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Ozone ( /ˈoʊzoʊn/; O3), or trioxygen, is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope (O2), breaking down in the lower atmosphere to normal dioxygen. Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges, and is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere. In total, ozone makes up only 0.6 parts per million of the atmosphere.
Ozone was proposed as a new substance in air in 1840, and named, even before its chemical nature was known, after the Greek verb ozein (ὄζειν, "to smell"), from the peculiar odor after lightning storms. Ozone's odor is sharp, reminiscent of chlorine, and detectable by many people at concentrations of as little as 10 parts per billion in air. Ozone's O3 formula was determined in 1865. The molecule was later proven to have a bent structure and to be diamagnetic. In standard conditions, ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at progressively cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black solid. Ozone's instability with regard to more common dioxygen is such that both concentrated gas and liquid ozone may decompose explosively. It is therefore used commercially only in low concentrations.
Ozone is a powerful oxidant (far more so than dioxygen) and has many industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation. This same high oxidizing potential, however, causes ozone to damage mucus and respiratory tissues in animals, and also tissues in plants, above concentrations of about 100 parts per billion. This makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and pollutant near ground level. However, the so-called ozone layer (a portion of the stratosphere with a higher concentration of ozone, from two to eight ppm) is beneficial, preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth's surface, to the benefit of both plants and animals.
Ozone, the first allotrope of any chemical element to be recognized, was proposed as a distinct chemical substance by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1840, who named it after the Greek verb ozein (ὄζειν, "to smell"), from the peculiar odor in lightning storms.[1][2] The formula for ozone, O3, was not determined until 1865 by Jacques-Louis Soret[3] and confirmed by Schönbein in 1867.[1][4]
For much of the second half of the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth, ozone was considered a healthy component of the environment by naturalists and health-seekers. The City of Beaumont in California had as its official slogan "Beaumont: Zone of Ozone," as evidenced on postcards and Chamber of Commerce letterhead.[5] Naturalists working outdoors often considered the higher elevations beneficial because of their ozone content. "There is quite a different atmosphere [at higher elevation] with enough ozone to sustain the necessary energy [to work]," wrote naturalist Henry Henshaw, working in Hawaii.[6]
Physical propertiesEdit
Ozone is a pale blue gas, slightly soluble in water and much more soluble in inert non-polar solvents such as carbon tetrachloride or fluorocarbons, where it forms a blue solution. At 161 K (−112 °C; −170 °F), it condenses to form a dark blue liquid. It is dangerous to allow this liquid to warm to its boiling point, because both concentrated gaseous ozone and liquid ozone can detonate. At temperatures below 80 K (−193.2 °C; −315.7 °F), it forms a violet-black solid.[7]
Most people can detect about 0.01 μmol/mol of ozone in air where it has a very specific sharp odor somewhat resembling chlorine bleach. Exposure of 0.1 to 1 μmol/mol produces headaches, burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages.[8] Even low concentrations of ozone in air are very destructive to organic materials such as latex, plastics and animal lung tissue.
Ozone is diamagnetic, which means that its electrons are all paired. In contrast, O2 is paramagnetic, containing two unpaired electrons.
According to experimental evidence from microwave spectroscopy, ozone is a bent molecule, with C2v symmetry (similar to the water molecule). The O – O distances are 127.2 pm. The O – O – O angle is 116.78°.[9] The central atom is sp² hybridized with one lone pair. Ozone is a polar molecule with a dipole moment of 0.53 D.[10] The bonding can be expressed as a resonance hybrid with a single bond on one side and double bond on the other producing an overall bond order of 1.5 for each side.
Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, far stronger than O2. It is also unstable at high concentrations, decaying to ordinary diatomic oxygen (with a half-life of about half an hour in atmospheric conditions):[11]
This reaction proceeds more rapidly with increasing temperature and increased pressure. Deflagration of ozone can be triggered by a spark, and can occur in ozone concentrations of 10 wt% or higher.[12]
With metalsEdit
Ozone will oxidize most metals (except gold (Au), platinum (Pt), and iridium (Ir)) to oxides of the metals in their highest oxidation state. For example:
With nitrogen and carbon compoundsEdit
Ozone also oxidizes nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide:
This reaction is accompanied by chemiluminescence. The NO2 can be further oxidized:
The NO3 formed can react with NO2 to form N2O5:
Solid nitryl perchlorate can be made from NO2, ClO2, and O3 gases:
- 2 NO2 + 2 ClO2 + 2 O3 → 2 NO2ClO4 + O2
Ozone does not react with ammonium salts, but it oxidizes ammonia to ammonium nitrate:
Ozone reacts with carbon to form carbon dioxide, even at room temperature:
With sulfur compoundsEdit
Ozone oxidizes sulfides to sulfates. For example, lead(II) sulfide is oxidised to lead(II) sulfate:
- PbS + 4 O3 → PbSO4 + 4 O2
Sulfuric acid can be produced from ozone, water and either elemental sulfur or sulfur dioxide:
In the gas phase, ozone reacts with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfur dioxide:
In an aqueous solution, however, two competing simultaneous reactions occur, one to produce elemental sulfur, and one to produce sulfuric acid:
With alkenes and alkynesEdit
Alkenes can be oxidatively cleaved by ozone, in a process called ozonolysis, giving alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids, depending on the second step of the workup.
Usually ozonolysis is carried out in a solution of dichloromethane, at a temperature of −78oC. After a sequence of cleavage and rearrangement, an organic ozonide is formed. With reductive workup (e.g. Zinc in acetic acid or dimethyl sulfide), ketones and aldehydes will be formed, with oxidative workup (e.g. aqueous or alcoholic hydrogen peroxide), carboxylic acids will be formed.[13]
Other substratesEdit
All three atoms of ozone may also react, as in the reaction of tin(II) chloride with hydrochloric acid and ozone:
- 3 SnCl2 + 6 HCl + O3 → 3 SnCl4 + 3 H2O
Iodine perchlorate can be made by treating iodine dissolved in cold anhydrous perchloric acid with ozone:
- I2 + 6 HClO4 + O3 → 2 I(ClO4)3 + 3 H2O
Ozone can be used for combustion reactions and combusting gases; ozone provides higher temperatures than combusting in dioxygen (O2). The following is a reaction for the combustion of carbon subnitride which can also cause higher temperatures:
Ozone can react at cryogenic temperatures. At 77 K (−196 °C), atomic hydrogen reacts with liquid ozone to form a hydrogen superoxide radical, which dimerizes:[14]
Reduction to ozonidesEdit
Reduction of ozone gives the ozonide anion, O3– . Derivatives of this anion are explosive and must be stored at cryogenic temperatures. Ozonides for all the alkali metals are known. KO3, RbO3, and CsO3 can be prepared from their respective superoxides:
Although KO3 can be formed as above, it can also be formed from potassium hydroxide and ozone:[15]
NaO3 and LiO3 must be prepared by action of CsO3 in liquid NH3 on an ion exchange resin containing Na+ or Li+ ions:[16]
- CsO3 + Na+ → Cs+ + NaO3
A solution of calcium in ammonia reacts with ozone to give to ammonium ozonide and not calcium ozonide:[14]
- 3 Ca + 10 NH3 + 6 O3 → Ca·6NH3 + Ca(OH)2 + Ca(NO3)2 + 2 NH4O3 + 2 O2 + H2
Ozone can be used to remove manganese from water, forming a precipitate which can be filtered:
- 2 Mn2+ + 2 O3 + 4 H2O → 2 MnO(OH)2 (s) + 2 O2 + 4 H+
Ozone will also detoxify cyanides by converting them to cyanates, which are a thousand times less toxic.[citation needed]
Ozone will also completely decompose urea:[17]
Ozone in Earth's atmosphereEdit
The standard way to express total ozone levels (the amount of ozone in a vertical column) in the atmosphere is by using Dobson units. Point measurements are reported as mole fractions in nmol/mol (parts per billion, ppb) or as concentrations in μg/m3.
Ozone layerEdit
Location and production Edit
The highest levels of ozone in the atmosphere are in the stratosphere, in a region also known as the ozone layer between about 10 km and 50 km above the surface (or between about 6 and 31 miles). However, even in this "layer" the ozone concentrations are only two to eight parts per million, so most of the oxygen there remains of the dioxygen type.
Ozone in the stratosphere is mostly produced from short-wave ultraviolet rays (in the UVC band) reacting with oxygen:
where "M" denotes the third body that carries off the excess energy of the reaction. The thus produced ozone is destroyed by the reaction with atomic oxygen:
The latter reaction is catalysed by the presence of certain free radicals, of which the most important are hydroxyl (OH), nitric oxide (NO) and atomic chlorine (Cl) and bromine (Br). In recent decades the amount of ozone in the stratosphere has been declining mostly because of emissions of CFCs and similar chlorinated and brominated organic molecules, which have increased the concentration of ozone-depleting catalysts above the natural background.
Importance to surface-dwelling life on EarthEdit
Ozone in the ozone layer filters out sunlight wavelengths from about 200 nm UV rays to 315 nm, with ozone peak absorption at about 250 nm.[18] This ozone UV absorption is important to life, since it extends the absorption of UV by ordinary oxygen and nitrogen in air (which absorb all wavelengths < 200 nm) through the lower UV-C (200 nm-280 nm) and the entire UV-B band (280 nm-315 nm). The small unabsorbed part that remains of UV-B after passage through ozone causes sunburn in humans, and direct DNA damage in living tissues in both plants and animals. Ozone's effect on mid-range UV-B rays is illustrated by its effect on UV-B at 290 nm, which has a radiation intensity 350 million times as powerful at the top of the atmosphere as at the surface. Nevertheless, enough of UV-B radiation at similar frequency reaches the ground to cause some sunburn, and these same wavelengths are also among those responsible for the production of vitamin D in humans.
The ozone layer has little effect on the longer UV wavelengths called UV-A (315–400 nm), but this radiation does not cause sunburn or direct DNA damage, and while it probably does cause long-term skin damage in certain humans, it is not as dangerous to plants and to the health of surface-dwelling organisms on Earth in general (see ultraviolet for more information on near ultraviolet).
Low level ozoneEdit
Low level ozone (or tropospheric ozone) is an atmospheric pollutant.[19] It is not emitted directly by car engines or by industrial operations, but formed by the reaction of sunlight on air containing hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that react to form ozone directly at the source of the pollution or many kilometers down wind.
Ozone reacts directly with some hydrocarbons such as aldehydes and thus begins their removal from the air, but the products are themselves key components of smog. Ozone photolysis by UV light leads to production of the hydroxyl radical OH and this plays a part in the removal of hydrocarbons from the air, but is also the first step in the creation of components of smog such as peroxyacyl nitrates which can be powerful eye irritants. The atmospheric lifetime of tropospheric ozone is about 22 days; its main removal mechanisms are being deposited to the ground, the above mentioned reaction giving OH, and by reactions with OH and the peroxy radical HO2·.[20]
There is evidence of significant reduction in agricultural yields because of increased ground-level ozone and pollution which interferes with photosynthesis and stunts overall growth of some plant species.[21][22] The United States Environmental Protection Agency is proposing a secondary regulation to reduce crop damage, in addition to the primary regulation designed for the protection of human health.
Certain examples of cities with elevated ozone readings are Houston, Texas, and Mexico City, Mexico. Houston has a reading of around 41 nmol/mol, while Mexico City is far more hazardous, with a reading of about 125 nmol/mol.[22]
Ozone crackingEdit
Ozone gas attacks any polymer possessing olefinic or double bonds within its chain structure, such as natural rubber, nitrile rubber, and styrene-butadiene rubber. Products made using these polymers are especially susceptible to attack, which causes cracks to grow longer and deeper with time, the rate of crack growth depending on the load carried by the product and the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. Such materials can be protected by adding antiozonants, such as waxes, which bond to the surface to create a protective film or blend with the material and provide long term protection. Ozone cracking used to be a serious problem in car tires for example, but the problem is now seen only in very old tires.[clarification needed][citation needed] On the other hand, many critical products like gaskets and O-rings may be attacked by ozone produced within compressed air systems. Fuel lines are often made from reinforced rubber tubing and may also be susceptible to attack, especially within engine compartments where low levels of ozone are produced from electrical equipment. Storing rubber products in close proximity to DC electric motors can accelerate the rate at which ozone cracking occurs. The commutator of the motor creates sparks which in turn produce ozone.
Ozone as a greenhouse gasEdit
Although ozone was present at ground level before the Industrial Revolution, peak concentrations are now far higher than the pre-industrial levels, and even background concentrations well away from sources of pollution are substantially higher.[23][24] Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas, absorbing some of the infrared energy emitted by the earth. Quantifying the greenhouse gas potency of ozone is difficult because it is not present in uniform concentrations across the globe. However, the most widely accepted scientific assessments relating to climate change (e.g. the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report[25]) suggest that the radiative forcing of tropospheric ozone is about 25% that of carbon dioxide.
The annual global warming potential of tropospheric ozone is between 918–1022 tons carbon dioxide equivalent/tons tropospheric ozone. This means on a per-molecule basis, ozone in the troposphere has a radiative forcing effect roughly 1,000 times as strong as carbon dioxide. However, tropospheric ozone is a short-lived greenhouse gas, which decays in the atmosphere much more quickly than carbon dioxide. This means that over a 20 year horizon, the global warming potential of tropospheric ozone is much less, roughly 62 to 69 tons carbon dioxide equivalent / tons tropospheric ozone.[26]
Because of its short-lived nature, tropospheric ozone does not have strong global effects, but has very strong radiative forcing effects on regional scales. In fact, there are regions of the world where tropospheric ozone has a radiative forcing up to 150% of carbon dioxide.[27]
Health effectsEdit
Ozone air pollutionEdit
Ozone precursors are a group of pollutants, predominantly those emitted during the combustion of fossil fuels. Ground-level ozone pollution (tropospheric ozone) is created near the Earth's surface by the action of daylight UV rays on these precursors. The ozone at ground level is primarily from fossil fuel precursors, but methane is a natural precursor, and the very low natural background level of ozone at ground level is considered safe. This section examines health impacts of fossil fuels burning, which raises ground level ozone far above background levels.
There is a great deal of evidence to show that ground level ozone can harm lung function and irritate the respiratory system.[19][29] Exposure to ozone and the pollutants that produce it is linked to premature death, asthma, bronchitis, heart attack, and other cardiopulmonary problems.[30]
Long-term exposure to ozone has been shown to increase risk of death from respiratory illness. A study of 450,000 people living in United States cities showed a significant correlation between ozone levels and respiratory illness over the 18-year follow-up period. The study revealed that people living in cities with high ozone levels such as Houston or Los Angeles had an over 30% increased risk of dying from lung disease.[31][32]
Air quality guidelines such as those from the World Health Organization, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Union are based on detailed studies designed to identify the levels that can cause measurable ill health effects.
According to scientists with the US EPA, susceptible people can be adversely affected by ozone levels as low as 40 nmol/mol.[30][33][34] In the EU, the current target value for ozone concentrations is 120 µg/m³ which is about 60 nmol/mol. This target applies to all member states in accordance with Directive 2008/50/EC.[35] Ozone concentration is measured as a maximum daily mean of 8 hour averages and the target should not be exceeded on more than 25 calendar days per year, starting from January 2010. Whilst the directive requires in the future a strict compliance with 120 µg/m³ limit (i.e. mean ozone concentration not to be exceeded on any day of the year), there is no date set for this requirement and this is treated as a long-term objective. [36]
In the USA, the Clean Air Act directs the EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for several pollutants, including ground-level ozone, and counties out of compliance with these standards are required to take steps to reduce their levels. In May 2008, under a court order, the EPA lowered its ozone standard from 80 nmol/mol to 75 nmol/mol. The move proved controversial, since the Agency's own scientists and advisory board had recommended lowering the standard to 60 nmol/mol.[30] Many public health and environmental groups also supported the 60 nmol/mol standard,[37] and the World Health Organization recommends 51 nmol/mol.
On January 7, 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced proposed revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for the pollutant ozone, the principal component of smog:
- ... EPA proposes that the level of the 8-hour primary standard, which was set at 0.075 μmol/mol in the 2008 final rule, should instead be set at a lower level within the range of 0.060 to 0.070 μmol/mol, to provide increased protection for children and other ''at risk'' populations against an array of O3- related adverse health effects that range from decreased lung function and increased respiratory symptoms to serious indicators of respiratory morbidity including emergency department visits and hospital admissions for respiratory causes, and possibly cardiovascular-related morbidity as well as total non- accidental and cardiopulmonary mortality....[38]
The EPA has developed an Air Quality Index (AQI) to help explain air pollution levels to the general public. Under the current standards, eight-hour average ozone mole fractions of 85 to 104 nmol/mol are described as "unhealthy for sensitive groups," 105 nmol/mol to 124 nmol/mol as "unhealthy," and 125 nmol/mol to 404 nmol/mol as "very unhealthy."[39]
Ozone can also be present in indoor air pollution, partly as a result of electronic equipment such as photocopiers. A connection has also been known to exist between the increased pollen, fungal spores, and ozone caused by thunderstorms and hospital admissions of asthma sufferers.[40]
In the Victorian era, one British folk myth held that the smell of the sea was caused by ozone. In fact, the characteristic "smell of the sea" is caused by dimethyl sulfide a chemical generated by phytoplankton. Victorian British folk considered the resulting smell "bracing," but in high concentrations, dimethyl sulfide is actually toxic.[41]
Ozone, along with reactive forms of oxygen such as superoxide, singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorite ions, is naturally produced by white blood cells and other biological systems (such as the roots of marigolds) as a means of destroying foreign bodies. Ozone reacts directly with organic double bonds. Also, when ozone breaks down to dioxygen it gives rise to oxygen free radicals, which are highly reactive and capable of damaging many organic molecules. Moreover, it is believed that the powerful oxidizing properties of ozone may be a contributing factor of inflammation. The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Dr. Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human immune response to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of trioxidane from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen.[42]
When inhaled, ozone reacts with compounds lining the lungs to form specific, cholesterol-derived metabolites that are thought to facilitate the build-up and pathogenesis of atherosclerotic plaques (a form of heart disease). These metabolites have been confirmed as naturally occurring in human atherosclerotic arteries and are categorized into a class of secosterols termed atheronals, generated by ozonolysis of cholesterol's double bond to form a 5,6 secosterol[43] as well as a secondary condensation product via aldolization.[44]
Ozone has been implicated to have an adverse effect on plant growth: "... ozone reduced total chlorophylls, carotenoid and carbohydrate concentration, and increased 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) content and ethylene production. In treated plants, the ascorbate leaf pool was decreased, while lipid peroxidation and solute leakage were significantly higher than in ozone-free controls. The data indicated that ozone triggered protective mechanisms against oxidative stress in citrus."[45]
Safety regulationsEdit
Due to the strongly oxidizing properties of ozone, ozone is a primary irritant, affecting especially the eyes and respiratory systems and can be hazardous at even low concentrations. The Canadian Center for Occupation Safety and Health reports that:
"Even very low concentrations of ozone can be harmful to the upper respiratory tract and the lungs. The severity of injury depends on both by the concentration of ozone and the duration of exposure. Severe and permanent lung injury or death could result from even a very short-term exposure to relatively low concentrations." [46]To protect workers potentially exposed to ozone, U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration has established a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 0.1 μmol/mol (29 CFR 1910.1000 table Z-1), calculated as an 8 hour time weighted average. Higher concentrations are especially hazardous and NIOSH has established an Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Limit (IDLH) of 5 μmol/mol.[47] Work environments where ozone is used or where it is likely to be produced should have adequate ventilation and it is prudent to have a monitor for ozone that will alarm if the concentration exceeds the OSHA PEL. Continuous monitors for ozone are available from several suppliers.
Elevated ozone exposure can occur on passenger aircraft, with levels depending on altitude and atmospheric turbulence.[48] United States Federal Aviation Authority regulations set a limit of 250 nmol/mol with a maximum four-hour average of 100 nmol/mol.[49] Some planes are equipped with ozone converters in the ventilation system to reduce passenger exposure.[48]
Ozone often forms in nature under conditions where O2 will not react.[8] Ozone used in industry is measured in μmol/mol (ppm, parts per million), nmol/mol (ppb, parts per billion), μg/m3, mg/hr (milligrams per hour) or weight percent. The regime of applied concentrations ranges from 1 to 5% in air and from 6 to 14% in oxygen for older generation methods. New electrolytic methods can achieve up 20 to 30% dissolved ozone concentrations in output water.
Temperature and humidity plays a large role in how much ozone is being produced using traditional generation methods such as corona discharge and ultraviolet light. Old generation methods will produce less than 50% its nominal capacity if operated with humid ambient air than when it operates in very dry air. New generators using electrolytic methods can achieve higher purity and dissolution through using water molecules as the source of ozone production.
Corona discharge methodEdit
This is the most common type of ozone generator for most industrial and personal uses. While variations of the "hot spark" coronal discharge method of ozone production exist, including medical grade and industrial grade ozone generators, these units usually work by means of a corona discharge tube.[50] They are typically cost-effective and do not require an oxygen source other than the ambient air to produce ozone concentrations of 3–6%. Fluctuations in ambient air, due to weather or other environmental conditions, cause variability in ozone production. However, they also produce nitrogen oxides as a by-product. Use of an air dryer can reduce or eliminate nitric acid formation by removing water vapor and increase ozone production. Use of an oxygen concentrator can further increase the ozone production and further reduce the risk of nitric acid formation by removing not only the water vapor, but also the bulk of the nitrogen.
Ultraviolet lightEdit
UV ozone generators, or vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) ozone generators, employ a light source that generates a narrow-band ultraviolet light, a subset of that produced by the Sun. The Sun's UV sustains the ozone layer in the stratosphere of Earth.[51]
While standard UV ozone generators tend to be less expensive,[clarification needed] they usually produce ozone with a concentration of about 0.5% or lower. Another disadvantage of this method is that it requires the air (oxygen) to be exposed to the UV source for a longer amount of time, and any gas that is not exposed to the UV source will not be treated. This makes UV generators impractical for use in situations that deal with rapidly moving air or water streams (in-duct air sterilization, for example). Production of ozone is one of the potential dangers of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. VUV ozone generators are used in swimming pool and spa applications ranging to millions of gallons of water. VUV ozone generators, unlike corona discharge generators, do not produce harmful nitrogen by-products and also unlike corona discharge systems, VUV ozone generators work extremely well in humid air environments. There is also not normally a need for expensive off-gas mechanisms, and no need for air driers or oxygen concentrators which require extra costs and maintenance.
Cold plasmaEdit
In the cold plasma method, pure oxygen gas is exposed to a plasma created by dielectric barrier discharge. The diatomic oxygen is split into single atoms, which then recombine in triplets to form ozone.
Cold plasma machines utilize pure oxygen as the input source and produce a maximum concentration of about 5% ozone. They produce far greater quantities of ozone in a given space of time compared to ultraviolet production. However, because cold plasma ozone generators are very expensive, they are found less frequently than the previous two types.
The discharges manifest as filamentary transfer of electrons (micro discharges) in a gap between two electrodes. In order to evenly distribute the micro discharges, a dielectric insulator must be used to separate the metallic electrodes and to prevent arcing.
Some cold plasma units also have the capability of producing short-lived allotropes of oxygen which include O4, O5, O6, O7, etc. These species are even more reactive than ordinary O3.[citation needed]
Electrolytic ozone generation (EOG) splits water molecules into H2, O2, and O3. In most EOG methods, the hydrogen gas will be removed to leave oxygen and ozone as the only reaction products. Therefore, EOG can achieve higher dissolution in water without other competing gases found in corona discharge method, such as nitrogen gases present in ambient air. This method of generation can achieve concentrations of 20–30% and is independent of air quality because water is used as the starting substrate.
Special considerationsEdit
Ozone cannot be stored and transported like other industrial gases (because it quickly decays into diatomic oxygen) and must therefore be produced on site. Available ozone generators vary in the arrangement and design of the high-voltage electrodes. At production capacities higher than 20 kg per hour, a gas/water tube heat-exchanger may be utilized as ground electrode and assembled with tubular high-voltage electrodes on the gas-side. The regime of typical gas pressures is around 2 bar absolute in oxygen and 3 bar absolute in air. Several megawatts of electrical power may be installed in large facilities, applied as one phase AC current at 50 to 8000 Hz and peak voltages between 3,000 and 20,000 volts. Applied voltage is usually inversely related to the applied frequency.
The dominating parameter influencing ozone generation efficiency is the gas temperature, which is controlled by cooling water temperature and/or gas velocity. The cooler the water, the better the ozone synthesis. The lower the gas velocity, the higher the concentration (but the lower the net ozone produced). At typical industrial conditions, almost 90% of the effective power is dissipated as heat and needs to be removed by a sufficient cooling water flow.
Because of the high reactivity of ozone, only a few materials may be used like stainless steel (quality 316L), titanium (Ti), aluminium (Al) (as long as no moisture is present), glass, polytetrafluorethylene, or polyvinylidene fluoride. Viton may be used with the restriction of constant mechanical forces and absence of humidity (humidity limitations apply depending on the formulation). Hypalon may be used with the restriction that no water come in contact with it, except for normal atmospheric levels. Embrittlement or shrinkage is the common mode of failure of elastomers with exposure to ozone. Ozone cracking is the common mode of failure of elastomer seals like O-rings.
Silicone rubbers are usually adequate for use as gaskets in ozone concentrations below 1 wt%, such as in equipment for accelerated aging of rubber samples.
Incidental productionEdit
Ozone may be formed from O2 by electrical discharges and by action of high energy electromagnetic radiation. Unsuppressed arcing breaks down the chemical bonds of the atmospheric oxygen surrounding the contacts [O2 → 2O]. Free radicals of oxygen in and around the arc recombine to create ozone [O3].[52] Certain electrical equipment generate significant levels of ozone. This is especially true of devices using high voltages, such as ionic air purifiers, laser printers, photocopiers, tasers and arc welders. Electric motors using brushes can generate ozone from repeated sparking inside the unit. Large motors that use brushes, such as those used by elevators or hydraulic pumps, will generate more ozone than smaller motors. Ozone is similarly formed in the Catatumbo lightning storms phenomenon on the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, which helps to replenish ozone in the upper troposphere. It is the world's largest single natural generator of ozone, lending calls for it to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[53]
Laboratory productionEdit
In the laboratory, ozone can be produced by electrolysis using a 9 volt battery, a pencil graphite rod cathode, a platinum wire anode and a 3 molar sulfuric acid electrolyte.[54] The half cell reactions taking place are:
- 3 H2O → O3 + 6 H+ + 6 e− (ΔEo = −1.53 V)
- 6 H+ + 6 e− → 3 H2 (ΔEo = 0 V)
- 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− (ΔEo = −1.23 V)
In the net reaction, three equivalents of water are converted into one equivalent of ozone and three equivalents of hydrogen. Oxygen formation is a competing reaction.
It can also be "prepared" by high voltage arc. This can be done with an apparatus consisting of two concentric glass tubes sealed together at the top, with in and out spigots at the top and bottom of the outer tube. The inner core should have a length of metal foil inserted into it connected to one side of the power source. The other side of the power source should be connected to another piece of foil wrapped around the outer tube. Dry O2 should be run through the tube in one spigot. As the O2 is run through one spigot into the apparatus and high voltage is applied to the foil leads, electricity will discharge between the dry dioxygen in the middle and form O3 and O2 out the other spigot. The reaction can be summarized as follows:[8]
- 3 O2 — electricity → 2 O3
The largest use of ozone is in the preparation of pharmaceuticals, synthetic lubricants, and many other commercially useful organic compounds, where it is used to sever carbon-carbon bonds.[8] It can also be used for bleaching substances and for killing microorganisms in air and water sources.[55] Many municipal drinking water systems kill bacteria with ozone instead of the more common chlorine.[56] Ozone has a very high oxidation potential.[57] Ozone does not form organochlorine compounds, nor does it remain in the water after treatment. Ozone can form the suspected carcinogen bromate in source water with high bromide concentrations. The Safe Drinking Water Act mandates that these systems introduce an amount of chlorine to maintain a minimum of 0.2 μmol/mol residual free chlorine in the pipes, based on results of regular testing. Where electrical power is abundant, ozone is a cost-effective method of treating water, since it is produced on demand and does not require transportation and storage of hazardous chemicals. Once it has decayed, it leaves no taste or odor in drinking water.
Although low levels of ozone have been advertised to be of some disinfectant use in residential homes, the concentration of ozone in dry air required to have a rapid, substantial effect on airborne pathogens exceeds safe levels recommended by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration and Environmental Protection Agency. Humidity control can vastly improve both the killing power of the ozone and the rate at which it decays back to oxygen (more humidity allows more effectiveness). Spore forms of most pathogens are very tolerant of atmospheric ozone in concentrations where asthma patients start to have issues.
Industrially, ozone is used to:
- Disinfect laundry in hospitals, food factories, care homes etc.;[58]
- Disinfect water in place of chlorine[8]
- Deodorize air and objects, such as after a fire. This process is extensively used in fabric restoration
- Kill bacteria on food or on contact surfaces;[59]
- Sanitize swimming pools and spas
- Kill insects in stored grain[60]
- Scrub yeast and mold spores from the air in food processing plants;
- Wash fresh fruits and vegetables to kill yeast, mold and bacteria;[59]
- Chemically attack contaminants in water (iron (Fe), arsenic (As), hydrogen sulfide, nitrites, and complex organics lumped together as "colour");
- Provide an aid to flocculation (agglomeration of molecules, which aids in filtration, where the iron and arsenic are removed);
- Manufacture chemical compounds via chemical synthesis[61]
- Clean and bleach fabrics (the former use is utilized in fabric restoration; the latter use is patented);[citation needed]
- Assist in processing plastics to allow adhesion of inks;
- Age rubber samples to determine the useful life of a batch of rubber;
- Eradicate water borne parasites such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium in surface water treatment plants.
Ozone is a reagent in many organic reactions in the laboratory and in industry. Ozonolysis is the cleavage of an alkene to carbonyl compounds.
Many hospitals around the world use large ozone generators to decontaminate operating rooms between surgeries. The rooms are cleaned and then sealed airtight before being filled with ozone which effectively kills or neutralizes all remaining bacteria.[62]
Ozone is used as an alternative to chlorine or chlorine dioxide in the bleaching of wood pulp.[63] It is often used in conjunction with oxygen and hydrogen peroxide to eliminate the need for chlorine-containing compounds in the manufacture of high-quality, white paper.[64]
Ozone can be used to detoxify cyanide wastes (for example from gold and silver mining) by oxidizing cyanide to cyanate and eventually to carbon dioxide.[65]
Devices generating high levels of ozone, some of which use ionization, are used to sanitize and deodorize uninhabited buildings, rooms, ductwork, woodsheds, and boats and other vehicles.
In the U.S., air purifiers emitting low levels of ozone have been sold. This kind of air purifier is sometimes claimed to imitate nature's way of purifying the air without filters and to sanitize both it and household surfaces. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has declared that there is "evidence to show that at concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone is not effective at removing many odor-causing chemicals" or "viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants." Furthermore, its report states that "results of some controlled studies show that concentrations of ozone considerably higher than these [human safety] standards are possible even when a user follows the manufacturer's operating instructions."[66] The government successfully sued one company in 1995, ordering it to stop repeating health claims without supporting scientific studies.
Ozonated water is used to launder clothes and to sanitize food, drinking water, and surfaces in the home. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), it is "amending the food additive regulations to provide for the safe use of ozone in gaseous and aqueous phases as an antimicrobial agent on food, including meat and poultry." Studies at California Polytechnic University demonstrated that 0.3 μmol/mol levels of ozone dissolved in filtered tapwater can produce a reduction of more than 99.99% in such food-borne microorganisms as salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7 and Campylobacter. This quantity is 20,000 times the WHO-recommended limits stated above.[59][67] Ozone can be used to remove pesticide residues from fruits and vegetables.[68][69]
Ozone is used in homes and hot tubs to kill bacteria in the water and to reduce the amount of chlorine or bromine required by reactivating them to their free state. Since ozone does not remain in the water long enough, ozone by itself is ineffective at preventing cross-contamination among bathers and must be used in conjunction with halogens. Gaseous ozone created by ultraviolet light or by corona discharge is injected into the water.[70]
Ozone is also widely used in treatment of water in aquariums and fish ponds. Its use can minimize bacterial growth, control parasites, eliminate transmission of some diseases, and reduce or eliminate "yellowing" of the water. Ozone must not come in contact with fish's gill structures. Natural salt water (with life forms) provides enough "instantaneous demand" that controlled amounts of ozone activate bromide ion to hypobromous acid, and the ozone entirely decays in a few seconds to minutes. If oxygen fed ozone is used, the water will be higher in dissolved oxygen, fish's gill structures will atrophy and they will become dependent on higher dissolved oxygen levels.
Ozonation - a process of infusing water with ozone - can be used in aquaculture to facilitate organic breakdown. Ozone is also added to recirculating systems to reduce nitrite levels[71] through conversion into nitrate. If nitrite levels in the water are high, nitrites will also accumulate in the blood and tissues of fish, where it interferes with oxygen transport (it causes oxidation of the heme-group of haemoglobin from ferrous (Fe2+) to ferric (Fe3+), making haemoglobin unable to bind O2[72]). Despite these apparent positive effects, ozone use in recirculation systems has been linked to reducing the level of bioavailable iodine in salt water systems, resulting in iodine deficiency symptoms such as goitre and decreased growth in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) larvae.[73]
Ozonate seawater is used for surface disinfection of haddock and Atlantic halibut eggs against nodavirus. Nodavirus is a lethal and vertically transmitted virus which causes severe mortality in fish. Haddock eggs should not be treated with high ozone level as eggs so treated did not hatch and died after 3–4 days.[74]
Ozone application on freshly cut pineapple and banana shows increase in flavonoids and total phenol contents when exposure is up to 20 minutes. Decrease in ascorbic acid content is observed but the positive effect on total phenol content and flavonoids can overcome the negative effect.[75] Tomatoes upon treatment with ozone shows an increase in β-carotene, lutein and lycopene.[76] However, ozone application on strawberries in pre-harvest period shows decrease in ascorbic acid content.[77]
Ozone facilitates the extraction of some heavy metals from soil using EDTA. EDTA forms strong, water-soluble coordination compounds with some heavy metals (Pb, Zn) thereby making it possible to dissolve them out from contaminated soil. If contaminated soil is pre-treated with ozone, the extraction efficacy of Pb, Am and Pu increases by 11–28.9%,[78] 43.5%[79] and 50.7%[79] respectively.
See alsoEdit
- Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (GOMOS)
- Greenhouse gas
- Cyclic ozone
- International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer (September 16)
- Ozone Action Day
- Ozone depletion, including the phenomenon known as the ozone hole.
- Ozone therapy
- Ozoneweb
- Polymer degradation
- Ozonolysis
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Rubin, Mordecai B. (2001). "The History of Ozone. The Schönbein Period, 1839–1868" (PDF). Bull. Hist. Chem. 26 (1). http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/OPA%20Papers/2001-Rubin.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
- ↑ Today in Science History. Retrieved on 2006-05-10.
- ↑ Jacques-Louis Soret (1865). "Recherches sur la densité de l'ozone". Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences 61: 941. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3018b/f941.table.
- ↑ Ozone FAQ. Global Change Master Directory. Retrieved on 2006-05-10.
- ↑ Redlands Chamber of Commerce Collection, City Archives, A.K. Smiley Public Library, Redlands, CA
- ↑ Henry Henshaw to William Brewster, July 2, 1902, Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology Archives.
- ↑ Oxygen. WebElements. Retrieved on 2006-09-23.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Nicole Folchetti, ed (2003) [1977]. "22". Chemistry: The Central Science (9th ed.). Pearson Education. pp. 882–883. ISBN 0-13-066997-0.
- ↑ Tanaka, Takehiko; Morino, Yonezo (1970). "Coriolis interaction and anharmonic potential function of ozone from the microwave spectra in the excited vibrational states". Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy 33 (3): 538–551. doi:10.1016/0022-2852(70)90148-7.
- ↑ Mack, Kenneth M.; Muenter, J. S. (1977). "Stark and Zeeman properties of ozone from molecular beam spectroscopy". Journal of Chemical Physics 66 (12): 5278–5283. doi:10.1063/1.433909.
- ↑ Earth Science FAQ: Where can I find information about the ozone hole and ozone depletion? Goddard Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, March 2008.
- ↑ Koike, K; Nifuku, M; Izumi, K; Nakamura, S; Fujiwara, S; Horiguchi, S (2005). "Explosion properties of highly concentrated ozone gas". Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 18 (4–6): 465. doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2005.07.020. Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20090327085613/http://www.iitk.ac.in/che/jpg/papersb/full%20papers/K-106.pdf.
- ↑ Solomons, T.W. Graham and Fryhle, Craig B. (2008). "Chapter 8 Alkenes and Alkynes – Part II: Addition Reactions and Synthesis". Organic Chemistry, 9th Edition. Wiley. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-470-16982-7.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Horvath M., Bilitzky L., Huttner J. (1985). Ozone. Elsevier. pp. 44–49. ISBN 0-444-99625-7.
- ↑ Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2004). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 439. ISBN 978-0130399137.
- ↑ Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2004). Inorganic Chemistry (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 265. ISBN 978-0130399137.
- ↑ Horvath M., Bilitzky L., Huttner J. (1985). Ozone. Elsevier. pp. 259, 269–270. ISBN 0-444-99625-7.
- ↑ Matsumi, Yutaka; Kawasaki, Masahiro (2003). "Photolysis of Atmospheric Ozone in the Ultraviolet Region". Chemical Reviews 103 (12): 4767–82. doi:10.1021/cr0205255. PMID 14664632. See the graphical absorption of ozone in two of its absorption bands, as a function of wavelength.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Health Aspects of Air Pollution with Particulate Matter, Ozone and Nitrogen Dioxide. WHO-Europe report 13–15 January 2003 (PDF)
- ↑ Stevenson et al. (2006). Multimodel ensemble simulations of present-day and near-future tropospheric ozone. American Geophysical Union. Retrieved on 2006-09-16.
- ↑ Rising Ozone Levels Pose Challenge to U.S. Soybean Production, Scientists Say. NASA Earth Observatory (2003-07-31). Retrieved on 2006-05-10.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Mutters, Randall (March 1999). Statewide Potential Crop Yield Losses From Ozone Exposure. California Air Resources Board. Archived from the original on 2004-02-17. Retrieved on 2006-05-10.
- ↑ Tropospheric Ozone in EU – The consolidated report. European Environmental Agency (1998). Retrieved on 2006-05-10.
- ↑ Atmospheric Chemistry and Greenhouse Gases. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved on 2006-05-10.
- ↑ Climate Change 2001. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001). Retrieved on 2006-09-12.
- ↑ Life Cycle Assessment Methodology Sufficient to Support Public Declarations and Claims, Committee Draft Standard, Version 2.1. Scientific Certification Systems, February 2011. Annex B, Section 4.
- ↑ NASA GODDARD HOMEPAGE FOR TROPOSPHERIC OZONE NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Code 613.3, Chemistry and Dynamics Branch. Acdb-ext.gsfc.nasa.gov (2006-09-20). Retrieved on 2012-02-01.
- ↑ Jeannie Allen (2003-08-22). Watching Our Ozone Weather. NASA Earth Observatory. Retrieved on 2008-10-11.
- ↑ Answer to follow-up questions from CAFE (2004) (PDF)
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Weinhold B (2008). "Ozone nation: EPA standard panned by the people". Environ. Health Perspect. 116 (7): A302–A305. doi:10.1289/ehp.116-a302. PMC 2453178. PMID 18629332. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2453178.
- ↑ Jerrett, Michael; Burnett, Richard T. and Pope, C. Arden, III and Ito, Kazuhiko and Thurston, George and Krewski, Daniel and Shi, Yuanli and Calle, Eugenia and Thun, Michael (March 12, 2009). "Long-Term Ozone Exposure and Mortality". N. Engl. J. Med. 360 (11): 1085–1095. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0803894. PMID 19279340.
- ↑ Wilson, Elizabeth K. (March 16, 2009). "Ozone's Health Impact". Chemical & Engineering News 87 (11): 9. doi:10.1021/cen-v087n011.p009a.
- ↑ Dahl, R (2006). "Ozone Overload: Current Standards May Not Protect Health". Environ Health Perspect. 114 (4): A240. doi:10.1289/ehp.114-a240a. PMC 1440818. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1440818.
- ↑ Bell, ML; Peng, RD; Dominici, F (2006). "The exposure-response curve for ozone and risk of mortality and the adequacy of current ozone regulations". Environ. Health Perspect. 114 (4): 532–6. doi:10.1289/ehp.8816. PMC 1440776. PMID 16581541. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1440776.
- ↑ Directive 2008/50/EC. Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved on 2013-01-17.
- ↑ DIRECTIVE 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe. EC (2008-06-11). Retrieved on 2010-08-23.
- ↑ Comments of the American Lung Association, Environmental Defense, Sierra Club on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Proposed Revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Ozone July 11, 2007 72 FR 37818 http://www.lungusa.org/get-involved/advocate/advocacy-documents/Comments-to-the-Environmental-Protection-Agency-re-National-Ambient-Air-Quality-Standard-for-Ozone.PDF
- ↑ National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Ozone. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Proposed rule
- ↑ What is Ozone? airinfonow.org
- ↑ Anderson, W.; G.J. Prescott, S. Packham, J. Mullins, M. Brookes, and A. Seaton (2001). "Asthma admissions and thunderstorms: a study of pollen, fungal spores, rainfall, and ozone". QJM: an International Journal of Medicine (Oxford Journals) 94 (8): 429–433. doi:10.1093/qjmed/94.8.429. PMID 11493720.
- ↑ University of East Anglia press release, Cloning the smell of the seaside, February 2, 2007
- ↑ Hoffmann, Roald (January 2004). "The Story of O". American Scientist 92 (1): 23. doi:10.1511/2004.1.23. Archived from the original on 2006-09-25. http://web.archive.org/web/20060925011907/http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/29647?&print=yes. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
- ↑ Smith, LL (2004). "Oxygen, oxysterols, ouabain, and ozone: a cautionary tale". Free radical biology & medicine 37 (3): 318–24. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.04.024. PMID 15223065.
- ↑ Paul Wentworth; Nieva, J; Takeuchi, C; Galve, R; Wentworth, AD; Dilley, RB; Delaria, GA; Saven, A et al. (2003). "Evidence for Ozone Formation in Human Atherosclerotic Arteries". Science 302 (5647): 1053–6. doi:10.1126/science.1089525. PMID 14605372.
- ↑ Iglesias, Domingo J.; Ángeles Calatayuda, Eva Barrenob, Eduardo Primo-Milloa and Manuel Talon (2006). "Responses of citrus plants to ozone: leaf biochemistry, antioxidant mechanisms and lipid peroxidation". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 44 (2–3): 125–131. doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2006.03.007. PMID 16644230.
- ↑ 2-Health Effects of Ozone, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
- ↑ Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH): NIOSH Chemical Listing and Documentation of Revised IDLH Values (as of 3/1/95)
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Lai, Jennifer. (2008-05-08) Airplane Air Heavy On The Ozone – Daily Brief. Portfolio.com. Retrieved on 2012-02-01.
- ↑ Air Quality In Airplanes: Blame Ozone And Natural Oils On Skin. Sciencedaily.com (2007-09-05). Retrieved on 2012-02-01.
- ↑ Smith, L. I.; Greenwood, F. L. and Hudrlik, O. (1946), "A laboratory ozonizer", Org. Synth. 26: 63, http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/orgsyn/prepContent.asp?prep=cv3p0673 ; Coll. Vol. 3: 673
- ↑ Dohan, J. M.; W. J. Masschelein (1987). "Photochemical Generation of Ozone: Present State-of-the-Art". Ozone Sci. Eng. 9 (4): 315–334. doi:10.1080/01919518708552147.
- ↑ Lab Note #106 Environmental Impact of Arc Suppression. Arc Suppression Technologies (April 2011). Archived from the original on March 31, 2012. Retrieved on October 10, 2011.
- ↑ Fire in the Sky. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved on 2008-08-16.
- ↑ Ibanez, Jorge G.; Rodrigo Mayen-Mondragon and M. T. Moran-Moran (2005). "Laboratory Experiments on the Electrochemical Remediation of the Environment. Part 7: Microscale Production of Ozone". Journal of Chemical Education 82 (10): 1546. doi:10.1021/ed082p1546. http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2005/Oct/abs1546.html. Retrieved 2006-05-10.
- ↑ Ozone and Color Removal. Ozone Information. Retrieved on 2009-01-09.
- ↑ Hoigné, J. (1998). Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Vol. 5 part C. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 83–141.
- ↑ Oxidation Potential of Ozone. Ozone-Information.com. Archived from the original on 2008-04-19. Retrieved on 2008-05-17.
- ↑ Decontamination: Ozone scores on spores. Hospital Development. Wilmington Media Ltd. (2007-04-01). Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved on 2007-05-30.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Montecalvo, Joseph; Doug Williams. Application of Ozonation in Sanitizing Vegetable Process Washwaters (PDF). California Polytechnic State University. Retrieved on 2008-03-24.
- ↑ Steeves, Susan A. (January 30, 2003). "Ozone may provide environmentally safe protection for grains". Purdue News. http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/030130.Mason.ozone.html.
- ↑ Chemical Synthesis with Ozone. Ozone-Information.com. Archived from the original on 2008-04-10. Retrieved on 2008-05-17.
- ↑ de Boer, Hero E. L.; Carla M. van Elzelingen-Dekker; Cora M. F. van Rheenen-Verberg; Lodewijk Spanjaard (2006). "Use of Gaseous Ozone for Eradication of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus From the Home Environment of a Colonized Hospital Employee". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 27 (10): 1120–1122. doi:10.1086/507966. PMID 17006820.
- ↑ Sjöström, Eero (1993). Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-12-647481-8. http://books.google.com/?id=Sv3xcS6eS5QC&pg=PA187.
- ↑ Su, Yu-Chang; Chen, Horng-Tsai (2001). "Enzone Bleaching Sequence and Color Reversion of Ozone-Bleached Pulps". Taiwan Journal of Forest Science 16 (2): 93–102. http://www.tfri.gov.tw/enu/pub_science_in.aspx?pid=339&catid0=37&catid1=64&pg0=&pg1=1.
- ↑ Bollyky, L. J. (1977). Ozone Treatment of Cyanide-Bearing Wastes, EPA Report 600/2-77-104. Research Triangle Park, N.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
- ↑ EPA report on consumer ozone air purifiers. Epa.gov. Retrieved on 2012-02-01.
- ↑ Long, Ron (2008). POU Ozone Food Sanitation: A Viable Option for Consumers & the Food Service Industry (PDF). Archived from the original on 2011-07-15. (report also shows tapwater removes 99.95% of pathogens from lettuce; samples were first inoculated with pathogens before treatment)
- ↑ Tersano Inc (2007). lotus Sanitises Food without Chemicals. Archived from the original on 2007-02-11. Retrieved on 2007-02-11.
- ↑ Jongen, W (2005). Improving the Safety of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables. Boca Raton: Woodhead Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-85573-956-9.
- ↑ Alternative Disinfectants and Oxidant Guidance Manual (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency (April 1999). Retrieved on 2008-01-14.
- ↑ Noble, A.C.; Summerfelt, S.T. (1996). "Diseases encountered in rainbow trout cultured in recirculating systems". Annual Review of Fish Diseases 6: 65–92. doi:10.1016/S0959-8030(96)90006-X.
- ↑ Ferreira, O; de Costa, O.T.; Ferreira, Santos; Mendonca, F. (2004). "Susceptibility of the Amazonian fish, Colossoma macropomum (Serrasalminae), to short-term exposure to nitrite". Aquaculture 232: 627–636. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(03)00524-6.
- ↑ Ribeiro, A.R.A.; Ribeiro, L.; Saele, Ø.; Hamre, K.; Dinis, M.T.; Moren, M. (2009). "Iodine-enriched rotifers andArtemiaprevent goitre in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) larvae reared in a recirculation system". Aquaculture Nutrition 17 (3): 248–257. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2095.2009.00740.x.
- ↑ Buchan, K.; Martin-Robinchaud, D.; Benfey, T.J.; MacKinnon, A; Boston, L (2006). "The efficacy of ozonated seawater for surface disinfection of haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) eggs against piscine nodavirus". Aquacultural Engineering 35: 102–107. doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2005.10.001.
- ↑ Alothman, M.; Kaur, B.; Fazilah, A.; Bhat, Rajeev; Karim, Alias A. (2010). "Ozone-induced changes of antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut tropical fruits". Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 11 (4): 666–671. doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2010.08.008.
- ↑ Tzortzakis, N.; Borland, A.; Singleton, I.; Barnes, J (2007). "Impact of atmospheric ozone-enrichment on quality-related attributes of tomato fruit". Postharvest Biology and Technology 45 (3): 317–325. doi:10.1016/j.postharvbio.2007.03.004.
- ↑ Keutgen, A.J.; Pawelzik, E. (2008). "Influence of pre-harvest ozone exposure on quality of strawberry fruit under simulated retail conditions". Postharvest Biology and Technology 49: 10–18. doi:10.1016/j.postharvbio.2007.12.003.
- ↑ Lestan, D.; Hanc, A.; Finzgar, N. (2005). "Influence of ozonation on extractability of Pb and Zn from contaminated soils". Chemosphere 61 (7): 1012–1019. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.03.005. PMID 16257321.
- ↑ 79.0 79.1 Plaue, J.W.; Czerwinski, K.R. (2003). "The influence of ozone on ligand-assisted extraction of 239Pu and 241Am from rocky flats soil". Radiochim. Acta 91 (6–2003): 309–313. doi:10.1524/ract.91.6.309.20026.
Further readingEdit
- Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth–Heinemann. ISBN 0080379419.
- Series in Plasma Physics: Non-Equilibrium Air Plasmas at Atmospheric Pressure. Edited by K.H. Becker, U. Kogelschatz, K.H. Schoenbach, R.J. Barker; Bristol and Philadelphia: Institute of Physics Publishing Ltd; ISBN 0-7503-0962-8; 2005
External linksEdit
- International Ozone Association
- National Ozone Association
- European Environment Agency's near real-time ozone map (ozoneweb)
- NASA's Ozone Resource Page
- OSHA Ozone Information
- Paul Crutzen Interview Freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust.
- NASA's Earth Observatory article on Ozone
- International Chemical Safety Card 0068
- NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Ozone Information
- Ground-level Ozone Air Pollution
- NASA Study Links "Smog" to Arctic Warming — NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) study shows the warming effect of ozone in the Arctic during winter and spring.
- US EPA report questioning effectiveness or safety of ozone generators sold as air cleaners
- Pesticides Database; Ozone
- Ground-level ozone information from the American Lung Association of New England


text:
Cool weather in Delhi in the mornings is now under threat as minimum temperatures have started showing an upward trend. Night temperature jumped higher by 3 degrees today, which for this time of the year is above normal by 2 degrees. Skymet Weather forecast further rise in minimum temperatures in Delhi during the next couple of days.
We at Skymet weather cite the movement of a Western Disturbance over Jammu & Kashmir from tomorrow onwards as the reason behind the rise in night temperatures in Delhi. With this, northwesterly winds that cool down the night are making way for southwesterly winds. These winds are warm and humid and suddenly increase the minimum temperatures.
As the morning weather in Delhi has begun to witness more sunlight, with each passing day, it would become even warmer. More sunlight during morning hours will nullify the drop in minimum temperatures that happens just after the exit of Western Disturbances.
Weather in Delhi is in a transition phase just like the other parts of north and northwest India. Maximum temperatures are up by 5 to 10 degrees in the Western Himalayan region and isolated pockets in plains of Punjab and Haryana. Minimum temperatures in these places would be above normal during the next two days.
The western parts of the country such as Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat and Mumbai and Konkan and Goa along the west coast are experiencing hot day conditions. These regions are recording temperatures into late thirties and they are above normal by up to 10 degrees. Mumbai has registered 39 degrees plus on trot in the last three days. Weather in Goa has a maximum temperature of 37.3 degrees that is above normal by 6 degrees. Easterly winds that are absorbing heat while sweeping the land are reaching here during the afternoons.
Wind conditions are likely to stay the same in Indo-Gangetic plains at least for next 24 hours from now but thereafter a change is seen as northwesterly to westerly winds would stop for a short period and southeasterly or southwesterly winds will prevail in the region. That could increase the minimum temperatures in the region.
In south India, rain is expected at a few places in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and south interior Karnataka during the next 24 hours but the weather would become dry after that. A low pressure area in southwest Bay of Bengal and another in southeast Arabian Sea are responsible for rainfall in the region.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Mayor calls for police review following teen's shooting death
Updated On: Jun 11 2012 10:27:31 AM CDT
Milwaukee Mayor Tom Barrett has asked the city's Fire and Police to review police practices at scene of a 13-year-old boy's death.
The family of Darius Simmons claimed the teen's mother was sequestered in a police squad at the shooting scene after witnessing her son's death, instead of being allowed to be with her son.
"You could even be there with him because you're in the back of a car, and you didn't shoot him. Yeah, we're angry. We are very angry and hurt," said Betty McCuiston, the victim's aunt, at vigil for Simmons last week.
Simmons elderly neighbor John Spooner is accused of killing the teen late last month after Spooner accused Simmons of stealing from him.
On Friday, Barrett promised an investigation after meeting with local pastors and community leaders.
"I assured them that our citizen-comprised Milwaukee Fire and Police Commission will examine that, and we'll have a transparent and timely process that will examine whether she was treated appropriately at the scene," said Barrett.
The Milwaukee Police Department released a statement on its website Friday, offering its sympathy.
"Darius' mother was a critical witness and experienced detectives take the greatest care in getting a statement from a family member so close to the victim of a tragedy. This may have taken more time than we would have liked, but the result was the immediate arrest of a criminal suspect."
Copyright 2012 by WISN.com All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


text:
Monday, February 4, 2013
Concerted Amazon Attacks
An article in the New York Times a couple of weeks ago raised an issue of the deliberate, concerted and malicious use of negative Amazon reviews to 'sink' a new book.
The book in question was "Untouchable: The Strange Life and Tragic Death of Michael Jackson" by Randall Sullivan and apparently a group of Michael Jackson fans used Facebook and Twitter to solicit people to bombard Amazon with negative one-star reviews of the book in what appeared to be a concerted campaign to derail book sales. The result was that many favorable reviews were taken down and Amazon even removed the book from sale for a brief period.
Needless to say the book did not achieve the book sales anticipated (3,000 copies sold according to the NYT article compared to the 16,000 copies the publisher distributed to bookstores) despite high-profile promotion - the book was even selected by Amazon as one of the best books of the year. But books often fail to achieve anticipated sales, so who knows whether the 100+ one-star reviews were really responsible for the book's poor performance. The author's did however cite major concerns over the factually inaccurate nature of many of the negative reviews.
Now there has been a lot of controversy recently about Amazon reviews, from authors using 'sock puppets' to write favorable reviews, to Amazon taking down or refusing to post genuine reviews. The specter of a deliberate and concerted campaign to attack a book muddies the 'Amazon review' water even further. There are those who state that it is almost impossible to distinguish a malicious campaign from genuine negative reviews and those who argue that people shouldn't be able to make flagrantly false comments and attacks that in effect suppress an author's right to free speech (then of course there are those who argue for the right of the reviewers to free speech).
So what do you think? How should Amazon deal with the potential for deliberate malicious 'review' attacks? How should authors deal with this issue and can Amazon really be expected to police this kind of thing?
23 comments:
The internet is so tough to police. I wish it were possible for Amazon to track the IP Addresses of these people and then ban them, but I don't think that would work.ReplyDelete
I think people should only be able to write reviews if they've logged in via Facebook or something. Maybe then each comment/review would be easier to track and audit then? Having said that, then you'd find people creating fake Facebook accounts to create false reviews. Suffice to say, I don't think there's any way around it.
But, my personal thoughts are, if I see too many five star reviews I just think they're lies.
I just don't trust the reviews on Amazon at all to be honest.
The problem with trying to track IP Addresses is that most users have a floating IP address provided by their ISP.ReplyDelete
The best approach is for Amazon to require that only users who have actually purchased the book from Amazon can write a review. That won't prevent people from writing 100 reviews, but they'll have to purchase 100 copies of the book to do it.Replies
I don't like that approach. That means that I can't review paper books I got from Barnes & Noble, or from the library, or at Christmas, or from giveaways, and the distribution of ebook review copies will become way, way, harder (ie, reviewers can only have one format, book must be on Amazon and gifted by author, must be done manually).Delete
At this time, it's just too limiting, since not everyone buys books from Amazon.
This topic was folded, spindled and mutilated on The Passive Voice not too long ago and the opinions were all split. I have to agree with Mr. Fish, if the review were to require a verified purchase that would go a long way toward adding credibility. If the reader did not make their purchase at Amazon there are a ton of other outlets they can utilize if they desire to review the book they just read.Delete
This is about Amazon reviews and Amazon should do something to clean them up. One would think this would be an easy policy to implement.
But do they want to? After all, the review process as it is benefits Amazon as much as it does the authors. They may have recently taken some steps to better police the site, but I doubt we'll ever see them take the step of requiring a purchase.
I agree with Fish. If Amazon even desires to improve the integrity of their review system, they need to lock it down.ReplyDelete
When my publisher discounted my first three books to $.99 for the ebooks, I learned of a new thing that kids do online. They've targeted B&N because they still allow anonymous reviews. But kids will pick a title and hit it with their chats, silly remarks, or they connect with each other--and give the book stars that range from 1-5.ReplyDelete
My book stayed in the top 100 at B&N for months & racked up tons of these strange, completely unrelated "reviews." Thankfully real readers seemed to ignore those type of reviews. I reported them to B&N but never got a response & as far as I know, they've not be removed. It must happen so often that B &N has an automatic box to check on their contact form, something about "kids chatter" on reviews that don't pertain to the book.
Bottom line is that a reader can't rely solely on reviews from strangers. They have to make up their own mind after they've done their research however they feel comfortable doing it. Word of mouth from people/friends they respect is a good way. But there will always be lemmings who only look at the overall star rating & assume a low rating means the book is bad & stop right there. Or they buy only 5 star books & assume the book will be good. It always amazes me that some readers don't realize how subjective books are, that one person's experience ( whether good or bad), doesn't mean they should automatically assume they will draw the same conclusion.
It does seem very hard to police and it's so hard to trust any of the reviews on Amazon these days - good or bad! I must admit I was taken aback at the idea of a group making a concerted effort to sink a book and worry about hate campaigns becoming the norm for any kind of 'controversial' book.ReplyDelete
This question was abstract for me until recently. I have noticed one person (screen name just "k") has posted reviews accusing me of writing "racist" books and that I "hate white people." (My character is biracial and sometimes this factors into the plot line). This person has not read the books (she even admits it in one review). I reported it to Amazon. No response yet. I understand Chihuahua's stance (above) that she should be able to review a book if she has bought it elsewhere but I have to vote for Amazon confirming sales before allowing posts. It's just too destructive.ReplyDeleteReplies
Hope you hear back from them - disturbing especially since the reviewer hasn't even read the books!Delete
I honestly don't see what Amazon could do even if they wanted to. Maybe what needs to change isn't the review system, but the public awareness of it.ReplyDelete
Right now, it seems like only writers are talking about these problems with reviews while the general public is still heavily basing their decisions on them. A "Review-gate" would be tough in the short run but maybe that's what readers need to start them thinking more critically about where they select their books.
We see this sort of thing all over the net, not just on Amazon. It comes back to the buyer. We cannot assume that reviews are done with good intentions. The last thing we want is for Amazon to start picking and choosing what they deem to be a "real" review. Next thing you know authors will insist on government involvement. God help us if that happens. It's something we'll have to learn to combat as authors. I'd rather take care of my own battles.ReplyDeleteReplies
I think awareness of the problem will be enough - I certainly don't advocate government involvement but the public need to understand the limitations in the Amazon review process (I'm sure many do - I certainly take most reviews on Amazon with a grain of salt)Delete
Especially when you can look up Moby Dick and find 1 star reviews.Delete
- AnonymousFebruary 4, 2013 at 12:09 PM
It may not matter at all. Data shows that most online books are bought based on recommendations and word of mouth. Hardly any from browsing and looking at reviews. So the idea that a million people are looking at our star ratings and 998,756 pass because of bad reviews, is not reality.ReplyDelete
Make us use our real names when we post reviews. I'm LeNore in Ft. Worth.ReplyDeleteReplies
Amen LeNore! If you haven't got the guts to put your name on it, you shouldn't be posting.Delete
Where's Dirty Harry when we need him? What I'm hearing here is the plot for an interesting book. What if a writer gets ***-slammed by some phony review and decides to reaaaly retaliate?ReplyDelete
The thing is for authors NOT to respond to negative "spammy" reviews. Hard to resist, but don't take the bait. You'll get pulled down into this strange rabbit hole . . . and it won't be a happy time, either. It will be a major distraction from writing.
A friend of mine, got caught up in this on GoodReads. The perp even had a virus loaded into her profile. Traps all over the place. Don't take the bait. Fugedaboudit!
And y'all have a nice day, now :)
Yeah, this is a tough situation. Isn't there a similar thing going on over on Good Reads (organized mass negative reviews for personal reasons)?ReplyDelete
I do think that using real names on reviews would help a bit. And maybe some sort of system where the reviewer has to input a piece of information from the book--that at least shows that they are looking at the book when reviewing it. E.g., "write the third word from the 2nd paragraph of p. 122 in the designated box"--something like that.
This kind of premeditated attack is gross. Unfortunately, there are a zillion other people who write negative reviews for stupid reasons. The book cover was purple and they hate purple, or whatever. As an author (cookbook), I look at my Amazon reviews with a bit of trepidation. I know my book is good and most of the reviews reflect that, but there are always a few dolts that give a negative review for reasons that have nothing to do with the actual content of the book.Replies
Too true! Sad to hear also happening on GoodReads.Delete
It has been happening on eBay for years. I've been suspended because of petty negative feedback comments.ReplyDelete
eBay did finally tie it to actual transactions ending stuff like "The #$%^hole outbid me in the last second" stuff. But it is still rampant. I had one guy make a series of individual $1 purchases over several weeks, forcing me to lose $$ on every sale in shipping and fees and then he would come back a couple of weeks later and bomb the feedback with nasty snide comments.
Step 1 is to tie it to a confirmed purchase. You got it somewhere else, review is somewhere else.
Step 2 is to take no punitive action against the writer or the book until the writer has been notified and has X-number of days to respond. If 1000 people say that every other word is a typo and that is true, then the writer should have the chance to pull it down and edit rather than Amazon doing it.
Finally, there has to be a way to create search algorithms to bring this to light. Stuff like the chat-bombing would be easy. They already have the one the searches out sock-puppets with the "X-number of reviews said the same thing." And if the review includes the word "Amazon" it should be automatically reviewed. That would catch the one-star "I hate Amazon, they took too long to ship this book and then the cover was creases reviews."
Funny thing is that a good review I left for one of John Gilstrap's books was immediately attacked by a negative reviewer who accused me of being related to him. And, I had a typo in my review. She went to great lengths to explain how someone as obviously ignorant as I am would, of course, like a Gilstrap book. *eyeroll*
I second the idea of using real names in reviews. People would become much more responsible about what they post if they were unable to hide behind pseudonyms.ReplyDelete
I think that Amazon should leave all reviews, not remove them, but should have reviewers QUALIFY themselves in some way so that readers can judge for themselves how valid those reviews are. Is this your real name? Are you related to the author? Are you a friend of the author? Are you a fellow author? That kind of thing. I mean, certainly people can lie, I guess, but if they're found out their credibility is gone.ReplyDelete
I'm one of those oddballs who read the negative reviews first - and frequently end up downloading an ebook because of it! Often the negative reviewers obviously haven't even read the book or they come across as complete idiots, and I figure that if they didn't like it, I probably will. LOL The only negative reviews I actually take into account are well thought out ones from literate commenters. Just saying "it sucked" or "I don't like this genre but I bought it anyway and hated it" count for absolutely nothing.ReplyDelete
I do agree that there should be some sort of accountability. Sock puppets need to be shot along with the spammers.


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Summer Reading List
Every student in every grade should read our
Outliers by Malcolm Gladwell
Unless your class is listed below, you should also read two books of your choice.
Some classes require specific summer reading:
Students entering Honors Sophomore English should read one book of your choice, Life of Pi by Yann Martel, and Outliers.
Students entering Honors Junior English should read Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, and Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe, in addition to Outliers.
Students entering Honors Sophomore MGC (Modern Global Communities) should read one book of choice, Outliers, and EITHER The World is Flat by Thomas L. Friedman or The Post-American World (Release 2.0) by Fareed Zakaria.
Students entering Honors Junior MGC (Modern Global Communities) should read Passing by Nella Larsen, and Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe, in addition to Outliers.
Students entering Shakespeare should read Outliers, Shakespeare: The World As Stage by Bill Bryson (C1) or Will In The World by Stephen Greenblatt (Honors) and one book of choice.
All students entering Senior MGC: Words That Changed The World should read Outliers, and Black Ice by Lorene Cary. Honors students only should also read Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, while students enrolled in C1 and C2 should read one book of choice.
Students enrolled for honors in African American Literature should read Why Are All The Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria by Beverly Daniel Tatum, Outliers, and one book of choice.
Students entering AP English Literature are required to read Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, and Atonement by Ian McEwan, and should be prepared to compare the two works during the first week of school. Students should also read Outliers.
Students entering AP English Language should read Outliers and one set of three books that in some way relates to the overall question: What does it mean to be an American? When you return in the fall, you will be asked to write an essay that develops an original idea in response to the arguments and thoughts in the books you have read. You do not need to take notes or otherwise write anything over the summer, but reactions or responses you do write down may be helpful to you as you write your essay.
Choose one of these sets of books related to the overall theme:
Coming to America (choose three)
Being Poor in America (choose three)
Race in America (choose three)
Being Different in America (choose three)
Being Female in America (choose three)
Eating in America (choose three)
If you have any questions, you can reach Mr. Baron at email@example.com or Mr. Kaplan at email@example.com.
If either Mr. Kaplan or Mr. Baron read anything relevant the topics above over the summer, they may tweet about it using the hashtag #apnshs.


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Mobile application development Sydney has seen a prodigious rise in the past few years. Whether it is Android, BlackBerry, iPhone or Windows phone, the applications were highly demanded and smart phone industry became one of the popular happening in the market. People use Smartphones every day as a part of their life and primarily, the apps are most helpful to them and helps in making their day-to-day task easy. Today this trend continues even with a high competition due to the development in technology and the introduction of several versions of Smartphones. According to a research 37% Australians own a Smartphone that ranks 2nd next to Singapore.
The above reason is sufficient to the rise of mobile application development industry in Australia. As apps are vastly used by the smart phone users, there has been a competition between the app developers to introduce the latest and user friendly applications.
The Trend:
The term Smartphone has existed in the market since 90's. But it became more popular towards 2007 with the launch of IOS and with this OS, the trend of mobile app development started taking its height. Now this trend is more popular all over the world, especially in the city of Sydney, development companies are adopting new tactics to compete in the market. But, now its time to apply some specific criteria for developing unique and customized applications so as to meet the unique needs of client. Let's have a look.
Procedure and Security Concerns:
Initially, the premier development companies were developing apps for a limited operating system like, Symbian, Java, iOS but, now, they are strictly focusing on each and every OS including Android, Windows, iOS etc. This is a good move to dominate the market. They are hiring professional experts to work on these projects. At the same time they are developing a cross platform application to run on most of the mobile phone Operating Systems.
In mobile applications, security is a major issue as people use these apps in monetary transactions, business operations and many other situations. Now, the development companies are keen on their job for providing better security options against all the Smartphone applications.
Today, app development Australia specializes in delivering user interface designs that people use through their Smartphones. They are also engaged in designing simple and attractive apps for the unique requirement of the customers. Keeping the intended users in mind they are now formulating innovative methods to reach maximum users within a short period of time.
However, as people want to keep the universe in their pocket, the need of the mobile application is very high and the necessity of a customized application is also in demand. edwayapps.com.au is one among the reputed websites where, one can find these apps easily.
Edwayapps.com.au is your reliable source if, you really want to know more about the mobile apps development.


text:
May 14, 2013 at 01:11PM EDT
Oh yeah, I think the IDW comics look pretty good. I haven't really had time to read them, but they look awesome. Thanks for the heads up.
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text:
DIY Keepsake Books
Need a safe place to store some secret things? What about your bookshelf? May not seem like the most secret of places, until you have a Hideaway Book. Dig out the pages of a damaged or used hardback book and you have a secret stash box to store your secrets. Back to Article
Dang man, now I have to go find a book at a yard sale, cause i'm not gonna waste a good book.
Neat idea but I'd have to go find a crappy book at a yard sale. You wouldn't want to mess up a good book.
I'm not wasting a good book but this is a great idea!
I'm not wasting a good book but this is a great idea!
but DIY's are really fun
this looks hard
I love DIY's!!
I love DIY's!!
Cool! I think i'll try that! I can just steal a dictionary from english class! lol
Cool I made one its really cool! I use it during class so I can act like I am reading but I really have my ipod in the space and am texting people! its smart!
I'veseen this in Art Attack every saturday and sunday at 7:30 pm (indias time) only on disney channel
Not cool
these r cool


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The Fashion Institute of Technology is dedicated to serving the needs of prospective and enrolled service persons and veterans in pursuing their educational goals. If you are planning on enrolling for military or veteran student educational benefits, this site can help facilitate your transition by providing you with the proper resources. All students eligible to receive veterans' benefits while attending FIT are urged to complete arrangements with the appropriate agency in advance of enrollment.
The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs determines the eligibility for educational benefits. If you or your family members are eligible for veterans' benefits, FIT will certify your enrollment so that you or your family members can receive these benefits. To find out which benefits you qualify for and for an application, please visit http://www.gibill.va.gov/.
VA Certifying Official David Lawton serves as the liaison between FIT, its students, and the various federal, state, and local agencies concerned with veterans' benefits. Any questions regarding these benefits should be directed to David Lawton at firstname.lastname@example.com.
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs: GI Bill
The State University of New York: Military and Veterans
In order to activate your veteran student educational benefits, you are required to submit an application in accordance with your specific circumstance:
1 - New Students
2 - Transfer Students
3 - Continuing Students
4 - Types of Veteran Affairs Educational Benefits
5 - Scholarships and Awards for Veterans
6 - Certification of Enrollment
What to send to your Fashion Institute of Technology VA Certifying Official:
- Copy of completed application for veteran student educational benefits
- Copy of Certificate of Release or Discharge from Active Duty – DD Form 214 (if you are a Veteran)
- Copy of Notice of Basic Eligibility (NOBE) – DD Form 2384-1 (if you are a member of the Select Reserve)
- Copy of Buy-up Program documentation (if applicable)
- Copy of Certificate of Eligibility (you will receive this from the Buffalo Regional VA office once a determination on your eligibility is made)
Students who had been receiving veteran benefits at another college must complete a Change Program/Place of Training form to receive benefits at the Fashion Institute of Technology:
- VA Form 22-1995 for Veterans, Service persons, and Members of the Selected Reserve –or–
- VA Form 22-5495 for Survivors' and Dependents' Education Assistance
What to send your Fashion Institute of Technology VA Certifying Official:
- Copy of Certificate of Release or Discharge from Active Duty – DD Form 214 (if you are a Veteran)
- Copy of Change of Program or Place of Training documentation – VA Form 22-1995 or VA Form 22-5495
- Copy of Certificate of Eligibility (you will receive this from the Buffalo Regional VA office once a determination on your eligibility is made)
Continuing students are asked to contact the VA Certifying Official immediately upon registering for classes; this is not limited to fall and spring semester registration, but winter session and summer session I or II classes as well.
4 - Types of Veteran Affairs Educational Benefits
Chapter 30 - Montgomery GI Active Duty (MGIB-AD)
The MGIB-AD program provides educational benefits to veterans and service members who have at least two years of active duty; eligibility criteria can be found on the Department of Veteran Affairs website.
Chapter 1606 - Montgomery GI Selected Reserve (MGIB-SR)
The MGIB-SR program provides education and training benefits to eligible members of the Selected Reserve. Information regarding eligibility can be found on the Department of Veteran Affairs website.
Chapter 1607 - Reserve Educational Assistance Program (REAP)
REAP provides educational assistance to members of the Reserve components called or ordered to active duty in response to a war or national emergency declared by the president or congress; eligibility criteria can be found on the Department of Veteran Affairs website. To apply for Chapter 30, 1606, or 1607 benefits, you must complete VA Form 22-1990.
Chapter 35 - Survivors' and Dependents' Educational Assistance program (DEA)
The DEA program offers education and training opportunities to eligible dependents of veterans who are permanently and totally disabled due to a service-related condition or of veterans who died while on active duty or as a result of a service-related condition. Eligibility criteria can be found on the Department of Veteran Affairs website. To apply for Chapter 35 benefits, you must complete VA Form 22-5490.
Chapter 31 - Veterans Opportunity to Work program (VOW)
The VOW program extends vocational rehabilitation benefits for 12 months for veterans who have completed the VA vocational rehabilitation program and have run out of initial unemployment benefits. Eligibility criteria can be found on the Department of Veteran Affairs website. To apply for Chapter 31 benefits, you must complete VA Form 22-1900. However, it is advised that you contact a VA Vocational Rehabilitation Counselor beforehand. To learn more or to apply for Chapter 31 benefits in New York State, please call (800) 827-1000.
Chapter 33 - The Post-9/11 GI Bill
The Post-9/11 GI Bill provides financial support for education and housing to individuals with at least 90 days of aggregate service on or after September 11, 2001, or individuals discharged with a service-connected disability after 30 days. You must have received an honorable discharge to be eligible for the Post-9/11 GI Bill.
As of August 1, 2009, the Post-9/11 GI Bill is effective for training. Approved training under the Post-9/11 GI Bill includes graduate and undergraduate degrees, and vocational/technical training. All training programs must be offered by an institution of higher learning (IHL) and approved for GI Bill benefits. Additionally, tutorial assistance, and licensing and certification test reimbursement are approved under the Post-9/11 GI Bill.
The Post-9/11 GI Bill will pay your tuition based upon the highest in-state tuition charged by a public educational institution in the state where the school is located. The amount of support that an individual may qualify for depends on where they live and what type of degree they are pursuing.
This Post-9/11 GI Bill will pay eligible individuals:
- Tuition and fees directly to the school not to exceed the maximum in-state tuition and fees at a public Institution of Higher Learning.
- A monthly housing allowance based on the basic allowance for housing for an E-5 with dependents at the location of the school.
- An annual books and supplies stipend of $1,000 paid proportionately based on enrollment.
- A one-time rural benefit payment for eligible individuals.
This benefit is payable only for training at an Institution of Higher Learning (IHL). If you are on active duty you will not receive the housing allowance or books and supplies stipend. This benefit provides up to 36 months of education benefits, generally benefits are payable for 15 years following your release from active duty.
The Post-9/11 GI Bill also offers some service members the opportunity to transfer their GI Bill benefits to dependents.
Transfer of Post-9/11 GI Bill Benefits to Dependents (TEB)
Visit the GI Bill transferability website to determine if your dependents are eligible to receive transferred educational benefits.
5 - Scholarships and Awards for Veterans
For information on scholarships and awards available to veterans and to apply, please visit Military Corner. You also may call (888) 697-4372 or send an e-mail to email@example.com.
6 - Certification of Enrollment
For all chapter benefits, with the exception of Chapter 31, our certifying official must notify the VA of your enrollment each semester. It is your responsibility to contact the Fashion Institute of Technology VA Certifying Official once you have registered at the beginning of every term. Your enrollment will be certified with the VA shortly thereafter.
If you are chapter 1606 or 1607, you must contact the VA for enrollment certification each month that you qualify for benefits. This should be done online on the last day of each month at Web Automated Verification of Enrollment (W.A.V.E.). Follow the W.A.V.E. link to complete electronic certification or call (877) 823-2378. If your enrollment certification has been submitted and you would like to check on the status of your payment, you can call the New York state regional office at (888) 442-4551.
NOTE: It is your responsibility to notify the VA Certifying Official when withdrawing from or adding a course. Withdrawing from a course may impact your VA educational benefits. When you withdraw from a course, you become financially liable to the Department of Veteran Affairs for that course if you are withdrawing after the allowable add/drop period. Please bring a copy of your official withdrawal documentation (showing the date(s) of withdraw) to the VA Certifying Official. If you plan on attending winter session or summer sessions I or II, please contact the VA Certifying Official as well.