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2003 Mercedes-Benz E320An expensive car that's actually a bargain
I never thought I'd type into my computer the price "$46,950," and refer to it as a bargain. However, to quote an obscure philosopher I once knew, "Hear me now and believe me later." The 2003 Mercedes-Benz E320 is a steal at this price. While this amount could get you two Toyota Camrys or Honda Accords, there's nothing like getting an all-new Mercedes-Benz model packed with technological features and luxury amenities for $1,500 less than last year's model.
The E-Class has long been the cornerstone of the Mercedes sedan range and accounts for about a quarter of the brand's worldwide passenger vehicle sales. The previous-generation E-Class, introduced in the United States in 1995 as a 1996 model, set a new design trend with its distinctive elliptical headlights. The 2003 version is unmistakably an E-Class, but offers bolder, sleeker lines that hint at the car's greater athleticism. The headlights are tilted back even more sharply, and the entire car exudes a fresh, sporty design theme. The new E-Class is just slighter larger than its predecessor, yet Mercedes says its engineers have rethought every inch of the car to make it even safer, more fun to drive and of course, more luxurious. And, we'd have to agree.
Two new E-Class sedans are available in the U.S. for 2003; the E320 with its 3.2-liter V-6 that produces 221 horsepower and 232 lb.-ft of torque, and the E500 that's powered by a new 302 horsepower 5.0-liter V-8 that replaces the former 4.3-liter V-8 in the E430. Both engines are teamed with an adaptive five-speed automatic transmission with Touch Shift, which allows quick and convenient manual shifting if desired. While the E500 is a wonderful car, it's the E320 and the amazing amount of standard equipment that's packed into the new package that caught our attention.
One thing Mercedes did not do was make the new E-Class much heavier, a testament to the advanced manufacturing techniques and extensive use of aluminum components such as hood, front fenders, trunk lid, front subframe and crossmembers. At the same time, these new techniques and a nearly doubling of high-strength steel usage has served to make the E-Class body structure even stronger than before.
The full array of Mercedes safety technology comes standard on the E320, including ABS anti-lock brakes with Brake Assist, straight-line traction control and ESP stability control. New safety technology includes the electronic braking system from the Mercedes SL roadsters that provides faster, more sure-footed braking, especially in emergencies. In addition, the E320 comes standard with eight airbags including two in front, one sidebag for each of the four outboard seating positions and a side curtain windowbag for each side.
The optional E320 Sport Package lends a bolder appearance and improved performance with the S-class' Airmatic DC suspension, bi-xenon headlights with headlamp washers, blue tinted glass, LED brake lights, sculpted side skirts, sporty front bumper and rear apron, and 17-inch wheels and 245/45R17 tires.
The interior is more luxurious than before, with a new sweeping dashboard, elegant wood and chrome trim elements, and a full array of power amenities. The E320 comes equipped with dual-zone automatic climate control, and features like a power tilt and telescoping steering wheel, power windows with one-touch up/down operation and auto-dimming mirrors. A new, power flip-down panel in the center console houses switches for many vehicle functions. At the touch of a button, it opens to reveal an extra storage space or the newly available six-disc CD changer when it is ordered. The standard high-performance 10-speaker audio system adds surround sound, and the optional Harman Kardon Logic 7 audio system takes audio performance to an even higher level with seven-channel surround sound, 420 watts of total output and 12 high-end speakers.
Standard 10-way power seats assure driver- and front-passenger comfort. The optional Dynamic Drive seats adjust pressure in air cushions automatically in response to driving input. For example, the seat will automatically increase air pressure in the left-side seatback bolster during right-hand cornering. These seats even feature a massage function. Optional ventilated seats help to cool the driver and front passenger quickly on hot days, and the available heated seats and steering wheel provide cold-weather comfort.
The E320 can be equipped with a power tilt/slide glass sunroof or the new Panorama sunroof that creates the look of an all-glass roof and has a much larger opening than the conventional sunroof. Special glass filters out excessive sunlight, which can be further limited by power sunshades. A solar cell panel available with the Panorama roof powers the climate control's blower motor to help cool the interior on hot sunny days.
Several high-tech options can enhance convenience and safety. The Distronic adaptive cruise control system that uses radar to maintain a set distance from a vehicle traveling in front. The Keyless Go system allows the driver to unlock the car simply by touching the door handle, and to start the car by touching the gearshift knob. The Parktronic parking assist uses sound waves to detect and warn the driver about obstacles in front of or behind the car. Later in the model year, the E-Class will offer an optional power trunk closer.
All of this high-tech gadgetry is nice while the car is sitting still, but it's when you hit the road where the E320 really comes alive. From the moment you start the engine, shift into drive and merge onto the highway, the E320 coddles its occupants like the German uber sedan that it is. It's unbelieveably quiet inside, has adequate passing power and is an excellent car whether you're driving to work or venturing through the mountains on a road trip.
This new-generation Mercedes-Benz E320 sedan makes its U.S. debut for the 2003 model year with technological innovations unavailable in almost any other car in it's competitive set. It features a fresh, stylish exterior design and a modern interior that's one of the most elegant ever offered at any price. The 2003 E320 sets new standards in vehicle safety, comfort and driving dynamics that we find hard to match-even for $46,950. (www.mbusa.com)
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Intuitive Surgical, Inc. (NASDAQ:ISRG)
Intuitive Surgical makes and maintains the da Vinci robotic device, an advanced surgical system that lets surgeons perform minimally invasive surgery.
isrg technology provides no long term medical benefit. it has not shown any improvement in long term outcome. it takes much longer to perform operations so that many specialties give up using it. it does improve recovery but not long term outcome. physicians and hospitals do not receive higher reimbursement for using it. in fact, it expensive and wastes hospital budget and taxpayer money on procedures that can be just as easily performed by laparoscopy. cms would unlikely approve reimbursement. although government waste does occur frequently.
First, I want to ask what references are you using. Do you have data, a study that shows no "improvement." Because that is not what I am hearing from surgeons.
Second, you say "it does improve recovery," based on your own account that is an improved outcome. The cost of hospital stay, lost work, pain medications, rehab . . . etc are very, very costly to insurance and the system as a whole. If there are improved recoveries as you say, this system could be well worth it. . . .
I just had major surgery by the use of the daVinci System. Fast, efficient and painless. What's more, it saved my life!
What more can I say?
"easily performed by laparoscopy"? Wrong. Laparosopic prostatectomy and hysterectomy are NOT performed by most surgeons because they are too challenging. This is precisely why robotic surgery is thriving.
I am a gynecologic surgeon who performs advanced laparoscopic surgery and who is just finishing my initial surgeries using the da Vinci robot. Non-robotic laparoscopic hysterectomy really is not a difficult procedure to perform. Most gynecologists do not perform them because 1) there is no outside pressure/financial incentive for them to learn the technique - in fact, it is financially more beneficial to perform abdominal hysterectomy and 2) they are too lazy and cheap to put in the time, effort, and investment required to learn the procedure. For a good laparoscopic surgeon, using the da Vinci robot offers no benefit versus traditional laparoscopic surgery in 90% of cases. Where the da Vinci is helpful is for very large uteri and for other types of surgery requiring finer, more detailed dissection and extensive, precise suturing - procedures such as sacrocolpopexy for prolapse, large myomectomy (removal of fibroids), extensive endometriosis surgery and - perhaps its best application for gynecology - gynecologic cancer surgery.
Intuitive Surgical has done a magnificent job marketing the da Vinci system to physicians, hospitals and the public, and they have been able to generate an increased interest in minimally invasive hysterectomy that the AAGL (the gynecology association for minimally invasive surgery) has been unable to do in 20 years of trying. The da Vinci robot is a wonderful instrument. I like using it, and I feel it will be of benefit to me in some of my more complex surgeries; but, its use in my field is predominantly marketing driven and not because of any demonstrated better outcomes.
On the topic of outcomes, there are just so little data available that one cannot truly make any claims as to better, or worse, outcomes. Clearly, pain, hospital stay, and recovery are better with robotic surgery than with open surgery, but there are no good data showing superiority to traditional laparoscopic surgery. And, to date, the claims of better outcomes for radical prostatectomy (less nerve injury, less impotence, less incontinence) are just that - claims. The claims may ultimately prove true, as many da Vinci surgeons assert, but their are no good studies showing that, yet.
Your post is self contradictory. If physicians and hospitals don't receive higher reimbursement, which is true, then how is it wasting taxpayer money? Hospitals offset the higher direct costs by gaining patients from other hospitals. Having the latest equipment also helps them attract top surgical talent and donors. CMS (Medicare) already reimburses for any procedure that is already done via standard laparoscopy because robotic surgery is actually robotically assisted laparoscopy. The benefits of robotic surgery over traditional open surgery are well documented as far as less pain, shorter recovery, etc. The bulk of the evidence suggests that the other outcomes are at least comparable with top surgeons indicating short term indications that they are achieving superior outcomes. Documenting improvements in long term studies will take time. Most procedures do not take much longer once a surgeon has done 30 or 40 procedures. The same is true for standard lap. It depends on the procedure and of course the surgeon and in some cases robotic is even faster than either for an experienced surgeon. Most patients are happy to be in the OR for an additional 20 or 30 minutes if they can get out of the hospital days earlier and back to normal activities weeks earlier with less pain and little scarring. The benefits of robotic over standard lap are not as pronounced as when compared to traditional open surgery but then again, patients are not traveling long distances to get standard lap surgery so it's kind of a moot point. As another poster pointed out, surgeons are not clamoring to learn the backwards, hard to master laparoscopic techniques but they are increasingly interested in learning robotics which is good and getting more capable with each passing year.
Procedures growth is flattening in the US. Prostatectomies have reached a maximum in the US and is growing slowly in Europe. Hysterectomies growth will flatten soon in the US and will never sky rocket in Europe (not to speak about other regions)
The reasons are the following:
1) the number of cases overall is limited and other treatments other than surgery are being developed
2) the medical advantages of the robot (vision, precision, complication rate, length of stay, blood loss) are true when compared to the standard open surgery but NOT when compared to the modern laparoscopy approach which is a standard in Europe
3) after several years of performing prostatectomies, there is no clinical evidence showing that robotic surgery is superior over laparoscopic surgery (all positive studies compare the robotic approach to the standard open surgery)
4) when including all costs (system, depreciation, instruments), the system is very expensive for hospitals outside the US and a break even is hard to reach
5) competition will enter the market, prices will erode and R&D expenditure will increase
6) health care systems around the world will definitely have a better control on the costs, reimbursement in Europe is getting very tough (there is no reimbursement for the robotic procedure (DRG) and hospitals have to compensate the difference). HTA will have a very negative impact as there is no clinical evidence.
7) ISRG is doing a real good job in marketing, spreading the word among hospital administration (that the robot will increase the number of patients), patients association (that the outcome is better with the robot) and surgeons (that they will be more successful with the robot)
As a conclusion, I believe that DaVinci is a wonderful tool but has a real advantage for complicated cases only and has its place in a niche market. Benefits will fall as procedures growth and new system sales will decrease.
FoolishForWine said:
"Intuitive Surgical has done a magnificent job marketing the da Vinci system to physicians, hospitals and the public ... but, its use in my field is predominantly marketing driven and not because of any demonstrated better outcomes."
Joe2010 said:
"7) ISRG is doing a real good job in marketing, spreading the word among hospital administration (that the robot will increase the number of patients), patients association (that the outcome is better with the robot) and surgeons (that they will be more successful with the robot)"
If it's true that hospitals are only buying the machines because of "marketing" how do you account for the huge percentage of hospitals that go on to buy MULTIPLE DaVinci machines? Are hospital administrators so gullible that they can be convinced by ISRG's slick marketing professionals that they need not only one machine but maybe three, four, or more? Seems to me that simply acquiring one machine would be enough to tout/advertise the hospitals' "cutting edge technology".
I am not saying it does not make sense for a hospital to buy a robot in order to increase their patient adoption. As a matter of fact, the robot does attract patients from other hospitals thanks to their excellent marketing job.
The argument here is about the patient benefit and health care provider long-term sustainability (and consequently the sustainability for Intuitive to keep on penetrating the market with their technology).
I'm not a surgeon, and in no position to examine the medical benefits or disadvantages of a particular medical procedure. My reading of all the aforementioned statements is pretty straightforward .
1 - If CMS is already reimbursing hospital stays based on this procedure, then I don't see cost being an issue. Surgeons COST money too; salaries, training, insurance and other related things. Depreciation is part of any technology and if a procedure can help cut costs by any measure, you better believe hospitals will do what they have to to get the equipment. The equipment will essentially be government subsidized.
2 - Other manufacturers will enter the market. Sure. This isn't software though, or some easily built technology that a firm can simply swipe up a ton of investor capital and then compete easily with a system that has been proven effective over time and as stated before - been purchased multiple times by the same buyer. In order for another firm to compete they will have to create something that competes on price and quality, that doesn't sound all too easy. who exactly are Surgical Intuitive's competitors anyway?
3 - Multiple buyer's. Great - a fantastic marketing campaign. So it's all slickly packaged into duping a hospital righht. Said jospital is so dumb, full of fully trained brain surgeons and other such idiots that they keep buying the product. Obviously something abouty it is compelling. If it's getting multiple buys AND has an incredible marketing team - it would take a lot for it to falter.
4 - This company has so much room to grow. Ailing economies or not - one area where countries will spend money - especially in socially subsidized Europe - is medical care and social costs. It's one of the greatest fault lines between the US and Europe. One thing the US, Europe, Asia and pretty much everywhere has in common are aging worker populations who will require absolutely enormous amounts of increased medical care in the years to come and demographic crises. Anything that will help ameliorate that will stand to gain.

subset: commoncrawl


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text: Way too smallFit: very smallQuality: Value: These are inexpensive flats and the quality was fine for what I purchased. Unfortunately, they are too short and a bit narrow. My usual size of 12W (10W in the UK) doesn't fit, and I'm going to try ordering them in a 13W.Reviewed by KDCanadaReviewed on 21st August 2014


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More on Disney Baby
Create magical moments with these inspired ideas and feel-good products.
10 Cute and Stylish Sneakers and Boots for Baby
My daughter has grown out of all of her shoes!
For two weeks now, I've had her going around in socks — we've mainly stayed indoors because of the cold — but still, she's almost one and we needed to update her footwear.
My husband never comes with me to buy children's clothing or shoes — but this weekend while we were out, I asked him to make a pit stop at the mall. He couldn't believe the amount of selection there was for babies, but after all we ended up "ooohing" and "ahhhing" over how cute they were.
There was too much cuteness and serious style happening in the baby footwear section, so I decided to round up some of my favorite sneakers and boots that your baby needs to be wearing this winter.
Don't you wish these came in adult sizes? I do!
Donald Duck Shoes
Little feet will be fit to set sail for fun when they slip into these Donald Duck shoes of navy blue canvas. Embroidered details, screen art, elastic faux laces and heel tabs add character, comfort and ease!
Mickey Mouse Chambray Shoes
Our Mickey Mouse Chambray Shoes for Baby start your little one off on the right foot. The heel tab and elastic laces makes for easy on-and-off, while the solid textured soles let him stand up and be well grounded.
Mickey Mouse Motorcycle Boots
Your wild one can get his road trips off on the right foot with these Mickey Mouse Motorcycle Boots. The classic styling of these sturdy biker boots feature zips for easy on and off. Complete the look with matching motorcycle jacket and hat.
A Bug's Life Sneakers
Flik will get under your little one's feet, but in a fun way, with these sneakers. The plucky star of Disney/Pixar's 1998 A Bug's Life features on the footbed of these f-ant-astic canvas shoes!
Ariel High Tops
Your little mermaid will feel stylishly sporty in her Ariel Hi Top Sneakers. The seashell pattern adds a splash of color to these shoes that feature decorative laces and a quick and easy zip closure on the instep.
Mickey Mouse Sneaker
When baby takes a peek at Mickey's cool slip-on sneakers, he's sure to smile by the mile! Faux stretch laces trim these super sporty tennis shoes with classic casual style.
101 Dalmatians Sneakers
Your little one will love walking the dog as one of the pups, Patch, hides on the insoles of these 101 Dalmatians Sneakers for Baby. The slip-ons feature decorative laces, red suede detailing on the toe and heels, and a "101" patch.
Woody High Tops
Your little sheriff will look very arresting in these Woody Shoes. The Toy Story cowboy stars on the footbed of these faux leather slip-ons that are sure to be a galluping success.
Jessie Boots
She'll be the cutest little cowgirl in the west wearing her Jessie Boots. The faux leather cowboy boots feature embroidered stars and stitch detailing, plus ruffled trim and zip fastener so she'll be dressed before she can yodel yeehaw!
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Customers' stories


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Teacher Forgiveness, Shortage & Low-income Areas | 04.14.09
I have the utmost respect for teachers. My good friend Trisha is an elementary school teacher in the New Hampshire school system. She tells me it can be a thankless job at times; shaping our nations future leaders and doing so for minimal compensation. True, most teachers went into the profession knowing they probably weren't going to be pulling in six figure salaries but that doesn't mean they need to struggle so mightily to stay a float with student loan debt looming heavy over their head.
The good news is that both federal Perkins and Stafford loans offer loan forgiveness opportunities for teachers.
Perkins loans can be forgiven for full-time teachers who teach in one of the specified shortage areas or teachers in a designated elementary or secondary school serving students from low-income families.
Stafford loans can be forgiven for full-time teachers in a designated elementary or secondary school for five consecutive years serving students from low-income families.
To see if you teach in a specified shortage area (click here). To check to see if your school is considered a low-income school (click here).
Five most recent Stafford loan help blog posts:
5 Most Recent Student Loans Blog Posts:
The Student Loan Help blog is sponsored in part by:


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Hey, I'm Taylor Lautner. Welcome to my Seventeen cover shoot. It's an absolute honor to do the cover of Seventeen. My favorite part, I gotta be honest, it would probably be with the dog. I have a little Maltese so she's like a 5-pound white fluff ball, but she's a lover. She's got the most energy I've ever seen in a dog. She definitely has to visit me on sets because I miss her after a little bit of time. My personal style is probably more comfort than anything. I really care just about how things fit. I'm in like jeans and t-shirt. That works for me. When it comes to a girl's style, I think a girl looks best in just like sweatpants or jeans and a t-shirt. Just something, you know, simple. Simple is better.
100 Winners score a Zensation Foaming Shower Gel from Rituals.
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Win 16GB of Corsair Dominator Platinum DDR3 2133 MHz Memory!!
Subject: General Tech | October 16, 2012 - 04:49 PM | Ryan Shrout
Tagged: memory, giveaway, dominator, corsair, contest
UPDATE: We have selected a winner using Random.org and that is.... Sandy Bruce!! Congrats to the winner and keep checking back on pcper.com as we will have more contests for your shortly!!!
Looking for a killer upgrade to your PC? How does 16GB of DDR3 memory running at 2133 MHz sound? What if it were FREE? Corsair and PC Perspective and teamed up to give away a 16GB kit (4 x 4GB) of Dominator Platinum memory!!
These are the latest modules from Corsair that include a completely cooler design as well as user swappable LED strip! Check out the video below!
These modules are pretty sexy in the dark...
What do you have to do to win this gorgeous memory? It's quite simple:
- Head over to Corsair's Facebook page and give them a 'like'.
- If you are feeling generous (and want to learn about future giveaways) like the PC Perspective Facebook page as well.
- Leave a comment below telling us how you plan on using the Corsair Dominator Platinum memory if you win it!
Pretty simple, right? We'll run the sweepstakes from now until October the 10th, so jump in and get in your shot to walk away from 16GB of memory from PC Perspective and our friends at Corsair!!
If I won these little beauties they'd sure make testing software in virtual machines a lot less of a squish than it is at the moment. Also, they'd make the insides of my machine look a whole lot more polished as well.
They'd look pretty nice nestled along side the H100's water block all aglow.
when is free ram not a good thing!
It doesn't have a supapipe but i still want it.
Max PErformanCE OVERDrivE!
I never win anything, but I will post in my favorite site.
would definitely get this for my upcoming video editing/lan rig =D
I just built an AMD AM3+ computer using a Gigabyte board and 8gig of gaming ram. I would love 16gb of ram so I can get a blu-ray burner a new monitor to do dual screens and a SSD to max out my system. The Case I use has a window and I am looking for LED fans and components like this ram. I want my computer to be quietly sounding and to be cool looking with LED lights. I agree with Ryan about his pick and that you can get new lights for the memory
I just built a new PC and could use the RAM.
I'm planning on using this kit in my new casemod project: converting a guitar amp into a case.
First PC Perspective Rocks, great podcast. These would be used on a future build, acquiring components slowly, but surely. Build projected for first quarter 2013. Any assistance in acquiring components or donations to help make the build earlier will be greatly appreciated. I am 61 years old, but still tinkering with computers since the late 1970's. Proud owner of three Hackintosh units, but the curious thing is all have different brands of motherboard; the first build has a Intel DG31PR was built on 09 with Leopard, Second build has a Gigabyte G41M-ES2L V1.1 was built on 2010 and the last came out of a trashed Motherboard from a UpGrade a ECS 945GCT-M1333 (V3.0) built on 2011, All are actually running OSX Lion 10.7.5 with out no problems most have wireless capabilities plus bluetooth, so what can I say I am still a tinkerer at heart... 73
PS. Keep the good work ...
Gonna put this in my other desktop which only has 8 GB of memory
Looking to build a new system free memory would be awesome.
It would be great, as my current memory is rated 1600!
I built my first pc this year and listening to the PC Perspective podcast was an integral part of the process. I will definitely add this to that build. I really enjoy the show!
i would just replace my G.SKILL Sniper Low Voltage Series(they do not OC very well) with this beauties, i never win so i wouldn't be surprise if i didn't win. i still love the website and podcast.
My P8Z77-V Deluxe need these badly! It begged me to leave this comment!
I would love these for my Pc build. Been waiting for some good deals before i buy but i i won these i would build it ASAP. Good Luck to all. Corsair ROCKS!!
Give my First complete build an extra edge
Are we required to create a pcper account for this? I tried to but never got a conformation email. Tried my personal and work address, nothing in inbox or filters :(
Either way, this would be a nice upgrade for my new x79 sabertooth!
need to start replacing my 8x4GB sticks of corsair vengeance. this would be the BEST start to that goal
My current pc is 6 years old, I'm pfennig to build a new soon, I'm on a budget so this kit will save me a lot of money!
Thank you.
The Corsair ram would be used to upgrade the ram I am using now and possibly be the first step to a new intel machine.
I hate facebook. I like how companies have figured out how to spam ads for free in our facebook content basically putting comercials between the only interaction I have with family. The only reason I use facebook is to keep track of my choice for a pool of organs that I could be genetically compatible with incase I ever need one. I specifically had an exact number of, of course, male children to increase my odds of compatibility. I really didn't like the whole sister thing because of defects and all but that is the donor hosts problem most likely but it does increase the odds of compatibilty. I do like winning cool stuff even if I don't really need it. But who can't use glowing ram. Besides I love everything Corsair. If you think this post is creepy, it isn't nearly as creepy as Corsair ads poping up in my facebook stream.
Congrats Sandy and enjoy your new Ram !
Thanks so much Pcper! You guys are awesome! I am so happy right now! My pc could use some high end rock solid memory like these from Corsair! Thanks Corsair sponsoring this awesome contest!
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couldn't leave well enough alone
Many of my ideas are well planned out and have a predestined purpose or use. This is obviously not one of them. I'm just going with it and seeing where I will land.
That's all for now. Duty calls.
13 comments:
Wow they are so beautiful as it is! The combination of shapes and patterns is amaizing. It could be such a beautiful screen, for example (imagine the shade it will give!) of lamp shade (doubled with some luminescent vellum)...ReplyDelete
Oh, I love this!ReplyDelete
I think it would look nice with 4 different solid colors on the back (one behind each design).
Wow! there are so beautifull!!!!!!!ReplyDelete
These remind me of beautiful morrocan (sp?) window screens. Love them!!ReplyDelete
Patricia, these are *AMAIZING*ReplyDelete
I see... stencils.ReplyDelete
Oh these are just wonderful! Looking forward to seeing what you'll do with them next. Would love to watch you in action - your hand is so very steady.ReplyDelete
Looks really great .. and a first glance of them (yesterday's post) did not make me think of this output.. WOW!!ReplyDelete
Would look great as lamp-shades .
Beautiful, and so neat and precise! Did you cut these by hand? If so what did you use?ReplyDelete
My cut-outs always look a little raggedy, and not in a good way!
Thanks everyone!ReplyDelete
Ann & Mich - Most of the time my work is done by hand but in this case I used a cutting machine. It is attached to my computer and cuts anything I design digitally.
Hi, I am thinking window treatments or radiator covers, which leads to decorative railings, porch molding, etc. I know that may be overmuch as you don't work in wood..(do you?)ReplyDelete
But that's my take. I subscribe but you have to go back to the net to comment, otherwise you might hear more from me which could be good?
you said you used a cutting machine? i am very curious to know what you use. your blog is truly a beautiful inspiration!
I welcome all your comments and read every one of them. If you have a specific question I will be happy to answer it!
Thank you so much for visiting!


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LINCOLN, Neb.
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I agree! Please don't have this just be BB6 part II. I know it was popular but I just couldn't get into many of the HG last year. But to each their own. I hope there are more from the earlier seasons like Mike Boogie and of course COWBOY!!!


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Cotton Mather
|This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2011)
|Cotton Mather
Cotton Mather, circa 1700
February 12, 1663
Boston, Massachusetts
|February 13, 1728(aged 65)
|Increase Mather and Maria Cotton
|John Cotton and Richard Mather
Cotton Mather, FRS (February 12, 1663 – February 13, 1728; A.B. 1678, Harvard College; A.M. 1681, honorary doctorate 1710, University of Glasgow) was a socially and politically influential New England Puritan minister, prolific author and pamphleteer. Noted for fostering the Salem witch trials, Cotton Mather also has a scientific legacy due to his hybridization experiments and his promotion of inoculation for disease prevention.
- 1 Biography
- 2 Smallpox inoculation controversy
- 3 Salem witch trials of 1692, The Mather Influence
- 4 Major works
- 5 Ficton
- 6 See also
- 7 Notes
- 8 References
- 9 External links
He was the son of Increase Mather, and grandson of both John Cotton and Richard Mather, all also prominent Puritan ministers. Mather was named after his maternal grandfather, John Cotton. He attended Boston Latin School, where his name was posthumously added to its Hall of Fame, and graduated from Harvard in 1678 at age 15. After completing his post-graduate work, he joined his father as assistant pastor of Boston's original North Church.[1] In 1685 Mather assumed full responsibilities as pastor at the Church.
Cotton Mather wrote more than 450 books and pamphlets, and his ubiquitous literary works made him one of the most influential religious leaders in America. Mather set the moral tone in the colonies, and sounded the call for second- and third-generation Puritans, whose parents had left England for the New England colonies of North America, to return to the theological roots of Puritanism.
The most important of these, Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), comprises seven distinct books, many of which depict biographical and historical narratives to which later American writers, such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Elizabeth Drew Stoddard, and Harriet Beecher Stowe, would look in describing the cultural significance of New England for later generations after the American Revolution. Mather's text thus is one of the more important documents in American history, because it reflects a particular tradition of seeing and understanding the significance of place. Mather, as a Puritan thinker and social conservative, drew on the language of the Bible to speak to contemporary audiences. In particular, Mather's review of the American experiment sought to explain signs of his time and the types of individuals drawn to the colonies as predicting the success of the venture. From his religious training, Mather viewed the importance of texts for elaborating meaning and for bridging different moments of history—linking, for instance, the Biblical stories of Noah and Abraham with the arrival of such eminent leaders as John Eliot; John Winthrop; and his own father, Increase Mather.
Through his writings the intellectual and physical struggles of first- through third-generation Puritans created an elevated appraisal in the minds of Americans about America's appointed place among other nations. The unease and self-deception that characterized that period of colonial history would be revisited in many forms at political and social moments of crisis (such as the Salem witch trials, which coincided with frontier warfare and economic competition among Indians and French and other European settlers) and during lengthy periods of cultural definition (such as the American Renaissance of the late 18th- and early 19th-century literary, visual, and architectural movements, which sought to capitalize on unique American identities).
Highly influential because of his prolific writing, Mather was a force to be reckoned with in secular, as well as in spiritual, matters. After the fall of James II of England, in 1688, Mather was among the leaders of the successful revolt against James's governor of the consolidated Dominion of New England, Sir Edmund Andros.
Cotton Mather was not known for writing in a neutral, unbiased perspective. Many, if not all, of his writings had bits and pieces of his own personal life in them or were written for personal reasons. According to literary historian Sacvan Bercovitch:[3]
Few puritans more loudly decried the bosom serpent of egotism than did Cotton Mather; none more clearly exemplified it. Explicitly or implicitly, he projects himself everywhere in his writings. In the most direct compensatory sense, he does so by using literature as a means of personal redress. He tells us that he composed his discussions of the family to bless his own, his essays on the riches of Christ to repay his benefactors, his tracts on morality to convert his enemies, his funeral discourses to console himself for the loss of a child, wife, or friend.
Mather also influenced early American science. In 1716, because of observations of corn varieties, he conducted one of the first recorded experiments with plant hybridization. This observation was memorialized in a letter to his friend James Petiver:[4]
First: my Friend planted a Row of Indian corn that was Coloured Red and Blue; the rest of the Field being planted with corn of the yellow, which is the most usual color. To the Windward side, this Red and Blue Row, so infected Three or Four whole Rows, as to communicate the same Colour unto them; and part of ye Fifth and some of ye Sixth. But to the Leeward Side, no less than Seven or Eight Rows, had ye same Colour communicated unto them; and some small Impressions were made on those that were yet further off.[5]
In November 1713, Mather's wife, newborn twins, and two-year-old daughter all succumbed during a measles epidemic.[6] Of Mather's three wives and 15 children, only his last wife and two children survived him. Mather was buried on Copp's Hill, near Old North Church.
Boyle's influence on Mather[edit]
A huge influence throughout Mather's career was Robert Boyle. While coming to terms with who he was, Mather read Robert Boyle's book The Usefulness of Experimental Natural Philosophy. Mather read Boyle's work closely throughout the 1680s and his early works on science and religion borrowed greatly from it. He even uses almost identical language to Boyle.[7]
Mather's relationship with his father and the after effects in Mather's Works[edit]
Cotton Mather's relationship with his well-known father, Increase Mather, is thought by some to have been a strained and difficult one. Increase Mather was a pastor of the Old North Church and president of Harvard College; he led an accomplished life that Cotton was determined to live up to. Despite Cotton Mather's efforts, he never became quite as well known and successful in politics as his father. He did surpass his father's output as a writer, writing over 400 books. One of the most public displays of their strained relationship emerged during the Salem Witch Trials. Despite the fact that Increase Mather did not support the trials, Cotton Mather documented them.[8] Cotton helped convince Elihu Yale to make a donation to a new college in New Haven that would come to be Yale College.[9]
Smallpox inoculation controversy[edit]
The practice of smallpox inoculation (as opposed to the later practice of vaccination) was developed possibly in 8th-century India[10] or 10th-century China.[11] Spreading its reach in seventeenth-century Turkey, inoculation or, rather, variolation, involved infecting a person through a cut in the skin with exudate from a patient with a relatively mild case of smallpox (variola), in order to bring about a manageable and recoverable infection that would provide later immunity.
By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Royal Society in England was discussing the practice of inoculation, and the smallpox epidemic in 1713 spurred further interest.[12] It was not until 1721, however, that England recorded its first case of inoculation.
Early New England[edit]
Smallpox was a serious threat in colonial America, most devastating to Native Americans, but also to Anglo-American settlers. New England suffered smallpox epidemics in 1677, 1689–90, and 1702.[13] It was highly contagious, and mortality could reach as high as 30 percent or more.[14]
Boston had been plagued by smallpox outbreaks in 1690 and 1702. During this era, public authorities in Massachusetts dealt with the threat primarily by means of quarantine. Incoming ships were quarantined in Boston harbor, and any smallpox patients in town were held under guard or in a "pesthouse."[15]
In 1706 his slave, Onesimus, explained to Cotton Mather how he had been inoculated as a child in Africa. Mather was fascinated by the idea. By July 1716, Mather had read an endorsement of inoculation by Dr. Emanuel Timonius of Constantinople in the Philosophical Transactions. Mather then declared, in a letter to Dr. John Woodward of Gresham College in London, that he planned to press Boston's doctors to adopt the practice of inoculation should smallpox reach the colony again.[16]
By 1721, a whole generation of young Bostonians was vulnerable and memories of the last epidemic's horrors had by and large disappeared.[17] On April 22 of that year, the HMS Seahorse arrived from the West Indies carrying smallpox on board. Despite attempts to protect the town through quarantine, eight known cases of smallpox appeared in Boston by May 27, and by mid-June, the disease was spreading at an alarming rate. As a new wave of smallpox hit the area and continued to spread, many residents fled to outlying rural settlements. The combination of exodus, quarantine, and outside traders' fears disrupted business in the capital of the Bay Colony for weeks. Guards were stationed at the House of Representatives to keep Bostonians from entering without special permission. The death toll reached 101 in September, and the Selectmen, powerless to stop it, "severely limited the length of time funeral bells could toll."[18] As one response, legislators delegated a thousand pounds from the treasury to help the people who, under these conditions, could no longer support their families.
On June 6, 1721, Mather sent an abstract of reports on inoculation by Timonius and Jacobus Pylarinus to local physicians, urging them to consult about the matter. He received no response. Next, Mather pleaded his case to Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, who tried the procedure on his only son and two slaves—one grown and one a boy. All recovered in about a week. Boylston inoculated seven more people by mid-July.
The epidemic peaked in October 1721, with 411 deaths; by February 26, 1722, Boston was, once again, free of smallpox. The total number of cases since April 1721 came to 5,889, with 844 deaths—more than three-quarters of all the deaths in Boston during 1721.[19] Meanwhile, Dr. Boylston had inoculated 242 people, with only six resulting in death.
Inoculation debate[edit]
Boylston and Mather's inoculation crusade "raised a horrid Clamour"[20] amongst the people of Boston. Both Boylston and Mather were "Object[s] of their Fury; their furious Obloquies and Invectives," which Mather acknowledges in his diary. Boston's Selectmen, consulting a doctor who claimed that the practice caused many deaths and only spread the infection, forbade Boylston from performing it again.[21]
The New-England Courant published writers who opposed the practice. The editorial stance was that the Boston populace feared that inoculation spread, rather than prevented, the disease; however, some historians, notably H. W. Brands, have argued that this position was a result of editor-in-chief James Franklin's (Benjamin Franklin's brother) contrarian positions.[22]
Public discourse ranged in tone from organized arguments by Reverend John Williams from Boston, who posted that "several arguments proving that inoculating the smallpox is not contained in the law of Physick, either natural or divine, and therefore unlawful,"[23] to more slanderous attacks, such as those put forth in a pamphlet by Dr. William Douglass of Boston entitled The Abuses and Scandals of Some Late Pamphlets in Favour of Inoculation of the Small Pox (1721), on the qualifications of inoculation's proponents. (Douglass was exceptional at the time for holding a medical degree from Europe.) At the extreme, in November 1721, someone hurled a lighted grenade into Cotton Mather's house.[18]
Medical opposition[edit]
Several opponents of smallpox inoculation, among them John Williams, stated that there were only two laws of physick (medicine): sympathy and antipathy. In his estimation, inoculation was neither a sympathy toward a wound or a disease, or an antipathy toward one, but the creation of one. For this reason, its practice violated the natural laws of medicine, transforming health care practitioners into those who harm rather than heal.[24]
As with many colonists, Williams' Puritan beliefs were enmeshed in every aspect of his life, and he used the Bible to state his case. He quoted Matthew 9:12 when Jesus said: "It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick."
In contrast, Dr. William Douglass proposed a more secular argument against inoculation, stressing the importance of reason over passion and urging the public to be pragmatic in their choices. In addition, he demanded that ministers leave the practice of medicine to physicians, and not meddle in areas where they lacked expertise. According to Douglass, smallpox inoculation was "a medical experiment of consequence," one not to be undertaken lightly. He believed that not all learned individuals were qualified to doctor others, and while ministers took on several roles in the early years of the colony, including that of caring for the sick, they were now expected to stay out of state and civil affairs.
Douglass also felt that inoculation caused more deaths than it prevented. The only reason Cotton Mather had success in it, he said, was because Mather had used it on children, who are naturally more resilient. Douglass vowed to always speak out against "the wickedness of spreading infection."[25]
Speak out he did: "The battle between these two prestigious adversaries [Douglass and Mather] lasted far longer than the epidemic itself, and the literature accompanying the controversy was both vast and venomous."[26] In the end, Douglass grew to accept inoculation, but he stood his ground on the need for professional standards.
Puritan resistance[edit]
Generally, Puritan pastors favored the inoculation experiments. For example, Cotton's father Increase Mather was joined by prominent Puritan pastors Benjamin Colman and William Cooper in openly propagating the use of inoculations.[27] "One of the classic assumptions of the Puritan mind was that the will of God was to be discerned in nature as well as in revelation."[28] Nevertheless Williams questioned whether the smallpox "is not one of the strange works of God; and whether inoculation of it be not a fighting with the most High." He also asked his readers if the smallpox epidemic may have been given to them by God as "punishment for sin," and warned that attempting to shield themselves from God's fury (via inoculation), would only serve to "provoke him more."[29] The Puritans found meaning in affliction, and they did not yet know why God was showing them disfavor through smallpox. Not to address their errant ways before attempting a cure could set them back in their "errand."
Many Puritans believed that creating a wound and inserting poison was doing violence and therefore was antithetical to the healing art. They grappled with adhering to the Ten Commandments, with being proper church members and good caring neighbors. The apparent contradiction between harming or murdering a neighbor through inoculation and the Sixth Commandment--"thou shalt not kill"—seemed insoluble and hence stood as one of the main objections against the procedure.[citation?]
Williams maintained that because the subject of inoculation could not be found in the Bible, it was not the will of God, and therefore "unlawful."[30] He also explained that inoculation violated The Golden Rule, because if one neighbor voluntarily infected another with disease, he was not doing unto others as he would have done to him. With the Bible as the Puritans' source for all decision-making, lack of scriptural evidence concerned many, and Williams vocally scorned Rev. Mather for not being able to reference an inoculation edict directly from the Bible.[31] Obviously, Mather, the Puritan pastor, disagreed and most, if not all, Puritan pastors stood with Mather.
Inoculation defended[edit]
With the smallpox epidemic catching speed and racking up a staggering death toll, a solution to the crisis was becoming more urgently needed by the day. The use of quarantine and various other efforts, such as balancing the body's humors, did not slow the disease's spread. As news rolled in from town to town and correspondence arrived from overseas, reports of horrific stories of suffering and loss due to smallpox stirred mass panic among the people. "By circa 1700, smallpox had become among the most devastating of epidemic diseases circulating in the Atlantic world."[14]
Cotton Mather strongly challenged the perception that inoculation was against the will of God and argued that the procedure was not outside of Puritan principles. He wrote that "whether a Christian may not employ this Medicine (let the matter of it be what it will) and humbly give Thanks to God's good Providence in discovering of it to a miserable World; and humbly look up to His Good Providence (as we do in the use of any other Medicine) It may seem strange, that any wise Christian cannot answer it. And how strangely do Men that call themselves Physicians betray their Anatomy, and their Philosophy, as well as their Divinity in their invectives against this Practice?"[32] The Puritan minister began to embrace the sentiment that smallpox was an inevitability for anyone, both the good and the wicked, yet God had provided them with the means to save themselves. Mather reported that, from his view, "none that have used it ever died of the Small Pox, tho at the same time, it were so malignant, that at least half the People died, that were infected With it in the Common way."[33]
While Cotton Mather was experimenting with the procedure, prominent Puritan pastors Benjamin Colman and William Cooper expressed public and theological support for them.[34] The practice of smallpox inoculation was eventually accepted by the general population due to first-hand experiences and personal relationships. Although many were initially wary of the concept, it was because people were able to witness the procedure's consistently positive results, within their own community of ordinary citizens, that it became widely utilized and supported. One important change in the practice after 1721 was regulated quarantine of inoculees.[35]
Inoculation visibly and directly aided man's control of the disease, the level of infection, mortality rates and the spreading of the epidemic. Planned inoculation led to better observation of the body's responses and allowed people the ability to time the onset of the pox and control the disease's intensity. For example, by inoculating in the months of milder climate, one had a better chance of fighting the infection and becoming immune instead of the alternative: natural exposure to the disease during harsher weather, when the body's defenses were already challenged.
Additionally, by the 1750s, innovations and experience with inoculation focused on better insertion of pox fluid and preparation of body to withstand the disease. By controlling the point and time of infection, bodies could be conditioned to optimal state before contracting smallpox, therefore providing a better opportunity to fight and achieve immunity. Dependent upon a person's constitution, by adhering to a specific diet or purging, one could physically handle the infection more successfully. It was also discovered that inoculation produced less scarring and physical defects than a common, naturally contracted case.[citation needed]
The aftermath[edit]
Although Cotton Mather and Dr. Boylston were able to demonstrate the efficacy of the practice, the debate over inoculation would continue even beyond the epidemic of 1721–22. After overcoming considerable difficulty and achieving notable success, Boylston traveled to London in 1725 where he published his results and was elected to the Royal Society in 1726.
The responses of the Boston clergymen to the reproaches put forth by the anti-inoculation camp highlighted seminal changes the Puritan church was undergoing at the time. By prescribing recent advances in medicine, the Boston ministers modified the doctrine of theological pathogenesis in an attempt to maintain the old order according to which it was the clergy's duty and privilege to interpret illnesses and their cures. However, the contradiction of simultaneously upholding tradition and embracing innovations was impossible to resolve and, as a consequence, the clergy continued to lose influence over secular affairs in eighteenth-century New England.
In the end, lives were saved by inoculation, and the epidemic was halted. Even today, the procedure is credited with ending the devastation caused by the early epidemics, and vaccination, in many ways an updated and modernized form of the procedure, continues to be recommended by the Centers for Disease Control for at-risk populations, such as potential victims of bioterrorism, and research scientists who work with surviving strains of the virus.
Salem witch trials of 1692, The Mather Influence[edit]
Mather's contemporary critic, Robert Calef, considered him responsible for laying the very groundwork that inspired the Salem witch trials:[36]
Mr Cotton Mather was the most active and forward of any Minister in the Country in those matters [the Goodwin children and Goody Glover],[37] taking home one of the Children, and managing such intrigues with that Child, and after printing such an account of the whole, in his Memorable Provinces [published in 1689], as conduced much to the kindling of those Flames, that in Sir Williams time [i.e. Salem Witch Trials] threatened the devouring of this Country."[38]
The historian Charles Wentworth Upham, writing in 1869 says that both Mathers "are answerable... more than almost any other... for the opinions of their time. It was indeed a superstitious age, but made much more so by their operations, influence, and writings, beginning with Increase Mather's movement at the assembly of Ministers in 1681 and ending with Cotton Mather's dealings with the Goodwin children, and the account thereof which he printed [1689] and circulated far and wide."[39] Upham refers to the afflicted in Salem as the "imitators" of the Goodwin children.[40]
Mather was influential in the construction of the court for the trials from the beginning. Sir William Phips, governor of the newly chartered Province of Massachusetts Bay, appointed his lieutenant governor, William Stoughton, as head of a special witchcraft tribunal and then as chief justice of the colonial courts, where he presided over the witch trials. According to Bancroft, Mather had been influential in gaining politically unpopular Stoughton his appointment as lieutenant governor under Phips by appealing to his politically powerful father, Increase Mather. "Intercession had been made by Cotton Mather for the advancement of William Stoughton, a man of cold affections, proud, self-willed and covetous of distinction."[41]:83 Apparently Mather saw in Stoughton an ally for church-related matters. Bancroft quotes Mather's reaction to Stoughton's appointment as follows:
"The time for a favor is come," exulted Cotton Mather; "Yea, the set time is come.[41]:84
Mather claims he did not attend the trials in Salem (though his father attended the trial of George Burroughs). Two contemporaries—Thomas Brattle and Robert Calef—place him at executions (see below). Mather began to publicize and celebrate the trials well before they were put to an end: "If in the midst of the many Dissatisfaction among us, the publication of these Trials may promote such a pious Thankfulness unto God, for Justice being so far executed among us, I shall Re-joyce that God is Glorified..." (Wonders of the Invisible World). He calls himself a historian not an advocate, but writes in such a way that clearly presumes the guilt of the accused and adding insults e.g. calling Martha Carrier a rampant hag (Wonders of the Invisible World).
Use of spectral evidence[edit]
Mather's most fatal influence over the trials was in composing the answer to the question of whether or not to allow spectral evidence, that is, allowing the afflicted girls to claim that some invisible ghost of the defendant was tormenting them, and for this to be considered evidence of witchcraft by the defendant, even if the defendant denied it and professed their own strongly held Christian beliefs. An opinion on the matter was sought from the most esteemed ministers of the area and Cotton Mather took credit for their response when anonymously celebrating himself years later: "drawn up at their desire, by Cotton Mather the younger, as I have been informed." (Book of The Life of Sir William Phips first published anonymously in London in 1697) And Mather then included the letter, but, for his own reasons (surely not brevity, Magnalia is huge) left out the first, second, and eighth sections, which would seem most encouraging to the judges to carry-on with their work.
The original full version of the letter, called Return of the Several Ministers dated June 15, 1692, and had already been reprinted in the fall 1692 in the final two pages of Increase Mather's Cases of Conscience. It is a curious document and remains a source of confusion and argument. Calef calls it "perfectly Ambidexter, giving as great as greater Encouragement to proceed in those dark methods, then cautions against them... indeed the Advice then given, looks most like a thing of his Composing, as carrying both Fire to increase and Water to quench the Conflagration." Regarding his view on Spectral evidence, Upham concludes that "Cotton Mather never in any public writing 'denounced the admission' of it, never advised its absolute exclusion; but on the contrary recognized it as a ground of 'presumption' ...[and once admitted] nothing could stand against it. Character, reason, common sense, were swept away."[39] Allowing such evidence resulted in the shrieking circus that the trials became.
The S. G. [Salem Gentlemen] will by no means allow, that any are brought in guilty, and condemned, by virtue of spectre Evidence... but whether it is not purely by virtue of these spectre evidences, that these persons are found guilty, (considering what before has been said,) I leave you, and any man of sense, to judge and determine.— Thomas Brattle, October 8, 1692 [42]
The later rejection of Spectral evidence in the trials of January 1693 resulted in no convictions.[39]
Bancroft notes that Mather considered witches "among the poor, and vile, and ragged beggars upon Earth,"[41]:85 and Bancroft asserts that Mather considered the people against the witch trials to be witch advocates.[41]:85
Calef places Mather at the scene of the execution of Mr. Burroughs (and four others who were killed after Mather spoke) and shows him playing a direct and influential role:
Mr. Buroughs was carried in a Cart with others, through the streets of Salem, to Execution. When he was upon the Ladder, he made a speech for the clearing of his Innocency, with such Solemn and Serious Expressions as were to the Admiration of all present; his Prayer (which he concluded by repeating the Lord's Prayer) [as witches were not supposed to be able to recite] was so well worded, and uttered with such composedness as such fervency of spirit, as was very Affecting, and drew Tears from many, so that if seemed to some that the spectators would hinder the execution. The accusers said the black Man [Devil] stood and dictated to him. As soon as he was turned off [hung], Mr. Cotton Mather, being mounted upon a Horse, addressed himself to the People, partly to declare that he [Mr. Burroughs] was no ordained Minister, partly to possess the People of his guilt, saying that the devil often had been transformed into the Angel of Light. And this did somewhat appease the People, and the Executions went on; when he [Mr. Burroughs] was cut down, he was dragged by a Halter to a Hole, or Grave, between the Rocks, about two feet deep; his Shirt and Breeches being pulled off, and an old pair of Trousers of one Executed put on his lower parts: he was so put in, together with Willard and Carrier, that one of his Hands, and his Chin, and a Foot of one of them, was left uncovered.—Robert Calef
In the years after the trials, Cotton Mather remained unrepentant for his role. Of the principal actors in the trial, whose lives are recorded after, only Cotton Mather and his ally William Stoughton never admitted any guilt.[41]:98 Indeed, in the years after the trial Mather became an increasingly vehement defender of the trial. At the request of then Lt.-Gov. William Stoughton, Mather wrote Wonders of the Invisible World written during the trials and published in 1693.[43]:67 The book contained a few of Mather's sermons, the conditions of the colony and a description of witch trials in Europe.[44]:335 Mather somewhat clarified the contradictory advice he had given in Return of the Several Ministers, by defending the use of spectral evidence.[37]:209 Wonders of the Invisible World appeared at the same time as Increase Mather's Cases of Conscience."[45]:455 Cotton Mather did not sign his name or support his father's book initially, and seemed more concerned with blow-back on himself and the judges than ensuring the protection of the innocent:
There are fourteen worthy ministers that have newly set their hands unto a book now in the press, containing Cases of Conscience about Witchcraft. I did, in my Conscience think, that as the humors of this people now run, such a discourse going alone would not only enable the witch-advocates, very learnedly to cavil and nibble at the late proceedings against the witches, considered in parcels, while things as they lay in bulk, with their whole dependencies, were not exposed; but also everlastingly stifle any further proceedings of justice & more than so produce a public & open contest with the judges who would (tho beyond the intention of the worthy author & subscribers) find themselves brought unto the before the rashest mobile. [mob]
--Oct. 20, 1692 letter to his uncle John Cotton
The last event in Cotton Mather's involvement with witchcraft was his attempt to cure Mercy Short and Margaret Rule.[47]:202 Boston merchant Robert Calef began his eight-year campaign against the influential Mathers.[45]:455 Calef's book was inspired by the fear that Mather would succeed in once again stirring up new witchcraft trials, and the need to bear witness to the horrible experiences of New Englanders in 1692. He quotes the public apologies of the men on the jury and one of the judges. Upon reading Calef's More Wonders of the Invisible World, Increase Mather publicly burned the book in Harvard Yard.[47]:22
19th Century Revision of Cotton Mather, Poole vs. Upham[edit]
In 1869, William Frederick Poole quoted from various school textbooks of the time demonstrating they were in agreement on Cotton Mather's role in the Witch Trials:
"If anyone imagines that we are stating the case too strongly, let him try an experiment with the first bright boy he meets by asking,..
'Who got up Salem Witchcraft?'...he will reply, 'Cotton Mather'. Let him try another boy.....
'Who was Cotton Mather?' and the answer will come, 'The man who was on horseback, and hung witches.'"[48]
Poole was not a historian, but a famous librarian, and a lover of literature, including Mather's Magnalia "and other books and tracts, numbering nearly 400 [which] were never so prized by collectors as today." Poole announces his intention to redeem Mather's name, using as a springboard a harsh critique of a recently published tome by Charles Wentworth Upham called "Salem Witchcraft Volumes I and II With an Account of Salem Village and a History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects." Upham's book runs to almost 1,000 pages and a quick search of the name Mather (referring to either father, son, or ancestors) shows that it occurs 96 times; Poole's critique, in book form, runs less than 70 pages but the name "Mather" occurs many times that. Upham shows a balanced and complicated view of Cotton Mather such as this first mention: "One of Cotton Mather's most characteristic productions is the tribute to his venerated master. It flows from a heart warm with gratitude." Upham's book refers to Robert Calef 25 times with the majority of these regarding documents compiled by Calef in the mid-1690s and stating: "Although zealously devoted to the work of exposing the enormities connected with the witchcraft prosecutions, there is no ground to dispute the veracity of Calef as to matters of fact." He goes on to say that Calef's collection of writings "gave a shock to Mather's influence, from which it never recovered." Thus, Poole's critique might better be understood as aimed at Calef, Mather's contemporary, who saw fit to ascribe to him, and his influence, the largest portion of blame.
Calef produced only the one book; he is self-effacing and apologetic for his limitations, and on the title page he is listed not as author but "collector". Poole, champion of literature, cannot accept Calef whose "faculties, as indicated by his writings appear to us to have been of an inferior order;..." and his book "in our opinon, has a reputation much beyond its merits." Poole refers to Calef as Mather's "personal enemy" and opens a line, "Without discussing the character and motives of Calef..." and he does not follow up on this suggestiveness, to discuss any motive or reason to impune Calef's character.
Upham responded to Poole in a book running five times as long and sharing the same title (referring to Poole as "the Reviewer.") Many of Poole's arguments were addressed, but both authors emphasize the importance of Cotton Mather's difficult and contradictory view on spectral evidence, as copied in the final pages of Increase Mather's "Cases of Conscience" called "The Return of Several Ministers."
In 1914, the historian George Lincoln Burr sided with Upham in a note on Thomas Brattle's letter, "The strange suggestion of W. F. Poole that Brattle here means Cotton Mather himself, is adequately answered by Upham..." Burr also reprinted Calef in full and dug deep into the historical record for information on the man and concludes "...that he had else any grievance against the Mathers or their colleagues there is no reason to think." Burr finds that a comparison between Calef's work and original documents in the historical record collections "testify to the care and exactness..."
20th century and ongoing revision[edit]
Poole's views have found followers and the revision of Cotton Mather continues, while Calef's book is arguably less well-known.
Chadwick Hansen's Witchcraft at Salem, published in 1969, defined Mather as a positive influence on the Salem Trials. Hansen considered Mather's handling of the Goodwin Children to be sane and temperate.[37]:168 Hansen also noted that Mather was more concerned with helping the affected children than witch-hunting.[37]:60 Mather treated the affected children through prayer and fasting.[37]:24
Mather tried to convert the Catholic Goodwife Glover before she was executed, accused of practicing witchcraft on the Goodwin children.[37]:24 Hansen claimed Mather acted as a moderating influence in the trials by opposing the death penalty for those who confessed—or feigned confession—such as Tituba and Dorcas Good.[37]:123 Most interesting was Mather's decision not to tell the community of the others whom Goodwife Glover claimed practiced witchcraft.[37]:23 Robert Calef's observation of Mather's dealings with Margaret Rule suggested Mather's motivation for keeping quiet was blackmail, with Mather perceived as drawing information from her through leading questions, and possibly having a prurient interest--"Smutty" in Mather's words—in his intimate dealings with afflicted young women. Hansen also claims that most negative impressions of Cotton Mather stem from his defense of the ongoing trials in Wonders of the Invisible World. After others had lamented the roles they played in the executions of nineteen and imprisonment of hundreds, Mather remained the chief defender of the trials, which diminishes the view of him as a moderate influence.[37]:189
Historian Bernard Rosenthal laments that Mather is so often portrayed as the rabid witch hunter.[49]:169 Rosenthal suggests that Mather might have had guilty feelings—feigned or not—for choosing not to restrain the judges during the trial, though he was in the best position to do so.[49]:202 Historian Larry Gragg highlights Mather's cloudy thinking and confusion between sympathy for the possessed, and the boundlessness of spectral evidence when Mather stated, "the devil have sometimes represented the shapes of persons not only innocent, but also the very virtuous."[50]:88 And writing in the early 1980s, historian John Demos seemed to consider Mather a moderating influence on the trials.[51]:305
Major works[edit]
- "Boston Ephermeris" (1686)
- Ornaments for the Daughters of Zion (1692)
- Wonders of the Invisible World (1693)
- The Biblia Americana (1693–1728)
- Decennium Luctuosom: a History of the Long War (1699)
- Pillars of Salt (1699)
- Magnalia Christi Americana (1702)
- The Negro Christianized (1706)
- Corderius Americanus: A Discourse on the Good Education of Children (1708)
- Bonifacius (1710)
- Theopolis Americana: An Essay on the Golden Street of the Holy City (1710)
- The Christian Philosopher (1721)
- Manductio ad Ministerium (1726)
Boston Ephemeris[edit]
The Boston Ephemeris was an almanac written by Mather in 1686. The content was similar to what is known today as the Farmer's Almanac. This was particularly important because it shows that Cotton Mather had influence in mathematics during the time of Puritan New England. This almanac contained a significant amount of astronomy, celestial within the text of the Almanac the positions and motions of these celestial bodies, which he must have calculated by hand.[52]
The Biblia Americana[edit]
When Cotton Mather died, he had an abundance of unfinished writings left behind, including one entitled The Biblia Americana. Mather believed that Biblia Americana was the best thing he had ever written, believing it to be his masterwork (Hovey 533).
Biblia Americana contained Cotton Mather's thoughts and opinions on the Bible and how he interpreted it. Biblia Americana is incredibly large and Mather worked on it from 1693–1728, when he died. Mather tried to convince others that philosophy and science could work together with religion instead of against it. People did not have to choose one or the other and in Biblia Americana Mather looked at the Bible through a scientific perspective, the complete opposite of when he wrote The Christian Philosopher, in which he decided to approach science in a religious manner (Smolinski 280–281).
Pillars of Salt[edit]
The Puritan execution sermon, preached on the occasion of a public hanging, then quickly printed up in pamphlet form and sold for a few pence, was an early form of true-crime literature. Mather's first published sermon, which appeared in 1686, concerned the crime and punishment of James Morgan, a reprobate who in a drunken rage impaled a man with an iron spit. Thirteen years later, following the execution of a Boston woman named Sarah Threeneedles for killing her baby, Mather issued Pillars of Salt. This compilation of a dozen accounts (half of which, including the case of Morgan, had been previously published) stands as a landmark work, a Puritan precursor of the true-crime miscellanies that, stripped of all religious intent, would become a staple of the genre in subsequent centuries. In 2008 The Library of America reprinted the entirety of Pillars of Salt in its two-century retrospective of American True Crime.
Magnalia Christi Americana[edit]
Magnalia Christi Americana, considered Mather's greatest work, was published in 1702, when he was 39. The book includes several biographies of saints,[vague] and describes the process of the New England settlement.(Meyers 23–24) It is composed of seven total books, including Pietas in Patriam: the life of His Excellency Sir William Phips, originally published anonymously in London in 1697. Despite being one of Mather's most well-known works, many have openly criticized it[by whom?], labeling it as hard to follow and understand, and poorly paced and organized. However, other critics have praised Mather's works, believing it to be one of the best efforts at properly documenting the establishment of America and growth of the people (Halttunen 311).
The Christian Philosopher[edit]
In 1721 The Christian Philosopher was published. Written by Mather, it was the first systematic book on science published in America. Mather attempted to show how Newtonian science and religion were in harmony. It was in part based on Robert Boyle's The Christian Virtuoso (1690).[13]
Mather also took inspiration from Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, a philosophical novel by Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail (whom he refers to as "Abubekar"), a 12th-century Islamic philosopher. Despite condemning the 'Mahometans' as infidels, he viewed the protagonist of the novel, Hayy, as a model for his ideal Christian philosopher and monotheistic scientist. Mather also viewed Hayy as a noble savage and applied this in the context of attempting to understand the Native American Indians in order to convert them to Puritan Christianity.[14]
Cotton Mather is played by Seth Gabel (as Reverend Cotton Mather) in the 2014 TV series Salem.
See also[edit]
- ^ (not to be confused with the Anglican/Episcopal Old North Church)
- ^ State Street Trust Company. Forty of Boston's historic houses. 1912.
- ^ Bercovitch 1972, p. 106
- ^ Zirkle 1935, p. 104
- ^ Zirkle 1935, p. 105
- ^ Hostetter, Margaret Kendrick (April 5, 2012). "What We Don't See". The New England Journal of Medicine 366: 1328–34. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1111421. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ Middlekauff, Robert. The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596–1728. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1999. Print.
- ^ Hovey 531-2
- ^ http://www.yale.edu/opa/arc-ybc/v27.n28/story3.html
- ^ Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in History. ISBN 0-226-35168-8. Page 140.
- ^ Needham, Joseph. (2000). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 6, Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.154
- ^ Blake 1952, 489–90
- ^ Aronson and Newman 2002
- ^ a b Gronim 2007, 248
- ^ Blake 1952, 489
- ^ Blake 1952, 490–91
- ^ Winslow 1974, 24–29
- ^ a b Blake 1952, 495
- ^ Blake 1952, 496
- ^ Mather, Diary, 11, 628
- ^ Blake 1952, 493
- ^ The Smallpox Inoculation Hospital at St. Pancras. Bl.uk (2003-11-30). Retrieved on 2013-07-15.
- ^ Williams, 1721
- ^ Williams, 1721 13
- ^ Douglass 1722, 11
- ^ Van de Wetering 1985, 46
- ^ according to Stout, The New England Soul, 102
- ^ Alan Heimert, Religion and the American Mind, 5
- ^ Williams 1721, 4
- ^ Williams 1721, 2
- ^ Williams 1721, 14
- ^ Mather 1721, 25.15
- ^ Mather 1721, 2
- ^ William Cooper, "A Letter from a Friend in the Country, Attempting a Solution of the Scruples and Objections of a Conscientious or Religious Nature, Commonly Made Against the New Way of Receiving the Small Pox" (Boston: S. Kneeland, 1721), 6–7. Apparently Cooper, also a minister, wrote this in cooperation with Colman because nearly the same response to the objections to inoculation is published under Colman's name as the last chapter to "A Narrative of the Method and Success of Inoculating the Small Pox in New England" (1722).
- ^ Van de Wetering 1985, 66, n.55
- ^ Calef, Robert, p. 152
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Chadwick Hansen (1969). Witchcraft at Salem. New York: George Braziller, Inc. ISBN 0-451-61947-1.
- ^ Calef, Robert (1700). More Wonders of the Invisible World. London England: Nath Hillar on London Bridge. p. 156.
- ^ a b c Charles Upham (1859). Salem Witchcraft. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. ISBN 0-548-15034-6.
- ^ Upham, Charles Wentworth (1869). Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather. Morrisania, N.Y. p. 603.
- ^ a b c d e George Bancroft (1874–1878). History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent. Boston: Little, Brown, and company. ISBN 0-665-61404-7.
- ^ Burr, George Lincoln. Narrative of Witchcraft Cases 1648–1706. University of Virginia Library: Electronic Text Center.
- ^ Babette Levy (1979). Cotton Mather. Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0-8057-7261-8.
- ^ Wendel D. Craker (1997). Spectral Evidence, Non-Spectral acts of Witchcraft, and Confessions at Salem in 1692,. Vol. 40, No. 2: The Historical Journal.
- ^ a b Elaine G. Breslaw (2000). Witches of the Atlantic World: A Historical Reader & Primary Sourcebook. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-9850-0.
- ^ Thomas James Holmes, Cotton Mather A Bibliography of His Works, Crofton Pub. Corp. 1974
- ^ a b Richard F. Lovelace (1979). The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism. Washington D.C: Christian College Consortium. ISBN 0-8028-1750-5.
- ^ Poole, William Frederick (1869). Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft. Cambridge: University Press: Welch, Bigelow, & Co. p. 67.
- ^ a b Bernard Rosenthal (1993). Salem Story. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44061-0.
- ^ Larry Gregg (1992). The Salem Witch Crisis. New York: Praeger Publishers.
- ^ John Demos (2004). Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503131-8.
- ^ Burdick, Bruce. "Mathematical Works Printed in the Americas, 1554–1700". Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
- Aronson, Stanley M., and Lucile Newman (2002) God Have Mercy on This House: Being a Brief Chronicle of Smallpox in Colonial New England from Brown University News Service.
- Bercovitch, Sacvan. "Cotton Mather." Major Writers of Early American Literature Ed. Everett Emerson. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1972.
- Blake, John B. "The Inoculation Controversy in Boston: 1721–1722." The New England Quarterly 25:4 (Dec. 1952), pp. 489–506.
- Boylston, Zabdiel. An Historical Account of the Small-pox Inoculated in New England. London: S. Chandler, 1726.
- Burdick, Bruce (2009). Mathematical Works Printed in the Americas 1554–1700. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 0-8018-8823-9.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Vaccinia (Smallpox) Vaccine Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2001; http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5010a1.htm.
- Douglass, William. The Abuses and Scandals of Some Late Pamphlets in Favor of Inoculation of the Small Pox, Boston: J. Franklin, 1722.
- Felker, Christopher D. Reinventing Cotton Mather in the American Renaissance: Magnalia Christi Americana in Hawthorne, Stowe, and Stoddard (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), ISBN 1-55553-187-3
- Gronim, Sara Stidstone. "Imagining Inoculation: Smallpox, the Body, and Social Relations of Healing in the Eighteenth Century." Bulletin of the History of Medicine 80 (2006), pp. 247–268.
- Halttunen, Karen (1978) Cotton Mather and the Meaning of Suffering in the Magnalia Christi Americana Journal of American Studies 12(3): 311–329, link via Jstor.
- Hovey, Kenneth Alan. "Cotton Mather: 1663–1728." Heath Anthology of American Literature: Vol A Ed. Paul Lauter. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2009. 531–533.
- Lovelace, Richard F. The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism, (Grand Rapids, Mich.: American University Press, 1979), ISBN 0-8028-1750-5
- Mather, Cotton. Diary. Massachusetts Historical Society, Collections, ser. vii, vol. vii–viii, 1911–1912.
- Mather, Increase (1692) Cases of Conscience from University of Virginia Special Collections Library.
- Meyers, Karen. Colonialism and the Revolutionary Period (Beginning-1800): American Literature in its Historical, Cultural, and Social Contexts. DWJ Books LLC: New York, 2006.
- Middlekauff, Robert. The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596–1728, ISBN 0-520-21930-9
- Monaghan, E. Jennifer (2005,7) Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America, ISBN 978-1-55849-581-4
- Montagu, Mary Wortley. Letters of the Right Honourable Lady M—y W—y M----e. 3 vols. London: T. Becket and P.A. De Hondt, 1763.
- Silverman, Kenneth. The Life and Times of Cotton Mather, ISBN 1-56649-206-8
- Smolinski, Reiner. The Threefold Paradise of Cotton Mather: An Edition of 'Triparadisus'. Athens and London: University of Georgia Press, 1995, ISBN 0-8203-1519-2 online
- Smolinski, Reiner. "Authority and Interpretation: Cotton Mather's Response to the European Spinozists," in, Shaping the Stuart World, 1603–1714: The Atlantic Connection. Eds. Arthur Williamson and Allan MacInnes. Leyden: Brill, 2006: 175–203
- Smolinski, Reiner. "How to Go to Heaven, or How Heaven Goes: Natural Science and Interpretation in Cotton Mather's Biblia Americana (1690–1728)," in, The New England Quarterly 81.2 (June 2008): 278–329
- Smolinski, Reiner. Biblia Americana: Cotton Mather, Volume 1: Genesis. Edited, with an Introduction and Annotations, by Reiner Smolinski (Grand Rapids and Tuebingen: Baker Academic and Mohr Siebeck, 2010), ISBN 978-0-8010-3900-3
- Smolinski, Reiner. "How to Go to Heaven, or How to Heaven Goes? Natural Science and Interpretation in Cotton Mather's Biblia Americana (1693–1728)" The New England Quarterly 81.2 (2008) 278–329. 3 November 2009. MIT Press Journals Longwood University Library, Farmville, VA
- Upham, Charles Wentworth (1869) Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather, A Reply, Morrisania, Bronx, link from Project Gutenberg.
- Van De Wetering, Maxine. "A Reconsideration of the Inoculation Controversy." The New England Quarterly 58:1 (March 1985), pp. 46–67.
- Barrett Wendell, Cotton Mather, the Puritan priest, New York, Dodd, Mead and company, 1891.
- White, Andrew (2010) Zabdiel Boylston and Innoculation from Today In Science History.
- Williams, John. Several Arguments Proving that Inoculating the Smallpox is not Contained in the Law of Physick, Boston: J. Franklin, 1721.
- Winslow, Ola Elizabeth. A Destroying Angel: The Conquest of Smallpox in Colonial Boston Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974.
- Zirkle, Conway. The beginnings of plant hybridization. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1935.
External links[edit]
|Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Cotton Mather
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cotton Mather.
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Cotton Mather
- Works by Cotton Mather at Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Cotton Mather at Internet Archive
- Cotton Mather's writings
- Mather's influential commentary on the "collegiate way of living"
- The Wonders of the Invisible World (1693 edition) in PDF format
- The Threefold Paradise of Cotton Mather: An Edition of "Triparadisus" in PDF format
- Cotton Mather's "~Resolved~" is A Puritan Father's Lesson Plan.
- Works by or about Cotton Mather in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Salem Witchcraft and Cotton Mather by Charles Wentworth Upham at Project Gutenberg
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