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Rated 3.7 out of 5 by 2212 reviewers.
Rated 5 out of 5 by HappyTraveler628 Exceptional customer service I am a weekly business traveler and I was very impressed by the customer service experience specifically the attentiveness of the hotel staff. The club service supervisor went above and beyond during my stay and was exceptionally attentive to detail. July 7, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by opera nice stay we were in the city for a show. the hotel was within walking distance of the theater. we have stayed in the hotel a number of times and have always enjoyed our experience. July 13, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by KCBlake Great Midtown Location and Service This hotel provided us with a great midtown location from which we could easily access several parts of Manhattan. Proximity to the airport was also convenient. Our room was well appointed, and the staff members were very accommodating and responsive. Very good overall experience. July 3, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by Swede Stormy Whether We stayed by you before,during,and after Sandy hit New York. Inside the hotel we couldn´t tell there was anyrhing going on outside if we didn´t swiched on the TV. Everything went very smoothly and a special thanks to the receptionist whwo was most kind and helpful. Maybe I think the hotel could benefit from a little more decent breakfastprices. We went out eating breakfast all days but the first. Overall though, we had a very pleasent stay att Sheraton New York. Thank you! November 4, 2012
Rated 3 out of 5 by Pipper Disappointed Long check in wait. No club level check in. Poor communication w parking garage. Chose to include parking w room. When we went to get our car difficulty paying the charge. No one seemed to know what they were doing. Bed and sheets were awful. Sheets rough and starched. No shower cap in bathroom. Called and it took 20 minutes to bring it. Club room didn't have enough room for everyone. June 9, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by JohnfromToronto Excellent Location The Sheraton is nicely appointed and very welcoming. Although it is undergoing some outside construction it didn't impact our stay in any way. Being on a high floor, combined with a great bed and pillows made for an awesome sleep. We picked the hotel based on the location, which was a short walk from Central Park and conveniently located to Radio City Music Hall, where Cirque du Soleil ZARKANA was playing. Overall very positive, however the hotel was apparently sold out the night before and they didn't have any clean rooms available when we checked in. We had a short wait in the lobby, no more than 15 minutes. The Microsoft experience has computers, free for use, wi-fi (also free) in the lobby and which we used to pick up email and check in/ print boarding passes for our return flights. Overall positive experience June 17, 2012
Rated 4 out of 5 by Lyn22 Great Location Good hotel with a great location. Close to Times Square, Central Park, the theaters, and the Subway. Large and busy. Small rooms with adequate bath. July 14, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by Emily16 Terrific Location - Service Used points to reserve a room for my son (2 Adults/2 kids). Called the morning of check-in and spoke w/ the front desk. Rika was very reassuring - they were assigned a corner room, a little bigger - so the kids would have more room. Also room was ready for check-in by noon which helped as they arrived early. My family thought the hotel was great, loved the club lounge and the location was perfect. This is my favorite place to stay in NYC. Thanks, Sheraton Towers staff!! April 8, 2013
Rated 4 out of 5 by deedle Shopped around, best price This hotel deals in absolute volume, so check in and lobby tradfic can be a bit hectic. This is not a serene lobby atmosphere to lounge in, but rather an energetic NYC " get up And go" vibe. Taxi service, courtesy of the front door staff is quick and efficient. Rooms are very comfortable, down coverlets are on the warm side, AC worked like a charm. Breakfast prices in the restaurant are overpriced, but thankfully there is a Starbucks in the lobby...why go anywhere else? October 28, 2012
Rated 3 out of 5 by Babs It was ok I was at the Sheraton NY, never stayed there for business before. Was not impressed with wait to check in. Lobby was nice, room decorated nicely. Didn't think bed was comfortable at all - sheets were rough? Blind in room was fine at night, but as soon as sun rose there was no way to make the room dark? Could hear people next door - walls too thin. Average large chain hotel - I wouldn't stay here again for business...maybe for personal trip if the price is right. March 4, 2014
Rated 2 out of 5 by idsord Unavailable Room at Check-in I booked two rooms at the Sheraton New York hotel through our corporate travel agency. Upon arrival at roughly 10:00 PM both my colleague and I learned that there were no rooms available for us to check in and that we could expect a 2 hour wait. As a business traveller, I find this unacceptable. When finally able to check in, my room was missing a remote control for the television. I discovered in the morning that while there was a coffee maker in the room, there were no coffee cups. it took until the last of three nights for this to be corrected. Fortunately, when I needed ice, I found the ice machine next door to my room. I didn't need to see the sign, as I heard people going into the room with the creaky door and the ice coming out of the machine all night. I will likely not choose this property in the future. July 30, 2012
Rated 3 out of 5 by Jay32 THIS HOTEL IS WELL LOCATED. I was disappointed in the room size. There was barely enough room to turn around, let alone no lounge chair that fit into the room - a small chair was jammed into the space between the bed and the window. The window sill was damaged and in need of repair. When we checked in, the room was neat and clean, however no hand towels were provided. There was no dining available in the hotel for dinner, other than room service or eating in the restaurant in the late afternoon.. October 4, 2012
Rated 3 out of 5 by NYFallTraveler25 A few problems with staff. I love almost every SPG hotel I stay in, but this Sheraton was an exception. I needed a late check out, and I understood the hotel's policy that it couldn't be guaranteed until 9am on the day of check out, but the staff was very unfriendly in the way this was communicated. They just seemed exasperated and annoyed. I understand that they must get this request a lot, but the service just didn't rise to the level of courtesy that I've come to expect from SPG hotel staff. October 30, 2012
Rated 2 out of 5 by outoftown Terrible House Keeping Spent 4 nights in the hotel. When we arrived there was tooth paste on the counter and a letter for a different guest in our room. They had brought fruit in a bowl for the previous guest and it started to rot. They changed our sheet and put sheets on the bed that had holes in them. Sound barrier between rooms is terrible. If you are looking for quite hotel this is not it. The club floor is actually more than 1 level so the room was always over crowded. Not worth the money for the room. My wife also forgot her earrings in the hotel and of course they did not turn up. Terrible Terrible Terrible. With so many other options I would never stay here. Tried to eat in the restaurant in the hotel. After being greeted we stood for 10 mins while the staff chatted about life. There were lots of empty tables so we just walked out. January 7, 2013
Rated 2 out of 5 by sneeuwaap Good, bad and ugly Good: in-room wired internet is fantastic. I have never had such high speeds. Best hotel internet ever. Bad: Hotel didn't know I was Platinum coming in. Did not get good room. Ugly: Room was an adjoining room with paper-thing walls. On one side were the elevators. On the other was a guest who talked loudly on his cell phone to his girlfriend/wife, who was on speakerphone. To say that I know more than I ever want to know about their relationship is an understatement. December 16, 2012
Rated 4 out of 5 by Fuelmaker Fuelmaker Room was comfortable and the hotel location was perfect. July 18, 2014
Rated 2 out of 5 by Vijay Very small room, Not good Housekeeping I never expected this from shereton startwood hotel. My room was quiet small, I dont know about other hotels in NY but my room was very conjested. Its like you enter in room and next is bed. My bathtub was just 4 ft length. House keeping replaced only one time shampoo and soap. Never replaced tissues.. They give free walerbottle per day however that also they gave new one the last night. On last day when i asked for bell caption to take my luggage he never showed up. May 7, 2013
Rated 5 out of 5 by Advisor Terrific Staff! For a hotel in this location and with this degree of competition on all sides, the Sheraton New York is a delightful safe harbor in a turbulent sea. It's rooms are quiet, and the staff is amazing - it has been two years since our last stay here, the hotel has been renovated beautifully, and Muhammad in the Club Lounge recognized us immediately and addressed us by name. How many times will you experience that degree of familiarity in a big-city hotel? Simply the best! October 10, 2012
Rated 2 out of 5 by Carl123 Disappointed While the facilities were well designed, the room was not clean, rather than fresh glasses each day, they were just placed back in place. The elevators were more often than not functioning and there were long waits for the freight elevator. The lounge was crowded with a poor selection of appetizers and having to pay for drinks at high prices was not acceptable. In other Club Lounges I have stayed the drinks were complimentary and appetizers were tasty and plentiful. December 7, 2012
Rated 5 out of 5 by Dale7020 Sheraton on 7th and 52nd This is a fabulous place to stay, we could walk to the Lincoln Center in about 15 to 20 minutes, to all of the plays on Broadway, and an easy stroll to 5th Ave, and there was so many good places to eat, it was hard to decide everyday on what to eat and where. The room service here was fantastic, and the food great. I would recommend this anytime for business or pleasure. June 10, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by Manju Very helpful and courteous A friend & I visited your hotel the dates of 6/7/12 to 6/11/12. My friend became ill during our stay. Your staff was so quick to help and called an on-call doctor. He was there very quickly and was so very nice and helped my friend. He even called back the next day to see how she was. The hotel is so nice and located in a perfect area. The housekeeping staff were very nice and accomodating. I would definitely recommened your hotel and hopefully I will be back soon. June 24, 2012
Rated 4 out of 5 by Shana Service After checking out of hotel, thought I left my credit card in room. Called security........and someone named Sal to the rescue! He immediately had house keeping go to room, then checked express check out box, just in case I threw it in there. I felt so confident that with his professional manner and his real concern that I knew I was in good hands. I actually found (in coat pocket)........however, thanks to Sal for all his help . Will stay again, because of Sal!!! May 7, 2012
Rated 5 out of 5 by SPGChampion Great Stay Overall especially housekeeping We stayed here for several days in May and had a great stay. The room was great and a big shout out to housekeeping especially the manager Diana Kwok who went above and beyond providing us with all our amenities we needed in the room with extremely professional service the whole time. Would highly recommend this Sheraton to anyone coming to NYC June 17, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by JulieVP An Excellent Stay Enjoyed a lovely stay at the Sheraton. I was attending a conference there. The conference organization was flawless and the hotel staff were both pleasant and efficient. Special thanks to hotel bar staff who not only found my glasses, but made the effort to track me down and return them to me. :) June 27, 2014
Rated 5 out of 5 by Dennis23 Cynthia Munoz Great hotel and location. The only glitch was check in. We arrived early, and checked our bags. We understood that 3:00 pm is check in but we ased if we could check in as soon as a room became available. When 3:00 rolled around we tried to check in and still no room. However other guest who were just walking in were getting their rooms. We saw Cynthia Munoz greeting guests who were waiting in the SPG preferred line. We are Gold members so we approached her and told her what was happening. Not only did she apologize she immediately went to the reservation desk and located a great room for us. We really appreciated her personal care, what a fantastic employee. From that point on the stay was fantastic. All staff that we encountered were very friendly and helpfull. The hotel is at a great location. Subway to World Trade Center is around the corner. This was a great stay at a great hotel. May 27, 2014
Rated 4 out of 5 by JandH A Suite Warning Although this is a great property and staff do a wonderful job given the often large number of guest, anyone booking a suite should be warned in advance -- you may end up with just a big room. Unlike most starwood properties, this one does not distinguish between a proper suite (one in which the bedroom is separated from the living by a door, and where the entrance is into the living area. Many suites at the TS location are at best junior suites and although spacious, have incredibly small bathrooms and to get into the living area, one must transit the sleeping area. Some also have adjoining room access doors at both ends. These doors are not especially soundproof. A few suites are in fact "proper" suites and are 1st rate. It would be appropriate for the hotel to more clearly distinguish on the website for booking purposes. December 20, 2013
Rated 4 out of 5 by Loulou Great Location I had a fantastic holiday in NY, and part of the experience was a great hotel. The location is very central, you are within walking distance to many great sights. The rooms are comfortable and clean. The only drawback was the price of international calls, which the guests are not informed about. You expect a bit more, but not such an excessive bill. Thanks to the very understanding and professional Achmed on reception for sorting out this problem before we left. May 14, 2013
Rated 2 out of 5 by T75raw2 Disappointed with room and treatment as Gold member We have sstayed at this hotel for a number of visits to NYC. The reception and facilities this time have considerably deteriorated. The lGold Prefered Guest checkin in was cold, non responsive to my requests, didnt provide access to the Club Floor facilities, and didn't offer a room for about four hours after arrival. The room had a broken mirror taped together, a sink and stool that barely drained, cracked tile in the shower, very crowded conditions. and a brokenm shade pull for the window. This was definately not up to our expectations for Starwood facilities. When we asked for a room chjange we were told thotel was completely full and we were going to have to accepty what we had. Overall, we were treated poorly, charged $14.95 a day for lwhat should have been free WiFi, and not recognised / treated like valued customers. December 13, 2011
Rated 5 out of 5 by StacyeMac Better Than Reviews I really enjoyed this hotel. Things started out great with check-in. Hopefully, you will get Nicole who has wonderful customer service! The rooms are lovely, and clean. This is the perfect location for 30 Rock, Times Square, Shopping, Drug store access,food and so much more. The internet connection is a little shaky, so get out and have some fun!Be prepared to pay a fee for storing your luggage. I will make the Sheraton my "go-to" hotel for every New York Trip. June 5, 2012
Rated 4 out of 5 by PH51 Stay November 2012 The room renovation was mostly cosmetic but was nice - Since I was almost across from service doors, it could be noisy as rooms are not that soundproofed, but was ok, room was serviced promptly and was clean. Downside is that it is impossible to get club level or club access. Also, the on site restaurant choices are slim. Yes, I know that there are lots of great restaurants in the area, but sometimes work, weather or just a busy day makes you want to stay close November 19, 2012


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Film Review: Requiem for a Vampire (Vierges et vampires) (1971)
SYNOPSIS: Two pubescent, pig-tailed, virgin schoolgirls, Michelle [Mirielle d'Argent] and Marie [Marie Pierre Castel], run away from their school and find themselves lost in a cemetery which leads to a chateau inhabited by vampires and naked women in chains. The girls try to escape, but they are bitten by the vampires' aging Master. The Master decides to initiate the girls in order to make them perpetrators of the vampire race (which is about to die … Continue reading


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The three star Athlete said it was worth the trip, however.
"I was able to spend a lot of time with Coach Monken, and three times I was able to talk one on one with him," he said.
"While we were there we hung out with a lot of the players and got to know them. We didn't get to talk to many of them about the coaching staff much because they weren't there yet, but everyone said they really liked Coach Monken."
Coach certainly made an impact on Tere.
"The first impression that Coach made on me was that he is a player's coach, and he cares a lot about his players," he said. "He told me he'd treat me like a son.
"He also cares a lot about the goals of the players, and him and I talked a lot about the NFL and which position suited me best. He told me that he saw me at safety and also that I'm well suited at cornerback.
"We talked basketball, and just a lot of stories, it was great talking to him."
With students being out, they didn't get to see a normal weekend on campus, but he did enjoy what he was able to see.
"Mostly we just did a football tour," he said. "I loved the field, weight room, and locker room. I also got to meet the equipment manager and that was a lot of fun.
"We did spend a few minutes talking with the people in the business school and seeing the classes I'd be taking if I went there."
Tere said he and James Cox hit it off right away, "We had a great time together, and I think he's real overrated as a player," he said jokingly. "No, we had a good time and we talked about if we went to school together that we'd really challenge each other in practice and make each other better."
Tere didn't tip his hand as far as where he is leaning. He still has the same top 3 of Nevada, Southern Miss, and SMU. Coach Monken will be flying up in January to take a visit in home with him before he makes his final decision the second week of January.
"I'll have family and friends up with me at the boys club up here, and I'll have a press conference to make my announcement," he said.
Calloway said he is worn out from the official visits, and does not have any plans to take any more trips before making his decision.


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first timer so yeah i'll break into it
I <3 Stanford
Thought's on going to college and why Stanford is my "No.1"
Do you snoop?
Snooping through your partners things
What If She Doesn't Want Kids?
To Mom, or Not To Mom. That is the question....
The Best Way To Ask Someone Out
Name: Brian || Location: New York , New York |Question: Hi Moxie,so I have a pretty simple question. I'm 40, divorced, been back on the dating scene for 4 years and find I'm falling victim of technology. I am easy going and can speak to anyone about anything, but get just a little tongue-tied when speaking to a woman I have an interest in. For a long while I've used online dating sites and speed dating for meeting women, so if I get a response to an online email or a 'yes' from speed dating I can take it from there.But I find that I've gotten out of practice of simply asking out a woman. And if I do, I'll wonder if they understand I asked them out. For example I recently was chatting with a woman at an event and as we were parting I asked 'would you like to get together sometime?' She said sure, she'd send me an email, but then I wonder if me question was too vague- I was asking her out, but she might just think it's a friendly get together and
The Truth about Virgins
I knew this topic would catch your eye!:P Don't get too excited...this blog consists of my opinions on the issue of virginity...that's it.That's right, no phallic imagery :(
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Sex is natural, beautiful and fun, so why does it create anxiety, guilt and fear?
(Mis)adventures in Dating a Clown
The scary world of clown porn--Honk if you have the big O!


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Eco-Pure Carpet Cleaning was founded to meet the demand for low-moisture carpet cleaning without a long drying process. To achieve this, technicians turn to a five-step process that removes dirt and debris from carpets by vacuuming, focusing on high traffic areas, and performing spot treatments. Alternately, Eco-Pure Carpet Cleaning?s hardwood and laminate cleaning process only has four steps: they get floors looking shiny and new with a vacuum, a deep clean, dry mop, and copolymer finish. The company also scrubs more than just floors, they're able to deep clean abodes using eco-friendly cleaning products.
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Story: Nov 24, 2014
Artist-in-residence Chi-Yu Liao appreciates CIA reception
CIA Exhibition: Nov 07, 2014
Fall 2014 Exhibitions
Story: Nov 15, 2014
Students capture two of the top prizes in museum's surreal d...
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The Art of Designing Everything
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Complete your application by Dec. 1 to ensure consideration for all scholarships and grants offered by CIA. For more information, visit: http://ow.ly/EW2BR.
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New CIA building taking shape; set for December completion
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Student Holiday Craft Sale
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CIA again named to "Best in the Midwest" list
Academics . Liberal Arts . Courses
An Introduction to African Art
Course No. ACD 358 Credits: 3.0
Faculty David Hart | Katherine Flach
This art history course provides an introduction to the visual art traditions of sub-Saharan Africa from ancient cultures to the present. Lectures and readings are drawn from art historical scholarship as well as from other disciplines (anthropology, archaeology, visual culture studies) that provide a sense of the social, political and religious contexts within which the art was created and used. The study of African art from a Western perspective presents questions that are covered in class: When and under what circumstances did "Africa" as a concept emerge? Did Africans consider their works "art" in the same sense that Westerners use that term? How did Western museums acquire African art and how does that inform the way we understand African works? In what ways did colonialism, the spread of Islam and Christianity, pan- Africanism and post-colonial movements affect artistic production? How do we understand modernism in an African context? Fulfills non-Western or cross-cultural art history requirement. Visual Culture Emphasis course.
Olatubosun Ogunsanwo
Professor of Comparative Literature
The University of Lagos, Nigeria, 1974 - 1990, Senior Lecturer The Ohio State University, College of Humaniti...more
While at CIA, you'll learn from the masters through our rigorous, world-class curriculum and connect with working professionals to begin your career.


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The Virginia Department of Taxation has issued Tax Bulletin 14-7, addressing Virginia's Income Tax treatment of same-sex marriage, which is now legal in the Commonwealth. Read VTB 14-7 here.
Live Chat will no longer be available after December 31, 2014 due to required budget reductions at the Virginia Department of Taxation.
Beginning in 2015, the due date for your Employer's Annual Summary of Income Tax Withheld (Form VA-6) and supporting statements (W-2s and 1099s) will be January 31. More details here.
Our Customer Service Walk-In center, located at 1957 Westmoreland St., Richmond, will reopen January 12, 2015.
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BERLIN (dpa) - She's lovable, but a trifle coy is Jan Jan, the popular female Panda in the Berlin Zoo. For years now zoo officials have been hoping she might, with a little assistance from Bau Bau, her somewhat grumpy male Panda companion, finally beco...
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text:
Immunodiagnostic tests in which enzymes or antibodies are bound to porous carrier materials can be carried out by employing as porous carrier materials macroporous polymer membranes which are prepared by
(a) dispersing an insoluble filler in a solution which contains at least two incompatible polymers in amounts which lead to phase separation in the solution, resulting in a homogeneous casting solution, and
(b) applying this solution to a support and carrying out a precipitation coagulation.
1. In an immunoassay comprising contacting a macroporous membrane to which an enzyme or antibody is absorbed with a liquid putatively containing an antigen and detecting the presence of the antigen, the improvement comprising utilizing as the macroporous membrane a macroporous filler-containing membrane where the membrane is prepared by (1) forming an unstable mixture of at least two polymers which are immisible in solution,
(2) dispersing insoluble fillers into the unstable mixture of such immisible polymers thereby converting the mixture into a stable homogeneous mixture, and
(3) applying such stable mixture to a substrate as a casting solution by precipitation coagulation.
2. The method of claim 10, wherein the insoluble fillers comprise from 5 to 500% by weight based on the total weight of the polymers in the membrane.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein the fillers are highly dispersed fillers and are employed in amounts of 5 to 50% by weight.
4. The method of claim 1, wherein the fillers have lower specific surface areas and are employed in amounts of 35 to 500% by weight.
5. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymers are selected from the group consisting of combinations of
a) cellulose esters/polyvinyl esters,
b) polyurethane/polyacrylates or acrylic copolymers,
c) polycarbonate copolymers/polyurethane,
d) polyvinyl derivatives/polysulphones,
e) polyamides or polyimides/polystyrene or styrene copolymers,
f) poly-para-dimethylphenylene oxide/polyvinylidene fluoride,
g) polysulphone/polyacrylonitrile, and
h) poly(ethersulphone)/anionically modified polyacrylonitrile.
6. The method of claim 1 wherein the macroporous polymer membrane contains an integrated chromogen.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroporous membrane has a surface modified by free amino groups.
8. The method of claim 8, wherein bisulphite adducts of isocyanates are employed for the covalent binding of the enzymes or antibodies to the free amino groups on the surface of said macroporous membrane.
9. The method of claim 1, wherein the insoluble fillers are selected from the group consisting of talc, titanium dioxide, barium sulphate, silicon dioxide, microcrystalline cellulose, zeolite, bentonite, highly dispersed silica and quartz.
10. The immunoassay of claim 1 wherein the macroporous filler-containing membrane contains free amino groups.
11. The immunoassay of claim 1 wherein the filler in the macroporous filler-containing membrane is an amino-modified filler.
12. The immunoassay of claim 1 wherein the enzyme or antibody is attached to the membrane through a covalent linkage.
13. The method of claim 1, wherein the forming step comprises forming an unstable mixture of three immiscible polymers.
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates to a method for carrying out immunodiagnostic tests in which enzymes or antibodies are bound to porous carrier materials. The method according to the invention is characterized by the use of macroporous polymer membranes as such porous carrier materials. The macroporous polymer membranes are prepared by preparing a homogeneous casting solution by dispersing an insoluble filler in a solution which contains at least two incompatible polymers in amounts which lead to phase separation in the solution, applying this solution to a support, and then carrying out a precipitation coagulation.
Porous carrier materials which bind biologically active proteins such as enzymes or antibodies play an important part in various technical sectors and in clinical diagnosis. In this context the immunoassay methods are particularly important. The most widely used are competitive binding assays (RIA, EIA) and sandwich assays (IRMA, ELISA), with the ELISAs becoming increasingly important. In the ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay), the antigen to be determined is bound by a carrier-bound antibody (primary antibody) and quantitatively determined by an enzymatic second antibody (secondary antibody).
2. Description of the Related Art
The basic principle of these detection methods is described in numerous publications (Angew. Chemie 97 (1985), 141-163; Chimia 29 (3) (1975), 109). The iramobilization (binding) of the primary antibody to the porous matrix surface can in principle take place in two different ways, namely by adsorption or covalent bonding, and both methods have advantages and disadvantages. Whereas the risk of denaturation of the biochemical agents is small in the case of adsorption, there is a risk of washing out or leaching out when the assay is carried out; precisely the converse applies to the covalent method. This is why the aim is to be able to use alternative methods (both adsorptive and covalent) depending on the example of use and assay method.
Detection of the immunochemical assay reaction in the case of the ELISA method frequently takes place by a chromogenic reaction which is catalyzed by an enzyme which is located on the secondary antibody. Thus, for example, secondary antibodies labelled with peroxidase (POD) are frequently employed and, in the presence of H2 O2, induce an oxidation reaction, whereupon a colour change takes place. The chromogen is impregnated into the matrix during the course of the assay procedure, and in the case of POD-catalyzed reactions the well-known water-soluble trinder system 4-aminoantipyrine/2-hydroxy-3,5-dichlorobenzenesulphonate (H.V. Bergmeyer, Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, Vol. I, 3rd. ed., Verlag Chemie) is frequently used.
Other enzyme/chromogen systems are: alkaline phosphatase/p-nitrophenyl phosphate or β-galactosidase/o-nitrophenyl galactoside. Companies marketing membrane systems for immunodiagnosis are, for example, Millipore (product: IMMUBILON�) or PALL (product: IMMUNUDYNE�) in combination with brochures which describe the assay procedure. The complete assay consists of a plurality of incubation and washing steps, with the iramobilization of the primary antibody as a rule taking place by covalent bonding. Microtiter plates or dot-blot apparatuses are available for carrying out the assays, for example from Bio Rad. Critical problems in carrying out the assays are washing out and leaching out, it being possible for the substances and agents which have previously been introduced to be washed out again during a plurality of impregnation and washing steps. This is particularly critical with the chromogens employed to date which, as a rule, cannot be covalently bonded and undergo considerable extraction, because their solubility in water is often good, in the subsequent washing procedures.
This frequently leads to falsification of the results of measurement and reduction in the sensitivity.
It was therefore desirable to have available membrane matrices for immunochemical detection reactions which are particularly suitable for the ELISA method and which display the following features:
a) possibility of both adsorptive and covalent immobilization,
b) possibility of covalent iramobilization in a simple and non-damaging way and
c) improved immobilization of the chromogen for substantial prevention of leaching out of the reaction colours.
It has now been found, surprisingly, that macroporous membranes composed of polymer blends described in German Offenlegungsschrift 38 09 523 are outstandingly suitable for immunodiagnostic test methods.
A method for carrying out immunodiagnostic tests in which enzymes or antibodies are bound to porous carrier materials has been found and is characterized in that the porous carrier materials employed are macroporous polymer membranes which are prepared by
a) dispersing insoluble fillers in a solution which contains at least two incompatible polymers in amounts which lead to phase separation in the solution, resulting in a homogeneous casting solution, and
b) applying this solution to a support and carrying out a precipitation coagulation.
The accompanying FIGS. 1-3 present the results of the binding experiments forth in Example 2.
If, for example, a 20% by weight solution of polyurethane in dimethylformamide (PU/DMF solution) and a 20% by weight solution of polyacrylonitrile in dimethylformamide (PAN/DMF solution) are mixed with stirring, phase separation takes place after brief standing. Mixtures of this type are unstable and are unsuitable as casting solutions for preparing the membranes.
By contrast, if the same polymer/DMF solutions are combined with fillers, for example talc, being dispersed simultaneously or subsequently, stable homogeneous casting solutions which are suitable for membrane preparation by the precipitation coagulation method are obtained. By comparison with known membranes, those prepared from casting solutions of this type surprisingly show distinctly larger pores on the surface, a very much higher overall porosity and a distinctly increased absorptive capacity which is comparable with that of chromatography papers.
Electron micrographs of the cross-section of these polymer membranes show that they are structures with a felt-like texture, while the asymmetric structure texture with the dense polymer skin on the membrane surface is almost completely suppressed. In the case of a membrane with the described texture, pore diameters of up to 30 μm are evident on the membrane surface.
The polymer casting solutions required for preparing macroporous membrane matrices of this type must fulfil the following conditions:
the solutions of the individual polymer components must not be mutually miscible. In the case of mutually miscible systems, in analogy to casting solutions hitherto disclosed, microporous membrane structures with a pronounced asymmetric structure are obtained;
the solvents for the individual polymer components must be mutually miscible;
in order to convert the immiscible polymer components into homogeneous casting solutions it is necessary for suitable insoluble fillers for example, inorganic fillers to be dispersed in.
Examples of suitable fillers are: talc, titanium dioxide, barium sulphate, silicon dioxide, microcrystalline cellulose, zeolites, bentonites, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, zinc oxide, iron oxides, preferably talc, titanium dioxide, bariran sulphate, highly disperse silica (for example Aerosils from Degussa), quartz, microcrystalline cellulose, zeolites and bentonites. Inorganic and organic fillers of these types are commercially available. Not all the said fillers are equally suitable for all polymer combinations. Thus, for example, casting solutions composed of polyurethane/polyacrylonitrile mixtures are less stable with titanium dioxide or barium sulphate and show a detectable inhomogeneity, whereas solutions of the same polymer combination with talc result in good homogeneity and dispersion stability. It is also p9ssible to employ mixtures of a plurality of the said fillers. The surface of the fillers which are employed can be organically modified where appropriate. For example, hydrophobic highly disperse silicas (AEROSIL R 972� from Degussa) or amine-modified types are commercially available.
The amount of the fillers which are employed depends on their specific surface areas but is generally in the range from 5 to 500% by weight based on the total weight of the organic substance in the membrane. In the case of highly disperse fillers, for example AEROSIL 200� (200 m2 /g), amounts in the range from 5 to 50% by weight based on the weight of the organic substance in the membrane are sufficient. In the case of fillers with lower specific surface areas in the region of a few m2 /g it is possible for the amount of the fillers which is employed to be in the range from 35% to 500% based on the weight of the organic substance in the membrane. The preferred range for highly disperse fillers is 10 to 25% by weight, and that for fillers with lower specific surface areas is 50 to 200% by weight.
Examples of suitable polymer combinations are the following:
- cellulose esters/polyvinyl esters
- polyurethane/polyacrylic derivatives or acrylic copolymers
- polycarbonate copolymers/polyurethane
- polyvinyl derivatives/polysulphones
- polyamides or polyimides/polystyrene or styrene copolymers
- poly-para-dimethylphenylene oxide/polyvinylidene fluoride
- poly sul phone/poly acrylonitrile
- poly(ethersulphone)/anionically modified polyacrylonitrile.
Other combinations of the said polymer systems are also possible and may, furthermore, be extended to ternary polymer mixtures.
Specific examples of such polymer combinations are:
cellulose acetate/polyvinyl acetate (for example MOWILITH�), polyurethane (DESMODERM KBH�)/polyacrylonitrile (DRALON T�), DESMODERM KBH�/aminemodified dralon (DRALON A�), DESMODERM KBH�/anionically modified dralon (DRALON U�), polysulphone (UDEL P 1700�)/polyvinylidene fluoride, polyether carbonate/DESMODERM KBH�, DRALON U�/MOWILITH�, cellulose acetate/DRALON U�, cellulose acetate/DRALON U�/polystyrene, MOWILITH�/DESMODERM KBH�/polyvinyl chloride and poly(ethersulphone) (ULTRASON E�)/polyacrylonitrile (DRALON X�).
The ratio of the amounts of the copolymers in the particular combinations which is necessary for phase separation without the filler dispersed in can be found by simple preliminary tests.
Another very important ternary polymer system is DESMODERM KBH�/MOWILITH�/DRALON T�, it also being possible to replace DRALON T� by DRALON A� or DRALON U�. The chemical structures of the polymers which are preferably employed are described in the appendix to the exemplary embodiments.
Suitable for the preparation of the polymer casting solutions are, for example, dimethylformamide (DMF), N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO), dimethylacetamide, dioxolane, dioxane, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, CELLOSOLVE� or mixtures of these solvents.
The overall process for preparing the membranes can be represented by the following example: the DMF polymer solutions composed of DESMODERM KBH�, MOWILITH� and DRALON�, which are in each case about 20% by weight, are mixed while dispersing in talc with the aid of a high-speed stirrer (dissolver) to give a homogeneous polymer casting solution. After degassing in vacuo, the casting solution is applied with the aid of a knife in a layer thickness of, for example, 150 μm to a support substrate and immersed in the coagulation bath, preferably pure water. After a residence time of about 2 minutes, the polymer membrane which is produced thereby is removed from the coagulation bath and dried with hot air.
Other components for the preparation of the macroporous membranes can be surfactants, for example dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate or dodecylbenzenesulphonates which are used in the casting solution. It is likewise possible for water-soluble polymers such as cellulose ethers, polyethylene glycols, polyvinyl alcohol or polyvinylpyrrolidone to be components of the polymer casting solution. Suitable additives furthermore are so-called coagulation aids such as, for example, cationic polyurethane dispersions.
The casting solution is applied to ,a support in order to be able to carry out the precipitation coagulation and to be able to manipulate the casting solution and the macroporous polymer. Such supports can be, for example, glass or siliconized carrier materials of a wide variety of origins. Other carrier materials are liquid-permeable polymer woven or polymer nonwoven fabrics on which the macroporous polymer membrane shows good adhesion.
Macroporous polymer membranes which are employed according to the invention have average pore diameters of 10 to 50 μm, preferably 10 to 30 μm. Membranes which are particularly advantageous for carrying out immunodiagnostic tests are those into which the chromogen has already been integrated during the membrane preparation. An important example thereof is the chromogen 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) which is a known oxidation indicator. Compared with known conventional systems, two important advantages emerge:
1. The overall test procedure is reduced by the step of indicator impregnation and thus simplified. This aspect is important inasmuch as organic solvents are employed as solvents for many indicators, including TMB for example, and may damage either the polymer membrane or the biochemical reagent system.
2. An even more important advantage of the indicator integrated into the membrane is that the leaching out of the indicator colour produced in the reaction is virtually completely suppressed, in contrast to conventional systems.
The method according to the invention using the macroporous polymer membranes described surprisingly results in possibilities for improved adsorptive and covalent binding of biochemical agents (enzymes, antibodies):
a) Adsorptive immobilization
It surprisingly emerges that the adsorptive binding property of the macroporous polymer membranes described can be considerably increased by a modification of the membrane surface with free amino groups. The amine-modified membranes can be prepared either by subsequent treatment of the finished membrane or, preferably, by additives in the polymer casting solution employed to prepare the membrane by the method of precipitation coagulation in water. Additives which have proved to be suitable are polymers with free amino groups such as, for example, polyethyleneimine. Examples of other suitable additives are polyamide-amines or other watersoluble amine-containing polymers as employed, for example, also as retention agents in paper manufacture (Das Papier 33, No. 10A). Such retention agents are commercially available, for example, under the name RETAMINOL� (Bayer AG) or PRAESTOL� (Stockhausen).
Although such additives are water-soluble compounds, they are surprisingly not extracted during the course of membrane preparation by coagulation in water. This fact can be demonstrated by the ninhydrin reaction.
It has furthermore been found that amino-modified membranes can also be prepared in a straightforward manner by adding amine-modified fillers to the polymer casting solution. Suitable examples thereof are: silicate fillers whose surface is treated with aminosilane. Products of this type are marketed, for example, as Silbond 600 AST (from Quartz-Werke). It has emerged in this connection that particularly good results in respect of adsorptive iramobilization are achieved by a combination of the additives polyethyleneimine and silicates treated with aminosilanes.
b) Covalent immobilization
It has furthermore been found that the described amine-modified macroporous polymer membranes are also outstandingly suitable for covalent iramobilization of the biochemical reagents. In this connection. it has been found, surprisingly, that, besides the known coupling reagents such as glutaraldehyde, carbodiimides or bishydroxysuccinimides, very particulafiy suitable as covalent anchor groups are water-soluble bisulphite adducts of polyfunctional isocyanates. Bisulphite adducts of this type and their preparation are known (Houben-Weyl, Methoden der organischen Chemie (Methods of organic chemistry), Vol. 14/2, pages 63-64). They can be obtained by reacting isocyanates with sodium bisulphite. Suitable isocyanates are preferably polyfunctional and can be aliphatic, cycloaliphatic or aromatic. Examples of suitable polyisocyanates are: hexamethylene diisocyanate, 1,4-diisocyanatocyclohexane, 2,4- and 2,6-toluylene diiso
cyanate and their mixtures, 1-isocyanatomethyl-5-isocyanato-1,3,3-trimethylcyclohexane, 2,2,4- and 2,4,4-trimethylhexamethylene 1,6-diisocyanate, 1,5-diisocyanatonaphthalene, 1,3-cyclopentylene diisocyanate, m- and p-phenylene diisocyanate, 2,4,6-triisocyanatotoluene, tris(4-isocyanatophenyl)methane, 1,3- and 1,4-xylylene diisocyanate, 3,3'-dimethyl-4,4'-diphenylene diisocyanate, diisocyanatodurene, 1-phenoxy-2,4'-phenylene diisocyanate, 1-tert.-butyl-2,4-phenylenediisocyanate, methylenebis
4,4'-cyclohexyl diisocyanate, 1-chloro-2,4-phenylene diisocyanate and bis(4-isocyanatophenyl) ether; other polyisocyanates which are not mentioned here are known in principle to the person skilled in the art.
It is furthermore possible to employ higher molecular weight and, where appropriate, also more highly functional polyisocyanates which are prepared from lower molecular weight basic components by polymerization reaction to give uretdiones or isocyanurate derivatives. Examples which may be mentioned are the uretdione from 2 mol of 2,4-toluylene diisocyanate and polymerization products which contain diisocyanurate rings and are derived from 2,4- and 2,6-toluylene diisocyanate or hexamethylene diisocyanate, a system which contains an average of two isocyanurate rings in the molecule and is formed from 5 mol of toluylene diisocyanate, or a corresponding derivative composed of an average of 2 mol of toluylene diisocyanate and 3 mol of hexamethylene diisocyanate. It is possible according to another method of construction to prepare from di- or polyisocyanates, by partial hydrolysis via the stage of the carbamic acid and of the amine, higher biuret-linked systems, for example a biuret-linked compound which is formally derived from 3 mol of hexamethylene diisocyanate with the addition of 1 mol of water and elimination of 1 mol of carbon dioxide. Polyisocyanates which are likewise suitable are obtained on reaction of di- and polyols with di- or polyfunctional isocyanates when the molar ratio of hydroxy compounds to the isocyanate is selected so that free NCO functionalities always remain present in the randomly formed reaction products, and a molecular weight of 2000 to 3000 is not exceeded. Similar suitable polyisocyanates are obtained from polyesters which contain hydroxyl groups by reaction with excess di- or polyfunctional isocyanates. All the di- and polyisocyanates described above can be reacted in this way with di- and polyols such as mono- and polyethylene glycol, propanediols, butanediols, neopentyl glycol and other pentanediols, adipol, hexanediols, cyclohexanediols, 1,4-dihydroxynaethylcyclohexane, perhydrobisphenol A, glycerol, trimethylolLeA ethane, trimethylolpropane, other hexanetriols and pentaerythritol, under the conditions described.
Diisocyanates, in particular hexamethylene diisocyanate, isophorone diisocyanate, toluylene diisocyanate and diphenylmethane diisocyanate are preferably employed.
This method of covalent bonding of immunologically active substances (enzymes, antibodies) to the membrane surface is not only exceptionally simple but it provides a range of variation in respect of the chemical structure and the chain length of the linkers between the porous polymer membrane and the active substances which is unknown for the coupling reagents hitherto known. A plurality of methods is available for carrying out the binding of the active substances.
Thus, in a first method, the described amine-modified membrane can initially be impregnated with an approximately 0.1 to 1% strength aqueous solution of the isocyanate-bisulphite adduct. This impregnation takes place, for example, very simply by immersion of the membrane in a solution of this type. The membrane is then dried under suitable conditions, for example in an oven at 30 to 80� C. for a period of 5 to 120 minutes. The iramobilization of immunologically active substances can now take place simply by contacting a solution of these active substances with the membrane surface. The contacting takes place, for example, simply by impregnation or, when working with microtiler plates or bio dot apparatus, by sucking the active compound solution through.
In a second method, a common aqueous solution of the isocyanate-bisulphite adduct and of the biochemically active substance to be immobilized is prepared and contacted with the amine-modified membrane. In this case an excess of the bisulphite adduct over the required amount based on moles of active substance has proved advantageous.
The method according to the invention permits the entire range of immunochemical test methods, for example the immunological detection of pathogens for plants, humans and animals, the detection of active compounds in plants, humans and animals, the detection of impurities (for example plant protection agents) in soil and groundwater and other test methods.
The suitability of the methods according toi the invention for carrying out such immunochemical (immunodiagnostic) tests is explained in detail in the following examples.
The examples describe the following steps:
1. Preparation of amine-modified macroporous polymer membranes
2. Immunodiagnostic test methods using examples of mouse IgG
3. Comparison between adsorptive and covalent iramobilization.
Preparation of an amine-modified polymer blend membrane
A high-speed stirrer (dissolver) was used to prepare a polymer casting solution from the following components:
______________________________________DRALON T � (polyacrylonitrile) 9.6 gDESMODERM KBH � (polyurethane, 20% in NMP) 170.0 gMOWILITH 50 � (polyvinyl acetate, 25% in NMP) 225.8 gN-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) 220.0 gSilbond 600 AST (amine-modified silicate) 293.4 gSodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) 3.9 g3,3',5,5'-Tetramethylbenzidine 31.3 gPOLYMIN P � (polyethyleneimine, 50% in water) 2.1 g______________________________________
The chemical structures of the polymers used are described in German Offenlegungsschrift 3 809 523.
The casting solution was filtered (metal cloth, 25 μm mesh width) and degassed.
Membrane preparation
A supported membrane was prepared by the known method of precipitation coagulation in water. The following conditions were observed:
Support material: nonwoven polyester FO 2403 from Freudenberg
Wet application with knife: 300 μm
Coagulation bath: Water, 40� C.
Drying conditions: 60� C., 20 min
This resulted in a macroporous polymer blend membrane which adhered to the nonwoven polyester, contained the indicator 3,3',5,'-tetramethylbenzidine and was employed as carrier matrix for the following immunochemical detection reactions.
Procedure for a sandwich ELISA for detecting mouse IgG
Commercially obtainable immunoglobulins were used to carry out an immunoassay on the sandwich ELISA principle with the polymer blend membrane as solid phase. The components used for the immunoassay, the prim. (capture) antibody, sec. (marker) antibody, antigen (Mouse IgG) were obtained from SIGMA Chemie GmbH, Deisenhofen.
The following specific antibodies were used:
______________________________________1. As prim. antibody (capture antibody):Sigma No. Type Origin______________________________________M 3014 a-mouse IgG Goat whole moleculeM 9637 a-mouse IgG Rabbit whole molecule2. As sec. antibody (marker antibody):Sigma No. Type Origin Marker______________________________________A 2028 a-mouse IgG Rabbit Peroxidase whole moleculeA 4416 a-mouse IgG Goat Peroxidase whole molecule3. As antigen (mouse IgG)Sigma No. Type______________________________________I 5381 Mouse IgGA plurality of combinations of prim. and sec.antibodies was used for applications.Prim. antibody Antigen Sec. antibody______________________________________M 3014 I 5381 A 2028M 3014 I 5381 A 4416M 9637 I 5381 A 4416______________________________________
Procedure for the immunoassay methods:
The frame used for the assay membrane was a dot-blot apparatus from BioRad. A mild waterpump vacuum was applied for the filtration steps.
The polymer blend membrane was hydrated with 100 μm of H2 O per dot. Then the prim. antibody at a concentration of 1 mg/ml of water in a volume of 400 μm was filtered through the membrane. Subsequently serial dilutions of the antigen (mouse IgG) were sucked in a volume of 200 μl per dilution and different concentration through the membrane. After a washing step, the sec. antibody (POD marker) was filtered through the membrane. Finally, washing was carried out once with 500 μl of PBS/Tween and once with 500 μl of water, and the membrane was immersed in the substrate solution for the marker enzyme to develop the colour.
The results of the binding assay were determined in a pocket reflectometer.
The results of the binding experiments are presented as follows (appended FIG. 1-3; conc. mouse IgG μg/ml (log)):
FIG. 1: System M 3014/I 5381/A 2028
FIG. 2: System M 3014/I 5381/A 4416
FIG. 3: System M 9637/I 5381/A 4416
The example shows the excellent suitability of the membrane matrices according to the invention for immunoassays. The mouse IgG analyte can be detected reliably down to the nanogram range.
Besides water, the following buffer systems were used in Example 2:
PBS (phosphate-buffered physiological saline) 0.01 M phosphate (=0.008 M K2 HPO4 and 0.002 M NaH2PO4) with 0.15 M NaCl at pH 7.4.
Acetate buffer substrate mixture (for POD reaction) 0.1 M Na acetate in H2 O, pH 6.0 (adjusted with 1 M citric acid); H2 O2 (3.0%) was added at 1 ml per 1 as redox partner.
Tween 20 (polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, Sigma No.: P 1379) 0.01% in distilled H2 O.
Procedure for a sandwich ELISA to detect mouse IgG Example 2 was repeated but with the alteration that a polyvinylidene difiuoride membrane from Millipore (Immobilon P) was used, not a polymer blend membrane according to the invention, as solid phase.
Before the assay procedure described in Example 1, the membrane was rendered lyophilic by sucking through 100 μl of ethanol. Since, in contrast to the polymer blend membranes according to the invention, the membrane contains no chromogen, it was immersed after the immunological reaction in a substrate solution which was prepared as follows:
Tetramethylbenzidine was dissolved in a concentration of 2 mg/ml in methanol (stock solution). The substrate solution was freshly prepared from 5 pans of stock solution, 3.75 parts of 0.4 M citrate buffer (pH 5.5), 11.3 parts of H2 O and 0.025 part of 30% H2 O2.
The blue coloured spots when each rapidly appeared became ever larger, less differentiated and, in some cases, merged with one another. Leaching out of the dye into the substrate solution led to the latter becoming deep blue, and thus the entire membrane in turn was coloured blue.
Moreover, after the membrane was dried, the colour was stable for only a few minutes so that no reflectometric evaluation was possible. In contrast thereto, coloured spots remain stable and can be evaluated on the polymer blend membranes according to the invention for several days, often for up to some weeks.
Immunologically active substances are sufficiently firmly immobilized on the surface of the polymer blend membranes according to the invention. The iramobilization can be further improved by pretreatment with isocyanate-bisulphite adducts.
This effect is demonstrated by Example 4. A marker antibody (Sigma A 9169, type: a-rabbit IgG, origin: goat, marker: peroxidase) was immobilized as described in Example 2 on the surface of a polymer blend membrane according to Example 1. In one case the membrane was untreated and in the other it was pretreated with a 0.2% strength aqueous solution of the bisulphite adduct of hexamethylene diisocyanate. The pretreatment was carried out in such a way that the membrane was impregnated with the bisulphite adduct solution by immersion, and the membrane was subsequently dried in a circulating air oven at 60� C. for 1 h.
After adsorption on the membrane surface, the durability of the iramobilization was checked by washing up to eight times with various buffers and reagents and, after each of the washing steps, detection by means of an enzyme reaction of the peroxidase (POD) used and TMB/H2 O2 as redox partner. The following table indicates the number of washing steps after which a distinct attenuation of the blue coloration is evident.
______________________________________Medium 1 2 3 4 5 6______________________________________Membrane untreated 4 6 n.w. n.w. 4 3Membrane pretreated n.w. n.w. n.w. n.w. 6 4______________________________________ n.w. = not washed out
Buffers and reagents used as washing media:
2=H2 O with 0.1% Tween 20
4=PBS with 0.1% Tween 20
5=acetate buffer
6=carbonate buffer (0.1 M NaHCO3 in H2 O, pH 9.6, adjusted with sodium hydroxide solution)
Chemical structures of the polymers which are preferably employed
Polyurethane (DESMODERM KBH�), Bayer AG)
Thermoplastic polyadduct which was obtained by reaction of 75 parts of a polyester of adipic acid, 70 mol% of ethylene glycol and 30 mol% of 1,4-butanediol (MW =2000),
25 parts of a polyester of adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol (MW=2250),
25 parts of 1,4-butanediol and
85 parts of diphenylmethane diisocyanate. ##STR1##
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Game Credits
|Knuckles' Chaotix (1995)
|(Boss Programmer)
|Panic! (1993)
|(Game Programming)
|JSRF: Jet Set Radio Future (2002)
|(Special Thanks)
|Sega Rally 2 Championship (1998)
|(Technical Advisors)
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By ALAN GOMEZ USA TODAY
PHOENIX — When Arizona passed a law in April allowing police to conduct roadside immigration checks, Mexican officials blasted the law as a prejudiced attack against its citizens in the state. That condemnation has spread throughout Latin America.
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Animosity toward Ariz. law spreads to Latin America


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Home » News » Education
In NH visit, Scalia critiques legal education
Among the problems Scalia pointed to were a growth of non-legal subjects in law school curriculums, the virtual disappearance of the prescribed curriculum and the increasing irrelevance of legal scholarship.
He traced the history of legal education, and the seeds of virtue and of some future vice to the case law method introduced by Christopher Columbus Langdell to the Harvard Law School in 1870.
"In the 140 or so years that have passed since Langdell came onto the scene, the practical virtue of American law schools as a device for the teaching of law has failed," Scalia said.
Part of this is because modern law schools see themselves as a place to get more than a legal education, he said.
"Today among a mixture of other subjects . an examination of the prospectus of any American law school will reveal a number of 'law and' courses - law and literature, law and feminism, law and poverty, law and economics, etc, etc.," Scalia said.
He said some classes have no law in them at all.
He said the problem is compounded by the ready availability of electives of varying quality and difficulty.
He said there needs to be more professors teaching basic law classes, but he does not expect to see that happen in the near future. He said in many law schools, basic classes are understaffed, as professors focus on teaching the more highly specialized topics they tend to be researching.
Another "discouraging" development in law schools has been the increasingly hard to understand, esoteric nature of much of the scholarship produced by law faculties, of no value to practitioner, Scalia said.
"In earlier years, many practitioners subscribed to the most prominent law reviews . as a means of keeping abreast of development of the law. Those years are long gone," Scalia said.
He said the academic mindset removed from practice is illustrated in the make-up of many law school faculties.
He said professors are more often valued for the quality and quantity of work they publish than the quality of their teaching, and this needs to change.
"The influence law professors have through their teaching . will far exceed whatever impact they are likely to have . through publication," Scalia said.
Scalia concluded by saying he hoped that most of what he said has no application to the UNH Law School.
Jordan Budd, associate dean for academic affairs at UNH School of Law said he is happy to say it does not.
"It was music to my ears because it is a critique we fully embrace and that our law school is at the forefront of advancing," Budd said.
He said the faculty has substantial practice experience, many in sophisticated, challenging legal settings, and produce what they refer to as "consequential" scholarship focused on relevant issues of law.
Courses focus on basic law including Constitutional law, tort law and professional responsibility.
"His critique of legal education is kind of the theme of UNH School of Law," Budd said.
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Britt Hayes
Britt Hayes is a writer, movie lover, and sensible sweater enthusiast living in Austin, Texas. She watches too much TV and never eats her vegetables. Her mom is worried about her.
So this is why we don't see Johnny Depp on stage very often (ever?) at awards shows. Last night at the Hollywood Film Awards, Depp introduced the documentary 'Supermensch,' about legendary talent manager Shep Gordon, and immediately made it pretty clear that he was not sober-minded. "That's the weirdest microphone I've ever seen in my life," he slurs—except, you know, it's just a regular microphone.
That 'Paul Blart: Mall Cop 2' trailer almost stole some thunder tonight because I pretty much forgot that we were getting a brand, uh, spanking new, Beyoncé-accompanied trailer for '50 Shades of Grey.' Shady move, Blart. The second full trailer for the upcoming adaptation of the popular 'Twilight' fan-fiction erotica novel is here, so let's break it down, shall we?
It's just not a movie featuring Bruce Wayne/Batman unless you have the death of Bruce Wayne's parents, thus explaining his mopey origins, is it? Zack Snyder would agree, and so would some new set photos from 'Batman vs. Superman,' which confirm that we will see Thomas and Martha Wayne shot to death yet again, just in case you're not sick of seeing that happen. Seriously? Again? Again-again-again?
Even though we were told, once upon a time, that Disney and Pixar had no plans for 'Toy Story 4,' it seems that those plans have changed. After a series of short films that kept us up to date with the adventures of Woody and Buzz Lightyear and friends, Disney CEO Bob Iger has just announced that we'll finally be getting a 'Toy Story 4' after all, and it has an official release date and everything.
So here's some pretty exciting news on top of the already exciting news that Wonder Woman is getting her very own solo film from DC and Warner Bros. A new report reveals plans that Wonder Woman's first solo outing will be set in a time period before the 'Justice League' film -- actually, it'll be set long, long before then. Not only that, but there are ultimately plans for three 'Wonder Woman' films. Three! Your move, Marvel.
The time has come once again -- the beginning of a new month brings lots of new streaming content to Netflix Instant, giving you plenty of options when you just feel like staying in. The service offers new favorites, old classics, and even a few under the radar gems for you to discover. Read on for our guide to the newest releases hitting Netflix Instant this November.
Seems like the internet just couldn't wait for that 'Avengers: Age of Ultron' trailer to premiere. Just last night, Marvel announced that the trailer would debut following next week's new episode of 'Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.,' and tonight a pirated version found its way online. Marvel reacted quickly by posting the real deal and revealing a new teaser poster.
One of the people we haven't seen a whole lot of in the more recent trailers for 'The Hunger Games: Mockingjay - Part 1' is Peeta. Yes, we saw him in those earlier "message from Capitol" teasers, all in white with President Snow and Joanna, but the trailers for the latest installment of Katniss' harrowing journey have been mostly absent of her bread-making friend. Until now! And it looks like Gale is not too pleased about it.
Chris Rock: Comedian, actor, and now he can add director to his resume with 'Top Five,' a film that had plenty of people talking when it premiered at this year's film festival in Toronto. Paramount wasted no time picking the film up, and it seems like the studio is wasting very little time in getting Rock's very promising directorial debut out there as quickly as possible. Judging by the first trailer, featuring a cast of incredibly funny and talented folks, this is going to be delightful.
We're only about a month away from the next chapter in 'The Hunger Games' saga, and in case you needed a reminder, we've got a brand new trailer for you. In it, Katniss Everdeen also gets a reminder, but it's one of the more harrowing variety, as she's sent to District 12 to see the devastation that was wrought upon her home district in the wake of the events of 'Catching Fire.'
While the newest James Bond movie still has no official title, that hasn't kept it from moving full-speed ahead, with Daniel Craig reprising the role of Agent 007 for Bond's 24th outing. The latest development has French actress and 'Blue Is the Warmest Color' star Lea Seydoux joining the cast in the role of a femme fatale -- someone who could make things quite complicated (and perhaps a bit sexy) for our suave protagonist.
Following yesterday's glimpse at the first images from 'Focus' comes the first official trailer for what's being described as a con-man romance film from the guys who brought us 'Crazy Stupid Love.' In 'Focus,' Will Smith definitely seems to be playing a slick variation on Ryan Gosling's character from their previous film, and if anyone knows how to play slick and charismatic, it's Will Smith, for sure.
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