text: Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter 1. Appendices I. Methodology II. Chapter Advisors III. Literature Review IV. Data Analysis V. Method for Identifying and Prioritizing Mitigation Policies and Strategies VI. Complete Set of Policy Recommendations VII. Top Policy Recommendations by Presidential Power VIII. In depth look at Factors contributing to Transportation Sector Emissions IX. Glossary Appendices Appendix I: Methodology Policy recommendations detailed in the chapter or listed in Appendix VI were identified through a literature review, found in Appendix III, in addition to personal interviews with advisors from the transportation and land use sectors. The policy recommendations were then prioritized based on the criteria set forth in Appendix V: Method for Identifying and Prioritizing Mitigation Policies and Strategies. Potential advisors were identified by the Center for Neighborhood Technology with the intention of forming a group with the following competencies, which address the supply and demand sides of transportation carbon emissions: new vehicle technologies, alternative fuels, urban design and transit-oriented development, mass transit, behavioral change incentives and other VMT reduction strategies. Potential advisors were invited to participate in the development of the Transportation and Land Use Chapter of the Presidential Climate Action Plan via a letter—faxed and/or emailed—from Scott Bernstein, President of the Center for Neighborhood Technology (CNT). The letter of invitation, which outlined CNT's request for input on literature to review, experts to contact, and mitigation strategies to explore, was sent to thirty-five potential advisors. Letters of invitation were followed by phone calls (often resulting in voice messages) to confirm receipt of letter and to inquire about interest in and capacity for serving as an advisor. Twenty-one people responded affirmatively to the request to advise CNT. Phone interviews were scheduled and held with fifteen of these people. The phone interview, conducted by Nicole Friedman of CNT, started with an overview of what the PCAP is, CNT's role in drafting the Transportation and Land Use chapter, the objectives of the chapter, and the timeline for the process. After providing the overview, the following general questions were posed: 1 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter What are promising short-term strategies to mitigate climate change in the areas of travel demand reduction, alternative fuels, and advanced vehicle technologies? What are promising long-term strategies to mitigate climate change in the areas of travel demand reduction, alternative fuels, and advanced vehicle technologies? What barriers exist for implementing these strategies? How might the proposed strategies be funded? In the areas of transportation and land use, what should the next administration focus on? Advisors, those interviewed and those unavailable for one-on-one interviews at this time, received a list of possible strategies with accompanying GHG savings range potential, identified in large part by the Center for Clean Air Policy, for review and comment. Next advisors were sent an outline of policy recommendations with related costs—direct and indirect, benefits, policy implementation considerations, and authority to implement strategy. Advisor comments were incorporated into the draft chapter. A draft chapter will be sent to advisors on Monday, April 9, 2007. Advisors will have the opportunity to peer review the chapter until Friday, April 27, 2007. CNT will make necessary changes to the draft chapter for submittal on May 4, 2007. A list of advisors can be found in Appendix II. 2 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix II: Chapter Advisors Name Affiliation Focus Area(s) Mark Delucchi UC Davis, Institute of Fuel economy, vehicle Transportation Studies technologies John Holtzclaw Sierra Club Smart growth, location efficiency David Goldstein Natural Resource Defense Council Transit, smart growth Tom Radulovich Livable Cities & BART Transit, rail, smart growth (zoning & legislation) DeWitt John Bowdoin College (ME) Environmental studies Bill Anker Missouri Transportation Institute Supply & demand David Burwell Project for Public Spaces Land use planning Tom Downs Eno Foundation Rail, transit, land use, transportation planning at large Gerrit Knaap National Center for Smart Growth Smart growth John Wells BP UK Fuels, vehicle technologies Keith Laughlin Rails to Trails Railways, land use KG Duleep Energy & Environmental Analysis, Vehicle technologies, fuel Inc. economy Don Chen Smart Growth America Smart growth Bill Holmberg Renewable energy, biofuels John Horsley American Association of State Alternative fuels, vehicle Highway and Transportation technologies Officials Michael Ogburn Rocky Mt Institute Alternative fuels, vehicle technologies Don Shoup UCLA Parking Sue Anderson City of Portland Sustainable development Bill Millar American Public Transportation Public transportation Association Lavinia Gordon Transportation Options Travel demand reduction George Schoener Former DOT DOT Note: Italicized entries represent those who have not yet participated in a personal interview. 3 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix III: Literature Review Drafted March 20, 2007 REVISED: March 31, 2007 Prepared for: Presidential Climate Action Plan (PCAP), Transportation & Land Use Prepared by: Nicole Friedman, Center for Neighborhood Technology There is a body of literature that illuminates how the transportation sector contributes to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions. A quantity of this literature also addresses the reduction of carbon emissions, directly or indirectly, with possible and promising mitigation strategies. The scope of this literature review, which will be ongoing as the chapter develops, is recent—within the last ten years or less—with a focus on: The extent of the problem and the current state of things; What the goals are for addressing the problem; and Mitigation (Supply and Demand) Strategies o Alternative fuels o Vehicle Technologies o Travel demand reduction Researchers will draw on the below, in addition to advisory committee interviews and recommendations, when reviewing and developing policy proposals for reducing CO2 in the transportation sector by 80 percent by 2050 (using 1990 emissions as a baseline). The literature review was undertaken to determine what data exists, what policy structures are in place, what strategies result in CO2 emission reductions, and policy shifts that could support reduction strategies. I. Problem: Quantity of CO2 from Transportation Data reported by the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Energy (Energy Information Administration), and the Department of Transportation (Federal Highway Administration, Federal Transit Administration, Federal Aviation Administration, Maritime Administration) clearly show that a significant quantity of greenhouse gas emissions are produced by the transportation sector. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's work also recognizes that fossil fuel use, which is dominant in the transportation sector, is a leading contributor to carbon dioxide concentrations, which are increasing each year. The data available from the EPA's 2007 Draft US Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report (http://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport07.html), the Energy Information Administration's Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the U.S. in 2005 (http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.html) and Annual Energy Outlook 2007 (http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html), and the Bureau of Transportation Statistics are detailed in the accompanying spreadsheet—Transportation and CO2 Emissions Overview. 4 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter The transportation sector is responsible for 28 percent of greenhouse gas emissions and 26 percent of carbon emissions in the United States (EPA). The Energy Information Administration, in the Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the U.S. in 2005, notes ―transportation is the largest contributing end-use sector to total emissions.‖ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's most recent report—Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis—focuses on the significant responsibility of human action, namely ―fossil fuel use and land-use change,‖ for the global increase in carbon dioxide concentration (2). The transportation sector ―accounted for 33 percent of CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2005‖ (EPA, 2-10). Emissions are growing as the demand for travel increases (EPA). The percent of emissions has increased each year by 1.5 percent on average (EIA). ―From 1990 to 2004, transportation emissions rose by 29 percent due, in part, to increased demand for travel and the stagnation of fuel efficiency across the U.S. vehicle fleet‖ (EPA, 2-26). By 2030, under business as usual, vehicle miles traveled are expected to increase 2% annually (EIA, Energy Outlook 2007). There is widespread agreement that transportation, and its greenhouse gas emissions, contribute to climate change and that there must be solutions adopted in the transportation sector to curb and reduce the growth of emissions (CNT, CCAP, STPP: Climate Matters 2003). II. Goals CO2 Emission Reductions A widely touted goal, and that being used to shape the policy recommendations in the Presidential Climate Action Plan and the Transportation and Land Use chapter for the plan, is an 80 percent reduction of CO2, using 1990 data for baseline emissions, by 2050. Assuming that reduction should happen equally across all sectors, the goal then, using EPA's most recent draft—Greenhouse Gases Inventory (2007), is to have CO2 emissions at a level no higher than 292.8 teragrams from the transportation sector. A level similar to the 2001 transportation emissions of just California and New York combined (214.9 and 68.7 Tg respectively, WRI CAIT-US). This great reduction cannot come from one transportation source, mode, sector or strategy (Rosenfeld 2007). The ―long-term growth of driving is expected to outpace the CO2 emissions benefits of vehicle technology improvements‖ so technological advancements do not take away the need for travel demand reduction (6, CCAP Guidebook). Use of alternative fuels, advanced vehicle technologies and travel demand reduction in combination can help to reach short-term and long-term goals. Sample Climate Change Action Plans There are developing strategies on local and state levels, as well as growing debate on a federal level, on how to mitigate GHG emissions in the transportation sector. 5 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter The State of Oregon released a Strategy for Greenhouse Gas Reductions in December of 2004 that outlines fifteen transportation-related initiatives for reducing GHG emissions. The plan includes the integration of land use considerations into transportation planning and the promotion of the production and use of biofuels that have lower GHG emissions than gasoline and diesel (Oregon Governor's Advisory Group on Global Warming). Other strategies: developing an incentive program for the purchase of high efficiency vehicles, adopting state standards for high efficiency/low rolling resistance tires, changing government fleet purchase and vehicle use to include more fuel efficient vehicles (Oregon Governor's Advisory Group on Global Warming). The City of Seattle has developed a Climate Action Plan, on a city-level. The plan focuses on high-priority, near-term investment and actions that can be taken (Seattle Climate Action Plan 2006). In the area of transportation, the plan calls for increasing investment in public transit, expanding biking and walking infrastructure, developing a road pricing system with tollways being more expensive at times when congestion is higher, increasing parking tax (while ensuring that transit options can replace former driving options), improving average fuel efficiency of city's car fleet, and planning for denser development that supports a strong public transit system (Seattle Climate Action Plan). In 2004, Princeton researchers Pacala and Socolow outlined a model for addressing global climate change over 50 years using existing technology. Their ―wedge analysis‖ —which divides the gap between business as usual over time and an emissions reduction path into equal reduction wedges—has been widely cited. The transportation solutions they discuss are a doubling of fuel economy from 30 to 60 mpg, a 50 percent reduction in miles traveled per vehicle, production of hydrogen with 4 million 1 megawatt wind turbines, and an expansion of ethanol production by 5,000 percent. Any one of these solutions is estimated to avoid 1 Gt CO2 emissions globally in 2054, assuming 2 billion autos on the road. The solutions are not additive, however, as a 60 mpg automobile uses less fuel than a 30 mpg automobile, so the emissions reduction achieved by clean fuels will be less in the higher efficiency auto. (Pacala and Socolow 2004) Climate Change Legislation Many Climate Change Action Plans that have been or are being developed have some grounding in California's AB 32 and/or California's AB 1493, commonly known as the ―Pavley Law‖ (Carbon Control News). ―[Pavely] requires the California Air Resources Board (ARB) to develop and adopt regulations that reduce greenhouse gases emitted by passenger vehicles and light duty trucks‖ (CARB, fact sheet). Regulations, as developed through public meetings, were adopted by the California Air Resources Board in 2004 and mandated a 30 percent reduction by 2016 of CO2 emissions from passenger vehicles and light-duty trucks starting with 2009 and later model years (Union of Concerned Scientists). Therefore, California is set to exceed United States' fuel economy standards by increasing efficiency to 40mpg. The Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers and the Association of International Automobile Manufacturers are suing the people of California to stop the Pavley Law regulations from going into effect citing such claims as violation of commerce clause (Sierra Club). At the time of this writing, the judge hearing the 6 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter lawsuit has put the case on hold pending judgment in a related case before the Supreme Court—Massachusetts vs. EPA. California's 2006 AB32 Global Warming Solutions Act places a cap on GHG emissions that requires 2020 emissions to equal 1990 levels—a likely 25 percent reduction by 2020 statewide. The regulations to implement this law are being developed, and its full economic impact is yet to be seen, but a study by David Roland-Holst of UC Berkeley estimates that working towards the reduction will add 83,000 jobs and $4 billion in income to California (Roland-Holst 2006). Arthur Rosenfield, in his presentation to a March 2007 California Air Resources Board Symposium, proposed transportation mitigation strategies in the following areas:15% smart growth, 2% renewable fuels, 28% clean cars—among other reductions related to buildings, energy, etc.—in the short-term to reach 30% of 2020 Business as Usual (BAU) CO2 emissions. One of the provisions of AB32 is the development of a CO2 emissions registry. California passed legislation to create a voluntary registry in 2001. Known as the California Climate Action Registry, it has over 250 members and is evolving into the registry mandated by AB32. In a parallel process, California along with 30 other states, is currently participating in the development of a Multi-State Climate Registry (MSCR Briefing Materials) that has made a case for the ―quantification standards‖ and consistent accounting of CO2 emissions from high-level and individual sources that can be used to support mitigation policies. While the Multi-State Climate Registry is not transportation- specific, it demonstrates the growing interest in collecting standard baseline data on emissions from which CO2 savings can be measured and strategies for these savings evaluated. Federal Transportation Legislation Three main pieces of Federal legislation have shaped of Federal efforts to improve the environmental impact of transportation to date—the Clean Air Act, the transportation omnibus bills, and the Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards, which were created as part of the Energy Policy Conservation Act of 1975 (NHTSA). States have been very active in developing climate change action plans. Some of the strategies put forward are fundable through the most recent transportation omnibus bill, the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), which was passed into law on August 10, 2005 and will be in effect for a five-year period (FHWA). Environmental Defense, as well as other advocacy and policy groups, have given SAFETEA-LU mixed reviews citing more funding for bicycling and pedestrian projects including a $612 million provision over five years for Safe Routes to School, which could lead to reduced vehicle miles traveled and related emissions, with a negative component being the emphasis on highway projects (Environmental Defense). The Center for Clean Air Policy, in Green-TEA...a legacy for the planet? (draft February 2007), points out that the funding formulae in SAFETEA-LU awards dollars for vehicle miles traveled, fuel use, and quantity of lane miles—in essence, more driving, and GHG emissions. 7 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Federal transportation policy impacts climate change and what mitigation solutions can and will be adopted (Ed. Riggs 2003). Papers produced from discussion at an Aspen Institute Climate Change three-day policy dialogue, discuss the range of options from working with vehicle manufacturers to creating more efficient vehicles to providing incentives to fuel producers for making more low GHG fuels available. The papers, reaching no definitive conclusions, explore the merit and complexities of cap-and-trade programs, emission taxes, technology and emissions standards. III. Mitigation Strategies/Policy Recommendations The following touches on the three focus areas—alternative fuels, vehicle technologies, and travel demand reduction with an emphasis on land use policies. A. Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicle Technologies From the Energy Information Administration: "Almost all (98 percent) of transportation sector emissions result from the consumption of petroleum products: motor gasoline, at 60 percent of total transportation sector emissions; middle distillates (diesel fuel) at 22 percent; jet fuel at 12 percent of the total; and residual oil (i.e., heavy fuel oil, largely for maritime use) at 3.3 percent of the sector's total emissions. Motor gasoline is used primarily in automobiles and light trucks, and middle distillates are used in heavy trucks, locomotives, and ships." Alternative Fuels Alternative fuels that could reduce and/or replace the use of fossil fuels include ethanol (derived from corn, sugarcane or cellulose), hydrogen (from ―steam reformation of natural gas, gasification of natural gas, gasification of petroleum coke or biomass, and electrolysis of water‖), natural gas, biodiesel (from yellow grease or restaurant waste, rapeseed, mustard seed or soybeans), electricity, and propane (Tiax, LLC 2007). The greenhouse gas emissions, costs, and other environmental impacts of alternative fuels have been a source of much research and controversy. This controversy has many sources. First, some fuels that may have zero net greenhouse gas impacts at the tailpipe may generate higher levels of smog forming pollutants. Other fuels may be extremely environmentally friendly but extremely costly. Finally, many fuels, including traditional transportation fuels, have much greater environmental impact when looked at on a lifecycle, or ―wells-to-wheels‖, basis than their impacts from vehicle combustion. Source Fuel Potential Savings Notes Pickrell (2003) Ethanol from corn 2-3% Alternative fuel mixed with gasoline Petroleum, diesel, 8-11% Alternative fuel biodiesel, electricity mixed with gasoline 8 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Compressed natural 5-6% gas (CNG), Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and hydrogen Published in Cellulosic Ethanol 52-88% Low range takes Stoddard and land use impact Murrow (2006) into account. Corn Ethanol -6 to 13% Low range takes land use impact into account. The above table (results also referenced in text below) is a small sample of the research that has been conducted on the potential savings of different alternative fuels. Alternative fuels are the focus of federal policy first with the Energy Policy Conservation Act (which the CAFE standard was developed from) and then with the Alternative Fuels Act of 1988 and the Energy Policy Act of 1992 with the federal government's growing concern with energy security and reducing reliance on foreign sources of oil. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 generally outlines the requirements that apply to government fleets, mandating a reduction of petroleum consumption and an increase of non-petroleum fuels (DOE). Transit agencies have also been introducing alternative fuels and alternative fuel vehicles to their fleets. CNT et al, in a Transit Cooperative Research Program Report, look at the emissions from alternative fuels when used for buses, finding that the lowest quantity of life cycle CO2 per mile was generated by hydrogen from electrolysis with the greatest emissions coming from gasoline (Table 4-1 using Argonne National Laboratory's GREET model), but the costs of hydrogen from electrolysis remain quite high and the potential for large-scale production has been questioned (Romm 2004). Wang notes that ―in general, fuel switching by itself has limited GHG emission reduction potential. Combinations of fuel switching and use of advanced technologies...achieve larger GHG emission reductions‖ (p. 75). As of 2005, there were 890,281 alternative fuel vehicle and hybrids introduced on the road—1,753 of which are buses (EIA 2005). New York City Transit tested compressed natural gas (CNG) buses and hybrid buses using diesel buses as a baseline case. The results showed hybrid buses having the highest fuel economy (Chandler et al 2006). Evaluation is ongoing to determine the best fuel base for additions to the NYCT bus fleet. There is much ongoing research and development to determine the most appropriate fuels and technologies to invest in given life-cycle costs and emissions, including production, distribution, and use. Pickrell in a study of GHG emissions for alternative fuels reported the following results: using ethanol from corn could result in 2-3% GHG emission reduction; petroleum diesel, biodiesel, or electricity could lead to 8-11% GHG emission reduction; reduction of GHG by 5-6% when replacing a portion of gasoline with CNG, LPG, or hydrogen. The largest displacement of GHG emissions when replacing 25 percent of gasoline with alternative fuels is with E90, which means a fuel blend with 90 percent ethanol to 10 percent gasoline (Pickrell 2003). The costs per ton of GHG 9 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter emissions avoided ranges from $100 for biodiesel to over $600 for corn-based ethanol (Pickrell 2003). Besides being a more expensive source of reductions, Stoddard and Murrow found that there are no real reductions, when including land use impact, of replacing gasoline with ethanol from corn. Tiax, LLC's research and reports for the California Energy Commission, a study undertaken to determine how to increase the use of alternative transportation fuels under the direction of the California's AB 1007—State Plan to Increase the Use of Alternative Transportation Fuels, evaluates energy consumption and emissions from the Well-to- Wheel. This recent life cycle study (report is still in draft form) found that ethanol produced from sugarcane and cellulose have greater GHG emission reductions than ethanol produced from corn. Stoddard and Murrow, comparing three life-cycle fuel analyses, finds a range of 52-88 percent (52 percent when considering land use impacts) emission reduction potential when replacing gasoline or diesel (as baseline) with ethanol. Hydrogen is another fuel with great reductive potential, although there are still issues, such as handling distribution, that need to be reviewed. Welch cautions at the beginning of his study that there is a trend in the United States in focusing on one alternative fuel, like hydrogen, as a ―silver bullet‖ when in fact, there have been similar efforts, like the Zero Emission Vehicle program which have stalled after a lot of hype. Welch reviews three models for introducing and supporting a hydrogen based transportation system, noting in his findings that there must be attention paid to the types and length of incentives to ensure that a new technology takes hold in the market. Freight Freight transportation modes, particularly freight trucks, are a growing contributor to emissions with a 69 percent increase in CO2 from trucks from 1990 to 2005 (EPA). The Annual Energy Outlook cites heavy trucks used for freight as growing at the ―fastest annual rate among the major forms of transport‖ (p. 88). In the area of freight, Frey and Kuo identify thirty-three best practices that, if implemented in the truck mode—which makes up 60% of freight's transport—could result in a 60 percent reduction of CO2 emissions in 2025. Best practices that support this level of reduction include use of B20 biodiesel, weight reduction, and introduction of hybrid trucks (Frey 2007). Frey and Kuo also detail strategies for potential CO2 savings in the areas of freight transport by rail and water. Rail and water mode improvements that can reduce CO2 include anti-idling measures. Walsh, in a presentation at a meeting of the International Council on Clean Transportation, shows that North America is responsible for the largest share of energy use for heavy duty trucks. Japan is taking a leadership role in improving fuel efficiency— a 12% improvement from 2002 levels by 2015—through thermal efficiency, anti-idling, and other strategies (Walsh). 10 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Another proposal for reducing CO2 emissions in the area of freight is shifting freight currently transported by truck to rail. There is a potential 8 percent GHG savings potential by switching a segment of freight on trucks to rail (Dierkers and Winkelman). Greene and Schafer emphasize that the reduction of emissions will be realized by ensuring that ―allow freight to be transferred quickly and efficiently among modes‖ (p. 37). Expensive and time consuming transfer of goods between and among modes can offset anticipated emission savings. Fuel Economy According to An and Sauer, ―automobile fuel economy standards have proven to be one of the most effective tools in controlling oil demand and greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector‖ (2). In the United States, automobile fuel economy is set with the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), which originated in 1975 with the Energy and Policy Conservation Act. Yet, despite our long history of regulating automobile fuel efficiency, the United States, when considered in the company of Japan, China, and the European Union, has the lowest fuel economy standards (An and Sauer 2006). The United States' CAFÉ standard for passenger vehicles is 27.5 miles per gallon (mpg), a level that was set in 1990 and remains the same today (FHWA). While increases are periodically discussed, the Annual Energy Outlook assumes just an average of 29.2 mpg for new cars and light trucks, and 22.2 mpg for the national light vehicle fleet in 2030 in its base case model. Hybrids Hybrid vehicles are those that two or more sources of power (HybridCars). Most hybrid vehicles run off of rechargeable batteries, which can use the braking power for recharge, and gasoline. The costs of hybrid vehicles are coming down, market share is increasing, and even with incentives phased out, there is a big interest in hybrid technology and purchasing hybrid cars even if they are more expensive than non-hybrid vehicles (Greene et al. 2004). Hybrid cars have the potential to increase vehicle fuel economy by 30 percent (Ibid). With a variety of hybrid cars on the road, there is growing interest in the potential of plug-in hybrid vehicles that get most of its propulsion energy from electricity (Sanna 2005). The plug-in hybrid is being used and tested across the country. As quoted in Sanna, in urban driving idling accounts for 10-15 percent of total vehicle emissions, with hybrids eliminating the idling. There are currently a range of incentives available to people who drive hybrid vehicles and alternative fuel vehicles. The incentives include tax credits and tax deductions for different manufacturers and models (see fueleconomy.gov). Although credits and tax deductions play a role in bringing newer technologies to scale, there is some speculation that they will be phased out in 2008 (Greene et al 2004). General The range of policy initiatives that can impact lower CO2 emissions from transportation are found in CCAP's Guidebook and include, in part: regulating replacement tires with low rolling resistance tires, supporting a fuel tax, increasing use of biodiesel fuels and 11 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter hybrid vehicles. The Guidebook also provides a good format for ordering the complex issues and opportunities within the transportation sector. It is worth noting that many studies do not take into account the full cost of driving, which includes the manufacturing of vehicles, the building of roads, and the processing and transporting of fuels (RMI). If emissions from all of these were taken into account, increasing fuel economy and improving vehicle technologies do little to reduce overall emissions. There has been a debate waging online regarding the report published by CNW Research Inc. claiming that when taking the life of a vehicle into account— inception to scrappage—the Hummer 3, for example, produces less emissions than smaller, more fuel efficient cars like the Prius, which is the number-one selling hybrid (CNW Marketing Research Inc., Hybrid Car). B. Travel Demand Reduction One of the critical ways to reduce the amount of CO2 is to reduce the amount of driving since the largest proportion of CO2 in the transportation sector comes from passenger vehicles and there are significant increases in VMT for light-duty vehicles and freight trucks (EPA 2007). Travel demand reduction acknowledges that transportation is not an end in itself and that transportation choices are shaped by the cost of housing, the location and reputation of schools, job locations, and the availability of services and amenities (Lipman 2006). The percentage of income spent on transportation correlates with distance from work with the cost of transportation increasing as the distance increases (ibid). The physical form of a place results in travel patterns and options and associated costs for households and the environment (TCRP 93). Transportation is the number two household expense, second only to housing, with lower income households paying a higher percentage of their budget for transportation (Bernstein et al 2005). Climate Matters clearly outlines the connection between vehicle miles traveled and land use. The greater density in an area, the less VMT per household; the less density, the greater the VMT. Sprawl causes ―induced [auto] demand.‖ Sprawling areas where there is a mismatch between where people live and where they work results in a higher rate of vehicle miles traveled. In addition to household expense, a reliance on car travel has other negative implications including higher rates of physical inactivity (i.e., with less opportunities to walk to services or to transportation), greater instances of obesity and other chronic health conditions that have been linked to inactivity and mapped to sprawling areas in contrast with more compact areas (McCann et al 2003). In dense urban areas where public transportation and services are readily accessible, emissions per household are lower (TCRP 93). Strategies that promote a reduction in travel demand include: transit-oriented development, infill/brownfield development, pedestrian-oriented design, smart school siting, improved transit service, light rail transit networks, bus rapid transit corridor, bicycle initiatives, road pricing, commuter incentives, pay-as-you drive insurance, green mortgages, smart growth, municipal parking programs, and safe routes to school plans (Dierkers et al). Each of these strategies is possible when land use planning is paired with transportation planning. 12 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Transit-oriented development (TOD), as one in a potential suite of options, refers to the placement of retail or commercial space located near transit that people can access from transit. Dierker et al estimates that regional TOD makes walking and transit more attractive, and can result in a 5 percent decrease in vehicle miles traveled in that given area. This modest reduction can be linked with other strategies for greater impact. Dierker et al quantifies potential reduction of vehicle miles traveled from each of the aforementioned strategies, each accompanied with case studies and links to resources. Many of the travel demand reduction strategies imply that there is a functioning public transportation system in place. Public transportation ridership went up 24 percent between 1995 and 2002, largely due to transit investments made through TEA-21 (Hemily 2004). Because public transit miles and corresponding emissions are averaged over the number of passengers and public transit boasts more passengers, emissions from public transit are much less per person than those produced from travel in a car. Hemily notes that despite the uptake of transit, there are still growing trends of sprawling development and increased vehicle ownership that threatens the or growth of public transportation. In 2004, 67,362,000 vehicle miles were traveled on light rail primarily relying on electricity for power (APTA). Complete data on the cost, quantity and use of public transit is available on APTA's website. Another possible strategy for reducing the demand for travel and related GHG emissions is car sharing. There are car sharing programs—short-term, pay-as-you go access to a car—throughout the United States which have been developed to address the economic and environmental costs involved with owning a vehicle. Cevero et al, in reviewing the impact of San Francisco City CarShare, found that car sharing members' ―mean VMT and fuel consumption went down faster than nonmembers‖ and that vehicle ownership declined among members (39). Air travel is also a big source of CO2 emissions that be reduced through the introduction of high speed rail and, overall a more integrated transportation system that reduces the frequency of flights that are 100-400 miles (Dittmar et al). Developing high speed rail in the12 corridors that are currently proposed, would deter some air, train, bus, and car travel, which could total savings of 2.7 teragrams of CO2 per year (CCAP, CNT 2006). In summary, proposals to reduce VMT and related emissions should include: a shift in funding towards more efficient alternatives, location efficient development, environmentally friendly travel choices, diverse freight networks, and choices for intercity travel (CNT, CCAP 2003). 13 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Literature Review Bibliography American Public Transportation Association (APTA). Transit Statistics (2004). http://www.apta.com/research/stats/rail/railfuel.cfm An, Feng and Amanda Sauer. Comparison of Passenger Vehicle Economy and GHG Emission Standards Around the World. Prepared for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change. December 2004. Bernstein, Scott, Carrie Makarewicz, and Kevin McCarty. Driven to Spend: Pumping Dollars out of Our Households and Communities. Center for Neighborhood and Surface Transportation Policy Project. June 2005. California Air Resources Board. Fact Sheet: Assembly Bill 1493, Reducing Climate Change Emissions from Motor Vehicles. http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/factsheets/ccfactsheet.pdf Carbon Control News. More States Embrace California Approach In Climate Change Bills. February 26, 2007. Center for Clean Air Policy and Center for Neighborhood Technology. High Speed Rail and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the U.S. January 2006. Center for Clean Air Policy, Center for Neighborhood Technology, Surface Transportation Policy Project. Climate Matters: The Case for Addressing Greenhouse Gas Reduction in Federal Transportation Policy. January 2003. http://www.fundersnetwork.org Center for Neighborhood Technology with TransManagement. Travel Matters: Mitigating Climate Change with Sustainable Surface Transportation. TCRP Report 93. Transportation Research Board. 2003. Cevero, Robert, Aaron Golub and Brendan Nee. San Francisco City CarShare: Longer- Term Travel Demand and Car Ownership Impacts. Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California at Berkeley. Working Paper: 2006-2007 Chandler, K., E. Eberts and L. Eudy. New York City Transit Hybrid and CNG Transit Buses: Interim Evaluation Results. NREL/TP-540-38843. January 2006. CNW Marketing Research, Inc. Dust to Dust: The Energy Cost of New Vehicles from Concept to Disposal. December 2006. http://cnwmr.com/nss-folder/automotiveenergy/ Dierkers, Greg, Erin Silsbe, Shayna Stott, Steve Winkelman, and Mac Wubben. Center for Clean Air Policy. CCAP Guidebook. (http://www.ccap.org/safe/guidebook.php) 14 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Dierkers, Greg and Steve Winkelman. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Freight Transportation: Future Savings from Technologies, Fuels, Infrastructure, Logistics & Operations in 2025. Presentation to U.S. Department of Transportation. March 16, 2006. Dittmar, Hank, Sarah Campbell and Carrie Makarewicz. Missed Connections: Finding Solutions to the Crisis in Air Travel. 2002. Environmental Defense, in SAFETEA-LU Transportation Reauthorization: Environmental Scorecard (http://www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/4726_TransScorecard.pdf Energy Information Administration. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the U.S. in 2005 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.html Energy Information Administration. Alternatives to Traditional Transportation Fuels 2005 http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/alternate/page/datatables/atf14-20_05.html Energy Information Administration. Annual Energy Outlook 2007 http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/index.html Environmental Protection Agency. 2007 Draft US Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report http://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport07.html Federal Highway Administration. Safe Accountable Flexible Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/safetealu/index.htm Frey, Christopher H. and Po-Yao Kuo. Best Practices for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions in Freight Transportation. Prepared for: Talking Freight Seminar Series, FHWA, on January 17, 2007. Governor's Advisory Group on Global Warming. Oregon Strategy for Greenhouse Gas Reductions. State of Oregon, December 2004. Greene, David, KG Duleep and Walter McManus. Future Potential of Hybrid and Diesel Powertrains in the U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle Market. ORNL/TM-2004/181. August 2004. Greene, David and Andrea Schafer. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from U.S. Transportation. Pew Center for Global Climate Change. May 2003. Hemily, Brendon. Trends Affecting Public Transit's Effectiveness Prepared for the American Public Transportation Association. November 2004. HybridCars.com (http://www.hybridcars.com/cars.html and http://www.hybridcars.com/technology.html) 15 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis (Policy Briefing) Lipman, Barbara. A Heavy Load: The Combined Housing and Transportation Burdens of Working Families. Center for Housing Policy. October 2006. McCann, Barbara and Reid Ewing. Measuring the Health Effects of Sprawl. Smart Growth America and Surface Transportation Policy Project. November 2003 http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/report/HealthSprawl8.03.pdf Multi-State Climate Registry Stakeholder Briefing Materials. December 2006. NHTSA. CAFÉ Overview—Frequently Asked Questions. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/cafe/overview.htm Pacala, S. and R. Socolow. Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies. Science 13 August 2004: Vol. 305, no. 5686, pp. 968-972. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5686/968 Pickrell, Don. Fuel Options for Reducing GHG Emissions from Motor Vehicles. The DOT Center for Climate Change and Environmental Forecasting. September 2003. Riggs, John A. (editor). A Climate Policy Framework: Balancing Policy and Politics. A Report of An Aspen Institute Climate Change Policy Dialogue. November 14-17, 2003. Rocky Mountain Institute. Climate area of website. http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid342.php Roland-Holst, David. Economic Growth and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in California. UC Berkeley. August 2006. http://calclimate.berkeley.edu/ Romm, Joseph. The Hype about Hydrogen. Issues in Science and Technology. http://www.issues.org/20.3/romm.html Rosenfeld, Art. Near-Term Solutions for Mitigation of Carbon Dioxide. Presented on March 5, 2007 at California Air Resources Board Symposium. Seattle, A Climate of Change: Meeting the Kyoto Challenge. September 2006. http://www.seattle.gov/climate/docs/SeaCAP_plan.pdf Sierra Club. Pavley Regulations Offer A Legal Angle to Reducing Global Warming. Update January 2007. http://www.sierraclub.org/environmentallaw/lawsuits/viewCase.asp?id=303 16 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Stoddard, Michael and Derek Murrow. Climate Change Roadmap for New England and Eastern Canada. Environment Northeast. 2006 Tiax, LLC. Full Fuel Cycle Assessment Well to Tank Energy Inputs, Emissions and Water Impacts. February 2007. Prepared for California Energy Commission Union of Concerned Scientists. Backgrounder: California Regulates Global Warming Emissions from Motor Vehicles, California's Vehicle Global Warming Law. October 28, 2005. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Energy Policy Act. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/epact/federal/index.html U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Effects of the Alternative Motor Fuels Act CAFE Incentives Policy. Report to Congress March 2002. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/rules/rulings/CAFE/alternativefuels/index.htm Walsh, Michael. Global Efforts to Encourage Heavy Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy Improvements. Presented to International Council on Clean Transportation, February 22, 2006. Wang, M. Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Using Alternative Transportation Fuels with Advanced Vehicle Technologies. Eno Transportation Foundation's Global Climate Change and Transportation: Coming to Terms. 2002. Welch, C. Lessons Learned from Alternative Transportation Fuels: Modeling Transition Dynamics. Technical Report NREL/TP-540-39446. February 2006 http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39446.pdf World Resource Institute, CAIT-US. http://cait.wri.org/ 17 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix IV: Data Analysis CO2 Savings: Passenger Vehicles (1-3) 1) Travel Demand Reduction Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case ((VMT)/mpg adjusted)*lbs of CO2 per gallon – Policy Case ((VMT*1% annual reduction)/mpg adjusted)*lbs of CO2 per gallon Sources: VMT for 1990 and 2005 from Environmental Protection Agency (using passenger vehicles and light duty vehicles); VMT projections to 2030 (Annual Energy Outlook 2007 growth rate: 1.9% annual); VMT projections from 2030 to 2050 (slightly slower growth rate: 1.7% annual based on US Census Bureau population projections and GDP projections) Rate of VMT reduction: 0.25-1% annually (Center for Clean Air Policy); used 1% for aggressive case. MPG projections (Environmental Protection Agency rated); MPG adjusted for actual (78% -- based on Energy Information Administration) lbs of CO2 per gallon = 19.6 (Environmental Protection Agency) lbs CO2 converted to MMT CO2 by dividing pounds by 2205 thousand Vehicle Miles Traveled (in billions): 2005 2010 2020 2030 2050 Projected 2655 2799 3474 3474 5937 1% annual 2655 2771 3109 3290 3017 reduction 2) Increased fuel efficiency Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case ((VMT)/mpg adjusted)*lbs of CO2 per gallon – Policy Case ((VMT)/mpg adjusted * 4% annual increase in efficiency)*lbs of CO2 per gallon Sources: Please see #1 4% annual increase in fuel efficiency has been proposed by President Bush, by Congressional legislation; a 4% annual increase is the number most often cited for what's possible Penetration rate of fuel efficiency into the car fleet was also considered using research by David Greene. 18 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Fuel Economy (adjusted): 2005 2010 2020 2030 2050 Projected 19.6 19.8 21.2 22.2 33 4% annual 20.4 29.3 43.7 97.4 increase 3) Increased use of low GHG fuels Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case ((VMT)/mpg adjusted)*(lbs of CO2 per gallon) – Policy Case ((VMT)/mpg adjusted)*(lbs of CO2 per gallon*5%, 10%, 20%, 40% reduction of CO2 per lb respective to 2010, 2020, 2030, and 2050) Sources: Please see #1 5%-40% reduction of lbs CO2 per gallon of fuel is based on the increased introduction of biofuels (to supplement and replace use of gasoline); reduction potential based on studies summarized in Stoddard, Michael and Derek Murrow. Climate Change Roadmap for New England and Eastern Canada. Environment Northeast. 2006 (Table 2-1, p. 124) and review of the Center for Clean Air Policy (see CCAP Guidebook at http://www.ccapguidebook.org) Low GHG Fuels (lbs CO2 per gallon): 2005 2010 2020 2030 2050 Projected 19.6 19.6 19.6 19.6 19.6 (using gasoline) 4% annual 19.6 18.7 17.7 15.7 11.8 increase CO2 Savings: Freight (5-7) 5) Truck: Increased Efficiencies and other measures Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case (CO2 emissions projected without increasing efficiency and taking other measures) – Policy Case (CO2 * % savings from increasing efficiency and taking other measures) 19 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Sources: Base Case established using EPA Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks, Feb 2007 Draft and Energy and Information Administration's Annual Energy Outlook Policy Case assumes that the following measures from the Center for Clean Air Policy are taken (with potential savings—listed next to each measure—based on availability of technology * assumed rate of penetration introduced incrementally from 2010-2050): o Improve tractor aeroprofile (1.7%) o Improve tractor aerofeatures (1.8%) o Improve trailer aerodynamics (1.9%) o Use of wide-based tires (1.3%) o Auto tire inflation (0.3%) o Weight reduction (0.9%) o Low friction lubricant (0.8%) o Speed reduction (3.4%) o Hybrid Technology (9.0%) o Idle Reduction (4.5%) o Driver training (1.9%) o Shift some truck to rail (8.0%) o Increased use of Biodiesel (6.9%) 6) Rail: Increased Efficiencies and other measures Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case (CO2 emissions projected without increasing efficiency and taking other measures) – Policy Case (CO2 * % savings from increasing efficiency and taking other measures) Sources: Base Case established using EPA Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks, Feb 2007 Draft and Energy and Information Administration's Annual Energy Outlook Policy Case assumes that the following measures from the Christopher Frey and Po-Yao Kuo's Best Practices for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions in Freight Transportation, prepared for: Talking Freight Seminar Series, FHWA, on January 17, 2007, are taken (with potential savings—based on availability of technology * assumed rate of penetration—introduced incrementally from 2010-2050): o Reducing idling o Reducing weight o Improving rolling resistance o Increasing the use of biodiesel (B20) 20 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter 7) Water: Increased Efficiencies and other measures Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case (CO2 emissions projected without increasing efficiency and taking other measures) – Policy Case (CO2 * % savings from increasing efficiency and taking other measures) Sources: Base Case established using EPA Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks, Feb 2007 Draft and Energy and Information Administration's Annual Energy Outlook Policy Case assumes that the following measures from the Christopher Frey and Po-Yao Kuo's Best Practices for Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions in Freight Transportation, prepared for: Talking Freight Seminar Series, FHWA, on January 17, 2007, are taken (with potential savings—based on availability of technology * assumed rate of penetration—introduced incrementally from 2010-2050): o Improving the propeller system o Reducing idling o Improving rolling resistance o Increasing the use of biodiesel (B20) CO2 Savings: Intercity Passengers (8-10) 8) Air: Increased Efficiencies and Other Measures Formula: Savings Potential = Base Case (CO2 emissions projected without increasing efficiency and taking other measures) – Policy Case (CO2 * % savings from increasing efficiency and taking other measures) Sources: Base Case established using EPA Inventory of US GHG Emissions and Sinks, Feb 2007 Draft and Energy and Information Administration's Annual Energy Outlook Policy Case assumes that the following measures from the International Air Transportation Association (http://www.iata.org/whatwedo/environment/fuel_efficiency.htm) (with potential savings—based on availability of technology * assumed rate of penetration— introduced incrementally from 2010-2050): o Improved air traffic management (12%) o Operational improvements (6%) 21 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter 9) High Speed Rail Formula: Sources: Numbers taken from the high speed rail study conducted by the Center for Neighborhood Technology and the Center for Clean Air Policy—High Speed Rail and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the US. January 2006. Available online at http://www.cnt.org. 10) Travelports Formula: Sources: 22 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter 23 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix V: Method for Identifying and Prioritization Mitigation Policies and Strategies MITIGATION POLICIES and STRATEGIES IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS: TRAVEL DEMAND1 VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES2 ALTERNATIVE FUELS3 Journey to work Passenger Vehicles Ethanol Goods movement Light Duty Trucks Natural Gas Tourism Heavy Duty Trucks Hydrogen Economic Generators Buses Biodiesel Community Travel Aircraft Electricity Boats and Ships Propane Locomotives GOAL: Reduce CO2 in transportation sector by 80% by 2050 (from 1990 levels). METHODS 1) Share of total projected baseline emissions effected 2) Cost Effectiveness/ 3) Builds on current with Reduction Potential Return on initiatives Upfront costs; implementation costs; Review case studies; are Investment annual overall costs; who bears the there success stories that cost? And when? Social costs/benefits, can be replicated or health costs/benefits? Environmental scaled? cost/benefits? 4) Potential for Partnerships and Funding 5) Barriers to Private/Public; 6) Meets Multiple Goals/Other Overcome Local/State/Federal Technical Benefits/Optimizes Adaptation Legal Cultural Political ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1) Anker, William. Revisiting Transportation Planning. Public Works Management & Policy, Vol. 9 No. 4, April 2005: 270-277. 2) Vehicle technologies will be reviewed in each of the applicable categories used by the Environmental Protection Agency and Energy Information Administration for reporting and predicting emissions. 3) US Department of Energy. Alternative Fuels Data Center (http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/altfuel/altfuels.html) 24 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix VI: Complete Set of Policy Recommendations Cate Sub- Policy Reduction Existing Policy Policy Policy Implementation Presidential Policy References/Notes gory categ Recomme Strategy Programs Strategy Strategy Strategy Barriers Implementation Implementation ory ndation Direct Indirect Indirect Action Costs Costs Benefits PASSENGER VEHICLES Travel alternatives Encourage greater use of current public transporta tion systems Equalize Commuter Decreas If parking Putting Altering Advisory Supporting a see TRB Rpt 107: transit and Choice Tax e parking costs transit perception that change in the Analyzing the parking Benefits benefits exceed and public commuter Effectiveness of benefits to that of benefits, driving transportation is benefits Commuter Benefits; Currently, transit people on par a system for the established in see also APTA companies will will look with one poor, old, young TEA-21 transit data and utilizing this cause a for another. and infirmed and recent upward trend program cost to alternativ not having of ridership offer elibile people e mainstream employees who transport appeal; see as $205 per drive ation. being "socialist" month for parking v. Pricing public $105 per transportation month for and driving in the transit same way Offer tax Commuter Cost of Cost to Increase Increase Advisory Congressional credit for Choice Tax the tax those d use of complexity of the bill to approve people Benefits credit consume public tax code; setting credit who rs on the transit standards to commute Tax free "fee" side incent people Change in the by public transit of the who are IRS Tax code transportat benefits policy currently not ion taking transit 25 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Offer Off-peak Cost of Redistrib Employers giving Advisory reduced hours on differenc ution of flexible fares for commuter e rider schedules; transit use trains, between loads transit must be during off- buses, and full fare makes able to provide peak subways and transit adequate service hours reduced experien during off-hours fare ce less crowded Because fares and are set locally, therefore would be difficult more to start pleasant; regulating federally Replace El Salvador, Cost of Potential Use of a Implementation Advisory Congressional suggest as pilot drivers India smart cost to Smart timeline will Bill to approve program in large licenses card integrate card depend upon regulation cities with Comprehen technolo data makes driver license "smart sive gy and gathering for an renewal process Would require cards" that national ID data and integrate cooperation from contain and drivers collection sharing d transit Resistance due State travel data license ; mechani system to perceived loss Secretaries, and act as sm and of privacy transit a transit Impleme allows authorities, and pass ntation agencies law enforcement cost to collect accurate ridership data Offer In Cost of Reduces Requires buy-in Advisory Congressional see incentive, SAFETEA- incentive Federal from private Bill to approve http://www.apta.com/ such as a LU there pressure sector and incentive government_affairs/a tax credit, are to fund political sector ptatest/testimony060 to provisions public 720.cfm; TOD encourage for private transport related; look at TIFIA private investment ation and SIBs investment in tollways, in public freight.. transportat ion diversify loan and investment options to cover transportati on cost 26 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Invest Cost of Devising Reduces Potential Executive Order Designate CEQ more in re- system number resistence from in comjunction transit directing for of the political with other White operations funding creating environm sector, as well House offices to and to transit investme ental as from develop expansion from nt criteria impact industries that implementation other studies rely on funding strategy and funding (eliminat going to highway draft the Federal areas e cost of improvements Transportation this study Bill that will need and re-authorization related in 2009 procedur al expense) Encourage Award The Impleme Gives There is debate Advisory Congression Bill see APTA testimony greater bonus Chicago nting transit an about how cap- to authorize (link above) use of points to Climate cap-and- advantag and- trade implementation current transit in a Exchange trade e over systems should of a cap-and- public cap-and- is one of system other be structured trade regulation transporta trade many industrie tion system existing sMoney systems examples of will be a cap-and- re- trade invested program in continuo us improve ment of transport ation options Tie Gatherin Loss of Paradig Needing to shift Advisory Congressional transportat g funding m shift to current operation Bill to authorize ion funding baseline to cities performa model for regulation to potential data to that do nce funding CO2 develop not based emissions policy reduce funding reductions emission s 27 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Update Transit Loss of Decreas Financial burden Executive Order Ulimately, a Travel Matters fleets to agencies revenue ed GHG to transit Congressional include (with to oil emission agencies in Bill would need greater federal industry s implementing to authorize a use of and local fleet upgrades. mandate to alternative funds, Potentiall increase use of fuel and other y easier low GHG fuels advanced investme access to vehicle nt) incur GHG technologi cost of fuels for es that keeping the have lower transit public GHG functiona emissions l and update fleet Multi- modal design to include bike paths, parking, and pedestrian walkways Focus on Develop Making Beneficia Current funding Executive Order Brookings Institute first ment of first l structures and report on First suburbs transit suburbs communi formulas Suburbs by Tony and more ty Downs public affordabl members centers; e seeking related to "city transit- centers", oriented easier develop access to ment options practices other than driving 28 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Implement Examples Cost of Increase Local zoning Advisory and Congressional the idea of exist in see incorpora d mobility codes and Budgetary approval of "complete California, ting current planning budget that streets" -- Florida, and complete standards would included roads that Kentucky streets funding based accommod idea into upon inclusion of ate all transport complete streets transit ation requirement modes- project, walking, and then Congressional biking, the cost Bill approving streetcar, to implementation rail, and impleme of concept car nt the idea Increase access to and support travel alternative s Subsidize Upfront Changin Researc Insurance; Budgetary Congressional IGO (received car and long- g h shows making approval of CMAQ funds to sharing term insuranc that carsharing budget that purchase low (developm costs of e people programs would included emission vehicles) ent of starting, practices who are profitable so that funding for programs managin (pay-as- carshare people/entities carsharing and use) g, you members invest in them; programs insuring, drive) give up creating an and cars at a ownership Program could marketin higher mentality operate through g a car rate than the Department sharing nonmem of Transportation program bers; affordabl e and convenie nt transport ation option that complem ents use of transit and other modes Decreas 29 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter e in number of vehicles purchase d and lowering of VMT Provide Carpools Construc Cost of Increase Advisory and Congressional See Commuter incentives and ting, incentive d mobility Budgetary Bill to approve Benefits program for vanpool and/or and incentive code carpooling programs increasin access to and exist under g the distant vanpooling Commuter number, resource Benefits HOV s program lanes coupled with a Cost to reduction manage in carpool congesti and on vanpool incentive s and program structure s Land use Plan for denser, mixed use, more efficient communiti es 30 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Reduce Cost to Buildings Increase Local zoning Advisory See Don Shoup's the impleme may be s codes and work parking nt new less emphasi funding practices requireme regulatio marketab s on nts for new n le to walking People's buildings people and other demand for intereste transit multiple parking d in modes, multiple which parking potentiall spots y leads to greater investme nt in the area Reduces car congesti on Adopt Site Marketin Increase Local zoning Advisory Congressional SGA Smart specific g, s codes and Bill mandating Growth educatio emphasi funding practices incorporation of standards n, and s on principles into for local incorpora walking new projects and tion of and other regional Smart transit planning Growth modes, principles which into potentiall planning y leads models to greater investme nt in the area Reduces car congesti on 31 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Support Multiple site Marketin Increase Local zoning *See Chapter for in- Transit- case specific g, s codes and depth oriented studies educatio emphasi funding practices recommendation developme n, and s on analysis nt incorpora walking tion of and other Smart transit Growth modes, principles which into potentiall planning y leads models to greater investme nt in the area Reduces car congesti on Support site Marketin Increase Local zoning Infill/brown specific g, s codes and field educatio emphasi funding practices developme n, and s on nt incorpora walking tion of and other Smart transit Growth modes, principles which into potentiall planning y leads models to greater investme nt in the area Reduces car congesti on Incentives Create market demand for travel alternative s 32 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Make Developi Expense With Creating delivery Advisory Regulatory (what See Portland's "smart ng for better method and information has example of smart trips" marketin customizi informati implementation to be made trips informatio g ng on available and in n available materials informati readily what format to Smart trips reduce when on on available consumers) VMT 9-11 percent people different that renew transport compare their ation s the Drivers options costs License and and programs availabilit y of Employe transport es to ation answer options, question people s and make provide different informati choices on on transit options Offer Cost of Marketin Reduces Resistence to Advisory Regulatory See California parking handling g and use of the idea change in cash-out and educatio personal Commuter benefits providing nal vehicle Benefit package cash-out materials for work alternativ trips e Federal Location Developi Educatio People Federal Advisory Convene Fannie Mae products support of Efficient ng and n and can assistance may conference of Live Near Mortgages marketin incentive afford to still not offset the lenders and Your Work and g of s for of live housing prices of transit agencies and Baltimore mortgage lenders closer to a neighborhood regarding Location City's Live products to use where to make it possibility of Efficient Near Your mortgage they affordable implementation Home Work products work Buyer's Program and/or Assistance don't values need to location, operate a proximity car and access to travel options 33 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Find the Cost of Cost to Reductio Local zoning and Advisory Task Dept. of Pasadena proposed "right changing analyize n of parking Transportation to study price" for meters what is VMT requirements conduct study curb the right parking price that discourage s driving Create Successful Establish Cost to Reductio Resistance from Executive Order Regulatory *See Chapter for in- federal examples ing fee drivers n of VMT cities, drivers, depth standards exist across collection and auto and oil recommendation for the country system congesti industries, lack analysis devising (for on; of existing congestion example in decrease infrastructure pricing California) wear and and in the tear on world (for the roads example, London) Increase Cost to No current tax Advisory Congressional American Petroleum gas and vehicle standard Bill Institute diesel tax owners Tax Cost of Marketin Reductio Advisory and Congressional incentives tax credit g and n of VMT Budgetary approval of offered to educatio and budget that businesse nal congesti includes s that offer materials on; incentive telecommu to decrease ting employer wear and options s tear on and flex the roads scheduling FUEL ECONOMY Regulation Increase fuel economy 34 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Increase Passenger Cost to Potential Decreas Protests from Advisory NHTSA would *See Chapter for in- CAFE vehicles manufact cost to es fuel Automobile need to develop depth standards mpg is 27.5 urers in consume depende industry and & authorize recommendation adjusting rs if nce by possible policy; Policy analysis Light truck vehicles manufact reducing resistence from would then need (under to adhere urers frequenc the political enforcement and Note: Idea was 8500lbs.) is to new increase y of gas sector oversight included in the 22.5 standard sale fillups. original bill of the (reviewed s, and prices to Energy Policy Act of annually) cost of recoup 2005 but it did not standard costs make it into the final Penalty for impleme Act failing to ntation. meet CAFE standards is Potential $5.50 per loss of tenth of a accumul mile per ated gallon for "credits" each tenth may under the result in target value manufact times the urers total volume having to of those pay vehicles additiona manufactur l penalty ed for a fees. given model year. Manufactur ers can earn CAFE "credits" to offset deficiencies in their CAFE performanc es. Thus, reducing penalty amounts. Credits can not be transferred between fleets. 35 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Create Light trucks, Cost to Potential Reduces Protests from Advisory Congressional CAFÉ SUVs, and manufact cost to emission automobile Bill to authorize standards pick up urers in consume s for an manufacturers creation of for trucks over creation rs if entire standard vehicles 8500lbs. do of manufact class of Protests from car over 8,500 not have to vehicles urers vehicles dealers who may NHTSA would lbs. conform to adhering increase have products need to enforce mpg fuel to new sale they could no and regulate efficiency standard, prices to longer sell policy and recoup costs of costs Potential Political standard resistance Impleme Potential ntation. to have a fleet of vehicles already created but not allowed on the road- so loss of income to manufact urers Require Cost to Implementation Advisory use of low replace rolling tires resistence tires Incentives Increase fuel economy Implement Cost of Cost to Neutral Sector Advisory a feebate impleme those policy dependent system ntation consume rs on the "fee" side of the policy 36 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Tax credits The Energy Cost of Publicizin Encoura Defining "low Budgetary Congressional for owners Policy Act the tax g new ges GHG" standards approval of tax of low of 2005 credit credit purchase credit and GHG provides a of fuel Opposition from implementation vehicles credit for Increase efficient oil companies by the IRS taxpayers in oil vehicles and vehicle who prices to manufactors purchase compens certain ate for energy potential efficient loss vehicles, including Qualified Hybrid vehicles. Program is set to end December 2010. Tax credits Manufactur Cost of Increase Encoura Defining "low Budgetary Congressional for ers of the tax in oil ges GHG" standards approval of tax manufactu energy credit prices to productio credit and rers of low efficient compens n of fuel Opposition from implementation GHG appliances ate for efficient oil companies by the IRS vehicles are potential vehicles provided loss certain tax credits; this might be applicable to auto manufactur ers LOW GHG FUELS Biofuels Replace use of gasoline and biodiesel with alternative fuels 37 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Mandate Cost to Potential Decreas Availability of Executive Order City, state and use of increase impact e use of fueling stations; federal example on alternative the on land 100% implementation updating fleets fuels for number use gasoline timeframe; federal, of fueling practices or diesel capacity to state, and stations that decrease update flee local generate s CO2 governme Cost to alternativ emission nt fleets increase e fuels s productio n of fuel Set targets Cost to Potential Decreas There are limited Executive Order for increase impact e use of stations that are replacing the on land 100% currently gasoline number use gasoline providing with of fueling practices or diesel alternative fuels blends of stations that decrease biodiesel, generate s CO2 Potential for ethanol, Cost to alternativ emission increasing and increase e fuels s emissions from biodiesel productio other criteria air n of fuel pollutants Tax Cost to Increase Incent Opposition from Budgetary Congressional see carbon impleme in gas change oil industry, car approval of tax http://www.wri.org/cli content of nt tax price to of dealerships and mate/pubs_descripti fuels and compens reliance fueling stations on.cfm?pid=4177 keep tax in ate for on special tax carbon fund rich fuels Incentivize Refining Potential Picking Political Budgetary Creation of production productio impact appropria opposition that incentive of biofuels n and on land te fuels, produce based on developi use consideri alternative fuels GHG ng practices ng that do not meet reduction capacity that overall reduction potential for generate impact potential while distributi alternativ standard reducing on e fuels incentives for oil exploration Electricity Support American ongoing technolo developme gy in this nt of area is innovative not at the technologi forefront; es not a 38 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter domestic stronghol d Continue Cost to Support Expense and *See chapter for in- to automak market availability of depth analysis Investigate ers for penetrati vehicles; the conducti on of a resistance from possibility ng R&D, low GHG car manufactors of hydrid bringing vehicle and the oil plug-ins new industry technolo gies to market Fund Cost of Reduces Protest from oil Budgetary technology the funding industry and research research for auto in creating research manufacturers better in other batteries transport and use of ation flywheels areas Hydrogen Support R&D for green hydrogen developme nt as a fuel for vehicles Provide Developi Long- Budgetary Legislation federal ng a term funding for distributi results R&D of on could green infrastruc greatly hydrogen ture; reduce as a car ongoing emission fuel develop s ment of productio n system FREIGHT Truck Increase efficiency 39 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Increase Cost of Resistance from Potentially EPA Regulation *See chapter for in- Truck developi Truck depth analysis design ng manufacturers Legislation to efficiency technolo enforce emission gy to standards increase through efficiency interstate trucking Increase Cost of Increase Account Availability of Promotion and use of developi in oil for great biofuels; outreach; getting biofuels for ng prices to reduction Resistance from more suppliers trucks technolo compens in GHG auto industry gy to ate for emission increase potential s efficiency loss Shift Enhancin Loss of Decreas Potential Advisory goods g revenue ed truck competition movement capacity to VMT and between Truck from truck of rail to trucking emission Unions and Rail to rail accomm industry s; worker Unions; odated Reductio Resistance from increase n of truck Truckers and in goods congesti truck moveme on manufacturers; nt Resistance from homeowners near rail tracks Increase Cost to Resistance from use of Truck Truck Fleet hybrid fleet operators trucks owners to purchase hybrid vehicles Marine Increase efficiency Improve Cost of Decreas propeller developi es fuel system, ng depende use of technolo nce B20, gy to reduce increase idling by efficiency electrifying ports Locomotive 40 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Increase efficiency Weight Cost of reduction, developi switch to ng B20, better technolo lubrication gy to increase efficiency INTERCITY PASSENGER High Speed Rail Create lower emission, innercity travel options that will result in reduced passenger vehicle trips and short airflights Support Support Reduces Opposition from Advisory Rail is deregulated; private cost and number homeowners therefore investment cost to of short living near rail development of high and improve airplane that do not want speed rail would innovative infrastruc trips, increased need to be a funding for ture which in activity collaborative effort the turn among the nation's developme reduces Opposition from freight carriers nt of high emission travel industry speed rail s (aviation, bus and motor coach Encoura companies) that ges less will face potential of income loss electricity rather than relying on fuel 41 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Support Infrastruc May Increase Opposition from Advisory Reconnecting integrated ture result in s multi- commuters, America Travel costs to increase modal politicians; lack Centers/H create to local transport of funding ubs at travel taxpayer airports hubs s to Integration that cover the among include infrastruc departments High ture Speed costs Rail, bus rapid May transit, displace trains prior transit stations and therefore adversel y affect commute rs and/or business es around those stations Aviation Support use of alternative fuels and low GHG emission vehicles at airports Use Potential Loss of Decreas Federal Aviation Congressional alternative retrofittin income e in Administration; Bill mandating fuels for g of to oil emission Aviation industry; use of alternative airport airport industry s Protest from oil fuels to the equipment equipme industry and/or Federal Aviation nt to equipment Administration accomm manufacturers odate alternativ e fuels 42 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Support Cost of Budgetary research research for advanced green air travel technologi es: . Divert Increasin Loss of Aviation industry; regional g income worker unions flights to capacity to within and high speed and aviation associated with rail (see frequenc sector; the Aviation High y of high potential industry Speed speed loss of Rail) rail trains jobs and stations 43 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix VII: Top Policy Recommendations by Presidential Power Action Type Category Sub-category Policy Recommendation Policy Implementation Strategy Executive Order PASSENGER VEHICLES Travel alternatives Encourage greater use of current public transportation systems Invest more in transit operations and expansion Equalize transit and parking benefits & Offer parking cash-out benefits Land use Plan for more efficient communities through increasing density and mixed usages Support transit-oriented development Incentives Create market demand for travel alternatives Implement congestion pricing for roads Expand car sharing LOW GHG FUELS Biofuels Increase use of low GHG emitting alternative fuels Support the use and distribution of alternative fuels Electricity Support ongoing development of innovative technologies 44 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Continue to Investigate the possibility of hydrid plug-ins Budgetary PASSENGER VEHICLES Travel alternatives Encourage greater use of current public transportation systems Invest more in transit operations and expansion Land use Plan for more efficient communities through increasing density and mixed usages Support transit-oriented development Incentives Create market demand for travel alternatives Expand car sharing INTERCITY PASSENGER High Speed Rail Create lower emission, innercity travel options Support private investment and innovative funding for the development of high speed rail Advisory PASSENGER VEHICLES Travel alternatives Encourage greater use of current public transportation systems Invest more in transit operations and expansion 45 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Equalize transit and parking benefits & Offer parking cash-out benefits Land use Plan for more efficient communities through increasing density and mixed usages Support transit-oriented development Incentives Create market demand for travel alternatives Implement congestion pricing for roads FUEL ECONOMY Regulation Increase fuel economy Increase CAFE standards LOW GHG FUELS Biofuels Increase use of low GHG emitting alternative fuels Support the use and distribution of alternative fuels FREIGHT Truck Increase efficiency Adopt freight truck efficiency measures INTERCITY PASSENGER High Speed Rail Create lower emission, innercity travel options Support private investment and innovative funding for the development of high speed rail 46 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter Appendix VIII: In-depth look at Factors contributing to Transportation Sector Emissions Land Use Sprawling areas, characterized by single use zoning and low-density land use, results in ―induced [auto] demand.‖1 Local zoning codes regulate what kind of property can be built—residential, commercial or mixed use—and where, which then dictates how people access stores, work, school, and services. Are there sidewalks to walk on? Are commercial services within walking distance of residential areas? Local zoning codes include, among other specific requirements, minimum parking, the width of roads, whether sidewalks are built and where they are located, landscape elements—numbers of trees, etc, and maximum density allowed. Sprawl, sometimes built in to local zoning codes and regulations, is directly linked to increased vehicle miles traveled, transportation costs, instances of obesity and risk for other health ailments, congestion, and traffic fatalities.2 As population has increased, so has the rate of developed land and Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT)—―for every1% in population increase, developed land increases about 1.2%-1.3% and VMT increases by about 2.3%.‖3 Transportation expenditures are rising with increases in developed land use and VMT, with an 8.8% increase from 1992 to 2003.4 Car ownership and how far one drives is largely determined by residential density, household income, household size, and availability of public transit.5 While most land use choices are made at the local level, there is a federal influence on current sprawl that dates back to the post- World War II development of the federal highway system, established with the Federal Highway Act of 1944. In the latest authorization of transportation legislation—Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users—dollars are awarded to projects based on the number of vehicle miles traveled, the quantity of fuel consumed, and the quantity of lane miles. Federal funding of highway and road projects have been the main focus of the Department of Transportation budget, with funding allocations and prerequisites—such as the completion of environmental impact studies—favoring road projects. The subsidization of the development of highways and the car industry have come at a cost—reduced investment in other transportation options. 1 Center for Clean Air Policy, Center for Neighborhood Technology, Surface Transportation Policy Project. Climate Matters: The Case for Addressing Greenhouse Gas Reduction in Federal Transportation Policy. January 2003. http://www.fundersnetwork.org 2 Driven to Spend and McCann study +… 3 Ibid reference #1. 4 Driven to Spend 2005 5 Holtzclaw, J., R. Clear, H. Dittmar, D. Goldstein and P. Haas. Location Efficiency: Neighborhood and Socio-Economic Characteristics Determine Auto Ownership and Use—Studies in Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Transportation Planning and Technology, Vol 25, 2002, p. 1-27. 47 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter American Values Land use decisions are subject to ―not in my backyard‖ (NIMBY) review. While there may be merit in land use policies that make for dense communities, there is a market argument that runs counter, the foundation of which relies on ―the clear preference that Americans have for the freestanding, single-family home.‖6 Americans value independence and space—both of which are afforded through vehicle ownership. Policy constructs are the reflection of consumer demand, and what consumers want, and what they'll pay for. Fuel Economy Standards In the United States, automobile fuel economy is set with the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), which originated in 1975 with the Energy and Policy Conservation Act. Yet, despite our long history of regulating automobile fuel efficiency, the United States, when considered in the company of Japan, China, and the European Union, has the lowest fuel economy standards.7 The United States' CAFÉ standard for passenger vehicles is 27.5 miles per gallon (mpg), a level that was set in 1990 and remains the same today (FHWA). While increases are periodically discussed, the Annual Energy Outlook assumes just an average of 29.2 mpg for new cars and light trucks, and 22.2 mpg for the national light vehicle fleet in 2030 in its base case model. Fuel economy is seen as one of the most effective ways of reducing CO2 emissions in the transportation sector.8 The debate over fuel economy standards has waged for years. Fuel economy standards increased during times of oil embargos on foreign states and were decreased after the time of crisis is over. Concerns with increasing fuel economy standards have been the result of discussions on safety and impact on the economy. Car industry executives continue to lobby against the increase of fuel economy standards, rather proposing an increase in the use of alternative fuel vehicles. Vehicle Standards Safety considerations are often at the forefront of setting standards for transportation modes. The Federal Highway Administration recently commissioned a report on safety issues related to the use of low rolling resistance tires, determining that safety standards 6 Fischel, William. Sprawl and the Federal Government. Cato Policy Report, September/October 1999 Vol. 21, No. 5. http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/v21n5/cpr-21n5.html 7 An, Feng and Amanda Sauer. Comparison of Passenger Vehicle Economy and GHG Emission Standards Around the World. Prepared for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change. December 2004. 8 Ibid 48 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter could be maintained even with adopting replacement tires that would cut down on GHG emissions. Current vehicle standards, such as those used for locomotives, include heavy weight and materials. Appendix IX: Glossary PASSENGER VEHICLE REDUCTIONS Transit-oriented development (TOD)- refers to residential and commercial centers designed to maximize access by transit transportation Smart growth- is a general term for policies that integrate transportation and land use decisions Pedestrian-oriented design- refers to residential and commercial centers designed to maximize access by non-motorized transportation Congestion Pricing- refers to variable road pricing (higher prices under congested conditions and lower prices at less congested times and locations) intended to reduce peak-period vehicle trips. Parking Cash Out- means that commuters who are offered a free or subsidized parking space have the option of choosing the cash equivalent, resulting in a reduction of employees driving to work. services intended to Carsharing- automobile rentalFUEL ECONOMY substitute for private vehicle ownership. It makes occasional use of a vehicle affordable, while providing an incentive to minimize driving.the average mileage traveled by an automobile per Fuel Economy- is defined as gallon of gasoline (or equivalent amount of other fuel) consumed as measured in *Definitions taken from Travel Demand Management Encyclopedia: http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm61.htm accordance with the testing and evaluation protocol set forth by the Environmental Protection Agency. 49 Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ)- is the sales weighted average fuel economy, expressed in miles per gallon (mpg), of a manufacturer's fleet of passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 8,500 Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter ALTERNATIVE FUELS Ethanol- can be produced chemically from ethylene or biologically from the fermentation of various sugars from carbohydrates found in agricultural crops and cellulosic residues from crops or wood. Used in the United States as a gasoline octane enhancer and oxygenate. Natural Gas- a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, primarily methane, occurring naturally in the Earth and used principally as a fuel. Propane- a gas whose molecules are composed of three carbon and eight hydrogen atoms. Propane is present in most natural gas in the United States, and is refined from crude petroleum. Hydrogen- a colorless, highly flammable gaseous fuel Biodiesel- a biodegradable transportation fuel for use in diesel engines that is produced through transesterification of organically derived oils or fats. Electricity- electric current used as a power source. Electricity can be generated from a variety of feedstocks, including oil, coal, nuclear, hydro, natural gas, wind, and solar. Methanol- a liquid fuel formed by catalytically combining CO with hydrogen in a 1 to 2 ratio under high temperature and pressure. Commercially, it is typically manufactured by steam reforming natural gas P-series fuels- fuels designed by the Pure Fuel Corporation to run in E85/gasoline flexible fuel vehicles *Definitions taken from the Alternative Fuels Data Center : http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/resources/glossary.html 50 INTERCITY TRAVEL Presidential Climate Action Plan Transportation and Land Use Chapter FREIGHT Anti-idling or Idle reduction- is used to describe technologies and practices that reduce the amount of time engines idle. Reducing idle time saves fuel, engine wear, and money. In addition, it reduces emissions and noise. Rolling resistance - is the parasitic energy a tire consumes while rolling under load * Definitions taken from Alternative Fuels Data Center : http://www.eere.energy.gov/ 51


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Finalists for the 10th annual Housewares Design Awards were named. There are 60 finalists in 12 appliance and non-appliance categories.
A Best in Category winner will be chosen from each category and the "Best of the Best" Gold, Silver and Bronze award recipients will be chosen from the twelve category winners. All awards will be announced Jan. 29, 2013 at an event at the New York Marriott Marquis overlooking Times Square.
Appliance categories and finalists are:
Countertop Cooking & Beverage Appliances
* Jarden Consumer Solutions: Crock-Pot Lunch Crock Food Warmer
* Jura Capresso: Capresso teaC100
* Jura Capresso: Jura ENA Micro 9 One Touch
* Krups USA: EA82 Espressaria Full Automatic Espresso and Coffee Machine
* Whirlpool Corporation: KitchenAid ProLine 2-Slice Toaster
Countertop Food Prep Appliances
* Beaba: Babycook Pro
* Beaba: Babycook Pro2x
* Bodum: Bistro Stand Mixer
* Calphalon: XL Blender
* Edgeware Products: Angle Adjust Electric Knife Sharpener
Floor Care & Cleaning Appliances
* Dyson Inc.: DC44 Animal Dyson Digital Slim
* Electrolux Small Appliances North America: Precision Brushroll Clean
* Oreck: VersaVac
* Oreck: Magnesium RS
* Rowenta USA: Delta Force Stick Vac
Home Environment Appliances
* Blueair: Sense
* Envion: Therapure 540
* HoMedics: Brethe Air Cleaner
* Swizz Style: Jasmine Aroma Diffuser
* Winix Inc.: Signature Series Air Cleaner
Personal, Health & Garment Care
* Leifheit International USA: Soehnle Steel Elegance
* Panasonic: Arc3 Men's Wet/Dry Shaver (Model # ES-SL41)
* Rowenta USA: Eco-Intelligence Iron
* Verilux Inc.: HappyLight Liberty Energy Lamp
* Violight: Rockee
The full list of categories includes:
* Cookware & Bakeware
* Countertop Cooking & Beverage Appliances
* Countertop Kitchenware
* Countertop Food Prep Appliances
* Cutlery & Cutting Tools
* Gadgets & Kitchen Tools
* Home & Outdoor Decor
* Home Environment Appliances
* Home Organization
* Laundry Care & Non-Electric Cleaning
* Personal, Health & Garment Care
* Tableware, Serveware & Beverageware
More information is at:
to Daily News
Daily News
Oct 28, 2014: HVAC/R contractors remain optimistic about short-term growth
Oct 23, 2014: Whirlpool Corporation to Showcase Resource-Efficient Technologies at Greenbuild
Oct 23, 2014: CWIEME Chicago exhibition had record attendees
Oct 22, 2014: Middleby to add U-Line to residential appliance business
Oct 22, 2014: iRobot's 3Q exceeds expectations, driven by Home Robots growth
Daily News>>
November 2014: Appliance Magazine Market Insight Annual Subscriptions
November 2014: U.S. Appliance Industry: Market Value, Life Expectancy & Replacement Picture 2014
October 2014: Portrait of the European Appliance Industry
September 2014: Appliance Industry Focus: HVAC

subset: commoncrawl


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Contre Jour
276 reviews
By installing you agree to the Terms of Use and other terms
PublisherElectronic Arts
More from Electronic Arts
File weight33 MB
Content rating
Last updated14/05/2013
Works with
- Windows Phone 8.1
- Windows Phone 8
- Windows Phone 7.5
App requires
- Xbox
- photo, music, and video libraries
- data services
- movement and directional sensor
- HD720P (720x1280)
- WVGA (480x800)
- WXGA (768x1280)
Supported languages (9)
Deutsch English (United States) Español (España, alfabetización internacional) français italiano 日本語 한국어 русский 中文(简体)
Blurring the lines between games and interactive art, Contre Jour welcomes you to a hauntingly beautiful world shaped by the interplay of light and darkness. Use your finger to morph the landscape, propelling the mysterious creature Petit to safety. Pull, swipe, and tap gadgets such as tendrils, air geysers, and pulleys to complete clever puzzles. Set to a poignant orchestrated soundtrack from composer David Ari Leon, Contre Jour both delights and bedevils from start to finish. SIMPLY STUNNING Unique visual style places Contre Jour in a league of it's own – simply one of the most beautiful games out there. Rich, organic and original soundtrack by David Ari Leon perfectly matches the gameplay. Get some headphones and lose yourself in the world of Contre Jour. INTUITIVE CONTROL Use extremely intuitive controls to change the environment around you and master the different interactive elements; portals, slingshots, tentacles, blowers and more.
04/10/2014One of the best mobile games. :)
13/09/2014The right side of gorgeous!
27/08/2014Awesome game such cool graphics
24/08/2014Immersive design and music..
23/08/2014Challenging, fun and original. Would highly recommend this game, well worth the money.
22/08/2014Brilliant little game so much nicer and calmer than angry birds 😊
08/08/2014One word: Beautiful! ☝👌👀
05/08/2014Brilliant game I love the music it sounds so relaxing and the graphics are brilliant too I recommend this everyone if you like solving puzzles
31/07/2014Good music and nice game weldone


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Home > News > World
Thursday April 24, 2014 MYT 2:10:03 AM
Thursday April 24, 2014 MYT 2:10:58 AM
by barbara lewis AND vladimir soldatkin
BRUSSELS/MOSCOW (Reuters) - European and Russian officials will meet this week and next for emergency talks to try to prevent Moscow cutting off gas supply to Ukraine, as Europe explores how to pump more gas to the struggling country.
Moscow has nearly doubled the natural gas price it charges Ukraine and threatened to cut gas supplies for non-payment of debt since a new pro-Western government took over in Kiev in February.
It has also annexed Ukraine's Crimea region and voiced support for pro-Russian separatists who have seized control of government buildings and set up road blocks in parts of eastern Ukraine.
The talks next week are another attempt to bring Ukraine and Russia to the negotiating table as a previous agreement struck in Geneva last week to de-escalate tensions between the two neighbours unravelled.
The preparations for negotiations follow calls from Ukraine's acting president, Oleksander Turchinov, for government forces to relaunch an offensive against pro-Russian rebels.
In the first round of talks on Thursday, the European Union's top energy official, Guenther Oettinger, will meet Ukrainian and Slovakian ministers in Bratislava to seek a deal on shipping gas to Ukraine via Slovakia.
Russia will not attend that meeting. However, it said it would host talks in Moscow on Monday, bringing together Ukraine Energy Minister Yuri Prodan, Oettinger and Russian Energy Minister Alexander Novak to discuss gas pricing for Kiev.
"We sent a letter to Oettinger proposing to hold the talks in Moscow on April 28," a spokesperson for the Russian Energy Ministry told Reuters.
The European Commission, the EU executive, has not confirmed where or when any meeting with Russia would take place, though it has said it is willing to take part in such talks.
"Today, EU Energy Commissioner Oettinger has invited the Russian Energy Ministers Novak and the Ukrainian Energy Minister Prodan for a first meeting for trilateral consultations, but the date and place are not fixed yet," a Commission spokeswoman said.
She confirmed Thursday's talks in Bratislava, which follow months of preparation to reverse the flow of gas through Slovakia to help Ukraine in the event of a halt in supplies.
"The Commission is confident that the Memorandum of Understanding on reverse flows can be signed as soon as possible between the two pipeline operators in Slovakia (Eustream) and in the Ukraine (Uktransgas)," the spokeswoman said.
Russia's seizure of Crimea has caused the most serious East-West rift since the end of the Cold War.
The European Union and United States have imposed sanctions, mostly in the form of visa bans and asset freezes on a number of Russian officials.
At the same Russia has warned that gas supplies to Ukraine could be cut and that this could in turn lead to a reduction of onward deliveries to Europe.
Russia provides Europe with roughly one third of its gas imports, over half of which flowed via Ukraine last year, and delivers around half of Ukraine's domestic gas needs.
Moscow, which does not recognise the Ukrainian government that replaced ousted President Viktor Yanukovich in February, nearly doubled the gas price for Ukraine to $485 (289.2 pounds) per 1,000 cubic metres, starting from April. Kiev, which is in deep financial trouble, is refusing to pay.
Russian state-controlled gas producer Gazprom says Kiev owes it $2.2 billion for gas already delivered and is considering demanding up-front payments, increasing the risk of Russia turning off the taps.
Prodan said on Wednesday that Kiev had sent Moscow its gas price suggestions but that there had been no response yet. He would not specify the suggested price. Ukraine's officials have previously said they were ready to pay $386 per 1,000 cubic metres.
The EU has been working on developing technology to ship gas back to Ukraine in the opposite direction to that for which the pipelines were designed.
The most significant such channel would be through Slovakia, but talks had repeatedly failed to get a deal.
Slovak government officials said Thursday's outline agreement was expected to cover smaller flows than Ukraine wanted as Slovakia sought legal advice on a bigger project.
Russia has said reversing flows of its gas would be illegal.
(Reporting by Barbara Lewis; Additional reporting by Pavel Polityuk in Kiev and Jan Lopatka in Prague; Writing by Barbara Lewis and John O'Donnell; editing by Keiron Henderson, David Stamp, Anna Willard and Will Waterman)
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