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- Restart your phone.
- Check that your SIM card is fully inserted.
- Do not use SIM cards that have been modified to fit the SIM slot. If a regular SIM card has been cut to a smaller SIM format you will have to contact your operator to order a replacement SIM.
- If possible, try your SIM card in another phone, or another SIM card in your phone.
- Your phone may be SIM locked, which prohibits using a SIM card from a different network operator. Contact your network operator to confirm if your phone is locked. They can provide the unlock code and instructions on how to use it.
Nokia 515 Dual SIM - My phone does not recognise my SIM card
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found a new home!
Plenty of my friends are looking
for one too. Find a pet to adopt.
Find a pet to adopt
My name is Jayce!
Facts about Jayce
- Breed: Border Collie Mix
- Color: Black - With White
- Age: Puppy
- Size: Small 25 lbs (11 kg) or less
- Sex: Female
Jayce's Info...
I am up to date with shots, good with kids, and good with dogs.
Jayce was brought into the shelter as a stray on 1-31-13. She is a super sweet 5 month old Border Collie Mix. She is really energetic and loves to play. She is waiting for her forever home!
Act quickly to adopt Jayce. Pets at this Shelter may be held for only a short time.
Other Pets at Simpson County Animal Shelter
Why Adoption is a Great Option
Jayce, a Franklin Border Collie puppy was adopted! Here's how you can benefit by looking at adoption as an option to buying a Border Collie for sale in Franklin, or seeking a Border Collie puppy from a breeder in Franklin.
- Rescues and shelter volunteers in Franklin already know the personality and tendencies of their pets. This means they can match you with the right pet. That will makes it much easier transition to owning a pet for yourself and your new pet.
- On average adoption fees are much less than you'd pay a Franklin breeder, or pet store. Plus most often rescue pets have already been to the veterinarian for a check-up, had a round of vaccinations, and are spayed or neutered. That is a lot of savings!
- You will become a hero, and give a needy dog or cat a loving home. In fact, there are even Border Collie breeders who help with Border Collie rescue. One puppy or kitten adopted in Franklin paves the way for another one to be saved.

subset: commoncrawl


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Thanksgiving Book Give Away Contests have started on the Ehell blog! Check it out and enter!
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Probably rum in the cider. This will sound tacky, but... if it were me and I were making a bunch of things already, I might just buy Progresso Tomato & Basil soup, and dress it up with fresh basil leaves. I think it's surprisingly good for a commercial soup.
Cinnamon schnapps is delicious in hot apple cider. As to your apple/fillo dough dessert, have you considered purchasing frozen fillo dough cups, baking them, and filling with apple pie filling?
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View IIE's Annual Report
In 2012, IIE's senior management team felt strongly that IIE's vision should reflect the voices of staff who carry out IIE's important work every day. They invited 11 representatives from across the Institute to form a Vision Team to lead IIE to a new vision. To ensure everyone at IIE was involved in this process, the Vision Team tasked each division with contributing to IIE's vision statement. The Vision Team synthesized these inspiring thoughts and ideas to create IIE's new vision.
Learn about how you can support IIE's work
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It's Bart Simpson, America's self-subscribed mischief maker—and proud of it! Soft vinyl mask. Imported.
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Game Details
- Release Date 11/25/2013
- Publisher Kalypso
- Platform PS3
- Genre Strategy/Sim
- Number of Players 1
- Online Players 8
- Online Enabled Yes
Game Description
Air Conflicts: Vietnam combines recent history, flight simulation, and arcade gameplay. It puts you in control of 20 accurately simulated fighter jets and helicopters from the Vietnam War era. The engaging plot sees you stemming the spread of Communism through superior air power, and offers a variety of missions set in that controversial war. As the U.S. role in the conflict increases, you will work your way up to commanding an entire squadron of planes. Air Conflicts: Vietnam's aircraft are fully upgradeable, and you'll even get to leave the cockpit and man the guns to defend your plane or heli from the Viet Cong!
User Reviews
Average Member Rating: 2.8 out of 10
Horrible. (1 out of 10)
posted by drs92372 (LEAGUE CITY, TX) on Dec 13, 2013
Member since Dec 2004
1 out of 2 gamers (50%) found this review helpful
Member since Dec 2004
1 out of 2 gamers (50%) found this review helpful
Do not waste your time. I played it about ten minutes then sealed it back in the envelope. Very disappointed.more
Specs & Requirements
Memory 300 kb
Online Features Online Multiplayer, Voice, Friends, Trophies, Capture the Flag, Online Deathmatch, Online Team Deathmatch
Modes Full Mission Single-Player, Campaign
Controllers Headset, PlayStation Eye, Dualshock 3 Controller, PS Move Enabled, Navigation Controller
Audio/Video HDTV 480p, HDTV 720p, 3D Compatible
Similar Games
- Call of Duty: Advanced WarfareRelease 11/3/2014
- Sniper Elite IIIRelease 6/30/2014
- Alien: IsolationRelease 10/6/2014


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Baidu developing digital eyewear similar to Google Glass
The 'Baidu Eye' glasses are being tested internally
China's largest search engine Baidu is developing prototype digital eyewear similar to Google Glass that will leverage Baidu's strengths in image search and facial recognition, a Baidu spokesman said.
Internally known as project "Baidu Eye", the glasses are being tested internally and it is not clear whether the product will ever be commercialised, said Kaiser Kuo, Baidu's spokesman.
Kuo said the device will be mounted on a headset with a small LCD screen and will allow users to make image and voice searches as well as conduct facial recognition matches.
"What you are doing with your camera, for example, taking a picture of a celebrity and then checking on our database to see if we have a facial image match, you could do the same thing with a wearable visual device," Kuo said.
Baidu's first foray in wearable technology will draw comparisons to Google's Google Glass product, which is a piece of electronic eyewear that can live-stream images and audio and perform computing tasks.
Earlier this year Google launched the Google Glass Explorer program, opening up the eyewear for early enthusiasts to test.
Kuo said comparisons to Google Glass were premature as Baidu has not decided whether or not to commercialise the product.
"We haven't decided whether it is going to be released in any commercial form right now, but we experiment with every kind of technology that is related to search," Kuo said.
Kuo declined to comment on the other functions of the Baidu Eye or whether Baidu is working on other forms of wearable technology.
Wearable technology is the latest technology initiative with many firms, including Google and Apple, set to roll out devices based on the belief that users will increasingly seek to stay connected without being tethered to a desktop, laptop or tablet computer.
Apple is experimenting with a device similar to a wristwatch that would operate on the same platform as the iPhone and would be made with curved glass, the New York Times reported in February.
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Please contact email@example.com.
The Leading Global Resource in the LGBT Tourism Industry.
by Out Adventures
North America > Canada > Ontario
Trip departs on November 11.
Relax on beautiful white-sand beaches, take a dip in turquoise waters, explore the colonial architecture and plazas of Havana, practice your best salsa moves, swim in the pristine waters of El Nicho waterfall, and see how Cubans really live during an authentic homestay. And do it all in an exclusive gay group.
For more information visit our Gay Cuba Tour page.
Calle 21 y O, Vedado, Plaza
Havana, Havana
IGLTA - The International Gay & Lesbian Travel Association is the world's leading global travel network dedicated to connecting and educating LGBT travelers and the businesses that welcome and support them along the way. Whether it's for individual, group, corporate, or student travel, we have affiliates in the world's most sought after locations offering the most competitive packages for your perfect getaway.
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- Columns & Features
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Issue Archives
Category Archives: Jan/Feb 04
The Bruins' Summer Crew
Holding up UCLA's century-plus history of athletic tradition and excellence is no small task. Just ask UCLA's coaches. But things don't really change in the off-season, as UCLA runs a slew of sports camps all summer long. Fortunately for the coaches, much of the responsibility for a winning program is passed to Gavin Crew, director of camps and clinics at UCLA Sports Camps. Given UCLA's reputation for churning out national champions and world-class athletes, Crew is faced with the daunting … Continue reading
Posted in Camp Business, Columns & Features, Departments, Issues, Jan/Feb 04, Programming Leave a comment
Top Programming Ideas 2004
Each camp year brings with it the usual struggle to not only maintain quality programming, but to tweak and revitalize it year after year. Even the seemingly small stuff can make a big difference. It's those little dashes of creative changes that can provide greater camper retention. So we asked camp and program directors and experts from all over, representing just about every camp experience, for their input on camp programming. Our contributors were kind enough to offer their perspectives … Continue reading
Posted in Camp Business, Columns & Features, Departments, Issues, Jan/Feb 04, Programming, Writers Leave a comment
Smart Money
A camp comes into some money. They don't have a long-range plan based on operating goals, so the director goes to the staff and asks, "What do we need?" If the staff has been working hard to fill the camp and programs to capacity through their long, long hours in difficult working conditions, you could certainly entertain a suggestion to "improve working conditions" by adding facilities that primarily make the lives of the staff easier. Things like new or expanded … Continue reading
The Oasis
Back in The Day, as the kids say now, some friends and I would make our way to a place near Austin called The Oasis, which is a restaurant overlooking Lake Travis. I can recall eating there maybe once or twice, as we would usually skirt off to a crushed limestone trail and end up below The Oasis on a series of cliffs that rise to varying heights above the green water. Perhaps time has clouded my memory and exaggerated … Continue reading
Posted in Camp Business, Departments, Issues, Jan/Feb 04, Writers Leave a comment
The Next Step
For more information about companies providing further outdoor adventure and creative climbing walls and activities, following is a list of active participants in the camp business. Related Article: Adventure Challenges Alpine Towers International Inc./Cornerstone Designs Inc. PO Box 59 Jonas Ridge, NC 28641 (800) 706-0064 (828) 733-0953 (828) 733-3505 (fax) www.cornerstonedesignsinc.com, www.alpinetowers.com Climbing walls, towers, zip lines and other challenge course products and equipment. Grip-It Adventures 9331 Philadelphia Road, Warehouse D Baltimore, MD 21237 PO Box 5003 Lutherville, MD 21094 … Continue reading
Posted in Camp Business, Departments, Issues, Jan/Feb 04, Programming Leave a comment


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Custom Javelin Odyssey container. SunPath's Javelin Odyssey is a mainstay of the skydiving industry. The Odyssey now has the Skyhook option.
Javelin's Odyssey container now features the Stabilized Lateral System (S.L.S.) at no extra charge. The new S.L.S. design keeps the rig against your back, regardless of your body position. This new independent lateral pad provides greater comfort especially under canopy.
Current turnaround time for a custom Javelin Odyssey is 16 weeks. $2555 plus options.
SunPath does keep a selection of stock rigs for delivery in 4 weeks built to your body measurements and options. These containers are already "pre-built" except for the harness with hip/chest rings, spacerfoam and pin-stripes. Skyhook, Phat Daddy Reserve Handle and Easy Grip Dive Loops can be added as well. Contact us for more information or to place an order.
Standard Javelin Odyssey Features:
Articulated harness
- Stainless steel rings at the hips and chest provide a pivot point for the main lift web. What was once a point where the harness would bind and pinch now allows for a custom, comfortable fit with a secure harness without sacrificing mobility. Available in a four ring version (hip and chest) on the Javelin Legacy and two or four ring on the Odyssey.
Skyhook RSL
- The SkyHook is a main assist reserve deployment system that uses a malfunctioning main to extract the reserve freebag from the container and provide a fully inflated reserve in as little as 80 feet. All Javelin Odyssey's with a date of manufacture of February 2007 or later are Skyhook compatible.
A or V stripe on the reserve pin cover
- Adding an "A" or "V: stripe to your reserve pin cover or #3 flap is an another way to customize your Javelin Odyssey, add the optional pin stripes for an even more personal touch.
Pin Stripes
- Pin striping is available on the mid flap (A-E stripes), the reserve pop top and along with the "A" or "V" stripes.
Spacer foam back pad
- Quarter inch foam padding underneath breathable, durable mesh combine to make our spacer foam back pad the most comfortable in the industry.
Sun Path Backpad (SPB)
- This channeled back pad offers "standoff" between the rig and the jumpers back, allowing air to circulate, keeping the wearer cooler than a standard back pad. The back pad is available on the Javelin Odyssey in black.
Phat Daddy Reserve ripcord
- Using the same manufacturing and raw material as our Phat Daddy cutaway handle, the Phat Daddy reserve is a soft handle with the bulk required to get a good grip in an emergency as well as another way to make your Javelin truly yours with custom colors and embroidery.
Easy grip dive loops
- These dive loops have a design similar to our easy grip control toggles. Thanks to bungee sewn internally these dive loops remain open and ready to help you steer your parachute to it maximum performance yet stow away easily during packing.
B-12 snaps
- For those jumpers with physical limitations, or who jump specialized gear like demo flags, that make standard step through leg strap hardware impractical.
Asymmetrical Center Flap or section 1A a different color
- Not everyone lives in a right angle symmetrical world. Show your individual side and color your rig to suit your personality!
Extended Chest Strap
- For all you hard core canopy pilots, chest straps can be ordered in 2" increments up to 12" longer than our standard 19".
The Javelin coloring program can be used to design your new container at this link.
The Measuring Guide for the body measurements should be followed as shown at this link.
Upload the completed order form with your online order at the file upload link.
Once the order is submitted, we will contact you to review the order, make any necessary changes and give you the final price with options/shipping. Payment can be made either through adding this Javelin Legacy to your online cart with payment, or via phone with a credit card or by wire transfer. Contact us if you have any questions.
Check out the Javelin Odyssey review at ChutingStar's Rigger Rant and Rave!
Customer Reviews
1 Item(s)
- Most comfortable rig on the market! Review by Sydney
Quality Durability Price
Sun Path Products has some of the best customer service in the industry, and I wouldn't (and don't) hesitate to recommend it to anyone and everyone looking for their first or next container.
Thank you, Sun Path! (Posted on 6/11/2013)
1 Item(s)
Additional Info
|Sun Path Products
|Articulation Availability
|Chest and Hip, Hip, None
|Back Pad Options Available
|Spacer Foam, Standard
|Chest Strap Size Availability
|Cutaway Handles Available
|Phat Daddy
|External AAD Window
|Fabrics Available
|Cordura 1000, Diamond Back, Houndstooth, Parapack
|Hardware Availability
|Stainless Steel
|Main Deployment Handles Available
|Freefly Handle, Hackey
|Reserve Handles Available
|Phat Daddy, Stainless D-Ring
|Riser Cover Types Available
|Tuck Tab
|Riser Hard Cable Housings
|Riser Sizes Available
|TY 17 - 1" (mini), TY 8 - 2" (large)
|Skyhook and RSL
|RSL Available, Skyhook Available
|Toggle Types Available
|Kill Line Pilot Chute Availability
|Hook Knife Pouch
|Cut In Laterals Availability
|Name Embroidery Available
|Yes (at extra charge)


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Jewish Museum in Prague
The robe and flag of the messianic pretender Solomon Molcho
The Jewish Museum in Prague is one of the first museums to have designed a unique "vitrine safe" for the housing and display of rare historical items. Part of the permanent exhibition in the Maisel Synagogue devoted to the earliest history of the Jews in the Czech lands, this special showcase, which opened to the public in April, gives visitors the opportunity to see two rare historical exhibits: the robe and flag of the messianic pretender Solomon Molcho (born c. 1500 in Portugal) who was burned at the stake in Mantua in 1532. Both relics were once used by this Kabbalist, religious heretic and devotee of David Reubeni's messianic movement. For many years they were housed in Prague's Pinkas Synagogue (earliest reference dated 1628), from where they were sent in a relatively poor state of repair to the Jewish Museum. Although they were restored several times in the past, it has not (until now) been possible to display them on a long-term basis. An internal space in the Maisel Synagogue was therefore set aside and specially designed under expert supervision so as to meet the Museum's exacting requirements for the comprehensive preservation of its collections: security, stable micro-climate, lighting and protection against UV and IR radiation. To meet these requirements, it was necessary first of all to install heating devices with precise round-the-year temperature regulation, Art-sorp absorption panels for optimum humidity, and special optic cables with UV and IR filters for the channelling of light. The walls of this space have been coated with a special paint that provides for a high degree of light absorption; this facilitates and improves viewing conditions with low intensity lighting. All heat from light sources is diverted away from the above space so as not to affect the micro-climatic conditions inside the exhibition. Thanks to the above solution, these rare artefacts can now not only be well-preserved but also placed on public display.
Encounters – exhibition of the Israeli-American painter Benjamin Levy in Prague
In April and May 2002, an exhibition of drawings, watercolours and gouaches by the contemporary Israeli-American painter Benjamin Levy, entitled Encounters was held in the Jewish Museum's Robert Guttmann Gallery.
Although Levy's work is not so well-known in the Czech Republic, it can be seen in many private and public collections throughout the world. During the last 30 years he has held over 80 one-man shows and has taken part in over 100 group shows in Israel, the United States and Europe. The opening of the exhibition on 24 April 2002 was attended not only by the artist himself but also the Israeli Ambassador to the Czech Republic Arthur Avnon.
Benjamin Levy was born in Tel Aviv in 1940. He studied art in
Israel under Abraham Yaskil, in Paris at the École de Montparnasse and in
New York
The work of Benjamin Levy is pervaded with memories of his family. Many of the figures we see in his paintings stem from family recollections and stories. He grew up in the colourful environs of the Yemen district of Jaffa and to this day his paintings are filled with exotic images from his childhood. He has drawn a great deal of inspiration from his collection of family photos, many of which were taken before he was born. His paintings have absorbed a lot of the magic of these old photos, which is reflected in the odd rigidity of his figures and the dream-like quality of his set pieces.
Figures in Levy's paintings communicate with each other and with us through silence in the form of an almost forgotten language of symbols, which permeates all his paintings. His barely sketched language of symbols links him to an old artistic tradition which surprisingly communicates with us in the present. In the mysterious and paradoxical world of Benjamin Levy, figures from the artist's life and his subconscious encounter each other in the space between reality and dreams. They send out signals which emphasize the unreal and dream-like realm of his paintings and evoke an atmosphere that recalls the metaphysical works of de Chirico and Magritte and Chagall. His paintings give us an unexpected sense of déjá-vu, bringing to mind encounters with our own forgotten past. Exhibition curator: Dr. Arno Pařík.
Euroclio 2002
An international conference of history teachers with over 130
participants from the whole of Europe was held in Prague between 12-17
March 2002. Lectures and discussions focused mainly on the co-existence of
major population groups with minorities in a historical and contemporary
context. The Jewish Museum in Prague was involved in various activities at
this event. The director of the Museum's Education and Culture Centre,
Dr. Miloš Pojar, gave a paper on the co-existence of Czechs, Germans and
Jews in the Czech past. The educational programmes of the Centre were
represented by a presentation of the Jewish Wedding workshop under the
supervision of lecturer Veronika Schmiedtová and a presentation on the
theme "Researchers in the area of Judaism" with lecturer Tereza Foltýnová.
The Lost Neighbours exhibition (see Newsletter 4/2001), together with
The travelling exhibition Lost Neighbours
The Lost Neighbours exhibition is based on the project of the same name (see Newsletter 4/2000) and features the resulting literary and documentary work of high school students. Travelling around individual regions in Bohemia and Moravia, it brings the general public close to the lives of people who became Shoah victims. The exhibition was first presented to the public in November 2001 as part of the Terezín international conference The Holocaust in Education; in February 2002, it was installed in the Prague 1 Information Centre. In March 2002, the 8-panel exhibition was presented to participants of the Euroclio conference of history teachers, as well as over 500 visitors, mostly from Prague schools, and teachers involved in the Schola Pragensis event held by Prague City Hall. The Lost Neighbours exhibition is now being displayed across Czech regions, along with the Anne Frank Legacy for the Present show. In April it moved to the Brandýs nad Labem District Museum, together with the Jewish Holidays and Traditions ex-hibition, which was held in association with staff from the Jewish Museum in Prague. Both exhibitions were then featured in the Rear Synagogue in Třebíč. From 11 June 2002 the Lost Neighbours exhibition has been on view in the Senate of the Czech Parliament. Two new panels from Ostrava and Lipník nad Bečvou have been included here and the exhibition is complemented by ceramic works by children from Lipník on the theme of Jewish monuments in Lipník and its environs. From 26 July to 11 August 2002, the exhi-bition will become part of an event for young people entitled Holidays in Telč, where it will be accompanied by concerts of Jewish music.
In addition, an exhibition comprising copies of the original eight display panels travelled to the areas where the individual works were made: Chomutov (May 2002) and Sokolov (June 2002). Two new pa-nels on the history of the Jewish communities in the Sokolov district and Zábřeh are also being prepared.
Claude Lanzmann in the Jewish Museum in Prague
The international One World Film Festival was held in mid-April 2002 in Prague. Every year this festival presents outstanding documentaries on human rights, crisis areas and global problems. It was organized by the People In Need Foundation at Czech Television and part of its programming was financially supported by the Jewish Museum and the Jewish Community of Prague. This year's festival was attended by the famous French writer and film director Claude Lanzmann. Several of his films Why Israel (1973) The Shoah (1985), Sobibor, 14 October 1943 at 4 o' clock (2001), Tsahal (1994) and The Visitor from the Empire of the Living (1997) were screened as part of a retrospective block, which was followed by a talk given by the director in the Archa Theatre.
On 16 April 2002, a discussion on the theme The Shoah in Art: Documentary or Fiction was held with the director in the Jewish Museum's Education and Culture Centre. The meeting was attended by people for whom this topic is still fresh in the mind, or of interest from an artistic or humanistic perspective. It therefore brought together senior citizens, for whom the wartime period is linked to strong personal experiences and memories, and the younger generation, who were interested in the form and treatment of the theme in Lanzmann's films. Representatives of the Jewish Museum and the Jewish Community of Prague met with the director at a banquet held in his honour. Claude Lanzmann then went on a tour around the Jewish Museum's exhibitions.
New publication - The Boskovice Synagogue
To mark the completion of the long-term reno-vation of the
Boskovice Synagogue, the Jewish Museum in Prague has prepared an
illustrated guide to this unique monument dating from 1639 and to its rich
decorative paintings. The murals from the late 17th and early 18th
centuries, which were uncovered and restored during the renovation project,
represent the oldest and most integrated example of the ancient eastern
European tradition of synagogue ornamen-tation
in the Czech lands, the importance of which goes far beyond the
country's borders. In addition to decorative and symbolic paintings and
inscription panels with prayer and blessing texts, there have been
findings of numerous valuable dedicatory and memorial inscriptions bearing
the names of individual painters, initiators of synagogue ornamentation,
donors and members of the local Jewish community. The importance of the
uncovered paintings and inscriptions for charting Jewish history in
Bohemia and Moravia is all the greater in that they were made at a time
that was marked by strong messianic hopes – a period that to date has
only been partly covered. The overall picture of life in the Boskovice
Jewish community has been considerably supplemented and enriched by
The 64-page guide is in Czech and English and is accompanied by almost 90 photographs that depict the synagogue in the past and the present, together with local ritual objects from the collections of the Jewish Museum in Prague, and document the course of the restoration. The text deals with the history of the building and the symbolic paintings, using data from archive materials to place them in the context of the era in which they were made. The book can be ordered from the Jewish Museum in Prague
Prominent visits
- 20 May 2002 – the First Lady of the United States, Laura Bush with her daughter Jenny
- 3 June 2002 – representatives of the Latvian foundation for the support of the Jewish cultural heritage of Vilnius
- 5 June 2002 – Ambassador of India to the Czech Republic Dr. Subrahmanyam Jaishankar
As we mentioned in Newsletter 1/2002, thanks to the support provided by the media for the Help in the Search for Lost Neighbours project, the Jewish Museum in Prague has managed to bring together many interesting and historically valuable materials from the Holocaust period.
Our thanks are due especially to:
Respekt, Lidové noviny, MF Dnes, Deník Právo, Hospodářské noviny, Rádio Classic FM


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Summertime usually means wasps. Wasps can be a real menace during the warmer summer season. It is during this period we generally spend more time outdoors, which is why wasps can become a real pest.
When we talk about wasps generally, we are mostly referring to members of the Vespidae family, usually the Common wasp (Vespula vulgaris).
Wasps flying close by and in or around, your home are seen by some people as a real threat due to the fear of a wasp sting. The fear of a wasp sting is even greater amongst the thousands of people who are allergic to stings.
Wasps will regularly be attracted to food and drinks lying around outdoors and will often spoil picnics, outdoor meals or family barbeques.
Call Rentokil Ireland on 1890 666 444 for advice or book online today.
Are you sure your problem is with wasps and not bees? These two are often confused due to their similar appearance. Bees are a sensitive species in Ireland. Removal of bee nests should not be a first port of call unless it poses an immediate risk to Health and Safety.
Correct identification of the wasp nest is essential in order to provide the most effective service.
If you are experiencing high numbers of wasps in your home or garden, it is likely that there is a wasp nest nearby.
The most effective way to get rid of wasps is to remove the main cause of the problem – the wasp nest. A professional pest control company should be contacted in order to ensure a safe and correct wasp nest removal.
Are there any tricks I can use at home to put off wasps and keep them far away? There are home remedies, some more effective than others, which could help to repel wasps – learn more about preventing wasps.
The main thing is not to panic. There are some basic steps you can follow to ease the pain that often results from a wasp sting.
People allergic to wasp stings will know the exact actions they need to take to minimise the risk to their health but our guide can offer some more advice on how to deal with wasp stings.
There are no hornets in Ireland. Hornets are found in mainland Europe and the United States. However, there are wasps, like the Ichneumon wasp (Ichneumons), which some mistake for hornets. They have a striking abdomen, which leads people to think that they are aggressive, but they do not sting and are not regarded as a pest in Ireland.
1890 569 569
Mon-Fri: 8.30 to 5.30


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TWP 1500 StainTWPStain.com is pleased to announce the new TWP 1500 Stain (Series), VOC compliant in all 50 states!
The new TWP 1500 formula is designed to penetrate better, dry faster and outperform the previous TWP 500 series formula.
TWP 1500 Series is an EPA registered wood preservative which prevents structural damage and wood decay on exterior above ground wood surfaces such as untreated or previously treated fencing, decking, wood siding, log homes and roofing. TWP 1500 Series resists water absorption that causes warping, cracking and splitting as well as preventing freeze damage in colder climates.
TWP 1500 Series is a low VOC preservative with special U.V. absorbing pigments that prevent unsightly wood graying, darkening and fading. The selected mildewcides inhibit the growth of mold and mildew which assist in preventing premature discoloration.
TWP 1500 Stain Series will keep your wood beautiful, fresh and looking new longer. The ease of application and maintenance will allow you to enjoy your investment for years to come.
Key Features


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Nicholas Hoult
Birth Name: Nicholas Caradoc Hoult
Age: 25, born 7 December 1989
Country of origin: United Kingdom
Height: 6' 2"
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text:
Skinner Boxes for Psychotics:
Operant Conditioning at Metropolitan State Hospital
Alexandra Rutherford
York University
Keywords: history, behavior analysis, free-operant, human behavior
Manuscript published in: The Behavior Analyst, Volume 26, pp. 267-279, Carol Pilgrim, Editor
Please address correspondence to:
Alexandra Rutherford
Department of Psychology
York University
4700 Keele St.
Toronto, ON, CA M3J 1P3
Telephone: (416) 736-5115 x33230
Electronic mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
Departmental Fax: (416) 736-5814
The first systematic replication of the free-operant paradigm with adult humans was initiated and undertaken by B. F. Skinner and Ogden Lindsley at the Harvard Medical School Behavior Research Laboratory at Metropolitan State Hospital in Waltham, Massachusetts between 1953 and 1965. The Behavior Research Laboratory (hereafter, BRL) played a key role in the history of the extension of operant principles to human behavior, and, further, provided a pivotal application of operant methods to the study of psychopathology. Through their methodological and technical innovations at the BRL, Lindsley and his colleagues made human behavior accessible to experimental analysis and functional definition for the first time. The work at the BRL was truly an example of one of the expanding visions of operant psychology in the 1950s.
In this paper, I provide a brief descriptive history of the BRL, outlining its inception, its research activities and apparatus, its sources of funding, and its eventual closure in 1965. Throughout, I draw heavily on a recent published account of the BRL by Ogden Lindsley (Lindsley, 2001), Skinner's account in the third volume of his autobiography A Matter of Consequences (Skinner, 1983), the BRL's published research, and published conference proceedings.[i]
Beyond a descriptive history of the BRL, the important role it played in the relationship between the experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) and the applied analysis of behavior (ABA) is examined. Although the term 'behavior therapy' was used by Skinner and Lindsley to describe some of the BRL's activities, and although the BRL sometimes portrayed its work as "therapeutic," it is reiterated that the actual and intended spirit of the research at the BRL was experimental, not applied. At its inception, Skinner and Lindsley intended to use the BRL to study whether the reinforcement of human operant behavior would follow the same lawful regularities that had been demonstrated in animals studied in operant chambers. With this objective clearly set out, the task of recording, measuring, and evaluating human behavior became a primary research (and technical) focus. Although application was a logical corollary of their work, and the problems and population studied certainly attracted researchers interested in applied fields, the BRL itself was foundational, both methodologically and conceptually, in the extension of EAB to ABA that occurred more distinctly throughout the 1960s.[ii]
Finally, the activities of the BRL are contextualized by examining the role that psychopharmacology played in its research program. Because the BRL was located in a psychiatric hospital and chronic schizophrenics were its primary research participants, the pharmacological revolution that beset psychiatry in the 1950s influenced its research activities (indeed, operant research also changed the pharmacology field, see Laties, 2003, this volume, for a history of behavioral pharmacology). To conclude, a four-stage model of the historical and conceptual development of behavior analysis is proposed, which situates the BRL (and other human free-operant laboratories) as the link between the animal operant tradition, and applied behavior analysis. The foundational significance of the BRL's work in the formation of the subfield of the experimental analysis of human behavior (EAHB), that formally coalesced during the early 1980s, is acknowledged and discussed.
In A Matter of Consequences, the last volume of his autobiography, Skinner noted that his interest in psychotic behavior had begun with his development of the verbal summator (see Skinner, 1936), which resulted in a short collaboration with Saul Rosenzweig at Worcester State Hospital in the 1930s (Skinner, 1983, p. 52). As I have described elsewhere (Rutherford, 2000), Skinner initially conceptualized the verbal summator, not only as an experimental device to evoke latent verbal behavior, but also as a possible auditory projective technique, or, as he put it, a "device for snaring out complexes" (Skinner, 1979, p. 176). He arranged to try out the verbal summator on schizophrenic patients at Worcester. Although his interest in this particular aspect of the work soon waned,[iii] by 1952 his interest in investigating psychotic behavior had piqued again. As Ogden Lindsley, then a graduate student of Skinner's at Harvard, wrote, "Whenever Fred and I met to discuss my doctoral dissertation…we always strayed from the topic. We wondered whether the catatonic schizophrenic standing in a corner all day was the result of total extinction. We wondered whether the hebephrenic was reinforced for giggling on a variable ratio schedule…Fascinated, I promised Fred that if he could get funds, I would give human free operant research five years of my life" (Lindsley, 2001, p. 138).
Skinner was able to procure funds, and also found a site for the research. In 1952, a colleague introduced Skinner to Harry Solomon, head of the Department of Psychiatry and Director of the Boston Psychopathic Hospital. Solomon, interested in Skinner's proposal, spoke with William F. McLaughlin, the superintendent of Metropolitan State Hospital in Waltham, MA, and persuaded him to give Skinner space for a laboratory.[iv] Skinner procured funds from the Office of Naval Research (they had funded the ORCON project), the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Milton Fund of Harvard University. With these supports in place, and Lindsley's offer on the table, the BRL took up residence in an abandoned hydrotherapy unit at the hospital in June, 1953, with the sum of $7,500 for the year with which to set up an operant research facility for humans.
In their efforts to develop an experimental analysis of human behavior, Skinner and Lindsley logically applied the same technical innovations that Skinner had arrived at in recording rat and pigeon behavior in operant chambers, to the BRL project. The technical and methodological challenge was how to record human behavior automatically and continuously to uncover its potential regularities. Accordingly, over the course of the next 10 months, two 6' x 6' experimental rooms were equipped with plunger operanda and magazine delivery chutes designed to administer a variety of reinforcements to human subjects (for a detailed description of the rooms, subjects, and experimental procedures, see Lindsley, 1956).[v] The plungers were connected through programming relays and timers to cumulative recorders situated in a hallway adjacent to the experimental rooms, which Lindsley came to call "Apparatus Alley."
In a presentation to the Massachusetts Society for Research in Psychiatry in April of 1954 (Skinner, Solomon, & Lindsley, 1954), and subsequently to the American Psychological Association in September (Lindsley & Skinner, 1954), Skinner and Lindsley reported that 15 male patients of various psychiatric classifications, average age of 38 years, and hospitalized an average of 17 years, served as initial research participants. In the typical experimental situation, subjects were shown a variety of potential reinforcers – such as candy, cigarettes, or coins - and were asked to select their preferred reinforcer. They were then taken to the experimental room where they were either shown how to operate a plunger that would deliver the reinforcer, or were allowed to explore the room freely until plunger-pulling was emitted. In some cases, they reported, none of the potential reinforcers appeared to work for the subjects. In these cases, other options were tried, including projecting "short exposures of interesting pictures" (Skinner et al., 1954, p. 403) onto a wall in the room (the "interesting pictures" were photos of pin-up girls). Lindsley and Skinner reported that two schedules of reinforcement were investigated – 1-minute variable interval, and a fixed-ratio of 20. They concluded that the effects of different schedules of reinforcement on the behavior of the BRL's subjects were similar to those found in rats, pigeons, and dogs, and recommended further study, including observing the effects of drug therapy on operant behavior. So how did behavior therapy fit into this picture?
So far, I have referred to the Laboratory as the Harvard Medical School Behavior Research Laboratory. This was not its first name. According to Lindsley (2001), Skinner first named the project the "Experimental Analysis of the Behavior of Psychotic Patients," but the use of the term "experimental analysis" produced negative reactions among hospital staff, patients, and parents. Lindsley then drew up a list of 12 alternate names, and chose "Studies in Behavior Therapy."[vi] This name, he reported, was more positively received, and was used to designate the Laboratory until 1955, when its name was changed from "Studies in Behavior Therapy" to "Behavior Research Laboratory." "Studies in Behavior Therapy," however, appeared in Lindsley, Skinner, and Solomon's first three status reports to the Office of Naval Research, covering the June, 1953 through December 1954 activities of the Laboratory. Both Skinner (1983, p. 53) and Lindsley (2001, p. 139) remarked that the first ONR status report marked the first published use of the term "behavior therapy" – a claim that has been debated.[vii] Of interest here, however, is not whether they were the first to use the term, but why they chose it, and whether it accurately reflected the spirit of their endeavor. Were Skinner and Lindsley doing therapy? If not, what was the goal and significance of their project?
Interestingly, in presenting their results from the first year of the Laboratory's research at scholarly meetings in April and September of 1954 (as discussed above), both Skinner and Lindsley used Skinner's original designation, entitling their presentations, "A method for the experimental analysis of psychotic patients." Lindsley, in his presentation, explicitly referred to the Laboratory, not as "Studies in Behavior Therapy" but as the "Laboratory for Behavior Research" - at least a year before the official name change. This implies that there may have been strategic political reasons for presenting the Laboratory as a therapeutic setting to hospital staff, patients, and the ONR, but not to the scholarly research community.[viii]
Skinner remarked in his autobiography that their first status report to the ONR in 1953 included a section outlining "Plans for Future Work," in which he noted: "Practically every one of these proposals is related to therapy…As our experiments are extended to more and more complex behavior, we should be in a position to undertake in many cases the particular kinds of change in behavior needed to bring about recovery" (Skinner, 1983, pp. 53-54). Clearly, the use of the name "Studies in Behavior Therapy," and an occasional published nod to the therapeutic implications and potential of their findings, served to somewhat obscure the truly experimental nature of the research. It is likely that Skinner also believed that their research would, in time, lead to more direct therapeutic interventions. The basis for application, however, lay in the precise functional definition of behavior that could only be arrived at through experimental analysis.
In his presentation to the Massachusetts Society for Research in Psychiatry in April of 1954, Skinner made no allusion to the therapeutic implications of the Laboratory's work, stating simply "The rate at which the [plunger-pulling] machine is operated is studied" (Skinner et al., 1954, p. 403). But the published commentary provided by three discussants – two of whom were psychiatrists – clearly highlighted connections to therapy and the accomplishment of therapeutic aims. For example, one of the psychiatrists noted, "The hypothesis of Dr. Skinner's study is that direct reinforcement has great motivational value and will lead to behavior change in the direction of recovery" (p. 405). The other psychiatrist objected strongly to the control of the operant behavior of the experimental subjects, comparing it to control brought about by the "extirpation of the brain, bit by bit" or the "brain washing methods of totalitarian states" (pp. 404-405).
It is clear from the abstracts of Lindsley and Skinner's 1954 papers that the initial and ongoing objective of the Laboratory was to test whether an out-and-out replication of the free-operant paradigm would succeed with humans as it had with nonhumans - in this case, whether the paradigm would prove an appropriate method for investigating the functional properties of the behavior of psychotics. No mention was made of trying to modify or shape the subjects' behavior towards therapeutic ends. Lindsley noted of their results: "On the fixed-ratio schedule, clear-cut "fixed ratio breaks" in response rate followed reinforcement. These breaks are characteristic of the performance of lower organisms on this schedule." He concluded by stating: "The behavior of the psychotic patient can be successfully investigated with operant conditioning techniques. The behavior generated is stable and predictable and provides a uniform base line for investigating pharmacological and physiological variables" (Lindsley & Skinner, 1954, p. 419). Skinner also noted the potential use of the regularity of operant responding as an evaluative baseline, remarking that the "records already obtained provide an excellent baseline for observing the moment-to-moment effects of drugs or the effects of other forms of therapy" (Skinner et al., 1954, p. 404).
In his retrospective account of the BRL, Lindsley (2001) wrote, "After two years we were accepted as part of the hospital staff by patients and families. Our stationary and business cards were used up. We felt secure enough [italics added] to change our name to "Harvard Medical School Behavior Research Laboratory" (p. 140). In a 1996 e-mail posting to fellow behavior analysts, Lindsley likewise remarked, "On 11 January 1955, I felt secure enough in our hospital setting and with the clinical psychiatrists at Harvard to change our name to Behavior Research Laboratory – which was what we were doing all along" (Lindsley, 1996). Thus, it may have been easier for the Laboratory to gain initial acceptance and funding if, by implication, the nature of their work was seen as applied and therapeutic, as opposed to experimental. After all, they were at a hospital, and their research participants were patients. Once institutional acceptance had been achieved, however, the use of the term "behavior therapy" was no longer used. More importantly, although much activity and published research was coming out of the Laboratory, very little, if any of it, involved "bringing about recovery" as Skinner had projected.
In 1956, Lindsley presented and published a paper at an American Psychiatric Association conference on "Research Techniques in Schizophrenia" (Lindsley, 1956). In this paper, Lindsley noted "The primary purpose of our investigations has not been to produce therapy through the automatic reinforcement of an isolated segment of a patient's behavior, although such a development would be more than welcome. Our purpose has been to develop a basic research tool for the measurement of the simple and complex, individual and social behavior of psychotic patients" (pp. 135-136). Indeed, what was unfolding at the BRL was a sensitive, continuous, and reliable method of measuring and recording behavior. This method could then be used to assess the effects of pharmacological agents on the behavior of psychotic patients. What was emerging was not a new therapy, but a new assessment technique.
Skinner's direct involvement with the BRL dissipated by the late 1950s, but by this time Ogden Lindsley had officially received his Ph.D. from Harvard (1957) and was working at the BRL full-time. Funding continued from the National Institute of Mental Health, and the titles of the grants awarded to the BRL provide an indication of the direction of some of its research activities. From 1958-1962 Lindsley received funds for a project entitled "Screening potential stimulants on inactive psychotics" (MH-2778), and from 1961-1965 for "Drug-sensitive free-operant measures of psychosis" (MH-5054). The late 1950s and early 1960s were a burgeoning period for operant research on drug effects (see Laties, 2003, this issue). Skinner (1983) remarked:
Thanks mainly to Joe Brady, who was actively promoting the experimental analysis of behavior in the assessment and study of drugs, almost all the large ethical pharmaceutical companies had set up operant laboratories. Advertisements for new drugs began to show cumulative recorders, and Life magazine ran a full-page picture in color of an unboxed rat pressing a lever surrounded by racks of relays and timers. (p. 116)
But rats were soon not the only experimental subjects. After a meeting with Karl Beyer of the Research Laboratories of Sharp and Dohme, a large pharmaceutical company, Skinner suggested that they try some of their more promising drugs on the psychotic patients at the BRL (Skinner, 1983, p. 101). Evidently, they followed through on his suggestion. In a 1962 article on operant conditioning techniques in the measurement of psychopharmacologic response, Lindsley outlined results from four case studies investigating both the immediate and chronic effects of benactyzine, methastyridone, and iproniazid on plunger-pulling behavior reinforced on a one-minute variable interval schedule.[ix] In each case, the subject served as his own control. Extensive pre-experimental baseline records of behavior were available, and the effects of the drug could be tested over long periods of time. The effects of the compound were evaluated according to whether it decreased the rate of vocal hallucinatory behavior and increased the rate of nonsymptomatic responding (i.e., plunger-pulling). Lindsley noted, "The technique of direct, continuous, and simultaneous recording of symptomatic and nonsymptomatic responding is the most sensitive index we have yet developed for screening psychotherapeutic compounds" (Lindsley, 1962, p. 378).
In his retrospective account of drug research at the BRL, Lindsley (2001) reported that over the course of a seven-hour session, schizophrenics displayed a reliably different pattern of interactions among vocal hallucinatory, pacing, and operant responding than the pattern exhibited by other psychiatric patients and normal controls. [x] Specifically, normals obviously had no vocal hallucinations, typically engaged in little pacing, and demonstrated uninterrupted operant responding throughout the seven-hour session. Schizophrenics, in contrast, displayed what Lindsley termed "coextensive reflex emission," which meant that their vocal hallucinatory and pacing behavior either overlapped or alternated with periods of operant responding, and that these patterns were intra-individually reliable.
The BRL had developed an elaborate technical set-up that allowed for the automatic moment-by-moment recording of all of these behavior classes. In addition to a plunger attached to a magazine for delivering reinforcement, the rooms were eventually equipped with recording devices calibrated to pick up the frequencies of the human voice (not whistling, singing, or moving-about noises), as well as electromechanical contacts in floor mats to record pacing. Cumulative recorders were attached via programming circuitry to the plungers, mats, and microphones to graph the rates of plunger-pulling, vocal hallucinations, and pacing. Lindsley noted, "We had a screening device. We could screen one new drug a week on the normal work, pacing, and hallucinating of chronic and acute psychotic patients," and, "this screening efficiency appealed to drug companies and to the NIMH" (Lindsley, 2001, p. 149). Lindsley also noted that due to the durability and indestructibility of the rooms and work panels, this setup was appropriate for use with even the most disturbed and violent patients.
In 1963, Lindsley published an article in which he noted, "Although free-operant methods show promise as therapeutic devices, we have primarily focused our research on developing new techniques for automatically evaluating within the behavior laboratory the types and severity of the psychoses. We have concentrated on evaluation…because our exploratory attempts at free-operant therapy with chronic psychotic patients were too time-consuming to be practical, and did not produce general or dramatic recoveries…[W]e began to adapt the method to provide objective therapeutic evaluation rather than to perform therapy" (Lindsley, 1963a, p. 293).
The research at the BRL was influenced by the availability of funds for research on drug effects, but was also uniquely suited to such research. With the rooms and recording devices Lindsley had constructed, continuous measures of responding that were sensitive to a number of classes of behavior were available to record moment-by-moment changes due to drug effects. But in the above quote Lindsley again implies that free-operant therapy had been one of the BRL's foci. There were only two indications of studies whose aim was to either directly or indirectly change the frequency of patients' maladaptive behavior. An examination of these two studies reveals that again sensitive programming, recording, and measurement apparatus played a key role in the investigations.
Beatrice Barrett, one of the researchers at the BRL between 1960 and 1962, at the request of Norman Geschwind, a physician in the Department of Neurology at the Boston VA Hospital, performed a study designed to reduce the tics of a 38-year-old veteran using free operant conditioning methods. The influence of the technical apparatus at the BRL on the design of her study is immediately apparent. She and her colleagues approached the problem by designing a chair-mounted operandum that allowed them to pick up and record a variety of bodily tic movements. When these movements occurred, a number of specified response-contingent events could be delivered to the patient, in this case the cessation of pleasurable music, or the presentation of white noise, an aversive stimulus (see Barrett, 1962).
In 1959, Lindsley published a short report on the effects of differential positive reinforcement on the rate of vocal psychotic symptoms (Lindsley, 1959). In keeping with the general research paradigm of the BRL, Lindsley investigated the effects, not of extinguishing vocal hallucinations (which would not have been possible anyway – none of the patients' vocalizations had ever been reinforced in the room-sized operant chamber), but of reinforcing plunger-pulling behavior and then withdrawing this "nonsymptomatic" reinforcement and substituting reinforcement for the vocal hallucinations. The result of this procedure was to extinguish plunger-pulling, as expected, but paradoxically vocal hallucinations also decreased in rate even though they were being followed by the same consequence that had been maintaining manual operant behavior. When reinforcement was re-instituted for plunger-pulling and withdrawn for vocal hallucinations, the hallucinations again increased. Lindsley concluded, "Vocal psychotic symptoms appear to be under some strong control that resists direct differential positive reinforcement" (Lindsley, 1959, p. 269). It may have been findings like these that directed the BRL's attention towards "therapeutic evaluation" (or functional analysis) of behavior, rather than towards modification. A rigorous functional analysis of the behavior was required before attempts at changing the behavior could be considered or undertaken.
Fifteen years after the closure of the BRL, in a 1980 invited dialogue with Hans Eysenck at the American Psychological Association convention in Montreal, Skinner noted that, despite the use of the term "behavior therapy" in conjunction with the BRL, its work was not intended to be therapeutic. Peter Nathan, one of the post-doctoral researchers at the BRL from 1962-1964, wrote, "The lab was certainly seen by hospital staff as devoted to research. As I saw it, there was little relationship between clinical staff at the hospital and research staff at the lab" (Peter Nathan, personal communication, August 5, 2002). Thus, the true significance of the BRL's work may have been historically obscured because of its association with therapeutic, rather than experimental, aims.
In 1965, Lindsley decided to close the BRL. Over the course of its eleven year history, five post-doctoral trainees or researchers had worked there: Nathan Azrin, Beatrice Barrett, Peter Nathan, Martha Mednick, and Paul Blachly (Lindsley, 2001). Numerous other graduate students and visitors had passed through its doors. Among them were many prominent behavior analysts, such as Sidney Bijou, Donald Baer, Ted Ayllon, Matthew Israel, Charles Catania, and others. By the mid-1960s, Azrin and Ayllon had developed a token economy system with psychiatric inpatients at Anna State Hospital (see Ayllon & Azrin, 1965; Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). Azrin had worked as a post-doctoral researcher at the BRL, and Ayllon had been a visitor. Amongst other influences, their exposure to the BRL probably played a role in this work. Beatrice Barrett, after collaborating with both Charles Ferster at the Institute of Psychiatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, and Lindsley at the BRL (between 1960 and 1962), opened her own laboratory to study operant behavior at the Fernald School. She quickly observed and exploited the therapeutic potential of a functional analysis of behavior to help modify the behaviors of children with a number of developmental and behavioral problems. The question thus becomes, what is the BRL's proper place in the history of behavior analysis and in the science of human behavior?
Lindsley indirectly alluded to the unique niche occupied by the BRL by remarking: "Application research grew like wildfire compared to the behavioral laboratory research that had originally triggered it. The laboratories were expensive, hard to fund, and ignored by both clinicians and small animal laboratory researchers. Behavior modification, behavior therapy, and applied behavior analysis were clearly going to dominate the field" (Lindsley, 2001, p. 150). The BRL's work studying the free operant response rates of human beings in experimental rooms fell, both conceptually and historically, between the animal laboratory research tradition and the emerging field of applied behavior analysis. As applied behavior analysis established its own (and sometimes dramatic) successes, thus taking center stage in the behavior analysis field, perhaps the functions served by the human operant research laboratory appeared to many to be superfluous.
Additionally, although the heyday of the pharmacological revolution had provided the BRL with funding and a research goal for a number of years, the success of a number of neuroleptic drugs had been established by the 1960s.[xi] The demand for free-operant measures of drug response in humans had subsided. Lindsley alluded to several of these factors contributing to the Laboratory's closure: "The combination of too few new drugs to try, increased university overhead charges, increased competition for smaller and smaller government research grants, lack of interest in our results, and the crisis of losing frequency and standard self-charting…made continuing our laboratory research a poor choice" (Lindsley, 2001, pp. 150-151).[xii]
Thus, in 1965, the Behavior Research Laboratory closed its doors. The scope of its influence on subsequent behavior analysts, the development of token economies, and the field in general has yet to be adequately explored. As this work continues, I hope to continue to talk to former BRL researchers, and to examine some of the unpublished material that emerged from the BRL (including grant proposals and status reports). Finally, of particular interest would be any record of the BRL's activities kept by Metropolitan State Hospital staff or administrators. This perspective is notably missing from the published record.
Thus, in 1965, the Behavior Research Laboratory closed its doors. The scope of its influence on subsequent behavior analysts, the development of token economies, and the field in general has just begun to be explored. The history of the BRL, and other laboratories like it, is significant for a number of reasons. First, a review of the studies and findings from the Laboratory provides additional evidence to counter claims that Skinner's experimental findings on schedules of reinforcement with animals in operant chambers were never sufficiently replicated with humans. The experimental rooms at the BRL were in fact operant chambers for human beings, the very first "human Skinner boxes" (see Baron, Perone, & Galizio, 1991, for the background and controversy over this term), and much of the research conducted there was intended to replicate the methods and design of Skinner's animal research, but with human subjects. In addition to this basic aim, the operant chambers were used to research drug effects, and to investigate more complex forms of human behavior, such as cooperation, competition, and other social behaviors (see Cohen & Lindsley, 1964; Lindsley, 1963b, 1966). As Skinner put it, "People were [italics in original] different from rats or pigeons, but we should never know how different until we had studied them as we studied other species" (Skinner, 1983, p. 54). Although the success of ABA now speaks for itself, Lindsley's work at the BRL predated this field and functioned as a link between EAB and applied work. The relationship between experimental work with animals and applied behavior analysis with humans was thus bridged by the BRL's experimental work with humans.[xiii]
The history of the BRL also provides a window on the relationship between behavior analysis and psychiatry in this period. During this time, a substantial amount of behavior analytic research was being carried out by psychologists affiliated with medical schools or psychiatric institutions. The BRL was affiliated with the Harvard Medical School and located in a psychiatric hospital; Charlie Ferster's work on the functional analysis of the behavior of autistic children (e.g., Ferster, 1961; Ferster & DeMyer, 1962) was carried out at the Indiana University Medical Center; and Harold Weiner's work with schizophrenics was carried out at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, DC (see Weiner, 1964a; Weiner, 1964b). Much of the research was published in psychiatric journals, such as the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, and Psychiatric Research Reports. Perhaps this fact has served to historically obscure this period of activity, especially in surveys of the field that draw on work published in more traditional behavior analytic outlets. Examining the history of the BRL and its contemporaries can thus serve to further uncover this aspect of the history of behavior analysis, and reassert the link between EAB and ABA.
To conclude, I would like to propose a four-stage framework for studying the historical and conceptual development of behavior analysis. Although these four stages necessarily overlap, one might argue that stages three and four rely somewhat on the preceding two. The outline proceeds from low to high complexity in terms of the class of behavior investigated (i.e., from lever-pressing in animals to self-management in humans), and from low to high complexity in terms of the environment in which the behavior occurs (i.e., from the operant chamber to the natural environment):
Stage 1: The experimental analysis of animal behavior in operant chambers (e.g., Ferster & Skinner, 1957; Skinner, 1938);
Stage 2: The experimental analysis of human behavior in operant chambers (e.g., Bijou, 1955, 1957, 1958; Lindsley, 1956, 1960);
Stage 3: Applied behavior analysis with humans in controlled settings, such as psychiatric wards (e.g., Atthowe & Krasner, 1968; Ayllon & Azrin, 1965, 1968), classrooms (e.g., O'Leary & Becker, 1967; and see O'Leary & Drabman, 1971), and prisons (e.g., Bassett & Blanchard, 1977; Cohen & Filipczak, 1971);
Stage 4: Applied behavior analysis with humans in community settings (e.g., Glenwick & Jason, 1980; Hayes & Cone, 1977; Martin & Osborne, 1980; Miller & Miller, 1970), and for behavioral self-management, or self-control (e.g., Goldiamond, 1965; Goldfried & Merbaum, 1973; Martin & Pear, 1983; Thoresen & Mahoney, 1974; Watson & Tharp, 1972).
The proposed outline offers a schematic through which to understand and analyze the historical relationships between the field's experimental and applied branches, branches whose relationship today remains complex and, at times, disparate. It is clear that the transition from experimental work with animals to experimental work with humans was an explicit topic of discussion in the 1960s. In 1966, for example, a Division 25 symposium entitled "The transition from animals to humans in operant conditioning" explored whether animal operant methodology and principles could be effectively applied in such areas as human communication, mental illness, and education (Schoenfeld, 1966).[xiv]
In the early 1980s, the field of behavior analysis experienced the beginnings of a renaissance in the area of experimental human operant research (called the experimental analysis of human behavior, or EAHB, see Davey & Cullen, 1988; Hyten & Reilly, 1992).[xv] At this time, the assessment of the state of EAHB echoed Lindsley's assessment of the field at the closing of the BRL in 1965 when he noted that the operation of human operant laboratories was becoming increasingly financially untenable, that the work was ignored by both clinicians and animal researchers, and that applied behavior analysis was "clearly going to dominate the field" (Lindsley, 2001, p. 150). Almost twenty years later, Hake (1982) wrote that basic human research was seen by other experimental researchers as too applied, and applied researchers saw it as too basic: "This has left human operant research in a relatively weak position which is more often described as the 'crack' between basic and applied instead of the 'bridge'" (Hake, 1982, p. 23). A historical analysis of the role of the BRL in the development of the field of behavior analysis can provide a clearer genealogy for EAHB, and re-establish the area as an important bridge rather than a crack, between EAB and ABA.
The stages of this model also reflect, albeit somewhat too linearly, the path that behavior analysis has traveled from the animal laboratory to the culture at large. The field has come a long way, as Krasner has noted:
[I]n the 1970s, the self-identified behaviorists emerged from the laboratory, the clinic, and the mental hospital to the "natural" social environment. They were guided by earlier applications of behavioral principles in schoolrooms and hospitals and were also influenced by national concerns and debates on the social issues of the 1960s. A new generation of behaviorists began to take on the total [italics in original] natural and man-made environment as the focus for investigation and social change with a purpose – namely a "better environment" for members of society. (Krasner, 1990, p. 20).
In addition to a burgeoning of behavioral interventions directed at communities, behavior analytic principles also came to infuse the self-help literature (see Glasgow & Rosen, 1978, 1979; Rutherford, 2002). Finally, the public image of operant psychology has changed and fluctuated over time, as the behavior analysis field has tackled a wider range of problems in an ever-widening range of settings (for historical analyses of the popular reception of Skinner's behaviorism, including behavior analysis, see Dinsmoor, 1992; Rutherford, 2000b, 2003). Analyzing the popular image of behavior analysis at each of these stages can elucidate aspects of the broader disciplinary and sociocultural environment in which behavior analysis is and has been embedded.
Although the BRL closed its doors in 1965, Metropolitan State Hospital continued to operate until 1992, when it too was closed after being sold to a private corporation that shortly went bankrupt. The Massachusetts Film Office then advertised the hospital and its grounds to filmmakers as a fee-free shooting location.[xvi] Presently, the grounds have been divided among the three towns of Lexington, Belmont, and Waltham, and plans for the development of the site are underway (Beam, 2001). For the moment, however, the buildings themselves still stand. Perhaps somewhere in the basement, in a 6' x 6' foot room, an adept plunger-pulling rat is enjoying a photo of Betty Page….
I thank Don Dewsbury, Vic Laties, Ed
Morris, and Wade Pickren for comments on earlier versions of this
manuscript. I also thank Ogden Lindsley,
Ed Morris, Vic Laties, Peter Nathan, Carol Pilgrim, and Beatrice Barrett for
sharing their experiences, knowledge, and/or archival material with me.
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[i] At this point, my archival investigations and correspondence with participants in the BRL have just begun, so the material presented here will undoubtedly undergo modification as additional first-hand accounts, perspectives, and experiences of the BRL's participants are collected. At this point, Ogden Lindsley and Peter Nathan, who was a post-doctoral researcher at the BRL between 1962 and 1964, have given me useful information and insights. Also of immense help has been Beatrice Barrett, who worked with Lindsley at the BRL between 1960 and 1962, and who subsequently established a laboratory of her own at the nearby Walter E. Fernald State School. Her considerable knowledge of the human operant laboratory, and her insight into both its immediate and historical significance, influenced the writing of this article in fundamental ways.
[ii] The first issue of the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior appeared in 1958. The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis was founded in 1968. The period from the mid-1950s to the late 1960s was a momentous one in the history of behavior analysis, marked by the rapid expansion of both experimental and applied branches.
[iii] Although others remained or became interested (see Ball & Bernardoni, 1953; Bean, 1965; Grings, 1942; Shakow & Rosenzweig, 1940; Stone, 1953).
[iv] Annual reports from Metropolitan State Hospital indicate that starting around 1953, Boston Psychopathic Hospital forged a training affiliation with Metropolitan, which accounts for the connection between Harry Solomon, the director of Boston Psychopathic, and William McLaughlin, who remained superintendent of Metropolitan throughout the tenure of the BRL. The annual reports for the hospital for the years 1931-1969 are held at the Massachusetts State Archives in Boston.
[v] Lindsley's plunger operandum was sturdy and indestructible, with a square shaft and solid ball of brass on the end. It came to be known among those who used it and imported it to their own laboratories as the "Lindsley manipulandum" (B. H. Barrett, personal communication, February 11, 2003).
[vi] In an e-mail posting to the BEHAVIOR2000 listserv on June 18, 1996, Ogden Lindsley reported that in consulting his laboratory notebook from that time, he also considered the names Behavior Therapy Research, Behavior Reclamation, Reinforcement Therapy, and Behavior Reconditioning, before settling on Behavior Therapy (Lindsley, 1996). My gratitude to Ed Morris for sharing this correspondence with me.
[vii] The debate centers on whether Skinner and Lindsley, or Eysenck, used the term first. Arnold Lazarus has also claimed to have been the first to use the term behavior therapy in a scientific journal (see Lazarus, 2001, p. 156). Evidently, at an invited dialogue between Skinner and Eysenck at the 1980 APA convention in Montreal entitled "Behavior Modification, Behavior Therapy, and Other Matters," Skinner conceded that Eysenck had invented the term. The session was audiotaped. If anyone has this tape, the author would be most grateful for a copy or a transcript.
[viii] Evidently the NIMH didn't care about the wording either – Lindsley, Skinner, and Solomon received their first standard research grant from NIMH in 1954 (MH-977), entitled "Experimental analysis of psychotic behavior."
[ix] The benactyzine and methastyridone were provided by the aforementioned Merck, Sharp, and Dohme Research Laboratories. The iproniazid was supplied by Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc. (Lindsley, 1962).
[x] Seven hour sessions were required to adequately record baseline behavior, drug effect, and return to baseline, for a drug injection that lasted about 5 hours (Lindsley, 2001). Over the course of the BRL's history, Lindsley's core group of 50 male psychotics supplied daily sessions of one hour's duration for over 10 years. It is probable that this kind of extended experimental participation would have been possible only with a captive population, such as back ward psychotics. However, in addition to psychiatric inpatients, over time the BRL tested hospital attendants, adult volunteers, and school children under various experimental setups, and to provide control data against which to compare the results of inpatients. In some cases, sessions with unhospitalized normal adults (hospital attendants) lasted over five hours (see Lindsley, 1960, Figure 5). A one-minute variable interval schedule of reinforcement with five-cent coins was responsible for their extended participation. Lindsley also noted that female patients were not used as subjects to eliminate any behavioral fluctuations that might be correlated with menstrual cycles (Lindsley, 1960).
[xi] The United States Food and Drug Administration licensed chlorpromazine, the first major neuroleptic used to treat schizophrenia, in 1954. Many more compounds, in what historian of medicine Edward Shorter has called the "second biological psychiatry," were soon to follow (Shorter, 1997).
[xii] The legacy of the technical and methodological innovations at the BRL, which included the recording, measurement, and graphical presentation of continuous rates of responding, influenced Lindsley's subsequent work on Precision Teaching (Lindsley, 1972). Standard self-charting, for example, is a direct extrapolation of techniques from the free-operant laboratory (see Barrett, 2002).
[xiii] Sidney Bijou's work replicating operant principles with children in this period (e.g., Bijou 1955, 1957, 1958) provides a similar bridge between experimental work with animals and applied behavior analysis with humans. An historical review of Bijou's work, however, is beyond the scope of this paper. See Bijou (2001) for a first-hand account.
[xiv] Participants were Israel Goldiamond, Peter Nathan, Charles Ferster, and Ogden Lindsley.
[xv] In October of 1982, the Association of Behavior Analysis chartered a special interest group in the Experimental Analysis of Human Behavior, and in 1983 the group published its first Experimental Analysis of Human Behavior Bulletin (thanks to Carol Pilgrim for these facts; C. Pilgrim, personal communication, January 13, 2003). At this time, Buskist and Miller (1982) published a topical bibliography of research in EAHB from 1958-1981. Because their survey included only studies published in The Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and The Psychological Record, Lindsley's research does not appear. Despite this, in an article in 1983, Miller acknowledged Lindsley's role in the development of EAHB, noting that Skinner's publication of Science and Human Behavior and Verbal Behavior were key for the field, but also noting that "At about the same time [as these books], Skinner and his collaborators were pursuing applications of EAB in two different directions involving humans. The first dealt with programmed instruction (see, e.g., Skinner, 1968) while the other dealt with the treatment [italics added] of individuals who had been institutionalized as mentally ill (see, e.g., Lindsley, 1959)" (Miller, 1983, p. 552). Again, however, this quote reveals the perhaps tenacious misperception that the BRL was administering treatment, thus obscuring its historical role as the link between EAB and ABA, and ignoring Lindsley's technical and methodological innovations in the functional analysis and recording of continuous behavior.
[xvi] In fact, the movie "A Civil Action," starring John Travolta, featured the grounds of the hospital. The film dramatized the story of the real-life civil action suit of eight Woburn, Massachusetts families who charged two large corporations with contaminating local drinking water, leading to the deaths of their children by leukemia. The hospital grounds were used to film the dumping site.


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Reference: Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Exercise Exercise is an essential part of a healthy lifestyle for children and adults alike. It is especially important when it comes to achieving and maintaining an ideal body weight because it uses up calories that could be stored as fat. Exercise is also a crucial variable in preventing heart disease and type 2 diabetes. When it comes to keeping kids (and adults) active the most important part is fun. Choose activities that kids will enjoy so that exercise never becomes a punishment or a chore for them. • Youth sports teams and active play time are ideal ways for kids to stay active. • Something as simple as walking is a great family activity that will increase heart rate and burn calories, as well as builds family relationships and encourages communication. • Other fun activities for kids are playing at the park, riding bikes, swimming, walking the dog, playing frisbee. • Northern Arizona offers countless trails and hikes ranging from 20 minutes to all day hikes. • Develop exercise charts for the entire family.If the activity is fun, kids and adults are more likely to stick with it and make it a regular part of their lifestyle.Behavior At some point in our lives, people who are overweight learned eating behaviors that caused weight gain. Childhood usually is the start of this behavior. In an effort to encourage healthy eating, children often are told to "clean their plate" and may be punished or rewarded if they did so by --- often with food. Many children grow up to be compulsive eaters, overeaters and binge eaters. Compulsive eaters or overeaters often are obese or overweight and are susceptible to health problems caused by being overweight. Causes of compulsive eating and overeaters vary. Contributing factors are:• Sexual abuse or rape• Emotional abuse• Divorce• Death • Bullies/school problems• Dysfunctional family relationsFood becomes a way to deal with stress, avoiding or putting off difficult tasks, dealing with difficult people or a way of comforting themselves during bad times. Fit Kids of Arizona focuses on Behavior Therapy, which seeks to isolate the feelings and thoughts that cause undesirable behaviors from behaviors themselves. This approach is often a front-line treatment option for eating disorders, overeaters and compulsive eaters. By learning behavior modification techniques that will help patients to redefine attitudes and beliefs about food as well as self-esteem and self worth.


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Banana Bars with Cream Cheese Frosting Recipe
- 1/2 cup butter, softened
- 1-1/2 cups sugar
- 2 eggs
- 1 cup (8 ounces) sour cream
- 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
- 2 cups all-purpose flour
- 1 teaspoon baking soda
- 1/4 teaspoon salt
- 2 medium ripe bananas, mashed (about 1 cup)
- 1 package (8 ounces) cream cheese, softened
- 1/2 cup butter, softened
- 2 teaspoons vanilla extract
- 3-3/4 to 4 cups confectioners' sugar
- Preheat oven to 350°/ In a large bowl, cream butter and sugar until light and fluffy. Add eggs, sour cream and vanilla. Combine flour, baking soda and salt; gradually add to creamed mixture. Stir in bananas.
- Spread into a greased 15x10x1-in. baking pan. Bake 20-25 minutes or until a toothpick inserted near the center comes out clean (do not overbake). Cool.
- For frosting, in a large bowl, beat cream cheese, butter and vanilla until fluffy. Gradually beat in enough confectioners' sugar to achieve desired consistency. Frost bars. Store in the refrigerator. Yield: 3-4 dozen.
Sweet White Wine
Enjoy this recipe with a sweet white wine such as Moscato or a sweet Riesling.
Reviews for Banana Bars with Cream Cheese Frosting
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"Made these last night and they are really good. I used 3 bananas that were just over the 1 cup and I added extra vanilla - Sorry - They are wonderful. Thanks for the recipe."
"Oh my goodness this is the best banana bread with the cream cheese frosting, I really never liked banana bread but it's on and craken, when my son and his in laws eat this my might switch from me making so many sweet potatoe pies."
"I have baked these bars for several years and there are never any left for the next day. My daughters and daughter-in-law and grandkids bring me very ripe bananas as a hint to make these. My only recommendation would be to make one half of the frosting as it really makes a lot. Would give these 10 stars if I could."
"So good!"
"I make there all the time. It's a great use up for bananas. My family loves them and they're a nice change from banana bread. Sometimes I add chopped walnuts to the batter or sprinkle on top of the frosting."


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Get help from a costume expert Monday-Friday
Desert isn't complete without a large topping of whipped cream. You can dress like everyone's favorite topping with our adult whipped cream costume.
Ready for immediate shipment.
Have a blast this year with one of our junk food costumes . Choose from a great selection of styles like Burger King and Pez dispenser.