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The blues is a foundational element of America's vernacular and art music. It is commonly described as a combination of African rhythms and European harmonies. This characterization is inaccurate. Blues follows harmonic conventions that are quite different from those of European common-practice tonality. Blues does not fit into major or minor tonality, and its uses many intervals considered by tonal theory to be 'dissonant.' But blues is not experienced by its listeners as being dissonant; rather, it uses an alternative system of consonance. In order to make sense of this system, we need to understand blues as belonging to its own tonality, distinct from major, minor and modal scales.
The sound of the blues is heard throughout the world, both directly and via its many stylistic descendants: jazz, R&B, rock, funk, and so on. Given its ubiquity, it is surprising how rarely the blues is addressed in formal music education. Those scholars and educators who mention the blues at all have great difficulty making sense of it from a music-theoretic perspective. When approached through a framework of common-practice era Western tonal theory, blues is practically nonsensical. Yet blues is understood and enjoyed widely, and it possesses a clear harmonic logic of its own. If music theory claims to explain common practice, it must be able to account for the blues.
The blues cannot be explained by Western tonal theory. Nevertheless, the blues emerged in western culture and is now a central pillar of it. McClary (2001) observes that while twentieth-century music has no single main stream, it does have a "mighty river" that follows a channel cut by the blues:
When LeRoi Jones published his powerful book Blues People in 1963, his title referred to the African American musicians who fashioned the blues out of their particular historical conditions and experiences. Yet a music scholar of a future time might well look back on the musical landscape of the 1900 s and label us all "blues people": those who inhabited a period dominated by blues and its countless progeny (32-33).
It no longer makes sense to think of the blues, or any other music of the African diaspora, as non-Western. Therefore, Western music theory must grow to accommodate the blues, the same way that the music itself has. Rather than seeing the blues as inexplicable, or wildly dissonant, we need to understand its internal logic, and how it relates to the broader harmonic universe. This article sets out to explain the characteristic chords and scales of the blues, and argues that they comprise an alternative definition of consonance. Specifically, I propose that we teach blues tonality as a distinct category from major or minor, combining elements of both with elements not found in either. Furthermore, I propose that we present blues tonality as being as fundamental a tonal category as major or minor, rather than as a strange exception.
Popular musicians, who tend to be self-taught, already effectively treat blues as a core concept, a chord-scale system on an equal footing with common-practice tonality (Green 2002, 43). Some jazz theorists do as well. Jaffe (2011) divides harmony into three distinct tonal systems: diatonic harmony as described by tonal theory, modal harmony, and blues. Given how pervasive the influence of jazz and rock are in all other Western music, I believe that it is time for the music academy at large to address blues as part of standard theory pedagogy.
Defining blues tonality and the blues scale
There is no widely agreed-upon precise definition of blues or blues tonality. I will argue that blues tonality consists of a scale, the blues scale, accompanied by characteristic microtonal blue notes in between the scale tones. Blues harmony comprises chords whose roots are blues scale notes, but whose other constituent pitches may be drawn from the entire chromatic scale.
As a first step to understanding blues tonality, we need to define the blues scale. There are several scales referred to as 'blues scales,' but the one most often described is comprised of the intervals minor third, whole step, half step, half step, minor third, whole step. The C blues scale would therefore be the pitches C, E♭, F, F♯, G, and B♭.
This definition of the blues scale is used by Levine (1995), Harrison (2001), and Jaffe (2011). However, Jaffe adds the caveat that the blues scale is a less a cleanly defined scale in the usual sense, and more a pedagogical convenience.
Some authors describe two distinct blues scales, a 'major' and 'minor' blues scale. Jaffe (2011) defines the "Major Blues scale" as the sixth mode of the standard (minor) blues scale. The C major blues scale would be C, D, E♭, E, G, and A—the sixth mode of the A blues scale (35). Greenblatt (2005) uses the same definitions of the minor and major blues scales.
Sutcliffe (2006) does not believe there to be a single blues scale. As a starting point, he explains blues melodies as deriving from the major scale with a flattened third and seventh, i.e., the Dorian mode. However, he observes that blues melodies will frequently use both the major and minor thirds. He also describes a 'Blues Pentatonic Scale,' his term for the minor pentatonic played over dominant seventh chords. Intriguingly, he also describes the flattened sixth as "an additional blues 3rd against the major subdominant chord" (n.p.).
Blues practitioners use all of the above scales and more. Nevertheless, I believe that it is both valid and useful to define a singular blues scale as I have above, to distinguish it from other scales used in the blues that are already well described using existing standard terminology. Furthermore, the blues scale as I have defined it forms the roots of a characteristic set of chords, which I will address below.
Blues is a tonality, not a song form
Blues as a musical idiom is often equated with the twelve-bar strophic form that shares its name. It is important to distinguish between blues tonality and the blues song form. The twelve-bar blues form is what Stoia (2013) describes as a 'scheme'—a preexisting harmonic ground or melodic structure that forms the basis for the creation of songs. This scheme is neither necessary nor sufficient for characterizing music as blues. It is the blues' characteristic harmony that defines it, not any particular song form.
There are a great many songs using the twelve-bar scheme that do not lie in the blues genre at all. "Shuckin' The Corn" by Flatt and Scruggs (1957) and the theme song the 1960s Batman television show both use the twelve-bar scheme, but neither one could be mistaken for blues; they are bluegrass and jazzy rock, respectively. Meanwhile, a great many blues tunes have schemes differing from the twelve-bar form. Jaffe (2011) cites "Work Song" by Nat Adderley and Oscar Brown Jr. (1960) and "Moanin'" by Bobby Timmons (1958) as fitting this category.
It is possible to imbue nearly any piece of music with blues feel by embellishing or replacing its harmonies with the blues scale. For example, compare Simon and Garfunkel's original recording of "Bridge Over Troubled Water" (1970) with the version recorded by Aretha Franklin (1971). The song as written is gospel-inflected pop. Though Franklin retains the gospel elements, her interpretation is a wide stylistic departure. She interprets the melody so freely as to essentially rewrite it, replacing its diatonicism with the blues scale throughout, along with characteristic blues rhythm and pitch play. In so doing, she brings the song squarely into the blues domain.
Is the blues scale dissonant?
Western music theorists frequently characterize blues melodies as being dissonant against diatonic harmony. Given the hegemony of European-descended music theory in the academy, this is unsurprising. As McClary (2001) observes, "blues musicians privilege a vast palette of sounds that European-trained ears tend to hear as distorted or out of tune" (35). For example, Everett (2004) refers to the tritones and half-steps characteristic of blues as "intrinsically dissonant" (17).
Wagner (2003), like Everett, sees the blues as occupying the major-key system, and the blues scale as violating the rules of that system. (Like many authors, she uses 'blue notes' to refer to blues scale notes, not to the microtonal pitches discussed below.)
Blue notes, by nature, are alienated from their harmonic environment and have a dissonant relationship with them, giving the blues and all its derivatives a rough, angry character. Nevertheless, the hostility of blue notes toward the surrounding world may be mitigated—"domesticated"—through consonantization (353).
Wagner describes blues scale notes as "spoiling" the diatonicism of "clean" chords. By reharmonizing blues scale notes with chords from parallel minor, they become "family" notes that are "at home" in their chords, thus giving them "legitimacy" (354). Reharmonizing a blues scale note "improves" its status because "instead of being an outsider, it becomes a distinguished member of the club" (355). Reharmonized blues scale notes are transformed into "respected members of the community," although their African roots remain "imprinted on their identity cards" (356). Why use such judgmental language, and why use expressions so closely associated with the oppression of ethnic and racial minorities? We need not suspect Wagner of harboring any racist sentiments, but her choice of language reveals an implicit cultural bias widespread in the music academy.
Tymoczko (2011) analyzes blues as part of jazz use of dissonance, including "polytonality, sidestepping and 'playing out'" (374). In his view, blues is the beginning of jazz musicians' willful violation of tonal rules, part of a larger practice of intentional asynchrony between melody and underlying harmony.
The origins of [harmonic asynchrony] can perhaps be traced to the blues, which is characterized by 'blue notes' that create a delicious dissonance with the underlying harmony… The music thus suggests a kind of polytonality, or clash between independent harmonic streams, in which an upper-register (African-American) 'blues scale' contrasts with a lower-register European harmony (374).
Tymoczko immediately follows his discussion of blues with the example of jazz improviser Wayne Marsh playing an E major chord over E♭ major tonality. However, this analysis misses an essential distinction: while jazz sideslipping is indeed experienced by most listeners as dissonant, blues is heard as consonant, possessed of its own harmonic logic. For all of its violations of western tonal theory, blues is in no way atonal. There is always a strong tonal center, recurring at the beginning of every chorus. Indeed, a great deal of blues music never departs from the tonic. Given that blues has a clear internal logic organized around a tonal center, we need to ask what the nature of that tonal logic is.
Stoia (2010) regards the blues scale as essentially dissonant, in conflict with the underlying diatonic harmony. He acknowledges, however, that this dissonance does not have the same expressive effect that it does in European-descended music. While blues melodies fall outside of the diatonic system, they do not create the feeling of unease or conflict that they would in a classical context. Stoia, like other theorists, uses the term 'dissonance' as being coextensive with 'notes outside the European tonal system.' However, in a blues context, blue notes sound perfectly 'correct' and 'natural.' Rather than viewing blues as a violation of diatonic norms, we need to understand it as a parallel rule set of norms in its own right. These norms can be surprising for classically-trained musicians. Weisethaunet (2001) points out that in blues, the minor third can sound more correct than the major third over a major chord.
Blues players will also employ the major third in their solos and phrases; however, if this is overdone, it will take the feeling away from that of the blues and make the music sound more 'jazzy' or 'country-like'. From the perspective of the blues performer and listener, the major third against the major chord may thus sound more 'dissonant' than the application of the minor third over the major chord (105)!
Jaffe (2011) distinguishes the standard blues from 'major blues' tonality, which includes both ♭3^ and 3^. He would presumably concur that major blues sounds more like jazz than blues per se.
For all of its violations of western tonal theory, blues is in no way atonal. There is always a strong tonal center, recurring at the beginning of every chorus. A great deal of blues music never departs from the tonal center. The one-chord blues is practiced by musicians as diverse as John Lee Hooker and John Coltrane. For example, Hooker's 1967 recording of "I'm Bad Like Jesse James" never moves from its tonic, E. The blending of major and minor that characterizes blues is especially clear here: the piano chords are minor, while the guitar chords are dominant.
Given that blues has a clear internal logic organized around a tonal center, we need to ask what the nature of that tonal logic is.
Is blues really a form of modal mixture?
Since the blues freely combines elements of diatonic major and minor tonality, it could be understood as a kind of modal mixture; for this reason, van der Merwe (1992) characterizes blues as a "modality," not a tonality (118). Turek and McCarthy (2013) see blues as arising from the adding of the flat seventh to diatonic chords:
The lowered seventh present above each root imparts a dominant seventh quality to each chord. The blues and its offspring are the only Western vernacular music in which the Mm7 is routinely divorced from its function as a dominant in need of resolution (584).
Therefore, major blues is really a type of modal mixture, borrowing elements of parallel minor. In this understanding, minor blues is coextensive with diatonic minor, aside from the addition of #4^ the only point of harmonic "friction" (594).
Tagg (2009) sees blues not as the importing of minor mode materials into major tonality, but the reverse. He locates blues tonality partially in the practice of substituting a major triad for the tonic chord in diatonic minor or Dorian mode. He argues that the chords characteristic of blues can be derived by simply placing a major triad on every root of those modes. Such harmonic parallelism has its roots in many African cultures, and is a natural fit for guitarists, especially those who play with slides in open tunings. The parallel major triads are implicit in rock's power chords, because the third is present in the overtone series, which is frequently augmented by distortion.
There is less of a need to define a distinct 'minor blues tonality,' since minor-key blues has merged in modern practice with minor modality generally, to the point of the two being coextensive. John Coltrane's "Equinox" (1960) is a classic example of minor-key blues.
It uses the characteristic minor blues subdominant, ♭VI7, which is comprised "almost exclusively" of the minor blues scale notes (Jaffe 2011, 37), and can be used in any major or minor-key tune to impart blues feel.
Blue notes
If the blues scale is a disputed term, the blue note is even more so. Non-specialists frequently and incorrectly refer to ♭3^ and ♭7^ (and sometimes ♯4^) as blue notes. Many theorists confusingly use the term 'blue notes' both for microtonal and piano-key notes. Turek and McCarthy (2013) describe blue notes both as the equal-tempered ♭3^ and ♭7^, and, later, as "pitches, most notably the third and seventh scale degrees, slightly flatter than their equal-tempered counterparts" (593). This is confusing and illogical. We need to distinguish between blues scale notes (♭3^, ♯4^, and ♭7^) and blue notes (microtonal pitches that lie between the piano keys.)
The most commonly referred-to microtonal blue note is the neutral third, the pitch lying mid-way between ♭3^ and 3^. Stoia (2013) is one of many theorists who describe the 'blue third' as being either minor or neutral. Van der Merwe (1992) goes further and asserts that, in blues practice, "[i]nstead of the major and minor thirds of the printed page, most of the thirds will be neutral in actual performance" (123). Elsewhere van der Merwe notes that the third is not the only note to be treated this way; several pitches can be flattened by a quarter tone or a full semitone. "The degrees of the mode treated in this way are, in order of frequency, the third, seventh, fifth, and sixth" (119).
Blues musicians treat pitches "as mobile, unstable units instead of treating them as discrete points in a scale" (Tallmadge 1984, 155). Should we consider blue notes to be stable units, of equal significance to the blues scale itself? Or are they best thought of as embellishments, the consequences of blues musicians' pitch play? The most commonly held view is blue notes have an intrinsic instability analogous to harmonic dissonance: "So close is the parallel that it is not misleading to use the term 'melodic dissonance'" (van der Merwe 1992, 120).
By contrast, Titon (1977) incorporates blue notes into his basic definition of the blues scale, and places them at the heart of his understanding of blues tonality. Using a corpus of recordings of "downhome" or country blues made between 1926 and 1930, Titon defines the set of the most commonly occurring pitches as the "downhome blues scale" (155). The downhome blues scale in C consists of the following pitches: C; D; E complex (E♭, E, and two distinct intermediate pitches); F; G complex (F#, G and one distinct intermediate pitch); A; B complex (B♭, B and one distinct intermediate pitch); C'; D'; and E' complex. Titon believes that the scale should span a tenth rather than an octave, because the blues musicians in his study treat the lower octave differently than the higher one. He identifies this practice as the basis for the bluesy sound of the 7#9 chord, with major third in the lower octave and the minor third on top. Titon also tallies the most frequent movements from one blues scale pitch to another within his corpus, and proposes a generative system for blues melodies by cataloging melodic contours derived from them.
Weisethaunet (2001) sees blue notes as a central component of blues tonality, but is reluctant to define them strictly. In his view, the pitch play that produces blue notes can not be meaningfully separated from the rest of the musical devices that make up blues feel.
[I]n blues performance every note may be bent or altered, but in different ways depending on style and how such notes appear in the harmonic texture. One of the most frequently heard 'blue notes' as regards pitch discrepancy in post-war electric guitar playing may be that of the bent fourth: this is commonly bent to include different pitches between the fourth and the fifth (and higher pitches as well). The second (which does not even appear in what scholars have named the blues scale) also seems to be a very common 'blue note' feature of most blues guitarists' repertoires: moving between the second and the minor third in innumerable ways. In fact every note of the twelve-tone chromatic scale may appear in a blues tune, possibly also as 'blue notes', because microtonality, attack, and timbre variation are such essential parts of blues expression (Weisethaunet 2001, 101).
Perhaps, then, we should take the view that the blues scale is more than a straightforward set of equal-tempered piano-key notes; rather, that it is a group of islands in the midst of the pitch continuum, home bases from which to explore the surrounding microtones.
Blues harmony
Chords in diatonic harmony are generated by permuting notes in the scale. Diatonic harmony is a 'closed' system—the chords in the key of C major are all derived exclusively from the pitches in the C major scale. Blues harmony, by contrast, is an 'open' system. While the blues scale is frequently the basis for the roots of the chords in blues music, other pitches can come from parallel major, natural minor, Dorian mode, or anywhere else. The chords most characteristic to blues can be built on the roots of the blues scale. The rest of the chord tones need not derive from the blues scale the way they would in modal music (Sutcliffe, 2006). I consider the characteristic chords associated with the C blues scale to be: C7♯9, E♭7, F7, F♯dim7, G7♯9, and B♭7. In Roman numeral terms, that gives us I7♯9, ♭III7, IV7, ♯IVdim7, V7♯9, and ♭VII7. The ♭III and ♭VII chords could also plausibly be defined as major seventh chords. The dominant quality is more 'bluesy' to my ears, but an empirical survey of blues music could well show that major sevenths are used more frequently.
There are several diminished chords commonly used in blues tonality beyond the ♯IVdim7. A ubiquitous turnaround/embellishment figure uses I7/iii, ♭IIIdim7, IIdim7, I7, or those same chords in the reverse order. Furthermore, the pitches in Idim7 are highly idiomatic to blues melodies. Should these diminished chords be considered fundamental to blues tonality? If so, how should we incorporate them? I do not have a clear answer.
The two most significant differences between blues harmony and diatonic harmony are the 1) blues tonality's ambiguity between major and minor discussed previously, and 2) the role of tritones, particularly within dominant seventh chords. Both Stoia (2010) and Everett (2004) draw a connection between the flat seventh in blues chords and the flat seventh in the diatonic V7 chord, an 'embellishment' that increases the chord's dissonance and creates an expectation of resolution. Stoia in particular bolsters his case by citing the frequently-used blues device of treating I7 as V7/IV in anticipation of the fifth bar of a twelve-bar blues form. However, dominant seventh chords are not necessarily dissonant or unstable in a blues context. Blues songs routinely begin and end on I7, with a feeling of resolution that is as satisfying as a perfect authentic cadence is in classical music.
While blues musicians use chords, there is not a sense of inevitable progression the way there is in Western classical. Indeed, the dominant V chord is frequently absent in rural blues (Kubik 2005, 207). Rural blues musicians' implicit rejection of the V-I cadence was made explicit by bebop musicians in the 1940s. While their source material of Tin Pan Alley songs was full of cadences, musicians like Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie disguised and obscured these cadences by means of the tritone substitution and other reharmonization techniques.
Everett (2004) is one of many scholars who describe blues as a mixture of diatonic harmony and minor pentatonic melody.
[T]he blues has an essentially major-mode structure. In the twelve-bar-based "School Days," Chuck Berry's vocal and lead guitar parts are thoroughly pentatonic, but the structure-expressing bass and piano boogie in the major mode. The rarity of exceptions, as found in B. B. King's minor-mode "The Thrill is Gone," proves the rule. If this seems out of line with prevailing descriptions, which typically rely on reference to a "blues scale" and don't seem to discriminate between tonal characteristics of melody and backing, consider the rhythm section's accompaniment aside from all vocal and solo melodic lines. It is in the supportive major-mode instrumental chordal backing, not in the soloistic melodic material, that structural harmony is expressed ([16]).
Everett (2004) asserts that while particular blues songs may not use structural dominants, there is nevertheless an implicit understanding that the dominant functions as it does in diatonic music because "it is of structural value in the major system that is inhabited by that blues" ([18]). This argument would be valid if all blues songs really did make reference to diatonic harmony, but a great many do not. There is an entire subgenre of so-called 'primitive' blues songs that have no chord progressions whatsoever. For example, "Spoonful" by Willie Dixon (1960) consists entirely of riffs over a static tonic chord. Whatever this song's base tonality is, it is most certainly not major.
Contrary to Everett, it is possible for a wide variety of chord progressions to possess a strong blues feel. For example, while Charles Mingus' "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" (1959) uses the F blues scale for most of its melody, its chords are drawn from the entire chromatic scale.
Aside from a continually reasserted tonic, blues harmony may not be functional at all in a traditionally Western sense.
In blues harmonic practice, unresolved tritones can appear over any root, sometimes generating an impetus for motion and sometimes not. A one-chord blues can be based on a seventh chord over a repeating bass figure, and can easily accommodate extensions beyond the seventh. The addition of the sharp ninth merely adds colour to the tonic in this case, rather than a tension requiring resolution (van der Bliek 2007, 346).
Blues chord progressions may not be 'functional,' but they are assuredly not random either. While they may not lead to one another with the inevitability of classical harmonies, they are more satisfying in some combinations and sequences than others.
The issue of functionality within blues harmony is complicated by the fact that, unlike any other scale in common Western use, the blues scale is a kind of universal harmonic solvent. It sounds correct over any chord in any tune (Levine 1995, 230). While the combination of the scale against the chords in a typical blues or pop song produces a great deal of dissonance, in the blues context the dissonance is perfectly acceptable. The clash of adjacent chromatic pitches in blues sounds right, not wrong. Perhaps the best way to understand blues harmony will be to conduct a statistical study of chord progressions across a wide corpus of blues recordings.
Blues harmony in context
The diagram below shows my understanding of how blues tonality fits into the broader western harmonic universe. Following the diagram is an explanation of my terms.
Diatonic major
This is the major scale and its associated harmony as described by conventional tonal theory.
Diatonic minor
Diatonic minor consists of the natural and harmonic minor scales and their associated harmony.
The supermode
The supermode is the union of the major and natural minor scales. This collection of pitches comprise the ones most commonly used in rock and pop melodies, as determined by DeClercq and Temperley (2011), who also coined the term.
Non-western modes, drones, and pentatonics
There are three major harmonic practices that western musicians have incorporated from the rest of the world, all of which are important to the blues.
- Modes. Exotic scales have infiltrated western pop through vectors as diverse as the globetrotting dance music scene, big-eared hip-hop producers, rock and metal musicians looking to break out of clichés, film score composers, and waves of immigrants. Jazz musicians were exploring the major scale modes back in the 1950s, and a wide variety of non-western scales in the 1960s. Pop eventually followed suit.
e variety of non-western scales in the 1960s. Pop eventually followed suit.
- Drones. Drones seem very exotic, more a feature of Indian or middle eastern music than blues. However, a huge swath of western pop uses static harmony based on a pedal point, and a pedal point could be considered to be a rhythmically broken drone.
- Pentatonics. Almost every world culture uses pentatonic scales. Western musicians learn them early because they are easy to play. On the keyboard, playing on the black keys only gives you the F♯ major and E♭ minor pentatonic scales. On the guitar, pentatonics are by far the easiest scales to play.
Jazz major
Contemporary music rarely confines itself to the strict rules of tonal theory. Particularly in jazz, major-key music is frequently enriched with non-diatonic pitches, like ♯4 and ♭7. Levine (1995) and many other jazz pedagogues describe the 'bebop major scale' as the major scale with the added ♭6. The 'bebop dominant scale' is the mixolydian mode with an added ♮7. (See also Baker 1988.) I refer to this collection of expanded major scales as 'jazz major.'
Jazz minor
I use the term jazz minor to refer to the union of all of the different minor scales commonly used in contemporary music: natural, harmonic and melodic minor, plus Dorian and Phrygian modes. Weisethaunet (2001) observes that contemporary blues players will commonly use the Dorian mode against dominant seventh chords, and that the second and sixth scale degrees are common additions to the blues scale generally.
Roots of blues tonality
Where do the blues scale and its accompanying tonality come from? We may never have a single unambiguous answer, but there are several plausible theories. Conventional wisdom says that the rhythms of African-American music descend from Africa, while the harmonies descend from Europe. This oversimplification neglects the African harmonic practices persistent in American music that depart widely from European norms.
Tagg (2009) is one of many authors who explain the blues scale as an extension of the minor pentatonic scale. Harrison (2001) posits that the blues scale descends from the minor pentatonic scale by adding a chromatic 'connector' between 4^ and 5^ (35). Jaffe (2011) understands the blues scale as deriving from the flatted diatonic 3^, 5^ and 7^—in blues, these pitches can either replace or coexist with their diatonic counterparts. Characteristic jazz sonorities like 7#9 emerge out of superimposition of blues scale notes onto the diatonic I, IV and V chords (37).
A more complex explanation from the blues scale can be found in van der Merwe's concept of the African-descended 'ladder of thirds' (1992). By this theory, the blues scale originated by stacking minor thirds. Adding a minor third to the tonic gives the blues scale's ♭3^, and adding another gives #4^. Adding a minor third on top of the major triad gives the blues scale's ♭7^. In blues, ♭3^ resolves down to tonic in the same way that the leading tone resolves to tonic in classical— van der Merwe terms this a 'dropping' third. Similarly, 6^ can resolve up to tonic—a 'hanging' third. The blues' characteristic ambiguity between major and relative minor creates ambiguity as to where the tonic is. If we regard blues as a form of relative minor, we might consider the 'tonic' to be ♭3^, and adding a minor third to it gives the blues scale's #4^.
Kubik (2005) sees blues and jazz as the effort of black musicians to recreate blues tonality on instruments designed for tonal music. In turn, he locates the roots of blues tonality in several African harmonic practices: the 'span' process (a kind of harmonic parallelism), the use of equiheptatonic scales, and tuning systems derived from the natural overtone series. Kubik has observed that listeners to certain field recordings from various regions in Africa find them to be particularly 'bluesy,' and that those recordings share particular musical properties.
I discovered that in many cases, the impression was created by just a few traits that appeared in those musical styles in various combinations and configurations: (a) music with an ever-present drone (bourdon), (b) intervals that included minor thirds and semitones, (c) a sorrowful, wailing song style, and (d) ornamental intonation. Songs with a prominent minor seventh in a pentato hexatonic framework also sometimes received this designation, as did pieces that featured instrumental play with a clash between a major and minor third or with a specific vocal style (Kukik 2005, 191-192).
African practice is not the only plausible root for the blues scale. Various European folk musics, particularly those of the United Kingdom, also contain both blue thirds and blue sevenths, as well as the ladder of thirds. It is possible that the myriad African musical practices surviving in the United States were pruned down to what we know as the blues due to the "catalytic influence" of British folk styles over the course of the 19th century (van der Merwe 1992, 145).
Examples of blues tonality
John Lee Hooker (1967) – "I'm Bad Like Jesse James"
Like Dixon's "Spoonful," Hooker's song is a one-chord blues that never departs from the tonic E. The blending of major and minor that characterizes blues is especially clear here: the pianist plays minor chords, while Hooker's guitar chords are dominant.
Jimi Hendrix (1967) – "Purple Haze"
The song is centered around the famous 'Hendrix chord,' otherwise known as E7#9. The other two primary chords are G and A7, both with roots from the E blues scale. There are additional chords under the guitar solo, but these function as a decorative modal backdrop to Hendrix's blues-based playing.
Parliament (1975) – "P. Funk (Wants To Get Funked Up)"
As is typical of funk music, this song mixes all of the minor scales with the blues scale over a harmonically static background.
Michael Jackson (1979) – "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough"
This tune is largely in B mixolydian mode, but its keyboard solo uses blues tonality. An even stronger blues connotation comes in the first interval of the vocal melody, 3^ dropping a tritone to ♭7^. Every line of the verses begins with this tritone, and its prominence gives the song a bluesy edge. In 1979, Michael Jackson was beginning the process of bridging the racial divide in American pop, a process that would culminate in the unprecedented crossover success of Thriller. His most popular albums struggled to reconcile 'black' and 'white' music (Roberts 2011, 29).
Janet Jackson (1986) – "What Have You Done For Me Lately"
Here is another example of freely mixed major and minor. The line "What have you done for me lately" is minor, and "ooo-ooo-ooo-oooh yeah" is major. The keyboard line that repeats throughout the choruses spells out a diminished chord, a stack of minor thirds that further reinforces the blues feel.
Daft Punk (2001) – "Harder Better Faster Stronger"
The vocoded vocal melody uses diatonic minor for the beginning of the song. Starting at 2:30, however, the tonality switches to blues, accompanied by a funkier and more syncopated rhythmic feel.
Blues tonality and genre
Nearly all American popular and vernacular is informed by blues. We can use this fact to help delineate overlapping and vaguely defined genres. How do we decide that a song is rock, or folk, or country, or country-rock, or folk-rock? Just as we can explain genre in terms of characteristic rhythms and timbres, so can we explain it in terms of the amount of blues harmony present. Pop and jazz practitioners already do this implicitly. A guitarist or singer must understand at least intuitively how much blues tonality to use in order to sound more characteristically 'jazzy' or 'country' or 'rock.'
Let us use the example of funk. Aficionados know when music is funky. How do we know? We can point to the beats, but funk shares those with disco, hip-hop, R&B and rock. We can define funk more specifically by examining its harmonic content. Funk is heavily blues-based, like rock. Unlike rock, however, funk uses little diatonicism and a great deal of jazz harmony.
Using the blues harmony framework, it is possible to look at two stylistically similar songs and understand why one is funkier than the other. For example, "Jungle Boogie" by Kool and the Gang (1973) is funkier than "Inside and Out" by the Bee Gees (1979). The difference is not rhythmic. Both songs have impeccably funky grooves. The difference is harmonic. "Jungle Boogie" has no chord changes, and its melodic components are comprised entirely of blues tonality, embellished with some jazz-inflected chromaticism. "Inside and Out" has a similar jazz/blues feel in the verses; however, its prechorus, chorus and bridge are either modal or diatonic. Together with their smoother and more polished timbres, the Bee Gees' less bluesy harmony pushes their music from funk into disco and pop.
Country music has its share of blues harmony, but it is largely diatonic, and rarely if ever introduces jazz harmony. It is instructive to look at the example of "Lovesick Blues" by Hank Williams (1949). In spite of the name, the song is not blues per se; indeed, it is as straight a country song as one could ask for. The harmony consists entirely of diatonic tonality that would not sound out of place in Mozart. The word "blues" in the title refers more to the song's melancholy tone, though there is also detect blues inflection in Williams' flattened thirds.
George Gershwin and James P. Johnson notwithstanding, classical music can be characterized by its near-total absence of blues tonality.
The most stylistically eclectic musicians will occupy correspondingly larger parts of the diagram. For example, The Beatles' music touches every section. While most of their music is a blend of diatonicism and blues, they also venture into jazz major in "Sun King" (1969), jazz minor in "Come Together" (1969), Indian-influenced drones in "Within You Without You" (1967), and atonality at the end of "Strawberry Fields Forever" (1967).
Blues tonality and rock
Rock operates in a mostly diatonic harmonic universe, but it features characteristic deviations from the conventions of tonal harmony as well. I will argue that these deviations are due to the influence of the blues.
Blues is one of the central pillars of rock. Indeed, a great many rock songs are simply the blues played faster and louder. The first rock song to top Billboard magazine's main sales and airplay chart, "Rock Around the Clock" by Bill Haley and the Comets (1955), is a straightforward twelve-bar blues (Browne 2001, 358). The blues influence was felt especially strongly by British rock musicians in the 1960s, and they in turn spread awareness of blues to mainstream white American listeners (Schwartz 2007, 22).
Beyond direct borrowing and imitation, how might we gauge the impact of blues on rock? One invaluable resource is DeClercq and Temperley's corpus analysis of rock harmony (2011). The authors analyze the twenty top-ranked songs from each decade of Rolling Stone magazine's list of the '500 Greatest Songs of All Time'. The Rolling Stone corpus uses a broad stylistic definition of 'rock'—so broad, indeed, that it includes an assortment of non-rock songs, including representatives from jazz, country, pop, R&B and hip-hop.
The most immediate difference between common-practice harmony and rock harmony as represented by the Rolling Stone corpus is the high incidence of both the ♭7^ scale degree and the♭VII chord. These are rare in common-practice minor mode, and vanishingly rare in common-practice major mode (DeClerq & Temperley 2009). While the flat seventh has entered rock through a number of vectors, like the Mixolydian mode used in many folk musics, blues is likely the main basis for the use of this device.
Rock's other major departure from common-practice tonality lies in the distribution of pre-tonic and post-tonic chords. In rock, the most common chord preceding the tonic is IV, whereas in common-practice music it is V. Furthermore, in rock, the IV, V and ♭VII chords are as likely to precede the tonic in rock as to follow it.
In light of this data, one might conclude that rock is not governed by rules of 'progression' at all; rather, there is simply an overall hierarchy of preference for certain harmonies over others, regardless of context" (DeClercq & Temperley 2009, 61).
Again, rock has many streams of influence, and any number of folk musics have contributed to the relaxation of the rule that V must precede I. Once again, however, blues is likely to have played the strongest role.
Blues tonality is not widely discussed in rock theory, but its presence is often implicit. For example, van der Bliek (2007) describes the dominant seventh sharp nine chord (the 'Hendrix chord') as adding a "blues tonal element" (344). The Hendrix chord is built around a set of pitches that represent "a significant portion of the tonal markers of melodic activity in the blues idiom" (van der Bliek 2007, 345). It goes a long way towards defining blues tonality at well.
Blues has also made its presence felt in broader popular music through its use of static, loop-based harmonic structures. If there is a single element unifying all forms of popular music, it is the loop structure, as opposed to the linear narrative structure of classical music. Tagg (2009) observes that chord loops in blues-descended pop create a sense of states, conditions, or 'places to be', rather than acting as components of a large-scale tonal scheme.
All of the above points notwithstanding, Everett (2004) would have us believe that blues tonality is not a significant component of rock.
There may be such a thing as a blues scale (with or without a lowered fifth scale degree), as in Gershwin examples, but this has nothing to do with rock music, which borrows only from a blues that colors a structural major mode with minor-pentatonic melodic borrowings.
The blues scale may not be a typical feature of rock vocal melodies, but it is the bedrock of rock guitar solos. Indeed, a great many lead guitarists do not know any other scales. A central stylistic difference between a jazz soloist and a rock soloist is that the jazz soloist will generally follow the chord progression, whereas the rock soloist will stick to a single pentatonic or blues scale regardless of the underlying harmony. A typical case in point is "Ophelia" by The Band (1975). It has a richly functional ragtime-style chord progression full of secondary dominants. However, lead guitarist Robbie Robertson does not follow the changes at all; he simply plays the blues scale over the entire form.
The natural synergy between the blues and the guitar is partially due to an accident of ergonomics: the pentatonic and blues scales are easier to visualize and play than the diatonic scales. Informally trained guitarists (including the author) typically learn the pentatonics first, and then add pitches to them to form additional scales. This approach is not unique to guitarists. Greenblatt (2005) presents a similar method aimed at improvising horn players. His text begins with major and minor blues, and then adds additional pitches to round out fuller diatonic and modal harmonies. Any musician might well benefit from this approach. Placing the blues front and center in music theory pedagogy can effectively scaffold the learning of any kind of harmony.
We use the term 'common-practice tonal theory' for a curriculum that does not address actual common practice. Western Europe is not the only salient influence on Western musical culture. The music of the African diaspora is equally fundamental, and it has come to weigh increasingly heavily over time. African diasporic musical culture expresses itself through all of America's indigenous music: jazz, rock, hip-hop, R&B, country, and of course, the blues. The music academy gathers all of these genres together under the term 'popular music' (with the exception of jazz, which in recent decades has become a 'legitimate' art music.) Feld (1988) goes so far as to describe American popular music as "a euphemism for Afro-American popular musics" (31). American 'popular' music has touched every corner of the modern world. We do music students a grave disservice if we send them out into this world without having them learn to understand the blues.
Beyond the technicalities of music theory, there is a broader argument for treating blues as fundamental. Just as the descendants of the African diaspora have been oppressed and disenfranchised politically, so too has their music been systematically delegitimized by institutional gatekeepers. The world at large has warmly embraced the blues and its outgrowths. Why has the academy not followed suit? The Eurocentrism of the music theory curriculum is a lingering vestige of institutionalized white supremacy, one that we as educators should be continually struggling to eradicate. It is time for the music curriculum to catch up to the culture it supposedly describes. It is time for us to place blues harmony at the core of our theory teaching, to match the central place it occupies in the past hundred years of music.
Baker, D. (1988). Jazz Improvisation: A Comprehensive Method for All Musicians. Los Angeles: Alfred Publishing.
Biamonte, N. (2014). Formal Functions of Metric Dissonance in Rock Music. Music Theory Online, 20(2).
Browne, P. (2001). The Guide to United States Popular Culture. Madison, WI:: Popular Press.
De Clercq, T., & Temperley, D. (2011). A corpus analysis of rock harmony. Popular Music, 30(01), 47–70.
Everett, W. (2004). Making Sense of Rock's Tonal Systems. Music Theory Online, 10(4).
Feld, S. (1988). Notes on World Beat. Public Culture Bulletin, 1(1), 31–37.
Green, L. (2002). How Popular Musicians Learn: A Way Ahead for Music Education. Ashgate Publishing Group.
Greenblatt, D. (2005). The Blues Scales. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co.
Harrison, M. (2001). Contemporary Music Theory Level Three: a Complete Harmony and Theory Method for the Pop and Jazz Musician (pp. xii, 298). Harrison Music Education Systems: Hal Leonard Corp.
Hughes, B. (2011). Harmonic Expectation in Twelve-Bar Blues Progressions. Florida State University.
Jaffe, A. (2011). Something Borrowed Something Blue: Principles of Jazz Composition (p. 285). advance music GmbH.
Jones, L. (1999). Blues People: Negro Music in White America. New York, New York, USA: Harper Perennial.
Kubik, G. (2005). The African matrix in jazz harmonic practices. Black Music Research Journal, 25(1), 167–222.
Levine, M. (1995). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher Music Co.
McClary, S. (2001). Conventional Wisdom: The Content of Musical Form. Oakland, CA:University of California Press.
Roberts, T. (2011). Michael Jackson's Kingdom: Music, Race, and the Sound of the Mainstream. Journal of Popular Music Studies, 23(1), 19–39.
Schwartz, R. (2007). How Britain Got the Blues: the Transmission and Reception of American Blues Style in the United Kingdom. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Stoia, N. (2010). Mode, Harmony, and Dissonance Treatment in American Folk and Popular Music, c. 1920–1945. Music Theory Online, 16(3).
Stoia, N. (2013). The Common Stock of Schemes in Early Blues and Country Music. Music Theory Spectrum, 35(2), 194–234.
Tagg, P. (2009). Everyday Tonality. New York & Huddersfield: The Mass Media Scholars Press.
Tallmadge, W. (1984). Blue notes and blue tonality. The Black Perspective in Music, 12(2), 155–165.
Terefenko, D. (2014). Jazz Theory: From Basic to Advanced Study. Taylor & Francis Group.
Titon, J. T. (1977). Early Downhome Blues: A Musical and Cultural Analysis (p. 318). University of North Carolina Press.
Turek, R., & McCarthy, D. (2013). Theory for Today's Musician (2nd ed.). New York & London: Routledge.
Tymoczko, D. (2011). Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counterpoint in the Extended Common Practice. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press.
Van der Bliek, R. (2007). The Hendrix Chord: Blues, Flexible Pitch Relationships, and Self-standing Harmony. Popular Music, 26(2), 343–364.
Wagner, N. (2003). "Domestication" of Blue Notes in the Beatles' Songs. Music Theory Spectrum, 25(2), 353–365.
Weisethaunet, H. (2001). Is there such a thing as the "blue note"? Popular Music, 20(01), 99–116.

subset: commoncrawl


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The Party That Changed Peter Stelling's Life
By Brian Turk
By Drew AIles
By Taylor Boylston
By Bree Davies
By Emerald O'Brien
By Backbeat
Chive Fest hopes to win over neighbors
By Gina Tron
How the Hornbuckles overcame heroin
By Jon Solomon
Dualistics may have found the key to longevity. The only way to stay, as Tyler Despres points out on the aptly titled "Only Way to Stay," is to "fan out," which means leaving your options open without having to directly commit to anything. On Crimson, the band's latest effort and its first recording featuring drummer Nate Barnes, Dualistics traverses the spectrum without ever committing to any one genre: Mixing pop, post-hardcore and indie-rock sensibility with huge and accessible hooks, the players soar and brood on opener "The Optimist" while showing complexity on the sludgy opus "Sabbatical." And as the band plays musical chairs, Despres's vocal style likewise switches from Isaac Slade-like croon to Brandon Boyd with the flick of a tempo change.
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Emmanuel Sanders
Five Things: Chargers Vs. Broncos Thursday Night Roundup
The Broncos take firm control of the AFC West with a win over the Chargers on Thursday Night Football.
Keidel: Ben Roethlisberger Needs To Stay Focused Amid Emmanuel Sanders Feud
So it is with my jaded view of the world that I address the Ben Roethlisberger – Emmanuel Sanders feud. Sanders said that his new quarterback, Peyton Manning, is a much better leader than his old quarterback, Big Ben. And thus the verbal jousting began, feathers flexed, talons out.
Ike Taylor: 'Emmanuel Who?'
Steelers cornerback Ike Taylor joined "The Fan Morning Show" at Steelers Training Camp Thursday.
Former Steelers Wide Receiver Emmanuel Sanders Rips Big Ben
Dropping the ball was something Emmanuel Sanders was very familiar with during his time with the Steelers, now he appears to be dropping the ball in the figurative sense as well.
Steelers Eyeing Improvements On Offense, Visit With 2 Free Agents
While the Steelers offense finished the season on a strong note this past year, there will be some pieces that need to be replaced as free agency has struck that side of the ball for them as well.
Report: Sanders, Broncos Agree To Terms
A year after matching the Patriots one-year offer to then restricted free agent Emmanuel Sanders, the Steelers are losing their 4-year wide receiver.
Predicting The Steelers' Offseason
There's no debating the importance of this offseason for the Steelers as they're coming off back-to-back 8-8 seasons and have holes all over their roster that need filled. Knowing that, NFL.com took a look at the Steelers offseason forecast, what they need to do to improve and even offered up a prediction as to who stays and who goes.
Steelers Insider Ed Bouchette Previews Offseason Moves
Steelers Insider Ed Bouchette joined Starkey, Miller and Mueller with Andrew Fillipponi filling in to take a look at some of the moves the Steelers might be forced to make during the offseason in order to keep some of their more productive players.
Ed Bouchette: Which Steelers Won't Be Back in 2014?
Ed Bouchette joined The Fan Morning Show on Monday to look back at the crazy ending to the NFL season, and to look ahead to the upcoming offseason.
Steelers Look Pretty Healthy For Finale Against Browns
With a shot at the playoffs still in the realm of possibilities, the Pittsburgh Steelers have simply got to win in the regular season finale and then hope for a little bit of help. Luckily, they'll be rather healthy when facing off with the Cleveland Browns.
Some Steelers' Veterans Could Be Playing Last Game At Heinz Field Sunday
The Steelers' final regular season game is this Sunday at Heinz Field against the Browns, and a lot is riding on the game.
Steelers Get Late-Season Surge Against Bengals, Look To Packers
Coming off of a 30-20 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, the Pittsburgh Steelers look forward to their meeting with the Green Bay Packers on Lambeau Field this weekend.
Steelers Celebrate NFL Legends, Look To Stop Bengals At Home
While Mel Blount and Franco Harris visit Heinz Field as NFL Legends, the Pittsburgh Steelers will rely on improved play and tenacity to hand the Cincinnati Bengals a loss in the AFC North.
Steelers Insider Ed Bouchette Previews Steelers-Bengals
With the Steelers almost mathematically eliminated from the playoffs, questions are arising as to whether or not the Steelers will begin to play some of their younger more inexperienced players, but Steelers Insider and Post-Gazette Beat Writer Ed Bouchette says he doesn't see Head Coach Mike Tomlin taking that approach.
Tomlin Clear That Steelers Will Not Use Bengals Game As 'Evaluation'
Pittsburgh Steelers head coach Mike Tomlin and players agree that the AFC North meeting with the Cincinnati Bengals will be business as usual, not an exhibition or evaluation game.


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What's Lurking In Your Gym?
Disgusting. Foul. Gross. These are not the typical words one uses when describing their gym. However, a recent study commissioned by the Cintas Corporation (NASDAQ: CTAS) found that gyms are often prone to shamefully dirty sights and behaviors. The survey, conducted online in December 2012 by Harris Interactive® among 3,036 U.S. adults, asked adults to describe in detail the grossest thing they have seen in a gym—and the results were truly shocking.
"As people make their New Year's resolutions, they likely want to work out in a facility that is clean and free of the filthy things revealed in this survey," said Dave Mesko, Senior Director of Marketing, Cintas Corporation. "By being selective of the types of gyms they join, consumers can make sure they aren't witness to anything unpleasant while working out."
When respondents were asked to be as descriptive as possible about the dirtiest object or behavior they've ever seen in a gym or athletic facility, U.S. adults shared the following:
- "Clumps of hair floating around in the exercise room during a class." ( Female, age 53)
- "People shaking [their] head and body, such as a cat, to get sweat droplets off them, sending THEIR sweat in every direction." ( Female, age 55)
- "Janitors using the same towels people use to wipe their bodies to clean the bathroom floor/toilet, etc." ( Female, age 55)
- "I once saw a man sneeze into his hands and then proceed to wrap his hands around a piece of gym equipment." ( Male, age 31)
- "A urinal in the men's locker room that had a brownish, yellow stain running down the wall under it that went all the way to the floor." ( Male, age 47)
"We knew we'd get some interesting responses, but the results of this survey left us laughing—and in some cases, crying," added Mesko. "As we start the New Year, consumers should keep cleanliness in mind as they plan their 2013 fitness goals and gym memberships."
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Building a TeamTalk0
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Building a Team is a pet battles achievement to capture 25 battle pets in pet battle.
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text: Wenger Mens 20 Millimeter Black Rubber Strap 91124 has been discontinued by Wenger and is no longer available. Our product experts have helped us select these available replacements below. You can also explore other items in the Watch Accessories category yourself to try and find the perfect replacement for you!


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Car Stuff
The Best USB Car Charger Scosche reVOLT 12 W + 12 W
We tested USB car chargers with an electrical engineer to find the Scosche reVOLT 12 W + 12 W to be the best, both in performance and physical design. It's one of the most powerful car chargers you can buy for your cigarette lighter and exceeded its advertised specs during our tests. Read More >
The Best Dash Cam G1W
Whenever I drive, I use the G1W. After more than 30 hours of research, in-car testing, and interviews with expert reviewers, we've found that the G1W captures crisp high-definition video, is as easy to operate as any digital camera, and has none of the unnecessary features you find on other more expensive cams. You can get a G1W for less than $60—plus the cost of a microSD card if you don't already have one lying around. There are lots of convincing fakes of this great camera, so make sure to buy from one of our approved links. However, if I lived in a hot climate, I would buy the G1W-C. It's the same exact camera as the G1W, but it uses a capacitor instead of a battery, which (for reasons we explain below) does better in hotter climates where batteries might not function optimally. But, if I were nervous about buying from anonymous businesses (more on that below), I'd get the Garmin Dash Cam 10. It doesn't really do anything better than the G1W, and costs roughly 4 times as much, but it does come backed by a legitimate warranty and a company with a reliable reputation. Read More >
The Best Radar Detector Valentine One
When driving, I avoid speeding tickets thanks to help from the $400 Valentine One (V1) radar detector. Yes, that's a lot of cash, but cheaper detectors simply aren't worth buying when points on your license and higher insurance rates are at stake. The guys who hold the record times for driving cross-country sans police escort swear by it because its arrow system provides the information they need to separate the false alarms from actual cops. Coupled with the app Waze, it's your best defense against ticket-writing police. Read More >
The Best Bluetooth Kits for Every Car Stereo
If you want Bluetooth in your car, but don't want to spend the money and/or time installing a new head-unit, you have three options: an AUX plug-in unit, a clip-on speakerphone, or an FM transmitter. The answer of which one is right for you depends on your car's setup and what you're looking for in a Bluetooth unit. Read More >
The Best Car GPS Garmin Nuvi 2597LMT
If I were dead set on getting a GPS unit for my car, I would get the $220 Garmin Nuvi 2597LMT. It has rock-solid routing, the most crucial feature of any navigation gadget. Its roomy, 5-inch screen makes it unlikely that you'll mess up inputting addresses, clumsy fingers be damned. Plus the 2957LMT self-updates with map data for as long as it's in working use (up to four times each year). Read More >
The Best Bluetooth Car Stereo (for use with smartphones) Sony MEX-BT3100P
The Sony MEX-BT3100P is a great car stereo for the smartphone owner. It has wireless audio streaming and hands-free calling for $130. A lot of stereos have that, but the Sony also has two-way connectivity with your smartphone. Most smartphones can send Bluetooth head units audio and track titles. But Sony's App Remote lets you control the sources and other functions from your smartphone's big screen. Read More >
Best Smartphone Car Mount is the RAM X-Grip RAM Mount
After researching nearly 20 different car smartphone mounting systems that were either recommended by publications, forum posts, or user reviews, the RAM X-Grip emerged by a landslide as the best of the bunch thanks to its military-grade construction and versatility. Read More >


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Wordless Wednesday Sibling Love Cast Edition
September 11, 2013 By 1 Comment
What a sweet older brother.
A San Diego based lifestyle blog with parenting, product reviews, and local events
Love is letting your sister watch her show on Netflix because she broke her arm. He even held the iPad because she couldn't do it easily. So blessed to have these two.
What a sweet older brother.
Coffee-drinker by day, wine-sipper by night, Danielle is a work-at-home mom to two beautiful kids, ages 3 and 5, and expecting one more in February 2015!
She enjoys sharing her family life in San Diego and features everything from delectable recipes to tech fun, crafting and more. [Read More …]


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The human species has been battling Nature's population control since the caveman days. Apart from natural disasters, this has been the job of pandemics and diseases throughout history. Below are some of the most notable of these occurrences.
But hey Nature, we're still here! Killin' you right back!
Speaking of the human condition, I must say I'm disappointed to see that obesity didn't even make the honorable mention list! Researchers have even been as bold to say that this fat-splosion is as big a threat as bird flu and global warming.
It's not nearly as poetic an ending as the Black Death, but we may see the day where it's taken just as seriously.
Scary? Not as much as the scale of HIV/AIDS at this point in time… If you look at the infographic, you'll see that it's as historic a plague as the Black Death, claiming 25 million victims up to this point, with doubtless scores more to follow.
Hold on, there is a ray of hope yet! The US AIDS Chief says the "tipping point" is in sight. Boy, I'd like to think he's right.
P.S.- Click on the image if it's too small to read [via]
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Buy in large and bulk retailers seem to be in style these days. Wal-Mart is no exception. I've heard stories of protest over one company joining the local economic circle being protested. One of these companies is Wal-Mart.
For support of mom and pop shops, Wal-Mart's openings have been disputed in many areas. Some feel they are just what the government ordered, while others have praised their opening. When I lived in Louisiana, the opening of a local Wal-Mart meant things were on the up and up. Business was booming and if a Wal-Mart was suggested, it meant that all your economic numbers were on the increase. But over the years and across state borders, this outlook has changed.
Many see the opening of a Wal-Mart as the end of all business. Local family owned industries were looked at as if they were set to be closed and Wal-Mart was the reason to blame. But upon further analysis of the infographic below, it made me wonder whether or not Wal-Mart should be praised or scowled at.
One of America's own is the leader a major leader in revenue, sales, and manpower. Wal-Mart, in some ways, embodies that American dream better than any other company known to man. Should we hate it or embrace. Share your thoughts. [Via]
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Microprocessors have been used in almost every computing technology that has come out in the last 30 years. They are one of the main reasons why technology has been able to grow so fast, and why it will continue to experience exponential improvement into the far future.
This year, the humble microprocessor celebrates its 40th birthday. Since 1971, it has become the brain of literally millions of devices. Without the microprocessor, they simply would not have existed. This infographic takes a look at just a few of the many landmark devices the microprocessor has powered over the past 40 years. [Test Drive a Microprocessor]
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December is here! The weather outside is frightful, but the casinos have the air conditioning set to just the right temperature for you! Let's face it, you have no interest in going outside or doing anything productive right now, so just pack your bags and head on over to the nearest casino. Or maybe you're too lazy to even leave your house for a casino, so check out this online casino guide ;).
I've never had the opportunity to sit at a casino table and gamble, but I've been to a few in my lifetime. I usually have a good time, the colors are so bright and vivid! Now that I am of legal age, The Bellagio is officially on my bucket list.
Since I'm not very experienced in this subject, I have nothing more to say. If you have any advice for my first time gambling in Vegas, comment below! On a final note, I will give you my advice. The winter months are cold and boring and daylight savings time sucks. So instead of going into a depressed state of wild gambling, consider learning some holiday tunes on an instrument. Also, if you don't have someone to snuggle with, you better start looking now. [Via]
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Tea is one of those catchall beverages: no matter how you feel, tea will make you feel better. Suffering from insomnia? Have some tea! Feeling great? Have some tea! Stomach ache? Have some tea! You get the idea. As the holidays approach, I may start cheating on my morning coffee with a large mug of black tea and cream.
Today's infographic serves up some international tea trivia. For example, if you visit Tibet, your tea might be served with salt and butter. On a slightly more obvious note, tea makes up close to one half of the daily fluids consumed in the UK. With all the variations and regional tastes, tea is something we all have in common. [Green Tea]


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Author Archives
A resident of Flyover Country, Cultural Limits is a rare creature in American Conservatism - committed to not just small government, Christianity and traditional social roles, but non-profits and high arts and culture. Watching politics, observing human behavior and writing are all long-time interests.
CL is a regular contributor to The Constitution Club group blog, and writes on her religious blog, Beyond Sodality, from time to time.
In religion, CL is Catholic; in work, the jill of all trades when it comes to fundraising software manipulation and event planning; in play, a classically trained soprano and proud citizen of Cardinal Nation, although, during hockey season, Bleeds Blue. She lives in the Mid-Mississippi River Valley with family and two cute and charming tyrants...make that toy dogs.
Climate Change Legislation In Action: Renewable Fuel Standard By The Numbers, And They Are Not Good
MUST WATCH Lost in the "Climate Change Debate" or lack of one since the proponents have decided that they won the argument, is the discussion on what "being green" costs the average taxpayer. About a year ago, the people at smarterfuelfuture.org put… Read More ›
Yo, Liberals: When it comes to science we Christians can read
Honestly, liberals seem to think that the rest of us not only don't know trivia, but that we don't read and we are too lazy to investigate their claims on our own. Friday night, one of my persistent, if not… Read More ›
Just Say No To Wind Power – It's Bad For Us
Coming to an empty field near you? Sent to the background of American consciousness by needless race-baiting and a foreign fighting force hell bent on killing anyone who gets in their way, is the whole "green energy" snow job and… Read More ›
VIDEO: MUST WATCH The Five Segment On ISIS In America
Very little levity on a subject that has none Grab a beverage and watch one of the least tempestuous and most serious The Five segments in recent memory. In this particular discussion, the cantankerous Fox firing squad takes aim at… Read More ›
VIDEO: Dr. Alveda King On Building Community, ISIS And Bringing The Nation Back To God
So much for the United States no longer being a Christian nation "You cannot build a beloved community by putting young men in front of a camera and cutting their heads off." – Dr. Alveda King, September 2, 2014 You… Read More ›
Taking Back Our Country Has Nothing To Do With Race
The TEA Party movement is about race? Did anyone tell the TEA Party? "They used the language of the American Revolution" In yet another case of reality doesn't fit the narrative, the left has been busy over the last few… Read More ›
VIDEO: NBC's Richard Engel Describes The Potential Trap Of Destroying ISIS In Syria
When the talking heads at NBC are critiquing your performance… The language is a bit tepid for the apoplectic talk coming from the former Ambassador to Iraq and Syria, Ryan Crocker, but in this segment, NBC's Richard Engel distills what… Read More ›
Exploring The Mystery Of Why Adult Lesbians Are Fat
Really, they're just large boned No wonder we're broke: The federal government is still seeking answers as to why the majority of lesbians are obese and U.S. taxpayers are footing the bill, which now totals $2.87 million. The National Institutes… Read More ›
Microchips: The Truth Is Getting Scarier Than Science Fiction
Coming soon to be injected into you? Oh, $#@! Microchip implants like the ones pet owners use to track their dogs and cats could become commonplace in humans in the next decade. Experts are divided on whether they're appropriate for… Read More ›
VIDEO: How Many Wives Can A Muslim Have On Welfare In Michigan?
Operation Choke Point Surfaces. It's Alive And Destroying A Lot Of American Business
Icing the hockers On March 20, 2013, federal prosecutor Michael Bresnick gave a little-noticed speech to the Exchequer Club in Washington in which he said that that Justice Department planned to crack down on banks that allowed online scammers to… Read More ›
Forget Executive Orders On Amnesty. It's Happening Via Loophole
Finding every little exception to the rule of law From Allen West: As reported by The Daily Caller, "The Department of Justice's board of immigration appeals has decided to let Guatemalan women win asylum in the United States if they… Read More ›
Time For Yet Another Crash Course In The Virgin Sex Fetish Cult That Is Islam
#facepalm Well, Chrissy-boy, shall we review what Islam is and why they are constantly waging war with anyone who isn't one of them? In the mind of a Muslim, a man is either one of the tribe or he's the… Read More ›
Manners Are Not An Obama Administration Strong Suit…Massive Understatement
Manners? I don't need no stinkin' manners Today, Monday, August 25, 2014, feast day of one King Louis IX of France better known to the world as St. Louis, was a day for funerals and memorials. One family here… Read More ›
VIDEO: Judicial Watch Strikes Again. All The IRS Emails Are Backed Up
The Obama Administration obstruct justice and lie about "missing" emails? Nahhhh Well, well, well. As the Foggy Bottom Theater of Scandal turns. So much for emails being lost forever. They're all backed up in case of a catastrophe so that… Read More ›
VIDEO: What ISIS Was Up To While We Weren't Watching
There are no mulligans in foreign policy…and you can't cheat either. Got that Obama? Rep. Mike Rogers, Republican from Michigan and Chairman of the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, adds his voice to those in Washington who seem to be… Read More ›
"Can Justice Ever Be Obtained If One Side's Supporters Live In Fear Of Speaking Out?"
At the moment we still have a First Amendment. GO FOR IT Today, there was a benefit event in South St. Louis in support of the online campaign to raise money for Officer Darren Wilson's defense and living expenses during… Read More ›
All It Takes Is One Random Act Of Kindness #Ferguson
Now that the heat and humidity have returned…. Wednesday was one of the more calm days in Ferguson. That was the day two Missouri State Highway Patrol Troopers went out of their way to help some kids in the community…. Read More ›
In Ferguson, Reality Just Doesn't Fit The Narrative
So, this happened overnight in South St. Louis Vigorous prosecution of Officer Darren Wilson, Gov. Nixon? Are you forgetting your four terms as attorney general? I once heard you talk about how criminals think their civil rights are violated if… Read More ›


text:
mod_mono apache 2.2
i want to run apache asp.net
i followed a tut to do it.
i have installed
-apache 2.2
everything works like a charm but when i was compiling mod_mono the config script can't find out whitch version my apache is my ./configure command is
./configure --prefix=/var/server/mod_mono --with-apxs=/var/server/webserver/apache/bin/apxs
then i got
checking for --with-apxs... /var/server/webserver/apache/bin/apxs executable, good
checking for --with-apr-config... not specified
checking for Apache libexec directory... /var/server/webserver/apache/modules
checking for Apache sysconf directory... /var/server/webserver/apache/conf
checking for Apache include directory... -I/var/server/webserver/apache/include
checking Apache version... configure: error: Confused on apache version. Please report this and send config.log
i have also tryed
./configure --prefix=/var/server/mod_mono --with-apxs=/var/server/webserver/apache/bin/apxs --with-apr-config=/var/server/webserver/apache/bin/apr-1-config
but then i says that my apache version is 1.3 and thats not correct
i don't know how to solve it and i can't find anything about it on google
my config.log files can you find here
try 1
try 2
greets kevin
Does mod_mono already support Apache 2.2? It's pretty new...
on the site sais it will.
but on what searching. no it don't
but is there maybe a work around ?
I have to say that I can confirm this error as well. Hence *BUMP* this thread. Does anyone have a solution yet?
Live sex
I guess I have to try myself and write a tutorial about it some day... ;)
Not so much a solution, but after wasting all night on this I do at least have a work-around. Had the same issue myself - mod_mono doesn't compile against Apache 2.2.2 - it seems the apache version checking routine invoked when running mod_mono's ./configure fails to compile now resulting in the erroneous reporting of version 1.3:
Didn't have the skills to fix that, so I just forced the selection of Apache 2.2 by editing the file "configure" inside the mod_mono source directory. You'll find a couple of lines that say:
Change those lines to 2.2 and ./configure sets the build up for a successful compile.
Hope this helps.
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Advanced Search
Business administration and psychology top the list of most in-demand degree programs for online education, but preK-12 education holds two spots on the top-10 list, according to a survey by eLearners.com.
Online business administration degrees, whether undergraduate or graduate, were the most popular programs searched for or inquired about on eLearners.com, followed by psychology and nursing degrees. But education holds both the No. 4 slot (early childhood education) and the No. 7 slot (K-12 education).
The site, which is part of EducationDynamics, provides a searchable database of colleges and universities that offer online classes.
The company said the search for online degrees hit dramatic highs in 2008. In November 2008 eLearners.com witnessed a 138 percent increase in unique visitors searching for online degree programs compared to the same period in 2007. eLearners.com created its 2008 list of the most popular online degree programs by looking at the top searches and inquiries made by prospective students on its site.
The top online degree programs for 2008, according to the survey, are:
"As people retool to make themselves more competitive, they are turning to online education in record numbers for the flexibility, and seeking business degrees for the fundamentals, and psychology and nursing degrees to fill or advance in industries with great demand," said Terrence Thomas, an executive with the company.
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Community of the Cross
Community Of The Cross - Introduction
The Community of the Cross: A Place of Encounter with Jesus Christ for Prayer Equipping and Sending
The Community of the Cross is a ministry of PRMI and the location of the PRMI office. It is located on 24 acres of land in the mountains of Western North Carolina and it provides the spiritual support base for our involvement in the worldwide advancement of the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Programs are offered at the Community of the Cross throughout the year and led by members of the Dunamis Fellowship.
History and Development
Gates to the Community of the Cross
The Community of the Cross: A Place of Encounter with Jesus Christ for Prayer Equipping and Sending.
The Community of the Cross is a ministry of PRMI and is staffed by the members of the Dunamis Fellowship. It is located on 24 acres of land in the mountains of Western North Carolina and it provides the spiritual support base for our involvement in the worldwide advancement of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
The Name "Community of the Cross"
In 1975, when I first received the call from Jesus Christ to build this place of prayer, equipping and sending, I just called it "Jesus Abbey II in North Carolina". I had no other name and also was very dependent on the model of Jesus Abbey to understand what it was that Jesus wanted. After going through the wilderness, however, I died to that name and actually to the vision. The Holy Spirit spoke a new name to Laura in 1979; it was "The Community of the Cross". This is was what we were told to pray into reality. "A place of Encounter with Jesus Christ" was added in the year 2000 when I was back at Jesus Abbey and the Lord clearly said that it was to be a "Place of Encounter with Jesus Christ for Prayer, Equipping, and Sending in the Power of the Holy Spirit.
Building The Facilities
An Invitation to Share in Fulfilling the Vision for Building the Community of the Cross
The photo above shows the PRMI Ministry Team in Black Mountain, praying for God's provision for building facilities and guidance in developing the program for the Community of the Cross.
We are most excited about the way God is enabling the fulfillment of the vision of the Community of the Cross. We have already experienced miracles of Jesus' presence and reality. He is the One building the Community and calling us to cooperate with Him in fulfilling the vision of this being a place for prayer, equipping and sending.
The Master Plan
The Master Plan for the Community of the Cross.
The master Plan for the Community of the Cross includes new office building, new meeting space, a new prayer house, and new housing units to accomodate up to 75 people on site.
Currently, the existing Log House, the Prayer Porch/ Prayer Deck, Ascension Point, and one housing unit ( being used as the PRMI office) are constructed on site.
Please join with us in praying in the rest of these facilities!
Location & Map
Community of the Cross Location & Map
Directions to PRMI's Community of the Cross.
On I-40 Take Exit # 64; go into the Town of Black Mountain toward Montreat. Stay on Montreat Road.
Turn left on North Fork Road - at the Country Food Store (a sign in front usually advertising night crawlers and other delicacies).
Go past the golf course on the left.
More Articles...
Moving With The Spirit : New Articles
Call to Prayer for the Kingdom Opportunity 2014-2016
We are really excited to announce to you the Kingdom Opportunity 2014-2016 Prayer Guide. First, let's review what "Kingdom Opportunity 2014-2016" is all about. What is our Kingdom Opportunity and...
Presbyterian Alphabet Soup
Presbyterian Alphabet Soup by the Rev. Dr. Rod Pinder Since its inception in 1966, PRMI (formerly PCC) has primarily served a proverbial alphabet soup of Presbyterian and Reformed Christians: UPCUSA,...
I had the privilege of attending the annual gathering of The FC (Fellowship Community) and ECO in Dallas, TX this last August. I was commissioned by the PRMI Board of...
Featured Resource
Passage Through the Wilderness
A Journey of the Soul
By: Dr. Brad Long
Those who feel their prayer lives have dried up, who feel abandoned by God, or whose ministries seem fruitless will find comfort and encouragement. "This is an extreme book for those in times of extremity in their spiritual life," Long writes. The good news is that the wilderness experience is often the point where God entrusts believers with new power and gifts, setting the stage for spiritual growth and the advancement of his kingdom.
To purchase this book, or read more reviews, click HERE.
Up-coming Events
|Encountering the Heart of the Father
October 22, 2014 6:00pm to October 26, 2014 1:00pm
Location: Community of the Cross, Black Mountain, NC
Thy Kingdom Come
|Ignite 3
October 31, 2014 7:00pm to November 1, 2014 4:00pm
Location: The Crossing, Sioux Falls, SD
|Dunamis Project #6 Listening Evangelism
November 5, 2014, 10:00am to November 8, 5:00pm
Location: Birchwood Presbyterian Church, Bellingham, WA
Dunamis Project #5 Spiritual Warfare and Kingdom Advance
Dunamis Project #2 In the Spirit's Power
|Dunamis Fellowship International Annual Meeting
January 22, 2015 6:00pm to January 25, 1:00pm
Location: YMCA Blue Ridge Assembly, Black Mountain, NC


text:
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Constitutional Law
Lawyers & Law Firms
Good I hope football is locked out for 2 seasons. Nothing but a bunch of over paid losers. Stoping giving these idiots all of our money. I love to watch football ands other sports but it's killing the economy.
The players' secret weapon: NFL lead attorney David Boies. Boies has to be the most overrated (and overpaid) trial attorney still practicing. Boies has one skill, putting on a great acting job, plenty of gravitas in his performance. But for Boies, it is all about collecting the fee. In that regard, he is no different than Kenneth Feinberg, who is another phony with a habit of making big promises and coming up short. For total sleaziness, though, Feinberg easily outdistances Boies [refer to Feinberg's promises to expedite the handling of claims against BP at numerous town hall meetings, after which Feinberg took a long nap].
Have none of these high priced lawyers learned how to read a judge? She took it under advisement for 2 weeks to give them a chance to settel it. If they don't at least meet, she is not going to be happy with both sides.
Good post, Police Car. I remember Boies being ineffective in Gore vs Bush. Personally, I think they should take the 1% they're fighting over and give it to charity ($94,000,000 is still a lot of money).
It's good that this Blog focuses on the law and lawyers, not just the dispute
As with most things the guy making the league min is the one the gets hosed here.
Almost all important pieces of labor law comes from the 1930's and 1940's, so of course Bois is citing law from that period. Part of the reason that most of those laws still stand is because they are pretty clear and plain. Which piece of that puzzle are you referring to in particular? Norris-LaGuardia? NLRA? Taft?
This whole thing is Millionaires vs Billionaires, and it is ludicrous! "Hey, I have so much money that I have run out of things to spend it on but I want more!" "Oh yeah, well I have enough money to buy a small island but I want more!" Really!? Shame on you. You are hurting the "little people" in your organizations by taking away their jobs, NOT TO MENTION people in related positions/fields whose jobs and income are affected by whether or not you have games. Also, let's think about Basketball and Hockey owners for a second. Some of them are LUCKY to break even or "only" lose several million a year, but they do it for the love of the game!
I know it is a business guys, but everyone here is making money when you let the season progress, so do what it takes to make that happen, Owners be happy that you have billions of dollars that can be split up between different employees, players shut up, you make plenty FOR PLAYING A GAME FOR A LIVING, and LET'S PLAY SOME FOOTBALL!! GO COWBOYS!!!
Also, good post eplawyer. I don't even work in the field, and I caught onto that!
The judge told the players that the decertification is in bad faith and then told Boies to pound sand if he didn't pound the owners into putting an offer out there for the players to reject if the "union"'s counsel gets too full of himself and tries to outsmart the court. If the two sides don't come back with a deal, if we were the court, we'd say we'd withhold our ruling until right before training camp, say July 31 . . .
hev it need to get done
The Law Blog covers the legal arena's hot cases, emerging trends and big personalities. It's brought to you by lead writer Jacob Gershman with contributions from across The Wall Street Journal's staff. Jacob comes here after more than half a decade covering the bare-knuckle politics of New York State. His inside-the-room reporting left him steeped in legal and regulatory issues that continue to grab headlines.
Comment or tip? Write to email@example.com or email@example.com
An Illinois judge on Friday ruled that the state's overhaul of its troubled public-employee retirement system violates a state constitutional provision that forbids the government from making cuts to pension benefits.
For several years running, New York law firm Cravath, Swaine & Moore LLP has kicked off associate-bonus season with its announcement, typically shortly after the Thanksgiving holiday.
Should new mothers taking the bar exam get extra time to complete the test to accommodate breastfeeding? The issue has come up in Illinois in a dispute between an expectant mother and the group that administers the state's bar exam.
A California jury this week awarded a woman an eye-opening $186 million in damages in an employment discrimination case against AutoZone Inc.
For at least the second time since 2012, the federal government has brought criminal charges, accusing someone of training people on how to beat a polygraph test.
Content engaging our readers now, with additional prominence accorded if the story is rapidly gaining attention. Our WSJ algorithm comprises 30% page views, 20% Facebook, 20% Twitter, 20% email shares and 10% comments.


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posted Sep 22 2011 8:11AM
I talk a ton about my new house. What an amazing, spacious, open concept ranch that Kaerek Homes built for me. I talk about the way I put over the top effort into decorating it because it is so beautiful I had to give it that lil extra TLC. I talk about how excited I am to be completing my basement to finalize this dream house. I tell you about how there are plenty of spec homes that are in great neighborhoods ready for move in today. I tell you if you a remodeling-Kaerek, Financing/re-fi- Kaerek, just thinking of a new home- Kaerek. Well recently I had a very minor piece of stone break off of the front of my house, I called Kaerek and less then 24 hours later it was fixed…now to me that speaks volumes! The way they treat and care for their customers at Kaerek homes! Just another reason to build…. customer service. You can with Kaerek! www.kaerekhomes.com 11600 W. Lincoln Avenue, West Allis (414) 321-5300
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India launches its own 'sharia stock index':
The Bombay Stock Exchange has launched India's first index of companies compliant with Islamic law, or shariah, in an effort to bring more of the country's 175m Muslims into mainstream finance, and to attract investment from foreign shariah-abiding funds.
Shariah finance has become a trillion-dollar global business, most notably in the Gulf. But in spite of India's sizeable Muslim population, it has not yet taken off in south Asia. The creators of the new index – called the BSE Tasis Shariah Index and launched on Monday – hope to change that.
The index is made up of the 50 biggest Indian companies whose operations are deemed to be consistent with shariah – meaning that they don't derive significant profit from interest payments, or sell products or services such as tobacco, alcohol or weapons, which are considered in the Islamic faith as sinful.


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British Customs at the Barber Vintage Festival
British Customs has spent nearly a decade designing and engineering bolt on products for Triumph Motorcycles. In the last 10 years BC has developed a large network of Triumph Dealers who have supported the product and the idea that Triumph Motorcycles are a great platform for customization. Due to British Customs' involvement with dealers and our experience with customizing Triumphs, we were given the opportunity to send the British Customs Café Racer TV Project on tour.
(Kenny Riedmann, Bethany DiSalvo, Jason DiSalvo, Kris Turner, Nadine DeFreitas, Paul Runion)
Prior to the Barber Vintage Festival, the Triumph Thruxton we built for season two of Café Racer TV was on display at a handful of AMA events and after Barber the British Customs Café Racer is set to kick off it's nationwide dealer tour at Freedom Powersports of Georgia along with the British Customs "Back To Basics" Triumph Bonneville.
Here's our cafe racer build in action!
With the schedule set, British Customs packed up two sets of race body work, a load of extra parts for the Thruxton Cup racers and the "Back To Basics" British Customs Bonneville and headed out to Birmingham, AL.
We arrived Friday evening meet up with our friends at Triumph Motorcycles to grab our event credentials. In the lobby we ran into Paul Runion, Nadine DeFreitas, Jason DiSalvo and Bethany DiSalvo, who greeted us with a smile and beer. After sharing stories and getting to know the team we decided it was time to head to the race paddocks. What a start to the weekend!
In the upcoming weeks we will be sharing our stories, interviews and images from our five day tour of Barber Vintage Festival and Triumph Dealer Expo. Stay tuned later this week for a behind the scenes look at Thruxton Cup and its sponsors. Some features to look forward to are:
"TT" Bonneville
Last Week To Vote!
Gary Nixon Memorial Fund Acution – Own Racing History
First Annual Iron and Resin Hooligan Hoedown
Labor Day Weekend in Durham, North Carolina
Windy City Triumph's Bonneville "Simple Green"
The Open Road Prefers Characters
BC Bike of the Month Contest–IT'S TIME TO VOTE!!
Cafe Racer Readers West Coast Bike Show UPDATE!
Lossa Engineering Open House


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Jack In Da House
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Track # 9
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(Rise Robots Rise)
Ⓟ Speed Records / The SAIFAM Group
Won't you Jack da house - our dreams will be real
People sway - anytime of the day
Jack da house - c'mon c'mon
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