy children.
Volunteers of America's annual Operation Backpack is under way.
Teams have been dividing up supplies like pens, crayons, notebooks for the city's homeless kids.
Organizers say 8,000 backpacks were distributed last year, but this year's goal is 14,000.
They also point to a record number of families that have entered homeless shelters this year, making the need for supplies even greater.
The city's Department of Homeless Services says more than 10,500 school-aged children are in shelters -- 18 percent higher than at the same time last year.
"Volunteers of America has been doing this for years. It's just a community service and we never had any idea it would have to grow like this but we're hoping with New Yorkers as generous as they are, we're going to be able to fill the need," said Rachel Weinstein of Volunteers of America.
"Too often, sometimes, when kids who don't have the ability to get supplies, they walk into school they see their classmates have fancy backpacks and everything they need. And they feel badly. They start off the school year sort of not feeling good about themselves, not feeling ready to participate in school. This gives them a head start," said Department of Homeless Services Commissioner Seth Diamond.
For more information, visit operationbackpacknyc.org.
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