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Browser Games Tagged with "simulation"
Oct 2009
We've been in charge of running a country during a national crisis Pandemic: American Swine Flu. We've led the nation to world conquest Mastermind: World Conqueror. But have you ever wondered what goes on during the downtime? In-between the diseases and the hostile takeovers, everyday decisions still need to be made. NationStates is a massively multiplayer online game by author Max Barry that puts you in charge of your own fledgling nation to create and shape how you see fit.
Sep 2009
Smokescreen is a new alternate reality game (ARG) from entertainment company Six To Start. Social networking, blogging, and chat lingo are all part of this game that takes on the task of warning players about the dangers of the Internet in a way that makes you feel like you're experiencing them first-hand.
Sep 2009
A tiny world is at your fingertips, ready for you to shape it. Create a cavern teeming with life... provided you can discover all the creatures hiding inside. Using sandbox tools, manipulate the environment to coax each creature into the open, or how to create them. A charming little simulation tool that encourages experimentation.
Aug 2009
If you're a big fan of sports games and have been dying for something to play at work on break, this is it. Even if you aren't really that into sports games, Crunchball 3000 boasts quite a bit of accessibility. So gear up, warm up, stretch out, and pay no mind to the 6'4", 320 lb behemoth giving you the evil eye. Scars build character and you ain't got time to be scared. Are you ready for some Crunchball?
Jul 2009
This is what you might get if you stapled The Italian Job movie to the Spy Hunter video game, and it doesn't get much cooler than that. You are the getaway driver as your den of thieves recruits thugs, plans robberies, and flees from the scene with the cops in hot pursuit. The Heist 2 may not be pretty, but crime never is.
Jun 2009
It's survival of the fittest as seen through a microscope. Genetically engineer the perfect virus in your lab to combat those created by your predecessors. Discover new elements and splice genes in an increasingly hostile environment. Just... remember to wash up before you shake someone's hand.
May 2009
Pizza City has so much in common with the first two Grand Theft Auto games it seems to fall somewhere between spoof and demake. Like the notorious crime sims from Rockstar Games, you roam a city with virtual free reign in your car via a bird's eye view. There is a main goal (delivering pizzas and working your way up the pizzeria career ladder), but there are also plenty of other side quests to undertake, too. Pizza City isn't for everyone and the relatively simple gameplay may turn some off, but there's more depth lurking here than meets the eye and it definitely rewards those who choose to stick with it.
May 2009
Think your amp goes up to eleven? Put your guitar where your mouth is in this rock career simulator slash rhythm game, as you attempt to rawk your way to the top!
Nov 2008
Dark Cut 3 is the latest visceral surgery title in the Dark Cut series from Armor Games. This time we're treated to a sci-fi, time-traveling angle with the usual historical setting. The game brings you the same intense operations you've come to either love or cringe at. The production values and story are the best so far for the series and give context to gameplay that's been toned down to be less punishing.
Nov 2008
You are the CEO of a major international oil company, your job is to make money: Democracy, environment, and global economic health are irrelevant. Explore, drill, corrupt governments, hire mercenaries, engage in covert operations, fix elections (which are clearly broken without you) and most of all: have fun.
Oct 2008
A clever world domination simulator, in the form of a humble real-time strategy game, in which you can test your schemes and stratagems without the nagging twinge of guilt that comes with executing legions of henchmen. The game has some of the highest production values you're likely to find in a Flash game, with some decent animation, a healthy dose of humor and a startling amount of high-quality voice acting.
Aug 2008
Now Boarding is a tycoon-style resource management game where your job is to run an airport, overseeing everything from flight routes, which passengers go on which plane, and even where to put the soda machines! The daunting task of shuttling people across North America has been pared-down to a simple interface that's as easy as matching letters and clicking cities on a map. Now Boarding is remarkably scalable, meaning you can create as complex or simple of an experience as you desire, giving a world of options to those who wish it and nothing more than a simple time management game to those who don't.
Jul 2008
Developed by Dark Realm Studios, Pandemic 2 is the sequel to the morbidly fun original Pandemic, a game in which your goal is to eradicate the human race with the perfect disease. While the original game didn't go on to become hugely popular, Pandemic II is more an improvement upon its predecessor than a sequel, with an improved interface and more features.
May 2008
Arachnophilia is an arcade-style simulation of a night in the life of a spider. Your goal is to survive as long as possible, your venue is the empty midnight space between tree branches, and your method is to trap and devour the hapless insects who blunder into your web. It's a simple but sophisticated game, made with a deep love for both arachnids and early 80s arcade games like Tempest.
May 2008
Alan Probe: Amateur Surgeon is a cartoonish and casually offensive entry into the simon-says-surgery genre made famous(ish) by Atlus' Trauma Center. Your job is to follow the exact requirements of each surgery as quickly and as accurately as possible. The game is blessed with the finest production values a second-tier television network can buy, with bright, detailed environments and an ever-present sense of self-conscious irony. The violence is so over-the-top that it's not really gross, but there's still plenty of comically intense moments to go around.
Mar 2008
What do you get when you put Global Warming, Peak Oil, Nuclear War and good old-fashioned oligarchy in a blender? You get Fallout meets Elite ...in a browser! Caravaneer is a game by Dmitry Zheltobriukhov that has you playing a caravan leader in a post-apocalyptic desert, trading goods from town to town while fending off hungry raiders. It's got turn-based tactical fighting, strategic economic decision-making, and a political storyline! Tactics, economics and politics!
Jan 2008
As odd as it may sound, Skyrates is a game about human-like animals flying biplanes between floating continents. Think Star Fox meets The Kingdom of Zeal from Chrono Trigger. You're a young pilot out to make an impact by trading, performing missions, and fighting pirates. Here's the catch: flying between islands takes at least an hour of real-time. The game was designed by a group of then-CMU grad-students to explore sporadic play, something you check like e-mail a few times a day. The result is not only interesting, its good enough to thread its way into your life.
Jan 2008
The Dark Cut series consists of two surgery games where you use the mouse to make incisions, stitch, scrub, saw, whatever is required to save the patient in each case scenario. These are not games for the faint of heart, both in terms of graphics and gameplay, and are therefore recommended for mature audiences only.
Dec 2007
Sushi Go Round carves out its own niche in the crowded field of customer service oriented time management games by taking customer service out of the equation. You are the chef, rather than the harried waiter, and all that matters is getting food to the patrons of your humble sushi shop in a timely manner. You don't even have to carry the food out to them. You have one of those newfangled automated sushi joints, where a conveyor belt brings the sushi round, and the customers feed themselves.
Nov 2007
Like an updated version of the classic Lemonade Stand game, Coffee Shop puts you in a young entrepreneur's shoes with the power to make or break your budding business. Buy ingredients, adjust your secret recipe, and set the price per cup to sell as much coffee to passers-by as you can. Strike a balance between customer satisfaction and profit and you're on your way to java-induced bliss.
Nov 2007
Papa's Pizzeria is more than your average resource-management game. While a typical entry would require little more than clicking on various hot spots to make and deliver the food to customers, Papa's Pizzeria gives it a more personal touch. Rather than clicking on an order and then on a station for topping the pizza, only to watch the pizza top itself, you must actually top the pizza yourself.
Oct 2007
A casual-ified Alpha Centauri-type simulation management game that is so much more fun than it sounds. You play the president of a colony of human refugees who have escaped the calamity of Earth to found a new home on a planet whose orbit keeps it on the opposite side of the sun. Hence the name "Via Sol", which means "through the sun" in Latin.
Aug 2007
A desperate man grips the detonator of the explosives belted around his waist, his thumb hovering ever so slightly above that little, harmless-looking red button. On the other side of the room a cop stands, gun drawn, his finger trembling over the trigger. You are the invisible observer, responsible for helping the cop find some way out of this seemingly impossible situation.
Jul 2007
Luke Whittaker's Baseball is easily one of the best online baseball games I've ever played. The gameplay mechanics do a perfect job of capturing what it feels like to be several runs behind in the final innings of a ball game, and have only three outs to fashion a miraculous come-from-behind victory.
Jun 2007
Nanny Mania follows a formula similar to downloadable games such Cake Mania where you play a working woman going through the daily grind in order to make a living. The Mayor of Suburbia and his wife are too busy to cook and clean up after their growing family, so it's your job to straighten furniture, do the laundry, and perform all the little tasks that need to be done during the day. It's an extraordinarily well-made game that beats the competitors by leaps and bounds.
May 2007
ElectroCity is fun little Flash game intended "to spark an interest and lay an unbiased foundation for later learning" about the issues involved in power generation, cost, and environmental impact. It is obviously a very simplistic look at those issues, intended to give a broad overview and invite further research on the part of the player. It's also not a bad little town sim game to boot.
Mar 2007
Dotville is a city-building Flash game along the lines of Civilization, but greatly simplified. You play the leader of a tribe of Dots (yeah, Dots) and must rise to the rank of Emperor in fifty turns, then defeat the evil empire of Squares. It's a simple game, and yet somehow very complex; a bit flawed, and yet fun despite it's quirks.
Mar 2007
Stop Disasters is one of those games you could easily dismiss before even launching it. However, the ISDR group has not drenched their game in messages and important life lessons that we all should follow. Instead we get a game which is easy to pick up, figure out and get in to, but hard enough to challenge and reward not only planning but learning about successful planning.
Feb 2007
Funeral Quest is a travesty of lemonade stands, sim games and common decency in general. Basically you open a funeral parlour and handle customers. The aim is to gain Burial Points (which is your ranking) and earn tags (currency), while engaging in a spot of skullduggery to advance your standing and income.
Feb 2007
Developed by Red Redemption and funded by the BBC, the Flash-based Climate Challenge is a thoroughly researched, compelling resource-management sim. As the "President of the European Nations" you must radically reduce your people's carbon emissions over the course of a century, while remaining popular enough to stay in office.
Dec 2006
Bacteria Salad is the latest entry in Persuasive Games' Arcade Wire series. Another attempt at "persuasion, instruction, and activism," Bacteria Salad is a light, humorous depiction of the complexity of the agricultural business.
Nov 2006
Subpoena Power is a politically-charged side-scrolling Flash game by NoEvil Productions. Your mission is to eliminate corruption on Capitol Hill by circumventing lobbyists and serving subpoenas to Senators and Congressmen to separate the Honest Tribunes from the Perfidious Scoundrels. Thwart cash-carrying lobbyists to keep the politicians honest and help enforce the laws that keep the government running smoothly. It's a surprisingly entertaining game that carries a strong message of civic responsibility.
Nov 2006
Things don't feel right out here... despite the optimism. Ayiti: the Cost of Life is one of the best political web games released this year, right up there with The McGame and the comic genius of Airport Security. Unlike most games with a political message, such as September 12th or 3rd World Farmer, Cost of Living actually has a strategy that works, but it's buried in a heap of faulty (and revealingly so) tactical blunders.
Nov 2006
While drawing up my packing list for an upcoming trip, I quickly became confused. What's allowed on-board aircraft these days? Can I bring a bottle of water, or is that still banned? Will my laptop be confiscated at the border? Will I need to remove my pants before boarding the plane? These issues are all part of the gameplay in Airport Security, a fast-paced and thoughtful Flash game from Persuasive Games.
Nov 2006
Have you ever harbored a secret desire to see gas prices soar? Have you always wished you could manipulate the politics and economies of the world to double the cost of fuel? Who hasn't? Now with Persuasive Games' new simulation, Oil God, you can!
Nov 2006
As the US readies to go to the polls for the mid-term elections on Tuesday, the phones have been ringing off-the-hook from campaigners trying to earn votes for their candidates. I usually try to avoid politics since my single vote seems so minuscule in this world dominated by corruption and greed. As they say, "you can't fight city hall," right?
Sep 2006
Cake Mania is a fast-paced arcade game where you play the role of Jill, a new graduate from culinary school, who returns home to discover her grandparents' bakery is closed. Business fell when the new Mega-Mart opened and not even their special recipes could help them compete. Jill decides to open her own old fashioned bakery to earn money and re-open her grandparents' store. Through nearly 50 levels and four different locations you'll help Jill serve customers as efficiently as possible.
Aug 2006
Added to the mysteriously vacant Flash flight sim category, Goggles Flight Sim dares to let you go places where you may only have heard about. Using information collected from Google's mapping service, Mark Caswell-Daniels has created this Flash application that allows you to fly around the world to destinations of your choosing. Casual fun.
Feb 2006
The McDonald's Videogame is the newest Flash creation of Molleindustria, an Italian design team dedicated to the discussion of the social and political implications of video games. Overall the game is an entertaining distraction that is definitely worth your time for the satire and laughs or if you enjoy a challenge.
Oct 2005
This next game offers fun via the buying and selling of houses on a rapidly changing real estate market. Mansion Impossible is an action strategy Flash game in which the object is to make enough money to buy the millionaire's mansion and end the game, all within the quickest time possible.
Oct 2004
XGen Studios is behind this Flash game that is reminiscent of the old-school arcade games Dig Dug and Boulder Dash. Hired to mine the dangerous planet of Mars, you are given a robotic mining pod and sent off on a mission to bring home the Motherload, a fabled cache of rare and valuable minerals. Dig far below the surface of the Earth to earn money for upgrades and find treasure.
Jun 2004
Micro Life is a real time strategy game (RTS) that is quite easy to play, and it has a lot of charm to compensate for the relatively light challenge it presents. Accessible to all ages, this game is one part simulation, one part strategy, and one part Insaniquarium all rolled into one.
Mar 2004
Lately I've been working on one of the coolest projects so far in my RIT education, and it's for Multi-User Media Spaces (MUMS) taught by Professors Nancy Doubleday and Steve Kurtz. The project aims to simulate flocking behavior by implementing behavioral rules, though I guess it should be dubbed "schooling" behavior since we are using fish - and yet these same rules apply to birds and herds as well.


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Whitley among winners as year edges towards climax
Posted: November 17, 2012|
FOR many clubs last Sunday was the final match of the year – and what an enjoyable one it has been.
Although the fishing may not have been as good as previous years – mainly down to the appalling weather in the summer – I have really enjoyed the matches with Carr Lane Club and also the one I was invited to by Novartis.
The banter between the anglers is great and I get a fair bit of leg-pulling wherever I go!
Last weekend, Carr Lane finished the year off at Barnoldby le Beck, fishing a private pond.
I had fished it previously and knew that there were some very big fish in this lake and also an excellent head of silvers. But on Sunday a frost may have put them off feeding.
Jamie Whitley was top man with a good bag of skimmers and a few bream to weigh in at 12lb 10oz.
Next was the ever-present this season, Matty Benwell, pictured, who had 8.2lb, all on the tip. Third was me with 6.8lb. I fished badly and dropped several fish off at the start, making schoolboy errors and not using my landing net.
The club's presentation night is at Carr Lane Club on Friday, November 24.
Carr Lane are also going to take the lead on getting the Grimsby area club championships back on again.
It was muted last year by the Old Clee Club but it did not get very far. This time a meeting will be arranged for all local club secretaries to attend and hopefully get something sorted. It will take place at Carr Lane Social Club on December 7 (7.30pm).
If any of the club secretaries are interested please let me know.
Many thanks to the NAT angling club and Terry at Wold for getting me several of the local clubs' contact details.
Last weekend at Wold and it was current UK champion Marc Rodger, who showed his skill and expertise on the silver pond on the Saturday Open Fishing. Off peg 5, he managed 40lb – a good weight at this time of year.
Karl Cropper was second – he was on peg 24 and ended up with 39lb. Lee Popham was third off peg 28 (28lb).
On the Sunday, it was the maestro Chris Mack who caught mainly on the pole from the margins and, also the pole at full extent, from peg 31 to land 85lb.
Next in was one of Grimsby's top anglers, Tony Wood, who was on peg 26, using the long pole to find 54lb. Third in was Norman Hewiss. Again he was using the pole and had 48lb of peg 28.
There was also good back-up weights on the day. I think that the opens are Saturday Silver and Sunday Gold.
Over at Saltfleetby – on the Thursday match, Louth angler Alec Lovesey was in great form. Fishing off peg 4, he weighed in 49lb.
Next in was Matthew Hassle with 46.4lb off peg 3, and Paul Underwood came in third with 39lb.
On Sunday, after his success the day before at Wold, Grimsby angler Popham went even better with an impressive win off one of the favoured pegs, number 1. He did well and found 41.10lb to give him victory on the day.
Not far away was Lloyd Lakin, who was on peg 9 and finished up with 39lb, and third it was Underwood, who was on peg 16 and had 29.4lb.
Cleethorpes Country Park provided some excellent sport for the specimen hunting Austin brothers.
Kelvin had a 17.8lb fish taken on smelt dead bait, and then brother Paul had a bigger one – 18.6lb on a smelt and bluey dead bait.
They also had several other smaller fish. It is great that we have a fishery on the doorstep that can provide specimen fish like these.
The local pike expert at Country Park, Mat Rowntree, caught a 22lb specimen again using dead baits to attract the huge fish.
The carp anglers are also still enjoying success, even though the water is now fairly cold – they have been having carp into double figures
The anglers fishing for roach and bream have also had good results.
Teteny Lock is still in fine form, but this week it is very high tides and it will run very hard I expect, so it may make fishing difficult.
NAT club member Scott MacAteer won his first ever open match at Wold on the Silver Lake last Wednesday.
He had been struggling a bit, but decided to take up angling, and this has given him a new lease of life.
To win an open at Wold is a very good achievement. He weighed in 32.4lb, while next in was Andy Saunby with 21.12lb and third, the fishery manager with 19.8lb.

subset: commoncrawl


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Every breath he takes, every accounting decision he makes, we've been watching him: Brian Baumgartner, who plays lusterless man-childish bean counter Kevin Malone on NBC comedy The Office, isn't afraid to steal a scene every Thursday night. But he really steps up to the mic in the Feb. 8 episode see the exclusive sneak peek above as the singer/drummer of the substandard Police tribute band Scrantonicity, which performs at Phyllis' wedding. We asked Baumgartner to take us behind the music.
How did this come about? Did Office executive producer Greg Daniels just say to you one day, ''You're going to be in a bad cover band''?
He came to me and said, ''What can you play?'' and I said, ''Nothing.'' And he said, ''What do you think would be funny to play?'' I was always [going to be] the lead singer, but we also wanted something else as well. We talked about a Blues Traveler-harmonica thing, a saxophone and lead singer, and ultimately decided that a drumming lead singer would be the funniest choice, even though I had absolutely no drumming experience, and it's a difficult instrument. Despite what children think, banging on pots and pans is not easy. I can now attest to that. Before the music video [seen briefly in the final episode last season, when Jim was helping Pam weed through wedding band videos and they stumbled upon Kevin's tape], I had quite a few drum lessons. It's been really fun because it's given me the freedom to go, ''This is impossible, I don't drum or quite frankly sing all that well, and certainly not way up where those guys are singing. So just let it go and rock out as well as Kevin can.'' I will say, though: Filming this episode was the hardest thing that I've ever done artistically.
Why was it so hard?
The drumming and singing trying to do that together. So many takes, and I think it ended up being seven different songs that we played. ''Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic.'' ''Roxanne'' was so unbelievably high it is not physically possible for a male to sing that high, in my estimation.
How did you settle on the Police?
The idea of Kevin being in a band has been around since the absolute beginning of Season 1, and he had a Steve Miller tribute band. And because of some issues and negotiating with Mr. Miller, those scenes did not appear on the show. We did have to make a very last-minute change to do this... Kevin talks so low, and has very little expression, and there is no band that sings higher and with more expression than the Police. So the juxtaposition of that was a major reason. And the idea that in Kevin's spare time he would go rock out to the Police is kind of unbelievable. There's several things in the show that make Kevin a savant. Suddenly you find out that he has a World Series of Poker bracelet, and you're like, what? Or that he makes 14 baskets in a row in the basketball episode, and you're like, what? Similarly, I've been told that it is basically physically impossible to drum and sing the Police songs at the same time. Because all the drumming happens on the off beat, and all the singing happens on the down beat, you would have to be a genius musical savant to accomplish this. So regardless of the quality of the sound he makes, there's something sort of genius about Kevin's ability to do that.
Did you have to call in some stunt musicians to assist you with your performance?
We got some help with that, I'll be honest with you. But the problem is when the camera is there, having to even look like doing what you're supposed to be doing, is sort of the same thing. But there is a curtain behind me and there is another drummer behind me who is also playing.
Anything you can tease from this episode?
It's the first wedding from The Office. Michael plays a very important role in that wedding. He is to walk Phyllis' dad down the aisle by pushing him in a wheelchair, which in his mind is him walking Phyllis down the aisle, a very important position of authority. Of course, Phyllis has asked him to do this only so she can get six weeks of vacation time. But for him it's a place of honor, and from there, things don't go quite the way that he hopes.
What kind of reaction do you get on the streets these days?
I will walk into a bar, and hear ''Scrantonicity!'' yelled out. I have been pumping gas, and people driving by on the road have yelled ''Scrantonicity!'' That catches me so off guard. It was a reference in one episode! I have this MySpace page; I'm up to half a million blog readers on these things, and the friends list is at 30,000. I get requests all the time from people: ''No, really dude, when I get married, would you come and play? I don't live that far from Scranton.'' And I want to write back and go, ''You know I'm not really in Scranton, right?'' It's not like you can bribe me with a short commute. There's some guy who's made Scrantonicity tour T-shirts on the web, and the reason I know that is because my mom bought some. They came to visit me, and she and my dad were wearing Scrantonicity T-shirts. It's so crazy to me. All these requests: ''Post Scrantonicity music!'' I want to say, ''We've only kind of got one song, guys.'' The music video is the only time I've sung anything from Scrantonicity or the Police.
You really should play at one of these weddings.
Honestly, I would love to. If Donald Trump could sing at the Emmys two years ago, why not? I mean, we can't be any worse than that, right?
Speaking of MySpace, there's a dude named Brian Baumgartner who played guitar in the metal band Sworn Vengeance. What would you say to him if you ever met him?
I would tell him to keep rocking. I would ask him if he could rub off some of his musical ability onto me, and if he can hit a high C without going into falsetto. Sworn Vengeance! That's very awesome.
How psyched are you about the Police reunion?
First of all, I'm hoping that I can get some backstage passes for that because that would be really awesome. I think it would totally rock mostly because it would be really good for Scrantonicity.
Would Scrantonicity consider opening for the Police?
You know, I don't want to upstage them. It's been awhile for them, and we have been practicing. It would be tough, but if we split the gate, we might consider it.
Want more video from The Office? Go behind-the-scenes with John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer, and Steve Carell in this clip from People.com.


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The search for a European intelligence policy
By Charles Baker
The search for a European intelligence policyBy Charles Baker
[email protected]
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Intelligence from B.C. to A.D.
Chapter One:
Defence and intelligence
Chapter Two:
The Case of the European Union -
Opportunities and challenges
Chapter Three:
The Special Relationship -
The United Kingdom and the United States
Chapter Four:
Is there a future for a European intelligence policy?
Chapter Five:
Conclusion -Glossary
The beginning of a European intelligence policy?
Timeline of the European Union
AcknowledgementsThe work towards creating a European intelligence policy remains an under researched subject and I have therefore relied on the support and criticism from a variety of sources. I wish to thank both the British and European politicians who helped point me in the right direction, the Assembly of the Western European Union in Paris and the Western European UnionÆs Satellite Centre in Torrej¾n for answering my questions and providing me with documents that would otherwise have been unattainable and the National Library of Wales in Aberystwyth for their patience. However my parents deserve the most thanks, for without them I would not have been here at all to write this dissertation.
Abbreviations and AcronymsBFV
Bundesamt f³r Verfassungsschutz. German Domestic Intelligence Service.BND
Bundesnachrichtendienst. Germany's Foreign Intelligence ServiceBRUSA
British-USA Intelligence Alliance
Canadian, UK and US Intelligence Alliance
European Common Foreign and Security Policy
Direction Gķnķrale de la Sķcuritķ Extķrieur. French Foreign Intelligence Service.
European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company
European Union
British Domestic Intelligence Service
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
United Nations
UN Special Commission on Iraq
Western European Union
Introduction: Intelligence from B.C. to A.D.
ōThe spy is as old as history, but intelligence agencies are new.ö[1]
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Perhaps the most peculiar marriage the world has ever witnessed is that between the Bible and intelligence. The former, a tale of Christianity and charity, shares little resemblance to the realms of secrecy and subversion that the intelligence world breeds. Yet intelligence can be traced back to biblical times and it is the Bible that makes the first reference to what is considered to be one of the oldest professions in the world. In Numbers 13, Moses sent twelve intelligence officers on a reconnaissance mission to ōspy out the land of Canaanö[2], which lasted for forty days and ended in disagreement of what intelligence assessment to deduce.
Since then, Arabic cipher-breaking; Roman armies; English armies; Renaissance Italy; diplomacy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and EuropeÆs military and naval operations of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have all been producers and consumers of intelligence.[3] The twentieth century saw an explosion of intelligence with the creation of new agencies, budgets and personnel which were used to monitor World War One, World War Two, the Cold War and a host of other conflicts. However, on 25 December 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as leader of the USSR. The Iron Curtain had fallen, the Cold War drew to a close and George Bush announced that ōBy the grace of God, America won the Cold War.ö[4]
One of the clients to the Twentieth century had been the European intelligence services. Since World War Two, not a single year has passed when there has not been a war somewhere in the world. The twentieth century may have finished as it began, challenged by war, but intelligence uses and resources are shrinking as we enter the twenty first century. The æfin-de-siĶcleÆ should not mean the end of intelligence.
Today, intelligence agencies still exist all over the world, from the CIA in America to the Research Department for External Intelligence in North Korea; from the Secret Service in South Africa to the Joint Defence Intelligence Service in Norway. However, the intelligence services of the fifteen member states of the European Union[5] must redefine their roles and evaluate grounds for consolidation of policy, personnel and practice if they are to survive and to retain their ability to counter national and international threats.
The intention of this dissertation is to explore the opportunities and challenges in creating a common European intelligence policy. This will begin in Chapter One with an examination of the important relationship between defence and intelligence; Chapter Two explores the case for creating a European intelligence policy; Chapter Three scrutinises one of the chief obstacles ¢ the æspecial relationshipÆ enjoyed by the United Kingdom and the United States; Chapter Four assesses the future for a European intelligence policy and Chapter Five builds a summary of the key points analysed and concludes that a European intelligence policy is necessary but is at the mercy of politicians. But first we must turn to Chapter One, to review the relationship between Defence and intelligence and its implications towards a European intelligence policy.
Chapter One: Defence and intelligence
ōI am not protesting against the conduct of war, but against the political errors and insincerities for which the fighting men are being sacrificed.ö[6]
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Intelligence is unequivocally linked with defence. Simply, changes in defence imply changes in intelligence. Military superiority must be complemented by effective intelligence capabilities in order to prevent conflicts or win battles. The worldÆs greatest military powers are all dependent on intelligence for making informed evaluations. Therefore intelligence has become an integral part of defence, whether it be in the form of protecting national security, equipping armies with information or identifying prospective hostilities.
Two significant events have recently occurred in the European arena that will have serious implications on the nature of European intelligence. In July 2000, the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) was created, which promotes itself as the world's first transnational defence and aerospace company. EADS Is an association of regional defence companies, created by three key member states of the European Union: Aerospatiale Matra S.A., France; Construcciones Aeronßuticas S.A., Spain and DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG, Germany. Other European states are pushing their defence industries into seeking membership of EADS, although BritainÆs leading defence company, BAE Systems, is insisting that it will remain independent of the new coalition.
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ The second, crucial event occurred later that year in December 2000, when the European Union defence ministers, Britain included, agreed to create a 60,000-strong military reaction force as a æweaponÆ for EU countries to use in areas where they share a common interest. This is now routinely referred to as the EU Rapid Reaction force, which will have a permanent headquarters in Brussels. This is regarded by many observers as a political manoeuvre towards a European Army.
Most importantly, however, the creation of both the EADS and the Rapid Reaction Force fit into the European concept of consolidation and union. This implies, inevitably, that intelligence co-operation must increase, or even consolidate, as the defence industry and defence policies are doing, in order to maximise their effectiveness. National annual intelligence budgets of the European members are a fraction of the annual $28 billion that the US intelligence agencies receive. John Roper, an academic at the University of Birmingham, estimates the combined annual budget of EuropeÆs intelligence agencies amounts to between US$6-8 billion.[7] Individually, policies and agencies are overshadowed and intimidated by the shadow of American intelligence. Collectively, Europe has the opportunity to build a strong and effective intelligence policy.
However, intelligence agencies remain conservatively shy organisations which are loyal to their national governments, but their allegiance to a single state raises an important consideration. With the gradual erosion of the state, loyalties are becoming confusing and problematic. In an age when threats transcend national boundaries at lightning speed, a common intelligence policy must exist to adapt to the changing requirements of the decision-makers. Alessandro Politi[8] expands perfectly on this point,
ōIntelligence services are the last representation and embodiment of the raison dÆķtat, nowadays in Western Europe this statement begs the fundamental question: which state, whose raison dÆķtat?ö
If intelligence services remain bent on waving a flag, perhaps they should raise the blue European flag. This raises the possibility of an intelligence policy for the European Union and is explored in Chapter Two.
Chapter Two: The Case of the European Union ¢ Opportunities and Challenges
ōThe defender cannot be equally strong everywhere. If you try to be strong everywhere, you'll be strong nowhere.ö
Michael Herman[9] describes the effects of international intelligence co-operation in his book Intelligence Power in Peace and War. This offers interesting comparisons towards a European intelligence policy. It begins with descriptions of the evolution of the international dimension between the British liaisons with Hanover in the eighteenth century; the British and French exchanges of information in World War One; European co-operation in World War Two and the development of the British-American relationship. The first raw point to be deduced is that co-operation can be achieved. His comment that the ōappetite for information is insatiableö[10] and the fact that particular agencies have access to people and protocol not available to others begins to suggest to readers thinking of a European intelligence policy that creating a common policy is possible and sensible. However, Herman offers a catalogue of warnings of why intelligence co-operation should be restrained, ranging from inferiority complexes, new risks to information and a lack of agreement on which threats to focus on. This begins the ambitious, but cautious task of analysing why Europe should, and should not, have an intelligence policy.
This raises three important questions concerning a European intelligence policy, which deserve analysis: Is it necessary, is it democratic and is it legal? This author believes strongly that a European intelligence policy is necessary. Michael Herman identifies intelligence concerns in the Middle East, the Gulf, China, North Korea, Pakistan and India, as well as threats from international terrorism, nuclear terrorism and economic ransom.[11]Ā There has been a multiplication of rogue states that are equipped with chemical, biological or nuclear weapons. Put more succinctly, from the American point of view, ōthe threat of the dragon has been replaced by a jungle of poisonous snakes.ö[12] The world has not been de-ideologised, but re-idelogised.
The increasing number of dangers transcending national boundaries must be reflected in the intelligence policies of the member states and this can be achieved through increasing co-operation. Many contemporary agencies have been accused of æpunching above their weight.Æ Overwhelmed by modern threats and under-resourced with annual budget cuts, this is a logical assumption to make. A European intelligence policy would solve this problem. Perhaps most importantly for politicians, addressing these common threats together can be achieved at lower costs than maintaining independent, sovereign institutions, whilst avoiding unnecessary duplication by other European agencies. It offers to exchange less quantity, with more quality.
Intelligence is democratic. Democracy is a word that haunts the intelligence community, since they are not organisations that have historically admired democratic principles. Yet many of todayÆs European agencies reside in countries which champion democracy, in an age of æglasnostÆ which is increasing transparency and accountability. They clearly believe that democracy and intelligence are two compatible phenomena, on the basis that preserving an integrated area of freedom and justice is necessary. Indeed, intelligence is compatible with parliamentary democracy, as long as it is executed and maintained in a democratic fashion. This was re-iterated by Stella Rimington, former Chief of MI5, in the 1994 Richard Dimbleby lecture,
ōA Security Service is an important plank in the defence of a free society and of its civil liberties and basic valuesģIt is compatible with personal liberty, within a democracy. It does not conflict with it, but enhances it.ö[13]
Finally, and most importantly, would the European intelligence policy be legal? Indeed surveillance today is no longer simply an infringement of sovereignty, but an infringement of law. But, providing a European policy has the consensus of the European members, they would transfer their existing strategies into a common pool, which is an entirely legal move. However, what would require closer scrutiny would be the transparency and legal accountability of any new policy. They would be legally bound to respect individual human rights too, since the European Convention on Human Rights now applies to all member states. However, although the convention specifies that states must respect individual rights and liberties, it also recognises that states have a duty to protect themselves and, in doing so, may set up a security service. Providing, then, that these three criteria; transparency, accountability and rights are observed, legally an intelligence policy would be challenged by few obstacles.
Alessandro Politi[14] identifies three models for fostering the creation of a European intelligence policy. The first proposes that a natural evolution occurs, beginning with increasing, informal co-operation between member states, which will lead to a more sophisticated and formal framework. This can be quietly achieved by member states and is an entirely feasible idea. Indeed, a secretive association already exists called the Club of Berne, where the UKÆs MI5, FranceÆs DGSE, GermanyÆs BFV and others share information extensively, but secretly. The second model offers a more stringent and organised approach and is composed of creating three rings of co-operation: an outer ring, an annual congregation of governmental and non-governmental parties interested in intelligence who would meet on neutral territory; an inner ring, a formal collection of intelligence organisations charged with supervising intelligence requirements and the third, innermost ring, which would manage the intelligence demands. This last model, he argues, would improve transatlantic co-operation. However, the United States would only find it beneficial if they were given access to the inner most ring. Charles Grant[15] argues that the Americans should have close associations with an EU intelligence unit because of their significant intelligence capabilities. However, it is a wish that many European countries, particularly France, are unlikely to grant.
Naturally, there is the concern of overlap between police forces and intelligence agencies too. Indeed, the creation of EUROPOL[16] would, at a glance, appear to be in competition with a European intelligence policy. This offers us the perennial question, æWhy not leave all such matters to the police?Æ Laurence Lustgarten and Ian Leigh declare that, ōthis question is in many ways a peculiarly British one.ö[17] Crime is now multi-faceted and the heroin trade from Turkey; the fraudulent activity of the Italian Mafia in Italy and the æRed MafiaÆ trade in prostitution and refugees from Eastern Europe should be the concern of everyone. However, there is a difference between the intentions and objectives of criminals and political motivations of terrorists, which separates policing form intelligence. Mark Urban[18] argues that criminal objectives do not fit the definition of traditional ænational security.Æ But traditional roles are impossible to maintain in todayÆs climate and they must adapt. That is certain. While States are hostile to surrendering their intelligence organisations, offering resources to organisations such as EUROPOL or the Schengen Information System is an opportunity to create closer co-operation.
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ The tragedy of World War Two left subsequent generations determined to create a lasting peace, but the Cold War restricted their achievements. However, the conclusion of the East-West battle at the end of the twentieth century re-energised previously held ambitions to remove national hostilities and create a common defence policy devoid of bitterness and retributions. The Maastricht Treaty seized the opportunity, in 1991, to catalyse this process when they referred to the perspective of a ōcommon foreign and security policy including the eventual framing of a common defence policy.ö[19] As we have seen, intelligence is an integral dimension of defence.Ā On 14 November 1995, in Madrid, assessments were investigated and promises made, to contribute towards enhancing European security and intelligence arrangements with the conclusion that development of intelligence co-operation was important for ōoperational capabilities.ö[20] Furthermore, in 1998, President Chirac of France categorically stated at the British-French summit in St. Malo that new policies would inevitably create new practices when he said,
ōWe sketched some plans about the paths that could be taken regarding organisation, i.e. the organisations which need to be created, and now we are going to work withģour European partners.ö[21]
This was re-iterated in the Joint Declaration announced at the British-French summit which stated more specifically that intelligence was fundamental to the success of the European Union, and that it ōmust be given appropriate structures and a capacity for analysis of situations, sources of intelligence, and a capability for relevant strategic planning, without unnecessary duplication.ö[22] This notion was categorically reinforced in the Cologne Declaration of the European Union, as well as the declaration in the Treaty of Amsterdam to create a policy planning and early warning unit. However, a clearly defined intelligence agenda is still absent, despite the overwhelming number of treaties, summits, statements and communiquķs.
Today, a centralised structure is steadily taking shape, dangerously ahead of an agreed common intelligence policy. Brussels is the home of the Military Staff, the Western European UnionÆs (WEU) only permanent military feature. This was created in May 1998, following the decision taken at the Erfurt Ministerial meeting in November 1997. Amongst the WEU Military structure, exists a Planning Cell and a Situation Centre. The Planning Cell houses the Intelligence Section of the European Union, interestingly where European Ministers wish to locate the headquarters of the Rapid Reaction force. This is complemented by the Western European UnionÆs Satellite Centre in Torrej¾n (Spain) ¢ the æeyes and the earsÆ of a future policy. In practical terms, both the Intelligence Section and the Satellite Centre have had a number of important successes. However, it is of enormous symbolic value as well to those who support a common agenda. As Frķdķric Oberson reveals, this hasĀ established an ōintelligence triangleģbased on a logical division of labour between the use of technical means [Torrej¾n based Satellite Centre] for the collection of information and the multi-source assessment of situationsö[23] of which the Planning Cell is an integral part. This has culminated in the weekly issuing of intelligence reports (INTSUM). This is part of the wider objective of European members to create a European Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), which is currently supervised by Javier Solana. He manages a policy unit who ōchannel confidential material from their own countries to the High Representative.ö[24] But it remains a shell and national agencies restrict the amount of sensitive information they are willing to give to Solana and his staff. But, importantly, it is an establishment which the United States supports.
However, the maintenance and development of the Intelligence Section is still dependent on the willingness of the nation state to co-operate. Similarly, states can very easily manipulate the finished intelligence product by selecting what information they do and donÆt provide the Intelligence Section. Despite the impetus from the British-French summit in 1998, Frķdķric ObersonÆs observations reveal that reform is necessary,
ōThe Intelligence Section thus receives, more or less frequently documents that states are willing to send. In actual fact only half of the ten full Member states frequently supply useful intelligence.ö[25]
Voluntary contributions of material is creating imbalances in participation and a system of compulsory donation of material is likely to discourage state participation. This argument lends further weight to the desire for centralised European intelligence policies and institutions. However, it is dangerous to invest in institutions which still lack an agreed intelligence policy amongst the member states. Parliaments, Prime Ministers and Presidents must rectify this lack of co-ordination between policy and institutions urgently, since policies should drive institutions, not the other way round.
This has generated a body of literature which has reflected on the repercussions of these fundamental changes. Alessandro Politi[26] proposes that contracting out ōsegments of the all-source evaluation processö would increase the efficiency of intelligence practices and that a future European policy is uniquely positioned to cradle this transformation. However, this author believes that this would be a fatal move. Western European intelligence organisations were built on a professional sprit dÆcorps and, privatising this, would destroy one of the strong bonds that holds them together. Similarly, subcontracting intelligence work would create opportunities for the bending of rules and increase the disregard for accountability. This is a belief shared by Admiral Pierre Lacoste, the former Chief of French Military Intelligence,
ōEthics remain the key word, both at personal and institutional levels. That is why I am so affirmative when I say that governments must strongly resist transferring such responsibilities to the private sector.ö[27]
New agencies should have the ability to make speedy decisions, yet they must resist the temptation to become a vehicle for passing through resolutions that go unchecked. Any new structure should include a Chairman, a rotating position between the member states, who would be the principal point of reference for the President of the European Union. Under the Chairman, would sit a Managing Director of Intelligence, elected for a set period of time, who would oversee the operations of the individual institutions. Similar to the British model, a Parliamentary Committee could act as commentator of the intelligence activities and an Ombudsman could be incorporated to steward and supervise their operations. Although this merely offers a prototype of what could, but is unlikely to be, the Sunday Times made an important revelation when it carried the headline, ōEurope plans its own spy agency.ö[28] This followed a Franco-German summit in Paris in December 1999, which steered the European Union towards the creation of an EU intelligence service to help manage world crises. But any new agendas must be managed by experienced personnel, since new policies do not mean new levels of quality. There will always be intelligence failures and the creation of new policies would not overcome this. But, if a collective effort existed to target threats, there would be a reduction in duplication and the number of failures could be significantly reduced.
The creation of new, centralised agencies offers European states the opportunity to become ōcollectively more relevant through pragmatic synergiesģ[rather than]ģbeing constantly dwarfed worldwide.ö[29] The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, terrorism, serious crime, drug trafficking, ecological threats, policing of cyberspace and the threat of rogue states are not exclusive concerns of single member states but serious concerns to all of them. However, serious obstacles remain and perhaps none more so than the special relationship enjoyed between the UK and USA, which is scrutinised in Chapter Three.
Chapter Three: The Special Relationship ¢ The United Kingdom and the United States
ōThe special relationship is at its most special in intelligence.ö[30]
The United Kingdom has felt compelled to build an Anglo-American intelligence alliance, which can be traced back to the BRUSA (Britain-USA) agreement, established between the two world wars and which flourished as a joint wartime signals intelligence operation. This has manifested itself in todayÆs æspecial relationshipÆ, jealously watched by Continental Europe, who argue that the problem is not us, the problem is the US. However, there are two interesting points that derive from the relationship. The first is the independence that states can still enjoy when part of an alliance and the second, ironically, demonstrates how successful co-operation between the members of the European Union can lead to a common intelligence policy.
However, before the argument proceeds, it is important to consider this æspecialityÆ. Who is it special for? It is not an equal exchange of information and leads to ōquestionable results.ö[31] Often the US will use the UK to complete its jigsaw of an intelligence assessment and, in return, either offer it nothing at all, offer it masses of low grade intelligence or a single piece of fairly useful information. Charles Grant highlights this point in the Falklands War. America only offered an intelligence package to the UK, once it realised that Argentina would not conform to its own recommendation. This leads Charles Grant to conclude that it is a one sided relationship,
ōIn the final analysis they will always do what is good for the US ¢ and therein lies the core of the UKÆs problem.ö[32]
The UK and USA have created a strong relationship, even if one is more loyal than the other. But they have also created a successful balance between focusing on common threats, such as Iraq, and pooling their intelligence capabilities accordingly, but retaining enough independence to tackle domestic problems and participate in other operations not covered by the alliance. For example, whilst internationally, the Kosovo conflict in 1999 and the Iraqi air strikes of the 1990s have consumed vast quantities of national intelligence resources, British intelligence has played, amongst other things, a pivotal role in sealing the Good Friday agreement in Northern Ireland in 1998 at the same time. Therefore, it is possible to create a common policy and yet still reserve the capability to administer independent affairs. The creation of a European intelligence policy has the opportunity to pursue this. It would not imitate the transatlantic alliance, but strengthen it.
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Every member state of the European Union is vulnerable to the threat of domestic terrorism, some to a greater extent than others. The IRA in the United Kingdom; ETA in Spain; the Breton Revolutionary Army in France; the 17 November Revolutionary Organization in Greece and the Red Brigade in Italy are all active and violent organisations that have scored wicked æsuccessesÆ. Indeed, violence took more European lives in the 1990s than in 44 years of the cold war and terrorist attacks take place at the rate of nearly one a day.[33] However, the creation of a centralised European policy would not undermine the ability of states to manage these domestic dangers. David Charters[34] remarks that domestic political operations can be successfully accomplished by relying on professional military organisations to undertake paramilitary operations. Therefore, this offers us a realistic possibility of creating a collective European intelligence policy, whilst allowing states to retain control of sovereign paramilitary operations to address their domestic threats.
The Club of Berne plays a crucial role in informally linking the European intelligence services together. However, other bilateral agreements exist too, that neither America nor the ōspecial relationshipö participate in. France and the UK, for example, have an historical relationship that had a profound effect in World War Two, with daily exchanges of information between the French rķsistance and the British Special Operations Executive. There is evidence of extensive co-operation between Britain and France during the Falklands War and in Northern Ireland too. Charles Grant captures neatly the idea that European co-operation is flourishing,
ōIt is the quantity, rather than the quality of the UK-US trade that is unique. æPersonal tiesÆ between the SIS and DGSE are sometimes closer. Ties between the SIS and the [domestic] DST are particularly warm.ö[35]
Almost jovially, but seriously, Mark Urban reveals that British MI6 officers have questioned ōwhether they should start targeting the Americans.ö[36] Additionally, MI5 boasts that it has ōlinks with nearly 100 services worldwideö[37], yet there exist no formal alliances or institutions that link them together and a European intelligence policy has the opportunity to deliver this.
Overcoming the transatlantic UK-USA alliance will prove the most troublesome obstacle in creating a European policy, but it is not an impossible mission. There already exists general co-operation between the EU member states through the Western European Union in Paris, intimate co-operation at the WEUÆs Torrej¾n Satellite centre in Spain and the very secretive co-operation within the Club of Berne.
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Although in its infancy, the United Nations Situation Centre (a UN, internationally staffed æinformationÆ service at United Nations Headquarters in New York), suggests that international intelligence co-operation can be achieved. Indeed, æsince the end of the Cold War, there are signs that [states] are increasingly willing to respondö[38] to calls for co-operation. Tim Trevan makes frequent references to the intelligence sharing that he experienced during his secondment to UNSCOM (UN Special Commission for Iraq), principally between the US, UK, France, Russia and Germany,
ōSitting in a meeting of intelligence analysts was, for me, a surreal experienceģThe KGB had been the enemyģNikita Snidovich, who was now my colleague in UNSCOM, had been my principal opponent.ö[39]
These are the politics of the æNew World Order.Æ If an international intelligence capability can be constructed, developing a finished, all source intelligence machine at a localised European level would appear to be a smaller and easier task. Indeed, European intelligence sharing can help bring war criminals to trial at the international war crimes tribunal in The Hague.[40]
Since an opportunity exists to increase closer European co-operation, can Europe begin to build a European intelligence policy for the future? This is analysed in Chapter Four.
Chapter Four: Is there a future for a European intelligence policy?
A European intelligence policy is not just necessary, but indispensable.ö[41]
Ultimately, the success of a European intelligence policy is at the mercy of politicians. However, the majority of the European Prime Ministers and Presidents harbour European ideals and the creation of an intelligence policy is part of a wider project to increase European co-operation in all areas of political life. The most recent Swedish report covering this issue is very optimistic about the future of co-operation. As a strategic intelligence provider in the Cold War, it is a respected authority in this field and it concludes that it is a necessary step forward,
ōThe 1999 Report underlines the importance of foreign co-operation in the intelligence field and recommends wider scope for co-operationģIt is fair to surmise though that the networks generally speaking will grow rather than be disrupted.ö[42]
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ The principal consumers of intelligence, Defence Ministries and Foreign Ministries, are consolidating their interests and objectives. This, we have already seen with the amalgamation of European defence industries and policies and the agreements made to construct the CFSP. Traditionally, Foreign Ministries have been the chief architects of intelligence requirements and this is true at the European level too.
However, differences do remain between the foreign policies of the member states and overcoming these will be a huge task for the CFSP. The most profound example is between the UK and France over the corpse of Iraq. The UK persists with air strikes, yet France is one of three members of the UN Security Council to have broken the air embargo. Similarly, Sierra Leone has become a cornerstone of British foreign policy, whilst other European countries participate in different African agendas. The Intelligence and National Security Committee[43] explicitly reports that intelligence played a key role in the evaluation of Sierra Leone and this could be considered as one of the reasons for British intervention. This information was not shared with Continental allies, which could have generated or modified their interest if it had been. The need to share intelligence information was a conclusion of the House of Commons Defence Committee in their analysis of the Kosovo campaign, which warned that future joint operations will be hampered if there is differential access to intelligence.[44]
However, the CFSP was designed to reconcile these differences and that remains its priority. Indeed, although America might spend more annually on defence, Europe collectively spends much more on æsoft securityÆ, in areas such as development aid.[45] A common intelligence policy is fundamental in maximising the success of understanding who and who should not be the recipient of European aid. The Assembly of the WEU has warned that European ōsecurity issuesģthe common foreign and security policyģand the implementation of EU decisionsģrely upon a common European intelligence policy.ö[46] European states, at least in principle with their support of the CFSP, have the desire to harmonise their differences in order to create a coherent and co-operative European Foreign Policy. This should be extended to a common intelligence policy.
Europe has a Commissioner for External Relations, the former British politician, Chris Pattern. Inevitably, intelligence will have played a role in the treaties and agreements that his office has participated in. The First Stabilisation and Association Agreement (an agreement between the EU and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) and the MEDA[47] Programme will all have required intelligence assessments during their analyses. Similarly, the European Commissioner for Trade, the former French civil servant Pascal Lamy, as representative of the fifteen member sates, will have considered their economic objectives in presenting a common position at worldwide negotiations, such as the Seattle ministerial conference with the World Trade in November 1999. This will have undoubtedly required intelligence assessments. Although referring to America, Adda BozemanÆs comments are applicable to the European Union too, when she says that responsible organisations must be engaged in ōfashioning a reliable national consensus in support of strong intelligence services.ö[48] Chris PatternÆs and Pascal LamyÆs offices can be used as a tool for achieving this.
However, whilst it is likely that a European policy is feasible in the short to medium term, it remains merely a fantasy that states will relinquish control of their organisations in favour of a centralised institution. This is taking the discipline to new boundaries that states are unwilling to consider. However, although the creation of a single agency is very unlikely, the installation of EU cells in each strategic sovereign organisation is a viable alternative. This is not fanciful optimism, but a very real opportunity. The 1998 Joint Declaration on European Defence clearly considers this an achievable possibility, when the French and British governments announced the development of ōstanding arrangements for setting up multinationalised cells within these [national military] Headquarters, including officers from other EU partners.ö[49] This demonstrates a genuine consensus to build closer intelligence co-operation in Europe.
Another international obstacle towards a European intelligence policy is NATO. Michael Herman offers a cold warning, but a reason for the creation of European intelligence too,
ōOne criticism of the EU dimension is that it is undermining NATOģbut NATO has never had a proper intelligence system at the NATO Council level anyway; the inputs that have counted have all been CANUKUS ones discussed behind green baise doors.ö[50]
An evolving European intelligence policy could better relations between NATO and Continental Europe since the policy offers to reconcile European inferiorities as well as assist NATO in areas where it lacks resources. Since NATO does not have a specific intelligence system, the construction of a European policy would be an enormous asset for the European Union to contribute towards building EU-NATO co-operation. This is the attitude that politicians prefer to present to their audiences. However, realistically, both sides of the Atlantic are re-evaluating the purpose of NATO. Europe is quietly doing this with various consolidations of interest, although argues that it will strengthen the European pillar of NATO, rather than undermine it. And, in America, younger generations are reconsidering the relevance of NATO, as highlighted by a report on the United States and security in Europe,
ōMany of these younger members of Congress [186] are questioning the guiding principles which have been the basis of United States foreign policyģSome of them are not even sure about the value of NATO, arguing that its raison dÆĻtreģno longer exists.ö[51]
There are two final, but serious, difficulties that must be mastered if co-operation is to succeed. The first is the different configuration of intelligence services at the national level, since some of them are dependent on military management, some are dependent on civil management, for example by Ministries of Home Affairs, and others have a combined military and civil structure. The second is the role of intelligence in government policy, which varies significantly amongst the member states, as detected by Charles Grant,
ōAnglo-Saxons use intelligence in an empirical wayģif the facts are significant, the policies may get changedģThe French and other Continentals, being essentially deductive in their thinkingģdraw on intelligence to support them.ö[52]
Arguably, British intelligence is used as a tool to manipulate policy, whereas Continental intelligence is used to reinforce policy. However, it is possible to overcome these differences. Europe has a history of consolidating differences between member states, most recently with the introduction of monetary union. Similarly, these approaches largely exist due to historical practices and a fresh intelligence policy would bury these. Furthermore, the successful creation of both the Military Staff of the WEU in Brussels and the UN Situation Centre in New York demonstrates that different attitudes towards intelligence can be resolved. However, before a conclusion can be made as to whether Europe can begin to construct an intelligence policy, Chapter Five reminds readers of the advantages and disadvantages of this project.
Chapter Five: Conclusion ¢ The beginning of a European intelligence policy?
New thinking is needed.ö[53]
This dissertation has highlighted the central problems and prospects of a European intelligence policy and before a conclusion is drawn, it is important to remember what these are.
The pro-European policy camp has generated a list of convincing arguments. Europe, as a geographical, economical and political union, should accommodate the creation of a common intelligence formula. The culture of integration should be extended to an intelligence policy, since existing bilateral relationships are insufficient for resolving todayÆs new risks and threats. Similarly, if the CFSP is to be successfully delivered, then a common intelligence policy, as an integral part of a defence and foreign policy, must be developed. Despite some foreign policy differences, there are significant areas where European states share a common approach. For example, Europe is more sensitive to RussiaÆs perspective and many member states are actively engaged in improving bilateral relations. However, recent wars, such as Kosovo and the Gulf, have highlighted the problems arising from the absence of a central European intelligence policy, which would harmonise a common approach to international conflicts.
Promoters of a European intelligence policy argue that intelligence co-operation is already successfully taking place around the world; in the Western European Union Satellite Centre in Torrej¾n; the Situation Centre at the UN in New York and the informal gathering of the Club of Berne, in Switzerland. The last, although a controversial organisation, does demonstrate that significant co-operation between member states of the European Union can occur. After all, knowledge is power; the more knowledge a state has means more power and knowledge is derived from intelligence, a point realised by Woodrow Wilson who remarked in 1919 that, ōknowledge must be accompanied by a system of intelligence.ö[54]
But the creation of EU intelligence capabilities should not be designed to compete with the United States. Indeed, internationalisation of intelligence is very unlikely to occur whilst the United States remains a hegemonic power, since it will resist all attempts to relinquish control of national intelligence policies. But perhaps regionalism of intelligence is a viable alternative, of which a European intelligence policy would be a key pillar.
In addition, since EU member states are addressing the possibilities of a future European Army, even if it remains simply a peacekeeping facility, it is crucial that an intelligence policy is constructed, since successful armies need to be well informed. A European intelligence policy offers a æload sharingÆ factor too, i.e. coalition of policies would lead to equal absorption of costs. The peace dividend of the New World Order has tattooed cuts on national intelligence services and their requirements can no longer be matched with fiscal reality. Reduced duplication and closer co-operation offers an opportunity to overcome this. And finally, creating a centralised policy removes the possibility for manipulation and national bias that todayÆs Western European Union suffers.
However, the anti-European policy camp remain determined that this should not happen. States remain reluctant to create a supranational framework which might undermine or replace traditional modus operandi. Similarly, sharing information increases the risk of leakages; secrets will become vulnerable if they are exposed to a wider audience as happened during the bombing raids against Yugoslavia in 1999.[55] This concern is the view of Tom King MP too, the Chair of the House of Commons Intelligence and National Security Committee which reports directly to the Prime Minister,
ōThere is considerable nervousness about undue spreading of intelligence because of the historical problems of leaks within Europe.ö[56]
However, as remarked in the UK, secrecy is often used for the wrong reasons and ōthe Official Secrets Act is not to protect secrets but to protect officials.ö[57]
There is still a large degree of mistrust between European states too and, although they might be allies, they have been caught recently spying on each other. The Sunday Times report, ōFrench spies listen in to British callsö[58]
revealed that extensive spying against friendly nations and even between European allies regularly occurs. Sceptics of the policy argue that the series of ad hoc arrangements that exist, such as the Club of Berne, are a preferable option for co-operation since they do not tie states to obligations that they would rather not meet. Furthermore, European citizens, predominately the British[59], are still sceptical of closer European integration. Therefore, is it morally right to create policies and institutions against the wishes of the electorate? This is an important question that must be carefully considered. Penultimatley, they argue that Europe has not yet finished building its boundaries and, until then, it should decelerate the creation of new initiatives, which could prove to be exclusive to new European entrants. Indeed, the process of enlargement of the European Union was launched on 30 March 1998[60] but many are not expected to join in the foreseeable future. And finally, but most importantly, the æspecial relationshipÆ is their most precious argument. However, as already analysed, they must question who is it special for?
The thrust for developing a European intelligence policy can only come from politicians. Generating a level of agreement to do this is possible, as we have witnessed with their public declarations. This could be the beginning, but hopefully not the end, of a European intelligence policy.
Figure One
A European intelligence policy will be indispensable to the Rapid Reaction Force.
Figure Two
A common European intelligence policy would help member states to tackle terrorist attacks that they are all threatened by.
Figure ThreeĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Figure Four
An intelligence policy must not interfere with
personal liberties.
Timeline of the European Union
Zurich ¢ Winston Churchill calls for a ækind of United Sates of Europe.Æ
17 March 1948
Brussels ¢ Signature of the Brussels Treaty on Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.
4 April 1949
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Washington ¢ Signature of the North Atlantic Treaty.
27 May 1952
Paris ¢ Signature of the European Defence Community Treaty.
23 October 1954
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Paris ¢ the Paris Agreement modifies the Brussels Treaty of 1948.
6 May 1955
London ¢ Creation of Western European Union (headquarters later moved to Paris) and the adoption of the blue flag with twelve gold stars as an emblem of Europe.
26-27 October 1984
Rome ¢ WEU Council of Ministers brings together both Foreign and Defence Ministers. WEU take son its present politico-military form.
26-27 October 1987
The Hague ¢ The WEU Council of Ministers agrees on the Platform on European Security Interests.
27 June 1991
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Vianden ¢ WEU Satellite Centre established at Torrej¾n in Spain.
11 January 1994
Brussels ¢ Atlantic Alliance summit. NATO gives full support for development of the European Security and Defence Identity.
01 May 1996
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Brussels ¢ Signature of the WEU-NATO Security Agreement.
15 June 1996
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Brussels ¢ The Situation Centre becomes operational.
01 January 1999
ĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀĀ Brussels ¢ The European single currency, the EURO, is launched.
24 April 1999
Washington ¢ NATO summit. NATO declares arrangements to provide European Union with security assets.
Sourced from the Western European Union and BBC.co.uk
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Herman, Michael. Intelligence power in peace and war (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1996).
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[1] Knightley, Philip. The second oldest profession Ā(London: Deutsch 1986).
[2] Holy Bible New King James Version (London: Thomas Nelson 1982). Numbers 13 (2).
[3] Herman, Michael. Intelligence power in peace and war. Pages 9-15.
[4] Ambrose, Stephen & Brinkley, Douglas. Rise to globalism: American foreign policy since 1938 (London: Penguin 1997). Introduction.
[5] The European Union consists of Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands (who joined in 1951), Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom (1973), Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986), Austria, Finland and Sweden (1995).
[6] Siegfried Sassoon, A soldiers declaration. July 1917. From Barker, Pat. Regeneration (London: Penguin 1992). Page 3.
[7] Roper, John. Agents for change. Page 187.
[8] Politi, Alessandro. Towards a European intelligence policy (Paris: Institute for Security Studies 1998).
[9] Herman, Michael. Intelligence power in peace and war. Pages 200-218.
[10] Herman, Michael. Intelligence power in peace and war. Page 204.
[11] Herman, Michael. Intelligence power in peace and war. Page 346.
[12] Richelson, Jeffery. A century of spies. Page 428.
[13] Rimington, Stella. Security and democracy: is there a conflict? (London: BBC Television 1994).
[14] Politi, Alessandro. Towards a European intelligence policy.
[15] Grant, Charles. Intimate relations. Page 16.
[16] Europol is the European Union law enforcement organisation that handles criminal intelligence.
The establishment of Europol was agreed in the Maastricht Treaty on European Union of 7 February 1992. More information can be found at: http://www.europol.nl
[17] Lustgarten, Laurence and Leigh, Ian. In from the cold: national security and parliamentary democracy. Page 368.
[18] Urban, Mark. UK eyes alpha: the inside story of British intelligence (London: Faber & Faber 1996).
[19] Assembly of Western European Union. A European intelligence policy: Document 1500 (Paris: Western European Union 1995).
[20] Assembly of Western European Union. A European intelligence policy: Document 1500.
[21] President Jacques Chirac. British-French Summit, Saint-Malo, France 4 December 1998. Internet source: http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?1788
[22] Joint Declaration on Defence. British-French Summit, Saint-Malo, France 4 December 1998. Internet source: http://www.fco.gov.uk/news/newstext.asp?1795
[23] Oberson, Frķdķric. Towards a European intelligence policy.
[24] Grant, Charles. Intimate relations. Page 15.
[25] Oberson, Frķdķric. Towards a European intelligence policy.
[26] Politi, Alessandro. Towards a European intelligence policy.
[27] Admiral Pierre Lacoste. Agents for change. Page 319.
[28] The Sunday Times. Europe plans its own spy agency. 5 December 1999. Page 22.
[29] Politi, Alessandro. Towards a European intelligence policy.
[30] Grant, Charles. Intimate relations. Page 1.
[31] Urban, Mark. UK eyes alpha. Page 300.
[32] Grant, Charles. Intimate relations. Page 12.
[33] Rimington, Stella. Security and democracy: is there a conflict?
[34] Charters, David. The role of Intelligence services in the direction of covert paramilitary operations, in Intelligence: Policy and Process. Pages 333-346.
[35] Grant, Charles. Intimate relations. Page 6.
[36] Urban, Mark. UK eyes alpha. Page 301.
[37] MI5. Internet source: http://www.mi5.gov.uk/intell11.htm.
[38] Smith, Hugh. Survival. Intelligence and UN Peacekeeping (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies 1994). Page 184.
[39] Trevan, Tim. Saddams secrets. Page 8.
[40] This was confirmed by the Ambassador of Bosnia & Herzegovina Mission to the UK, HE Osman Topčagić, in a personal interview with the author.
[41] Politi, Alessandro. Towards a European intelligence policy.
[42] Ambassador Par Kettis in Agents for change. Page 94.
[43] House of Commons Intelligence and Security Committee. Interim Report 2000-01 (London: HMSO 2001)
[44] House of Commons Defence Committee. Lessons of Kosovo (London: HMSO 2000).
[45] Norton-Taylor, Richard. Going it alone. The Guardian. 28 February 2001.
[46] Assembly of Western European Union Recommendation 597 (xii).
[47] The MEDA Programme is the main financial instrument of the EU for the implementation of the Euro Mediterranean Partnership, to accompany the reform of social and economic structures in the Mediterranean non-member countries. Internet source: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/med_mideast/euro_med_partnership/meda.htm
[48] Bozeman, Adda. Strategic intelligence and statecraft. Page vii.
[49] Joint Declaration by the British and French Governments on European Defence.
[50] Michael Herman. Comments offered in a personal interview with the author.
[51] Assembly of Western European Union. The United States and security in Europe, Document 1519. (Paris: Western European Union 1996).
[52] Grant, Charles. Intimate relations. Page 4.
[53] Urban, Mark. UK eyes alpha. Page 301.
[54] Khan, David. Intelligence and National Security. Volume 9. July 1994. Number Three. Page 534.
[55] Norton-Taylor, Richard. æNato spy leaked bombing raid plans to the Serbs.Æ 09 March 2000.
[56] Tom King MP in a personal interview with the author.
[57] Yes Prime Minister! The Penguin Dictionary of Twentieth Century Quotations (London: Penguin 1995).
[58] The Sunday Times. French spies listen in to British calls. 17 October 1999.
[59] This is highlighted in Figure Four in the Glossary.
[60] Negotiations are currently being held with twelve applicants: Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia.


text:
Cardinal Joseph Bernardin Catholic School students recently competed in St. Rita's Academic Olympics. | Supplied Photo
Updated: January 17, 2013 6:02AM
Students at Cardinal Joseph Bernardin Catholic School in Orland Hills recently competed in St. Rita's Academic Olympics.
CJB students earned 12 medals and took two of the top four overall awards. More than 100 students competed in math, English, science and social studies and took four tests in two hours.
"We're so proud that so many of our students took the initiative to participate in this competition," CJB science teacher Christine Kirk said. "The St. Rita Olympics is a great opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge in a wide range of subjects. This is the first academic bowl for most of our seventh-graders, and it's a rigorous competition."
Seventh-grader Michael Kohler, of Orland Park, earned a gold medal in science and a silver medal in social studies.
Other eighth-grade winners include Joey Harris, T. J Quinlan, Clare Murphy, Caitlin Shanahan, Maryclare Leonard, Zach Flowers and Frank Baffoe, all of Orland Park; Dani O'Connell and Jackson O'Connell, both of Homer Glen; and Ronnie Fiala and Joe Kopeika, both of Tinley Park.
Provided to the


text:
Ismail, Maimunah (1993) Women's Access to Land as Owners: Some Implications for Development Planning. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 1 (2). pp. 101-113. ISSN 0128-7702
A study was conducted on women's access to land as owners in a district in Selangor. The study showed that women acquired land mainly through inheritances. On the other hand, in addition to inheritances, men also acquired land through government land allocation programmes and purchases. The quantitative analysis showed that older women were more likely to own land than the younger ones.Women from non-uxorilocal families had better access to land ownership than those from the uxorilocal households.
|Item Type:
|Women's studies, women and development, women's access to resources
|Universiti Putra Malaysia Press
|ID Code:
|Deposited By:
|Nur Izyan Mohd Zaki
|Deposited On:
|20 Nov 2009 03:11
|Last Modified:
|27 May 2013 07:04
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