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Butter Rum Ice Cream
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My mom always kept butter rum hard candies in her purse for me and my sister, so I grew up loving that rich flavor. Now I like to use them to give store-bought ice cream a homemade touch. And this one's got a real kick, too!
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Go ahead and make this a rum raisin ice cream simply by adding 1 cup raisins to the saucepan after the candy has melted.


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Kate Middleton's fashion sense has been an inevitable topic of interest, ever since she married into Britain's royal family on April 29 this year and became the United Kingdom's Duchess of Cambridge, Catherine Middleton.
Right from her "most-talked about" wedding gown to her choices of dress during her first official tour abroad to Canada as a British royal family member along with her husband Prince William, the Duchess' style was scrutinized with applause as well as criticism by many fashion fraternities.
The Duchess, however, seems to have come out victorious as a U.S.-based fashion magazine has voted her Britain's "Best Dressed Woman."
The UK edition of Harper's Bazaar, America's first fashion magazine that was first published in 1867, has released the latest "it-list" in which the Duchess beats Britain's top fashion icons including Kate Moss and Emma Watson.
Despite repeating her wardrobe at various public gatherings and maintaining that she is not a "royal clothes horse," Middleton has effortlessly made it to the top.
Some fashion experts see in her a natural elegant style that imparts an evolutionary fashion statement and grips the world all over.
Have a look at some of the most thrilling and iconic fashion moments of Kate Middleton below:
While in Quebec City on July 3, Kate Middleton wore a blue lace dress by Canadian designer Erdem. She paired her dress with nude L.K. Bennett heels and a beige print handbag. Reuters
Kate Middleton flaunts her evening gown after her wedding on April 29, 2011. reuters
Catherine Middleton (Kate Middleton), Duchess of Cambridge, was all smiles at Zara Phillips' wedding to England rugby captain Mike Tindall, at Canongate Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland on Saturday. REUTERS/Dylan Martinez
Kate Middleton wore a white gown designed by Sarah Burton, who is the creative director for Alexander McQueen. Reuters
Kate Middleton walks in the woods around Blatchford Lake. Reuters
Kate Middleton during a charity gala in UK. REUTERS
Kate Middleton during Canada visit. REUTERS


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Police in Tempe, Arizona, say people watching a video feed of a woman playing an online game called authorities to report seeing a home invasion taking place in the woman's apartment.
Lt. Michael Pooley says a friend of the victim watching the video Monday morning saw two men with guns break down the woman's apartment door.
Pooley says one man was still in the apartment when officers arrived. The man fled but one was taken into custody after a short chase. Pooley says another man may be holed up in a vacant apartment nearby.
According to Pooley, authorities elsewhere also got calls from other people who were watching the video feed and who also saw the break-in. He says dispatchers are trying to pin down details of those calls.
© 2014 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.


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The Chilling Facts in Data Center Design
On-demand Web Seminar
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Join us for this presentation where you will get a behind the scenes peek at how we manage our numerous, globally-based data centers.
As well as showing you the software we use to track the real time performances of our data centers, we will also show you how we design and modify our datacenter layouts. Using real models, we'll demonstrate what was used to assess the performance of a facility in India. In addition, we will demonstrate how we modified our designs to optimize the operation.
As you will see, when it comes to the chilling facts of data center design and optimization, there are a lot of considerations to be made in order to keep costs down.
Our guest presenter is Stuart Walker, Mentor Graphics Worldwide Facilities Critical Infrastructure Manager.
What You Will Learn
- How CFD software can be utilized for data center design and optimization
- Real-life examples of design considerations in data center design
- How CFD software can be used to assess and optimize ventilation performance in a real data center, working under extreme conditions
About the Presenter
Paul Rose
Paul achieved his Mechanical Engineering Degree from The City University in 1987. Paul has spent the last 15 years working for Mentor Graphics Corporation, Mechanical Analysis Division (formerly Flomerics Ltd) specializing in the application of CFD to the design of the built environment and electronic equipment. Prior to this he worked for the Building Services Research and Information Association (BSRIA) in a role that covered both physically and numerical modeling.
Currently, Paul is a Senior Application Engineer in the engineering team of Mentor's Mechanical Analysis Division, training and supporting the user base to enhance the accessibility of thermal analysis to the engineering designer. Over these many years he has gained significant experience, not only in the use of software, but also of the general design processes and the best way to apply CFD techniques to real world problems encountered by engineers' everyday.
Who Should View
- HVAC Designers
- Data Center Designers
- Thermal Design Engineers
- Engineers involved in data center design and management
Related Industries
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See why electronics cooling CFD is different, how it has evolved and where it is going. …View On-demand Web Seminar
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After an introduction of the frequency converter for this specific application, 3D FloEFD thermal calculations of the IGBT-Transistor modules will be presented and compared with test results.…View On-demand Web Seminar
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Information on this family can be found at the following website:
basic notes include:
Anthony YELVERTON Sr was born about 1700 in New York, New York He signed a will on 1 May 1774 in New Paltz Precinct, Ulster County, New York.(9279) The will is file # 2152 Y10a at the Albany Court of Appeals. Will and land deed mention wife Abigail.
Anthony YELVERTON Jr b c1733. m: Mercy DRAKE on 9 Jun 1761.
Elizabeth YELVERTON b: 1742. d; 1807 m: Roelof OSTROM Jr on 23 May 176
Andrew YELVERTON d btwn 1774 & 1783. m: Sarah MARSTON on 30 Nov 1752.
Hannah YELVERTON m: married to Johannes DE GRAAF before 1767.
Gale YELVERTON m: Francisca LA COUNT on 29 Nov 1753
Mary YELVERTON
Abigail YELVERTON m: William INGRAHAM on 25 Jul 1765
I am a descendant of Elizabeth Yelverton and Roelof OSTROM, Loyalists.
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Band practice at Nyack High School
Students practice with their instruments at Nyack High School. Nyack has preserved their performing arts programs while other school districts, including East Ramapo School District have cut such programs.
Manny Pacquiao vs. Chris Algieri Promotions, hires on Long Island Long Island polar bear plunges Behind the scenes: LI's Algieri Meet LI's 8 Siemens regional finalists CHSFL Class AA final: Chaminade vs. SJB Nassau IV final: Roosevelt vs. Mineola Suffolk II final: East Islip vs. Half Hollow Hills West Nassau II final: Carey vs. Garden City NYSPHSAA girls swimming and diving championships Suffolk IV final: Shoreham-Wading River vs. Glenn 300-yard rushers in Long Island history


text: NBC's Fallon Band Proud of 'Lyin' Ass Bitch' by Hollywoodland 22 Nov 2011 post a comment Share This: Seems like The Roots' Questlove isn't having any second thoughts about trashing a U.S. Congresswoman on national TV. In fact, he's busy congratulating himself on Twitter for treating a "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" guest like pond scum. The Roots, the show's house band, greeted Monday's guest Rep. Michele Bachmann with a rendition of the Fishbone song "Lyin' Ass Bitch." Questlove, whose Twitter feed picture features him alongside President Barack Obama, not only hinted at the stunt via Twitter but later retweeted comments praising his song selection: @questlove huge ups to the fishbone tune for Bachman on jimmy tonight. perfect entry song for her! @questlove wow. hats off. #snarkhalloffamemember I already loved them, but The Roots are now my favorite band ever! #WalkOnSnark @questlove @FrankKnuckles Meanwhile, Fallon himself has been mostly silent about the incident. Big Hollywood has reached out to NBC to see if the late night talker had any comment. For now, all he's saying is via a brief Tweet on his Twitter page: @questlove is grounded.


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The Real Benedict XVI
Reports Reveal Warmth and Openness
ROME, APRIL 24, 2005 (Zenit) - Some media reports following the announcement of the new Pope rolled out ready-made stereotypes of the man, portraying him as an inflexible authoritarian. Other reports, especially in the British media, were obsessed by the idea of a German Pope who had lived his teen years under the Nazi regime.
However, a number of personal testimonies published this week reveal an entirely different personality. Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, now archbishop of Genoa, Italy, was for many years second-in-charge to Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger at the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. The Italian prelate was interviewed Thursday by the newspaper Il Messaggero.
The archbishop spoke of a man of "great humanity, a lover of nature and of music." Cardinal Bertone also testified to Cardinal Ratzinger's openness and simplicity in dealing with people, and how over the years in Rome he has formed friendships with many people.
Monsignor Alejandro Cifres, chief archivist for 14 years in the doctrinal congregation, in articles published by the Spanish daily ABC on Thursday and Friday also gave testimony concerning the new Pope.
When he first came to Rome in 1981 to take up his post as prefect of the congregation he did not even take possession of the apartment that would normally be his by right, as it was occupied by an elderly cardinal, whom he did not wish to disturb. The apartment in which Cardinal Ratzinger has remained in all these years in Rome, is not one as large or well-appointed as would normally correspond to his post, and is adorned with secondhand furniture. It is also located on the other side of St. Peter's Square from his office, instead of being in the same building.
Monsignor Cifres commented that during his years of working at the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith, it was Cardinal Ratzinger who gave the staff an example of dedication, rising early and going to bed late so as to deal expeditiously with the important matters that required attention.
Moreover, Monsignor Cifres explained that Cardinal Ratzinger on numerous occasions had asked Pope John Paul II to be allowed to leave his post and return to his theological studies. He repeated that desire to his staff on his 78th birthday, just two days before the conclave started.
Along Borgo Pio
Friday's edition of the Italian newspaper La Repubblica published a number of commentaries from shop-owners along the street close by where Cardinal Ratzinger lived for some 24 years, Borgo Pio.
In the afternoons the future Pope would often go out for a walk along the streets near his apartment and would stop to greet the shopkeepers along the Borgo Pio. Mario, a fruit-seller, recalled how once the cardinal asked him which apples to buy to best prepare a strudel. And electrician Angelo Mosca spoke of the time he had gone to the cardinal�s apartment to fix a problem, and how he had remained in a relaxed conversation with him for an hour, "just as if we were old friends."
British journalist Charles Moore, writing in Wednesday's Telegraph, described a meeting with Cardinal Ratzinger some years ago. Three things impressed Moore about the prelate. First, "his embarrassing courtesy." Moore recounted how the cardinal carefully read an article he had brought with him in which the journalist described his conversion to Catholicism.
The second striking point was Cardinal Ratzinger's intellectual curiosity: "He was not a man living in the past, but rather one tackling with a civilized and clear mind the new challenges of human thought." The third characteristic was the cardinal's open manner and willingness to answer any question put to him.
And another journalist, David Quinn, writing in Tuesday's Irish Independent, described a meeting with Cardinal Ratzinger some 10 years ago. The cardinal dedicated an hour to his questions. "During that time he was courtesy itself, entirely gracious and patient with my questions," said Quinn.
Remembering a birthday
U.S. cardinals also recalled the new Pope's affability, noted an Associated Press report Wednesday. Philadelphia Cardinal Justin Rigali said that in the midst of the excitement during the conclave after the ballots were tallied, Benedict XVI took the time to wish him a happy birthday. "With all the things he had to think about, he had the very human touch," said Cardinal Rigali.
And the archbishop of New York, Cardinal Edward Egan, recalled how some years ago Cardinal Ratzinger took the time to personally wish him well before he became an archbishop. "'He is a very lovely and loving person," Cardinal Egan said. "I think you're going to like him very much."
This opinion was echoed by Cardinal George Pell, archbishop of Sydney, who for ...
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Notre Dame vs Maryland | 2014 ACC Basketball Highlights
Maryland came back in the 2nd half to pick up a key ACC win, defeating Notre Dame 74-66. Dez Wells led the Terps with 17 points, while Seth Allen added 14 points and 4 assists. Pat Connaughton scored 19 for the Irish in the loss.
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With their traditional detailing and contemporary silhouette, Balenciaga's boots tick all the right boxes for the new season. They are crafted from a smooth black leather and feature a cushioned insole, elastic panelling and wedge heel to ensure day-long comfort. The subtle brogue stitching qualifies these boots for office styling, yet also works perfectly with down-time denim.
Theres nothing more elegant than a simple silk blouse and this ivory style from Balenciaga has cut-away detailing at the neckline for a subtle point of difference. Make it your round-the-clock go to, switching oversized tailoring for a printed skirt after hours.
Balenciagas black roll-neck sweater will make a luxurious addition to your staples wardrobe. This relaxed-fitting piece is spun from sumptuous cashmere and has the labels initial embroidered on the hemline. Wear it with black trousers and mules to personify Parisian elegance.
This navy sweater from Balenciaga is destined to become your new-season favourite. It's made from a beautiful mid-weight wool-blend and is cut to a flattering, wear-everywhere shape slightly oversized but still slim. Try it atop white tailoring and masculine flats for the most modern take.
Balenciaga Wool-blend sweater 519,46 €
Invest in a more streamlined version of Balenciagas Classic City edge-line bag with this compact mini style. It's crafted from black shiny grained leather and features signature light gold-tone hardware and studs. It's spacious enough for all of your essentials and comes with an adjustable shoulder strap option for hands-free ease.
Balenciaga fuses its signature volumes with functional design to create this padded black nylon coat. It's designed for an oversized fit and imbued with sporty details like rubberised zip trims and a ribbed-knit neckline. Balance the supersized silhouette and layer it over the brand's sleek leather leggings.
Balenciaga Padded technical coat 2.184 €
The chunky ankle boot is one of Balenciaga's most re-visited styles, and this black leather version is loaded with androgynous appeal. They have a thick rubber sole and heel and a Velcro-fastening ankle strap. They're the perfect foil to this season's military mood; try them with bare legs and a khaki sweater.
For SS15 Balenciaga introduces the Maillon wallet, designed to accompany the lauded new handbag line. This one is made from metallic charcoal-grey leather and detailed with the signature Maillon twist-lock fastening in palladium. The interior is lined in sleek black leather and features ample compartments for all of your essentials.
Balenciaga makes a youthful addition to its sleek Padlock story with this iridescent blue and purple leather wallet. The shiny front pocket is ideal for storing daily essentials, and the organised interior includes four internal notes compartments and 12 cardholders. It's finished with the house's recognisable palladium clasp.
Since arriving at Balenciaga, Alexander Wang has emphasised the 360-degree nature of the French houses designs. This season, he used simple squares and rectangles to create more complex draped styles like this expertly cut stretch-wool scarf dress. All it needs is a pair of ankle boots to echo the elongating properties of the long sleeves and sharp shoulders.
For Pre-spring 2014, Balenciaga artistic director Alexander Wang revisited the house's legendary archives. Crafted in a palate of black, white and grey, his collection includes luxe fabrics and elegant, armorial silhouettes that honor the spirit of Cristobal Balenciaga. Crafted of buttery wrinkled lilac lambskin, Balenciaga's moto jacket is tailored in panels for a slim, body-conscious fit. Cut with an oversize rounded point collar and asymmetric front zip closure, the jacket is detailed with vertical zip pockets at front and industrial zippers at cuffs. Lined. Available in Lilac. Lambskin; lining: rayon. Specialty care. Imported.
Balenciaga Original Moto Jacket 2.210 €
Crafted from soft dove-grey leather, this Padlock Work tote is the latest member of the Balenciaga family. The neat boxy structure has minimal decoration save for the front pocket and discreet gold-tone designer stamp. Its the perfect size for toting day or night.
Aussi bohème et architectural que la mode Balenciaga peut l'être... Plus qu'un flacon, un objet couture. Les rayures noires et blanches très graphiques rappellent une signature chère à Cristobal Balenciaga et les visions de coupes très contemporaines de Nicolas Ghesquière. Le tube sur-dimensionné aux lignes franches, plonge dans le parfum de fleurs comme une éprouvette de laboratoire qui voudrait capturer l'essence secrète des fleurs. Paradoxe sensoriel entre la rigueur de l'expérimentation et la poésie de l'esprit des plantes.
Pink butterfly frame sunglasses from Balenciaga Vintage featuring brown lenses, logo detailing at the hinges, straight arms and curved ends. Please note that vintage items are not new and therefore might have minor imperfections.
Transparent sunglasses from Balenciaga featuring a round frame, contrasting blue inserts at the rim and arms, blue tinted lenses and a silver-tone designer logo at the hinges. Please note that vintage items are not new and therefore might have minor imperfections.
Balenciagas Classic City edge-line tote is defined by its streamlined metal trim, and this season sees it imagined in a sophisticated teal-green hue. The labels iconic metal studs and leather-encased mirror complete the look, and it has an optional shoulder strap should you wish to go hands-free.
How to make a time-honed classic feel relevant and fresh? For Balenciaga, the answer is nylon. The newest version of its signature Classic City clutch comes in khaki-green and secures with a zip that runs along the top and down one side. Added bonus? Its the perfect size for a tablet as well as evening essentials.
Balenciaga Classic City nylon clutch 431,84 €
Grey cat eye sunglasses from Balenciaga Vintage featuring gradient lenses, striped blue sections at the corners, logo detailing at the hinges, straight arms and curved tips. Please note that vintage items are not new and therefore might have minor imperfections.
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Lake George-ers, get your bowling shoes ready, because Lake George Lanes & Games is now open for business! After several months...
Combine the pleasures of beautiful Lake George and the rugged excitement of camping, and you'll find a perfect mix in island camping. There are 44 islands on Lake George which are open to the public to set up camp – one of these is Sagamore Island.
Sagamore Island is an over-night, state-owned island. It is not the home of the grand Sagamore Resort (which actually rests on Green Island), but lies a few miles north in Bolton Landing.
The island is home to six separate campsites:


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Your Business
How to disaster-proof your business
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How Vancouver retailers can get online by the holidays
Retail Spark brings e-commerce advice to local businesses
Your Business
When should you take your business global?
When's a good time to take the leap to the world stage? Here are seven tips to help you decide
Online custom suit retailer Indochino opens Gastown storefront
Indochino's new streetfront stores offer one-on-one service
The next big thing in retail: the human touch
Lux Insights president Claire Booth told the Retail West Conference that shoppers want concierge service
Dynamic Productions Keeps Callers Informed and on the Line
Dynamic Productions keeps callers and businesses satisfied with its line of services
Entrepreneur of the Year Thought Leadership Event
Join B.C.'s business stars for a night of up close and personal interviews next month. Tickets now available
Tourism & Culture
Vancouver's world-famous gelato maker James Coleridge eyes expansion
Coleridge already has plans for Vancouver's trendiest neighbourhoods—and then the world
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14 entrepreneurs who hit curve balls on the road to victory
When following the small business playbook doesn't work
Your Business
When legal issues threaten your small business
Dealing with the CRA and paying unexpected fees can be particularly tough for small enterprises


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PEOPLE Celebrates the 50th Anniversary of General Hospital with Commemorative Book
PEOPLE magazine, the world's most popular celebrity weekly, announces the release of PEOPLE Celebrates General Hospital, a collector's special book that chronicles the iconic soap opera, which, on April 1, will have been on the air for 50 years - longer than any daytime drama still in production. The 128-page commemorative soft cover book, which hits newsstands on March 1 ($11.99/US), chronicles all the stars, scandals, and memorable moments with highlights from those five decades of "love in the afternoon" - shocking plot twists; interviews with the current cast; famous cameo appearances (Elizabeth Taylor, Julio Iglesias, Roseanne Barr, Sammy Davis Jr., Milton Berle); the best villains; celebrities who got their start on GH before finding even more success later on (Demi Moore, Ricky Martin, Mark Hamill, Jack Wagner), and more.
Over the past fifty years, General Hospital fans have thrilled to forbidden passion, dark secrets and Evil Twins, and found delight in a long line of heartthrobs from Dr. Hardy and Alan Quartermaine to Luke, Blackie, Frisco, Scorpio, Mac and Jason. More than 1,800 actors have appeared on the show; the 1981 marriage of Luke and Laura drew 30 million viewers and became the biggest event in the history of daytime drama.
Packed with trivia, cast interviews, and more than 200 photos, the hardcover version of PEOPLE Celebrates General Hospital is available beginning March 12 ($19.95/US) wherever books are sold and online at www.people.com/books/generalhospital.
"PEOPLE Celebrates General Hospital" hits newsstands nationwide on March 1;and is also available in hardcover wherever books are sold on March 12.
PEOPLE revolutionized personality journalism in 1974; today it is the world's most successful and popular magazine.Each week the PEOPLE brand brings more than 53 million consumers the latest news, exclusive interviews, and in-depth reporting on the most compelling people in the entertainment industry as well as stories of real-life "Heroes Among Us." PEOPLE.comis the premier web destination for celebrity news, photos, style and entertainment coverage. With reporters across the globe, PEOPLE is headquartered in New York City.
SOURCE: BUSINESS WIRE ©2014 Business Wire
About Author
- Anna Kendrick and Jeremy Jordan-Led THE LAST FIVE YEARS Movie to Hit Theaters, VOD on Feb 13
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[#SESDENVER] Is LinkedIn a Solution for Brands Tapped Out on AdWords?
But successful LinkedIn ads must get at a core need LinkedIn users have by evoking an emotion that serves as a call to action. Could LinkedIn advertising be an answer for brands that are "tapped out on Bing and AdWords"?


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Water Outage Expected in Las Cruces
Monday, December 27, 2010 - 1:24pm
LAS CRUCES- The City of Las Cruces will shut off water in parts of the city on Wednesday morning.
The outage will affect some residents and businesses in the Triangle Trade Shopping Center area. That's right near the intersection of Madrid Avenue and North Main.
The shutoff comes as a construction is completing construction of a new water main. Crews will alert all buildings to be affected with a posted notice on the door.
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Date: 1745 ca.
Description: Zodiac as seen from the Northern Hemisphere.
Description: Zodiac as seen from the Southern Hemisphere.
Date: 1779-02-24
Description: Letter from Colonel George Rogers Clark to Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton demanding unconditional surrender of Fort Vincennes.
Date: 1755
Description: From "A map of the British and French dominions in North American with the roads, distances, limits, and extent of the settlements".
Date: 1733
Description: From "A map of the British Empire in America with the French and Spanish settlements adjacent thereto". This is the Wisconsin and Minnesota section.
Date: 1772
Description: Scale: about 180 miles to 1 in.
Date: 1781-08
Description: The front page of a letter written by Thomas Lewis to William Preston.
Date: 1783
Description: Letter from Thomas Jefferson to George Rogers Clark suggesting a transcontinental expedition.
Date: 1719
Description: Photograph of a framed Scottish Historical Armorial Flag.
Date: 1766
Description: Portrait of Mohegan minister and preacher Samson Occom, posed sitting with his finger on a Bible on a bookstand, with Indian implements visible on the wall...
Date: 1778-08-17
Description: Document supporting the presentation of a medal presented by Frederick Haldimand, Captain-General and Governor in Chief of the Province of Quebec to Menomi...
Date: 1798 ca.
Description: Engraved and hand-colored map of Egypt. Map title appears on bottom left as a carving in stone next...
Description: The second page of a letter written by Thomas Lewis to William Preston.
Date: 1774-07
Description: Back page of a letter written and signed by Dan Smith.
Description: A letter from Governor Henry Hamilton to Colonel Clark proposing a truce.
Date: 1769
Description: Manuscript map. Scale: about 80 British statue miles to 1 inch.
Date: 1776
Description: In French: "Partie Occidentale du Canada et septentrionale de la Louisiane avec une partie de la Pensilvanie". A map showing graticule and six European sca...
Date: 1792 ca.
Description: Map of Washington D.C. Labeled on the map are all the main streets, the site of the Capitol and the President's House. The map also shows the relationship...
Date: 1787-09-19
Description: The first printing of the United States Constitution found in the "Pennsylvania Packet," and "Daily Advertiser."
Date: 1720
Description: Double hemispherical world map showing routes of Tasman, Magellan, Mendana, etc. Relief shown pictorially. Title in oak wreath cartouche. Map between four...
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Jobseekers made to carry out bogus psychometric tests. Unemployed people are told they risk losing benefits if they fail to carry out meaningless questionnaire(70 Posts)
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text: The IDEXX VetLab Station Certificate Course (Sponsored by IDEXX) Feb 06, 2010 By dvm360.com staff This interactive, self-paced, two-module course helps veterinary professionals gain proficiency on the IDEXX VetLab Station laboratory information management system. Learn how to initiate a sample run for any IDEXX VetLab analyzer, view and print patient results from the electronic medical record, create and print an analyte trending report for easier patient monitoring and access interpretive guides for more effective client education. Become an IDEXX VetLab station expert and help create a more streamlined, efficient and productive in-house laboratory workflow. (2.5 CE credits) For more information, click here. Hot topics on dvm360Blog: Election results pose obstacles for veterinary prescription law Nov 10, 2014The war between shelters, veterinarians needs to end Nov 01, 20147 steps to a better relationship between veterinarians and rescue groups Nov 01, 2014Making it work: Cavanaugh Pet Hospital dedicates itself to a positive, productive shelter relationship Oct 30, 2014Ebola-exposed dog's first test for the virus is negative Oct 27, 2014|More|


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text: HUMAN NATURE AND SOCIAL NETWORKS By Dr. John H. Clippinger Introduction This chapter argues that a variety of scientific discoveries are radically changing our understanding of human nature and that they offer new approaches to achieving effective command and control within edge organizations. Different models of organization vary in their assumptions about how people are motivated to work together for a common purpose. To characterize the alternatives in the extreme, in one camp there is the "Hobbesean" view that people are primarily motivated through a combination of fear and self-interest. According to this view, the challenge of effective command is to align the enlightened self-interest of individuals with the overall goals of an organization. For these "social realists," human beings are not naturally trustworthy, but will "defect" to act on their own behalf unless appropriately monitored by authorities with special powers. This group sees hierarchical controls as a natural, necessary, and efficient means for achieving order, clarity, and accountability. In the opposing camp are the "social idealists" who argue that it is inherent in human nature to trust, to help one another, and to act for the common good. This group contends that hierarchy is not a prerequisite for effective control and that individuals will naturally act for a common good, given the proper conditions. Whereas this point of view is often dismissed as utopian, it is nonetheless one of the primary values of highly effective combat groups1 and is found to be the principle motivator behind highly respected leaders in all sectors of society.2 The position taken here, however, is not to oscillate between these two extremes, but to attempt to identify the rationale for why some models of social organization are more effective than others under varying social circumstances. Fortunately, there is a growing body of research that is beginning to identify a repertoire of both innate and learned 1 See: Rinaldo, Lt. Col. Richard J. "Combat." Army Magazine. July 2003. 2 George, Bill. Authentic Leadership: Rediscovering the Secrets to Creating Lasting Value. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. 2003. social strategies that human beings use to build trust, identify cheaters and free riders, and cooperate within and across groups. Some of these are hierarchical in nature; others are peer-based, cooperative, and trust-based. In either case, it depends upon the context and the nature of the group task. Human sociality as an evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) A steady stream of research from the complexity sciences, evolutionary psychology, biology, and neuroscience are providing a new and detailed understanding of human nature. No longer a source of armchair speculation, today's understanding of human nature is becoming a precise experimental science, drawing upon many rigorous disciplines. Not only are these findings overturning many strongly held myths about human rationality and motivation, but they are also helping us to understand how spontaneous forms of human organization emerge and how large-scale, self- synchronizing organizations might be more effectively controlled. One thing that the biological sciences are demonstrating is the extent that human beings are genetically linked to virtually all forms of life. Not only do we share 98 percent of our genetic code with our closest cousin, the chimpanzee, but also 46 percent of our genetic code with mice.3 What is no less extraordinary is the extent to which human social behaviors are very similar to other social species—even those to whom we are not genetically linked.4 How is it that very similar cooperative strategies and social behaviors emerge in genetically distinct species? The answer is intriguing because it argues that under certain environmental conditions, there are evolutionarily stable strategies (ESSs) that are independently discovered by different species and embedded in their respective genomes through the trial and error of thousands of generations of evolutionary testing.5 What this means is that for certain forms of cooperative behavior, there are ESSs that naturally appear as the best solutions and that these are present in a variety of different social species: harvester ants, ravens, wolves, elephants, whales, chimpanzees, and 3 Healey, Justin ed. "Issues in Society." Genetics. Volume 149. 2001. 4 Gaulin and McBurney. "Social Behavior." Psychology: An Evolutionary Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2000. 5 An evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) is a circumstance of a species where there is no incentive for any other strategy to displace them, because this is the best that a species can do given the circumstances. human beings. Therefore, one can argue that there are certain underlying laws—a kind of social physics—that can be abstracted for complex forms of collective behavior and cooperation, independent of the kind of species involved. Indeed, understanding what these laws might be has been the focus of research in evolutionary game theory, multi- agent simulations, and models of artificial life. The fact that highly stable strategies of collective behavior emerge over time indicates that highly fit organizations would benefit from such strategies as well.6 But that is only part of the picture. Human beings are unique in evolutionary history in having discovered certain survival ESSs that no other species has obtained. Therefore, it is not only important to understand how we are behaviorally similar to many other social species with similar social survival strategies, but also how we are uniquely different. Although the architecture and functionality of the human brain and limbic systems are similar to their reptilian, mammalian, and primate ancestors, there are new additions including the neo-cortex, which is unique in its size and functionality. Although the human brain is composed of a large, ancient "legacy" system, which like software code is patched one layer upon another without any apparent design, it is this new layer that enables a very powerful and species-specific capability. For many years, anthropologists argued that what made human beings unique was their ability to make tools, with some anthropologists even going so far as to argue that Homo sapiens should more correctly renamed Homo fabens, the tool maker. More recently, it has been argued that it was the "language instinct," a human being's innate and unique ability to create language systems that differentiate us from all other species. Yet, as more and more research became available on the linguistic abilities of other species, especially primates, there seemed to be no definitive point dividing human linguistic or communicative abilities from those of other primates.7 Now evolutionary psychologists and anthropologists offer a new explanation of the "human difference" that takes into account language creation, tool making, and social 6 This is an example of what is known as convergent evolution. 7 Dunbar, Robin. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1996. p. 66. cooperation. For the last 50 years, evolutionary theory was confined by a set of theoretical blinders that looked at fitness selection only on the individual level and contended that the individual was the only unit of selection. In contrast to Darwin's original writings, these scientists contended that there was no selection for group traits. Now that point of view is in dispute, with many evolutionary biologists arguing that natural selection does function at the group level and the evolutionary success of Homo sapiens can in large measure be attributed to its ability to manage complex social relationships. In other words, the ability of different species to function cooperatively has tremendous survival value. Those that manage the most complex and flexible forms of social cooperation enjoy a reproductive advantage. Hence, group cooperation was a vector of natural selection for these species, including primates and our ancestors, the early hominids. Robin Dunbar and his colleagues conducted a study of the fossil record of the brain sizes of hominids that showed that the size of the neo-cortex—the part of the brain concerned with thinking and problem solving—increased with the size of the hominid social groups. He argued that the ability to coordinate behaviors and manage relationships in groups was so important that it accounted for the growth of the neo-cortex not only in primates, but other mammals as well. All of our analyses so far had been built on the assumption that the problem each animal has to face is keeping track of the constantly changing social world of which it is a part. It needs to know who is in and who is out, and who is friends with whom, who is the best ally of the day. In the social turmoil, these things were in a permanent state of flux, changing almost day-by-day. The animal has to keep track of all these, constantly updating its social map with each day's new observations. But there are other possibilities. One is that the relationship between the neo- cortex size and the group size actually has more to do with the quality of the relationships involved rather than their quantity. This much is implied by the Machiavellian hypothesis itself, which suggested that the key to understanding brain size evolution in primates lies in the use primates make of their knowledge of other animals.8 8 Ibid, p. 66. It is interesting to note that given the evolutionary significance of managing the quality of social relationships, it is only natural that human beings would evolve reputation rating systems for large-scale digital communities. According to Dunbar's analysis of the human neo-cortex, he predicted that the upper limit on the number of different relationships that people can manage is between 150 and 200. Indeed, the sociological literature seems to bear out his predictions. For example, groups as diverse as the Hutterites, Mormons, Anglican Church, military units, and Australian Aboriginal clans all set an upper limit to their group size at around 150 members. Social groupings above 150-200 members become hierarchical in structure, whereas smaller groups rely upon personal contacts. According to Dunbar, most businesses seem to obey the 150-200 rule. Businesses with fewer than 150-200 people can be organized on entirely informal lines, relying on personal contacts between employees to ensure the proper exchange of information. But larger businesses require formal management structures to channel contracts and ensure that each employee knows what he or she is responsible for and whom they should report to.9 As Rob Cross and Nitin Nohria have shown in their analysis of informal social networks within businesses, the problem with many formal and impersonal reporting structures in large organizations is that they are not transparent and are not trusted. Hence, much of the real work within large enterprises is still conducted through informal networks.10 This is not surprising if people are wired to coordinate their behaviors through social protocols that are essentially innate. There is growing neurological and experimental evidence that not only are the brains of human beings indeed wired for reciprocal exchange, but that many of the emotions associated with governing social behavior—shame, pride, anger, guilt, compassion—are also biologically based and characteristic of most mammalian social species, including wolves and vampire bats!11 Altruism, for example, is not limited to human beings, but is typical of many different social species. Experiments with rhesus monkeys have shown that they would refrain from pulling a chain to deliver food if it would result in shocking other monkeys. This 9 Ibid, p. 72. 10 Cross, Rob, and Nitin Nohria. "Six Myths about Informal Networks: How to Overcome Them." MIT Sloan Management Review. Spring 2002. 11 Damasio, Antonio. Looking for Spinoza, Joy, Sorrow and the Feeling Brain. Orlando, FL: Harcourt. 2003. p. 160. suggests that empathy and reciprocity are not merely ideals, but rather ESSs that seem to be the encoded behaviors of many species. The highly respected neuroscientist Antonio Damasio has argued that social emotions have an identifiable physiology and measurable role in the behavior of the human brain. "Anger, fear, shame, indignation, jealousy, pride, compassion, gratitude, sorrow, and joy appear to be part of an overall program of bio- regulation."12 Leda Cosmides and John Tooby are among a growing number of evolutionary sociologists and psychologists who have argued that social exchange algorithms are the innate competencies that enable human collectivities to function as communities.13 Such algorithms include a person's sense of justice and guilt, social reciprocity, gift giving, and an ability to interpret social cues. Sometimes called reciprocal altruism,14 it is an adaptive trait because it benefits the collective. This mutual provisioning of benefits, each conditional on the others' compliance, is rare in the animal kingdom. Social exchange cannot be generated by a simple general learning mechanism, such as classical or operant conditioning…. This strongly suggests that engaging in social exchange requires specific cognitive machinery, which some species have and others lack.15 This same point is echoed by Dunbar in discussing brain evolution when he argues that the "mind doesn't work like an all-purpose computer" but rather "consists of a number of separate modules, each designed to do a particular task."16 One other compelling bit of evidence that social exchange is a universal trait for all human societies is a study that compared the ability to detect deceit among Harvard undergraduates and the Shiwiar, an isolated Amazonian tribe of hunter-horticulturalists.17 If the ability to identify cheating is the product of culture or economic development, clear differences in this competence should be discernible. But the study found that "cheater 12 Ibid. 13 Cosmides, Leda and John Tooby. Evolutionary Psychology: A Primer. Center for Evolutionary Psychology. Santa Barbara, CA: University of CA. 2002. 14 Axelrod, R. and Hamilton W.D. "The Evolution of Cooperation." Science. 1981. p. 211. Trivers, R. "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism." Quarterly Journal of Biology. 46:35–57. 1971. 15 Sugiyama, Tooby, and Cosmides. "Cross-Cultural Evidence of Cognitive Adaptations for Social Exchange among the Shiwiar of Ecuadorian Amazonia." PNAS. #3529. 16 Dunbar, Grooming. p. 61. 17 Ibid. detection reasoning" was present in all of the developed and developing countries included in the study. This is significant because cheater detection—along with our ability to recognize facial expressions, intentions and emotions, our ability to make friends, our sense of loyalty and protectiveness, our ability to detect injustice, calculate our own self-interests, create a new language, etc.—are highly specialized brain functions, not general-purpose capacities. When the regions of the brain that carry out these functions are injured, no other competencies are impeded, only these highly specific capabilities.18 This suggests that our specialized cognitive instincts for enacting social exchange are deeply rooted products of natural selection. The evidence from hunter-gatherer archaeology is that hominids have carried on social exchange for at least two million years. The history of culture shows that social exchange is universally human and not a recent cultural invention.19 Mirror neurons The ability to coordinate actions and infer mutual intentions may not just be due to effective communications, but our having evolved equivalent brain circuitry, in effect, being of a common mind. According to the cognitive linguist George Lakoff, we know from psychology professor Paul Ekman's research that configurations of facial muscles express certain emotions. Presumably, our mirror neurons fire when we see the same configurations of facial muscles on someone else that our facial muscles would make. And that firing can activate our own emotional centers. In short, that allows us to empathize—to feel someone else's pain or joy…We have evolved to be empathetic (via mirror neurons and connections to the emotional centers of the brain) and to be connected to the world (via canonical 18 "Humans evolved cheat detection as a separate mental component, says evolutionary psychologist John Tooby of the University of California, Santa Barbara. "Our brains have specialized programs like computer programs, specific for various applications," he says. Powell, Kendall. "Brains sniff out scam artists: Evolution might have programmed us to compute fairness." Nature. August 13, 2002. http://www.nature.com/nsu/020812/020812-1.html (June 2004) Also see: Young, Emma. "Brain's 'cheat detector' is revealed." New Scientist. August 12, 2002. http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992663 (June 2004) 19 Dunbar, Robin, Chris Knight, and Camilla Power. The Evolution of Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. 1999. neurons). Empathy and connection to the other and to the physical environment are central aspects of human nature!20 Arguing whether human social exchange behavior is selfish or altruistic misses the point.21 We behave the way we do because it has survival value. The neuroscientist Damasio makes this point: The biological reality of self-preservation leads to virtue because in our inalienable need to maintain ourselves we must, of necessity, help preserve others. If we fail to do so, we perish and are thus violating the foundational principle, and relinquishing the virtue that lies in self-preservation. The secondary foundation of virtue then is the reality of a social structure and the presence of other livings organisms in a complex system of interdependence with our own organism.22 But the unique human evolutionary trait is not just a highly proficient form of social organization or the ability to manage complex social relationships. It is also the capacity to symbolize, that is, construct new systems of meaning out of arbitrary tags, thereby separating the representation of a thing from the thing itself.23 In other words, people construct highly malleable models of reality and experience that they can communicate and share with others.24 Rather than being the artifact of an inherent language instinct, which Steven Pinker25 and Noam Chomsky26 have argued, language probably began as a social coordination capability, a kind of rudimentary "handshaking protocol" that enabled multiple participants to create conventions for sharing information and coordinating their behaviors. Whereas many computational and generative linguists have treated language as a logical system for transmitting "well-formed propositions," in effect, what is called its depth structure, the great bulk of linguistic apparatus—words, prosody, voice, modals, deixis, discourse, and thematic devices—are concerned with expressing social roles and 20 Personal correspondence from George Lakoff. 2003. 21 There is debate between those who espouse the "selfish gene" model of Richard Dawkins (Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press, 1976) and those who take the cooperative or altruistic view of evolution (Sober, Eliot and David Sloan Wilson. Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1998.) 22 Damasio, Looking for Spinoza. p. 161. 23 Clippinger, John H. Biology of Business: Decoding Natural Laws of Enterprise. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. 1999. 24 Deacon, Terence. The Symbolic Species: The Coevolution of Language and the Brain. New York, NY: Norton. 1997. 25 Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct. New York, NY: HarperCollins. 1994. 26 Chomsky, Noam. New Horizons in the Study of Language and the Mind. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. 2000. relationships through variations in "surface structure." This fact is not lost on Dunbar in his analysis of the evolution of language: We do seem to use language in establishing and servicing our relationships. Could it be that language evolved as a kind of vocal grooming to allow us to bond larger groups than was possible using the conventional primate mechanism of physical grooming? …If conversation serves the same function as grooming, then modern humans can at least "groom" with several others simultaneously. A second is that language allows us to exchange information over a wider network of individuals that is possible for monkeys and apes. If the main function of grooming for monkeys and apes is to build up trust and personal knowledge of allies, then language has an added advantage. It allows you to say a great deal about yourself, your likes and dislikes, the kind of person you are; it also allows you to convey numerous subtle ways something about your reliability as a friend and ally.27 Sociality and command and control It is important at this point to relate the prior discussion to the fundamental concern of this book: how do you have effective and accountable command and control in a distributed, networked organization? In practical terms, how do you control something over which you do not have direct authority? The findings summarized in this chapter show that humans have evolved as a social species and have consequently developed highly sophisticated social signaling and enforcement mechanisms that reward and enforce complex forms of cooperative behaviors. The implications for command and control structures are profound. Instead of having to impose such cooperative mechanisms from above or through formal monitoring and intervention processes, highly sophisticated cooperative behaviors can be evoked by creating a context in which the appropriate social signaling takes place. Once given the appropriate signals and rules, groups can spontaneously self-organize and control themselves. Moreover, as presented in Chapters Six and Seven, there is evidence that people self-select to identify a social network role to accomplish critical tasks and preserve the integrity of the group. As the behavioral economist Paul Zak28 has shown in a number of his experiments on trust, subjects do not act to maximize their own self-interest as would be predicted by classic economic theory (the social realist), but engage in trust-building behaviors to develop cooperative strategies. Such strategies for forming self-synchronizing groups have 27 Dunbar, Grooming. p. 78. 28 Zak, Paul. "Trust." Capco Institute. Journal of Financial Transformation. pp. 17-23. survived because they have been shown to have enormous survival value. Indeed they are not utopian, but highly pragmatic in ensuring group or species survival. Language and symbolization Many social species have assessment protocols for evaluating the threat of a predator, the strength of a competitor, or the health of a potential mate. In this respect, human beings are no different in using assessment protocols to assess risks and opportunities. However, human beings are unique among all species in that we can construct new and arbitrarily complex conventions for mediating and coordinating interactions between members of large groups. What separates humans from all other animals is an ability to extract a symbolic representation from a set of physical interactions and then give this symbolic representation its own social reality that can direct and orient behaviors independent of the physical objects or actions that gave rise to it in the first place. This is what the noted philosopher and linguist John Searle sees as the critical function of language: the competency to arbitrarily construct what he calls social and institutional realities out of social and institutional facts. He contrasts "brute facts," such as the fact that the earth is 93 million miles from the sun, from "institutional facts," such as the fact that a person is a citizen of the United States. Social facts are any facts involving two or more agents who have what he calls collective intentionality, such as: animals hunting together, birds cooperating in building a nest, and presumably so- called social insects such as ants and bees, manifest collective intentional and have social facts…. Human beings have a remarkable ability that enables them to get beyond mere social facts to institutional facts. Humans engage in more than just sheer physical cooperation; they also talk together, own property, get married, form governments, and so on.29 In order to illustrate his point about how institutional facts and realities arise out of linguistic abilities to symbolize human interactions, Searle cites the example of money. He argues that, originally, currency entailed the negotiated exchange of objects of inherent comparable value—a barter system that was wedded to the inherent value of the physical object. The second kind of money was "contract money," which consisted of contracts to pay the bearer with something valuable on demand. This entailed the 29 Searle, John. Mind, Language, and Society. New York, NY: Basic Books. 1998. p. 121. exchange of valuable commodities such as gold and silver whose value was more imposed, to use Searle's term, than intrinsic. Instead of exchanging objects that were highly cumbersome and whose comparable values were tedious to compute and benchmark, precious coins representing the value of the objects were used. And then, as the transport of these coins became cumbersome, another layer of abstraction was added, paper currency, which was a contract to redeem the face value of the paper currency with a tangible, precious metal. Next, "fiat currency" emerged, another invention of convenience and efficiency. This unit of exchange was not redeemable, but simply declared by an issuing body to be a currency. Just recently, there has been a further innovation in efficiency and convenience, the further abstraction and virtualization of money: digital currency, which is no more than 0 and 1 substitution symbols about the status of the relationship between agents to a transaction. Here, no physical object has to be redeemed at all, as the "social reality" is captured in the digital representation. Language and social institutions Both philosopher John Searle and anthropologist Terrence Deacon contend that this unique human ability to construct social realities that result in highly sophisticated institutions is based upon some relatively simple rules. Consistent with the arguments made by John Holland, Stuart Kaufman, Stephan Wolfram,30 and other major figures in the complexity sciences, highly complex behaviors can come from the repeated application of simple rules. According to Searle, the rule "X counts as Y in C" (where X or Y can be any thing or proposition and C is a marked context) cannot only account for the evolution of money from a tangible currency to a fiat currency, but also for the creation of "institutional structures such as governments, armies, universities, banks, and so on…and even such general institutions as private property, marriage, and political power."31 Without this symbolic capability of language, Searle believes that there would be no human culture or social institutions. 30 See: Holland, John. Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity. Addison-Wesley. 1995. Kauffman, Stuart. The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution. Oxford University Press. 1993. Wolfram, A New Kind of Science. 31 Ibid, p. 129. I believe that language is the fundamental human institution in the sense that other institutions such as money, government, private property, marriage, and games require language, or at least language-like forms of symbolism, in a way that language does not require other institutions for its existence.32 Terrence Deacon makes a very similar point, but from the vantage point of an anthropologist who has studied the evolution of language and the brain over a 2-million- year period. All symbolizing hominids are linked via a common pool of symbolic information, one that is as inaccessible to other species as are human genes. We are all heirs of symbolic forms that were passed down from one generation to the next, from one group to another, forming a single unbroken tradition. We derive all our symbolic "traits" from this common pool and contribute to its promulgation. Being a part of this symbolic information lineage is in many respects a more diagnostic trait for "humanness" than any physical trait. Evolutionary phylogenies are denied in terms of inheritance of information, but not all the information that determines a species' defining characteristics is coded as genes.33 Searle's X-Y-C rule is especially intriguing because it hints at explaining how new layers of social organization naturally emerge and take on a life of their own. For example, by enabling one symbol to stand for another and by creating contextually marked substitution options, it is possible to create new systems of meaning and social construction that on the one hand are part of the old order and preserve those relationships, and on the other hand, introduce new possibilities of behavior at a separate but differentiated level. Searle's example of the evolution of money is one of many social institutional examples, such as the institution of marriage property rights, which began as one set of relationships and evolved over time to become something quite different. (Hence, the impossibility of retroactively "reconstructing original intent" from a set of founding institutional principles, and the inadvisability, indeed the maladaptiveness, of adhering to fixed initial institutional rules.) This capacity to generate emergent layers of organization is functionally equivalent to what occurs in the morphological development in biological evolution, and is therefore arguably a deep-seated ESS that has been captured and exploited in the organization of the human brain. Whereas other species 32 Ibid, p. 159. 33 Deacon, The Symbolic Species. p. 343. may have discovered specific instances of social contracts, human beings appear to have captured and embodied the engine that generates all forms of social contracts. Returning to Searle's observation about the priority of language, it is clear that although there are many disagreements about how linguistic universals came into being and whether or not they were encoded biologically, there does appear to be a general consensus on some of the primitives underlying all languages. Without getting into the nuances of the debate over the biological origins and innateness of language, suffice it to say that all languages appear to have what is called an operator/operand component, or in linguistic terms, a kind of predicate/argument grammar where verbs act as logical operators, and can take nouns and complex embedded phrases as their arguments. What language allows for, as a form of symbolic communication, is the invention and communication of arbitrarily complex layers of meaning and representation: Searle's X- Y-C rule. The ability to express complex forms of embedded relationships, such as in the sentence, "The cat that ate the rat that ate the cheese went out the door." is an example of what linguists and computer scientists call "context sensitive grammars," a uniquely human ability. What makes such grammars especially relevant to the discussion of social cooperation is that they have the computational or expressive power of a Turing Machine,34 which suggests that Searle's institutional "grammars, and the grammars of all languages, and the grammars for all computers are mathematically equivalent."35 Turing Machines represent the upper limit to what is computable and are the theoretical basis for the design of all computers today. If Searle's X-Y-C rule is correct and social institutions are constructs of language, then in the future they can be analyzed, designed, and evolved computationally as variants of Turing Machines. Instead of treating multi-agent simulation models of 34 Developed by the mathematician Alan Turing, it is a representation of all that is computable. See: Dyson, George. Darwin Among the Machines: The evolution of global intelligence. Addison–Wesley. 1997. pp. 70-73. 35 Zhong, Ning and Klaus Weihrauch. "Computability Theory of Generalized Functions." Association for Computing Machinery. Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery. Vol 50, Issue 4. New York, NY. 2003. p. 469. social phenomena36 as kinds of approximations, it may be possible to make the far stronger claim that social and institutional realities are indeed kinds of Turing Machines! If such is the case, and this is certainly highly speculative at this point, then there is the prospect for creating normative criteria for assessing the computational efficacy and power of different forms of social and institutional organization. With this new view of human nature and the evolutionary importance of social cooperation in the sections to follow, we briefly examine some widely held beliefs about how people collaborate and share resources. Much of the current research on social networks and collaboration tends to treat social networks as static networks, drawing on examples of flocking animals and swarming insects as metaphors for certain forms of human collective action. It is important to bear in mind that these are examples of what Searle calls social realties and do not account for a major aspect of human collective behavior: institutional reality construction, a dynamic and creative process that is uniquely human. Language, command intent, and social construction In the United Kingdom, there is an instance of a labor union bringing a company to the bargaining table simply by literally following the work rules. Similar literalness of interpretation of an order or task can be crippling to any organization. Common sense would dictate that only in the rarest of circumstances can orders be literally interpreted. But then, how is it possible to be precise in communicating the intent of an order without being literal about an order? How is it that effective teams can know command intent without having to be told it and can get it correct for a variety of circumstances? In edge organizations where command is dispersed and pushed out to the edge, the reliable, replicable, and scaleable understanding of command intent is essential. The literature on the social use of language is very clear on the matter of how people communicate intent and may provide significant insight into how to design effective orders and tasks. Language is both the product and the instrument of highly creative, 36 Page, Scott and Lu Hong. "Diversity and Optimality." Working Paper. University of Michigan. May 22, 2002. www.pscs.umich.edu/diversity (June 2004) dynamic, and social processes. The English language, for example, has two types of "registers": a low register that is essentially the colloquial use of everyday terms that are underspecified, and a high register often made of Latinate terms that are technical and highly specified.37 Register is based upon the classical notion of decorum, whereby certain levels of usage are considered appropriate (or inappropriate) to particular topics and social situations.38 The higher the register is, the less subject the term is to interpretation by the listener, and hence, the more formal and prescriptive it is. Associated with a term is a semantic field of meanings that move from slang and colloquial interpretations up to scientific and technical interpretations—the most impersonal and highly specified. The following table contains examples of high and low register terms for "mad" behavior. Notice how the higher register terms differ on a dimension of the type of mad behavior (a kind of diagnostic distinction) whereas the lower register terms reflect a kind social acceptance or distancing distinction. High Register Terms Low Register Terms Melancholic Demented Hypochondriac Insane Catatonic Mad Manic Mental Schizoid Bonkers Non compos mentis Cuckoo Schizophrenic Loony Psychotic Crazy Neurotic Nuts Table 1. High and Low Register Terms for "Mad" Behavior Often in an attempt to be more precise and therefore less subject to misinterpretation, high register terms are used to issue orders and tasks on the mistaken assumption that the more specified a term is, the better command intent is communicated. 37 Hughes, Geoffrey. A History of English Words. Blackwell Publishers. 2000. 38 Ibid. page 4. Unless the task is very technical and well-specified (which even many technical tasks are not), the more effective and reliable course is to use low register terms. Low register terms provide clear signaling, whereas high register terms require the recipient to interpret and improvise within the context that the commander has identified. The reason that people are able to infer command intent is that, over tens of thousands of years, they have evolved mirror neurons and the ability to construct and confirm "common theories of mind" through shared experiences. These are extremely important and often undervalued competences that are overlooked because of the mistaken assumption that interpersonal directives can be fully and unambiguously specified through high register communications, or less graciously, "bureaucratese." The challenge from an edge command and control perspective is to understand those conditions whereby intent can be most readily and deliberately framed—appropriate language registers, shared experiences, and internalized social protocols. A possible insight into how command intent can both evolve over time and yet preserve its original purpose is the example of Searle's X-Y-C rule to account for how the meaning of money as an exchange currency evolved over time. This example shows how the social intent of providing an effective method of exchange can express itself through new circumstances and technologies while still preserving its original definition and purpose. Virtually everything about money has changed—from bartering to gold and silver to paper monies to digital currency—and yet these are all recognizable as forms of exchange. This ability to improvise and create new social facts and institutions within "intent preserving" boundaries is a unique human capability, and one that might be better understood and augmented to achieve more effective distributed command and control structures. If appropriately understood, a variety of technologies could be built to express command intent more precisely and provide support technologies for the dynamic generation of context-specific metadata that would recognize and categorize terms appropriate to command contexts. Trust and transparency As Dunbar noted, the ability to evaluate the quality of a social relationship is a precondition for social self-organization. Trust is the consequence or state when one or more members of a network perform according to mutual expectation. It is not an abstract moral virtue, but a network property—a byproduct of the quality of interactions between parties.39 Trust requires measurement, feedback, and accountability. In most social networks, the consequences of low trust are high transaction costs: the need to enforce breaches, to create alternatives, or simply the failure to execute some kinds of interactions or exchange. In such social groups, low-trust individuals are identified and excluded from the group. Again, as Dunbar pointed out in his analysis of grooming and gossip behaviors among primates and humans, the need to constantly contact and confirm relations is a way of achieving social cohesion. If members find that they are being excluded or have not been receiving their normal number of grooming contacts, they can correctly infer this as a rebuke, and that they need to re-earn the group's interest and trust.40 The ability to build and leverage trust among members of a group builds social capital and significantly reduces transaction costs because such networks become self- synchronizing and self-enforcing. The other key component for self-organization is transparency. Everyone in a social network needs to see what the others are doing so that there are no hidden agendas or false measures, and each can adjust their behaviors to the others. Transparency is not only a precondition for effective markets, but organizations as well, and becomes the basis for applying peer pressure, one of the most effective means for enforcing social norms. Peer pressure is also so pervasive and cuts across so many social species that it is very likely to be an ESS and a biologically innate algorithm. Bounded and unbounded rationality Another established way to look at collaboration and coordination in organizations is from an economics perspective, whereby independent actors are seen as making rational choices based upon their informed self-interest. Such economic analyses presume that every decisionmaker possesses a combination of unbounded rationality, unbounded 39 Sober, Elliot and David Sloan Wilson. Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology and Unselfish Behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1998. 40 See: Flack, J. and F.B.M. de Waal. "Any Animal Whatever: Darwinian building blocks of morality in monkeys and apes." Journal of Consciousness Studies. 7 (1-2). 2000. pp. 1–29. DeWaal, F.B.M. "The chimpanzee's service economy: Food for grooming, evolution, and human behavior." 1997. pp. 375-86. greed, and unbounded will power.41 While such notions are recognized as simplifications, they are, nonetheless, considered to be sufficiently accurate to be retained and asserted. Economic rationality is computed in terms of tradeoffs between risks and prices, with the presumption that preferences and utility functions can be expressed in terms of price. The rational actor is one who always pays the right price given his preferences and uncertainty. However, the results of recent experimental and behavioral economic studies42 have provided a growing body of evidence refuting classic economic assumptions about human behavior and rationality. A new generation of experimentally oriented economists, including Noble Laureates Vernon Smith and Daniel Kahneman,43 have experimentally challenged the core tenants of classical economics—unbounded rationality, selfishness, and willpower—and are forging more complex models of cooperation and decisionmaking based upon cross-cultural studies, neuroscience, game theory, evolutionary biology, and multi-agent simulation. The results of these studies are highly germane to understanding the failure of classic notions of collaborative decisionmaking because they tell us that rather than being independent agents, people have socially constructed identities44 and innate, biologically set protocols for cooperation and social exchange. Furthermore, rather than the rule sets of selfishness and zero sum competition being the formative principles of human organization, the rule sets of altruistic reciprocity not only seem to be far more pervasive cross culturally than the principles of Homo economicus, but according to evolutionary biologists and game theorists,45 yet another example of ESS. Consistent with the points referenced earlier by Damasio, Searle, Deacon, Lakoff, and Dunbar, two prominent behavioral economists, Mullanianthan and Thaler, characterized 41 Mullainathan, Sendhil and Richard H. Thaler. "Behavior Economics." International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. San Leandro, CA: Elsevier Science. 2001. 42 Bowles, S. and H. Gintis. The Origins of Human Cooperation. Working Paper. Santa Fe Institute. 2002. Thaler, R. Advances In Behavioral Finance. Russell Sage Foundation. 1993. 43 Smith, Vernon. "Mind, Reciprocity, and Markets in the Laboratory." Wirtschaft. 10. August 2001. p. 21. Kahneman, Daniel and Amos Tversky. Choice, Values, and Frames. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. 2000. 44 Bowles, The Origins of Human Cooperation. 45 Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism." Page, "Diversity and Optimality." the essence of human decisionmaking not as an optimization strategy of trying to get the most and best information, but rather a rule of thumb strategy, much like turning to friends or trusted peers in small world networks. Since we have only so much brainpower, and only so much time, we cannot be expected to solve difficult problems optimally. It is eminently "rational" for people to adopt rules of thumb as a way to economize on cognitive faculties.46 The reality of the world is that people do not live in the economist's world of perfect information, but always have to make decisions with imperfect information. From the perspective of social networks, local information is a form of bounded rationality and the ability to approximate the power of global information, or unbounded rationality in the economist's sense, is achieved through the interconnection of trusted peer social networks. Global knowledge and collective rationality are an emergent phenomenon arising from the interactions and the protocols of the different peer networks. Instead of unbounded selfishness—the presumption of classic economic theory—being a prerequisite for rational decisionmaking and efficient functioning of a social exchange network, the opposite in many cases is true; trust across networks and even among strangers is a prerequisite for effective exchange.47 Therefore, it is not surprising that recent research by behavioral economists such as Smith, Kahneman, Thaler, and neuro-economist McCabe48 have found that reciprocity, the ability to interpret each other's behaviors and intentions, and trust appear to be highly effective social exchange algorithms that underlie many forms of economic behaviors including corporate finance, trading, and savings.49 What is especially compelling about these kinds of results is that the findings from such diverse fields of inquiry— neuroscience, anthropology, evolutionary biology, complexity sciences, cognitive science, behavioral economics—all seem to be converging towards a common picture of how people act and organize to cooperatively solve complex problems. 46 Mullainathan, Sendhil and Richard H. Thaler. "Behavior Economics." International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. San Leandro, CA: Elsevier Science. 2001. 47 Grimes, Ken. "Neuro-economics: To Trust is Human." New Scientist. May 10, 2003. 48 McCabe, K. and Vernon Smith eds. Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 2000. 49 Thaler, Advances in Behavioral Finance. Cooperation, decision rights, and social contracts Another, related perspective on the debate over effective coordination comes from Nobel Laureate economist Ronald Coase's classic analysis50 of the conditions when cooperation is best left to the "nimble fingers" of the market versus when it requires "the thick thumbs" of management. Coase argued that when the contracting and information transfer costs were sufficiently low and were supported by pricing mechanisms, markets resulted in far fewer "agency costs" and hence were preferable to management's hierarchical controls. However, the reason that there are so many firms is that the cost of knowledge transfer across organizational boundaries often can be prohibitive, and hence the hierarchical controls of firms are more efficient than markets. According to Michael Jensen,51 a Coase-influenced organizational economist, "vast amounts of information are specific" (what we have termed local) and the cost of transferring specific information among agents is prohibitive. Jensen elaborates: In such cases, the common managerial tactic of moving the knowledge to the decisionmaker is not likely to work. Instead, we must place the decision rights for which that knowledge is valuable in the hands of the person with the knowledge. (This is the real economic advantage inherent in the modern empowerment movement.) We can then also move the "general" knowledge, which can be moved at lower costs to the decentralized decisionmaker.52 Jensen's critique of centralized decisionmaking is similar to the critique that we made earlier about hierarchical decisionmaking. Although Jensen is a rational economist of the classical school (adhering to notions of unbounded self-interest and rationality), he nonetheless makes an argument for the power of peer networks over the more common hub-and-spoke models. A key platform for his argument is the notion of the "alienability" of decision rights, which he defines as the right to choose an action and to take an action, in a context where the police powers of the state will be used to ensure the party's ability to take the action. An 50 Coase, R. "The Nature of the Firm." 4 Economica (n.s.) 386. 1937. 51 Jensen, M. Foundations of Organizational Strategy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1998. 52 Ibid. alienable decision right is the one that can be sold or exchanged by the owner with the owner pocketing the proceeds offered in the exchange.53 Put in the terms of our earlier discussion of social exchange theory, the alienability or assignability of decision rights is similar to the notion of social protocols that provide mechanisms for assigning and routing the control points for authorizing and enabling different types of exchange and interaction.54 The combination of insights arising from the existence of evolutionarily stable, innate human social exchange algorithms such as altruistic reciprocity and specialized social exchange competencies (e.g., the ability to detect cheaters or read other peoples' intentions)55 suggests that as a species, we have evolved highly efficient methods for reducing the "social contracting" costs of collaboration and social exchange. As will be discussed later, digital peer-to-peer networks hold the promise of dramatically reducing the agency costs of transferring specialized information and achieving organizational networks with the scale and efficiencies of markets for the exchange of non-economic goods and services. Conclusion The biological, evolutionary, and neurological sciences are rapidly developing a scientific and rigorous understanding of how people think, feel, interact, and conduct themselves as social beings. Not only will scientific knowledge replace speculation and superstition, but new forms of intervention—genetic, cognitive, pharmaceutical, and social technological—will greatly enhance our abilities to create more effective social organizations and institutions. The genie is out of the bottle. Fields such as neuro- economics and evolutionary psychology are beginning to understand the neuro-scientific and evolutionary significance of market, trust, social coordination, and risk-sharing behaviors. These findings are making it possible to understand how social networks naturally self-organize to leverage innate human capacities and proclivities for trust and 53 Ibid. 54 Skeptics of this new type of organizational structure and information handling can be found in many countries. For example: Flaherty, Christopher. "Relevance of the U.S. Transformation Paradigm for the Australian Defense Forces." Presented at the 8th ICCRTS at NDU. June 2003. http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/Tracks/track_5.htm (Feb 2004) 55 Cosmides, Evolutionary Psychology. community building. Moreover, by understanding how different social networks evolved to resolve complex social coordination and cooperation problems, it may also become feasible to design organizations that represent evolutionary stable strategies, which in effect, says that they are highly adaptive under different fitness conditions. In terms of the overall mission of this book (which is to provide the principles, techniques and justification for transforming hierarchical, command and control organizations, into highly agile, self-synchronizing networks), recent research findings on human nature are very encouraging. In contrast to well-entrenched economic and organizational models that assumed human beings to be selfish, individualistic, and rational actors, human beings are innately cooperative and have evolved innate strategies of collaboration, trust, and reciprocity that have proven to be highly adaptive. Not only are such peer-based strategies of collaboration prevalent among human groups, but they seem to represent more general evolutionary strategies that are stable for a variety of species. Moreover, human beings seem to have evolved unique capacities for interpreting one another's signals, and novel forms of representation, reciprocation, and symbolization. By understanding how such innate human social exchange competencies function, networked organizations might be designed and implemented that scale human trust and create flexible organizations that can rapidly learn and adapt to change.


text:
Reading & Leeds Festival boss to launch new festival in 2013
Melvin Benn hints at very small event next year
published: Fri 10th Aug 2012
Reading Festival 2012Friday 24th to Sunday 26th August 2012
Little Johns Farm, Richfield Avenue, Reading, Berkshire, RG1 8EQ, England MAP
Friday or Saturday £85, Sunday day tickets and weekend tickets sold out
daily capacity: 90000
last updated: Mon 27th Aug 2012
Melvin Benn the Reading & Leeds Festival boss, has told Music Week, (here), that he will be launching a new small festival next year.
The festival boss who also runs Latitude revealed that he is optimistic about the festival scene, and feels there's a place in the market to start a new event, adding, "I am very positive about it. Festivals is a very busy, probably saturated market but there will be new additions next year and there will be people that stop doing it next year - that's the nature of things. Overall, I feel very confident about it."
Benn's two major events, the twin Reading & Leeds Festivals take place on the bank holiday weekend, from Friday 24th to Sunday 26th August. Reading Festival takes place at Little Johns Farm, Richfield Avenue, Reading, Berkshire, and Leeds Festival takes place at Bramham Park, Leeds, West Yorkshire.
The line-up includes headliners The Cure, Kasabian, and Foo Fighters. Also confirmed are The Maccabees, At The Drive-In, Justice, Metronomy, Paramore and The Black Keys with their only UK festival appearances, Florence + The Machine, Kaiser Chiefs, Bullet For My Valentine, All Time Low, The Gaslight Anthem, Bombay Bicycle Club, You Me At Six, Crystal Castles, Angels & Airwaves, Coheed & Cambria, Cancer Bats, Deaf Havana, The Vaccines, Enter Shikari, The Shins, OFWGKTA, Mystery Jets, Blood Red Shoes, Eagles Of Death Metal, Band Of Skulls, Pulled Apart By Horses, Foster the People, The Courteeners, The Cribs, Billy Talent, Miike Snow, Two Door Cinema Club, The Horrors, SBTRKT, Katy B, Azealia Banks, and Jaguar Skills.
The festivals will feature a full line-up of over 150 acts over the weekend on six stages. For the line-up details, and stage splits, where available, please click here for Reading and here for Leeds.
General sale tickets are on sale now priced at £197.50 for a weekend ticket. Early entry tickets enabling festival goers to get into the site on the Wednesday are also available priced at £15, with campervan passes priced at £60, and lockers £15. Day tickets will be £85 for any day. Over 18's wristband will be optional, but allow those that look young to not have to carry ID around all the time.
Tickets are limited to a maximum of four per person and per credit card for those booking online. U16s (15 & under) must be accompanied by an adult at all times.
Children under 13 (12 and under) are admitted free but MUST be accompanied by a ticket holding adult. Please note there is no separate children's area at this event, and eFestivals considers this an event not really suitable for small children.
To buy tickets for Reading from Seetickets - click here.
To buy tickets for Reading from Ticketline - click here.
To buy tickets for Reading from Gigantic - click here.
To buy tickets for Reading from Ticketmaster - click here.
To buy tickets for Leeds from Seetickets - click here.
To buy tickets for Leeds from Ticketline - click here.
To buy tickets for Leeds from Gigantic - click here.
To buy tickets for Leeds from Ticketmaster - click here.
Coach travel with combined festival tickets can also be purchased. To buy coach tickets for Reading Festival with National Express click here. To buy coach tickets for Leeds Festival with National Express click here.
Make sure any tickets you buy are legitimate. eFestivals always links to official ticket outlets (and doesn't host adverts for unofficial outlets unlike other festival websites!) so you can be sure that any ticket bought via eFestivals will get you into the festival of your choice. Do not purchase tickets from unofficial or secondary ticket outlets or auction sites as they often are unable to supply the tickets, and might not even give you a refund - there's lots of dodgy operators out there!
Reading Festival 2012Friday 24th to Sunday 26th August 2012
Little Johns Farm, Richfield Avenue, Reading, Berkshire, RG1 8EQ, England MAP
Friday or Saturday £85, Sunday day tickets and weekend tickets sold out
daily capacity: 90000
last updated: Mon 27th Aug 2012
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The "Family Bed" is a method of bonding with baby that has been more recently touted. Choosing for your baby to sleep in the Family Bed (your bed) is a decision that some parents readily make. The following are the pros and cons of allowing your baby to sleep in your bed with you and your spouse.
Think about whether you truly want your baby in bed with you all the time. Some mothers believe the headaches are worth the quality time with baby. Some, on the other hand, need their rest. You decide what's best for you.
Do you want to be caught up on all the latest happenings with your baby? Join SmartMomma Advantage for free! You'll receive your choice of e-mail newsletters, from monthly updates on your baby's development to weekly sales alerts. Stay up to date with the SmartMomma advantage! Join today!
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