text:
The power of heat is with you.
- Wear just the fleece for apr�s-shredding barstool sessions at your favorite bar or rock the shell on its own when the conditions call for lightweight protection
- Rechargeable battery heats the removable fleece liner with a soft-switch temp controller inside the collar
- Three-layer shell construction blocks wind and moisture so you�ll stay dry when the storms get nasty
- Fog free exhaust vents let your warm breath escape when you�re sealed up in a storm
- Removable 20/20 hood cinches both peripherally and around opening for maximum visibility and weather protection
- Underarm zips let the cool air in if you crank the heat too high
- Yo-yo style pass holder lets you do the flash-and-go
- Shammy cloth stashed in sleeve cuff for keeping your goggle lens clean
- Designated goggle and media pockets keep those fragile items secure
Share your thoughts
What do you think of the
Foursquare Aaron Jacket - Men's
? Share a...
What size should I go for? Small ar...
Mariusz Bocian
What size should I go for? Small ar medium? Is it baggy or regular fit?
According to sizing chart I should choose Medium (ca. 40" chest, 5'10" high), but as far as I know Foursquare runs bigger. Also sleeve can be too long. I don't like baggy or too loose gear, prefer regular fit. Small one seems to be OK, but I'm afraid it could be to tight under arms because of the liner (I read that the liner is too small with too short sleeves).
At the moment I wear 686 smarty with liner size M- very good fit and Burton sig fit size S.
Measurements in the sizing chart show that Small is wider in chest (119cm or 47" while my current 686 is ca. 114cm or 45").
Which size do you suggest? It needs not to be baggy rather regular but not tight od course.
Many thanks!
Wooden Robots
Foursquare sizing is as follows, Small: 36"38" (9196cm) and medium is: 38"40" (96101cm). The fit is this jacket is a "true" snowboard fit. Not super baggy but a good loose fit. Run the medium. I'm 6' and I wear a large. Medium will be great.


text:
The Macy's in downtown St. Louis is shutting its doors. The company announced this morning that the outlet, which opened in 1924 in the Railway Exchange building, will be closing with a final clearance starting in the beginning of June and continuing for about ten weeks. The 189,000-square-foot sp ... More >>
Critics of Peabody Energy have become quite good at making a scene at their protests of the corporation headquartered in St. Louis. And that might just be why Peabody is going to be holding its annual meeting for shareholders a thousand miles away in Gillette, Wyoming. At least that's the theory of ... More >>
We hear a lot in this country about food recalls, and over the past few years we've heard enough from overseas to become wary of the food supply that makes its way to our shores from China. But how much do we hear about food raised in China that stays in China? And how often does it occur to us tha ... More >>
Meet the new boss, same as the old boss. Or pretty close to the same, anyway. So it goes in Columbia, where Gary Pinkel, following the resignation of Dave Yost as offensive coordinator after a very, very disappointing season for the formerly high-flying Missouri offense, has decided to promote ... More >>
Former Patriot Coal CEO Richard M. Whiting and CFO Mark Schroeder got smacked with a federal class-action lawsuit from investors on Friday for allegedly "overstating the company's financial results."
Berkshire Hathaway, billionaire Warren Buffett's conglomerate, revealed in SEC filings Tuesday that the company has increased its stake in Lee Enterprises to the tune of 3.23 million shares. That just about doubles the amount of Lee stock Berkshire Hathaway owns, which it first acquired when Buffett ... More >>
The SEC: A false idol for the Tigers, or a possible treasure chest?The Associated Press this week obtained a 45-page document that University of Missouri's Board of Curators is using to determine whether to keep the school in the Big 12 or exit for the Southeast Conference. The report indicates t ... More >>
Late yesterday afternoon, Iowa-based Lee Enterprises, parent company of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and other newspapers, announced some potentially pretty good news: The company had gotten an agreement to push back the due date on some $864 million in debt.That deal is dependent on the company refi ... More >>
A reprieve -- or maybe a Chapter 11 reorganization, for Lee Enterprises.Lee Enterprises, the Iowa-based owner of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and other newspapers, including the Arizona Daily Star, announced late this afternoon that it reached an agreement with "a significant majority" of its debt ... More >>
Image viaEverybody's Suing ZicamIt seems like a simple lawsuit: A St. Louis woman has just filed suit against the makers of Zicam, a homeopathic home remedy that you can take orally or shoot up your nose. She claims that the drug caused anosmia, or loss of the sense of smell. (read the full compl ... More >>
File this one under weird math:The Securities and Exchange Commission took action Friday against the former chief financial officer of Bridgeton, Missouri, manufacturer Zoltek Companies, alleging he circumvented internal accounting controls by making two secret payments to a consultant for hedge ... More >>
Aaron Duncan, former CEO and owner of The Duncan Group, has pleaded guilty to yesterday to federal fraud charges involving a $3.9 million investment scheme. According to court documents, Duncan represented that The Duncan Group was involved in real estate investments, including buying, rehabili ... More >>
ugly-halloween-costumes.com Is my table ready? Mayor Slay has signed a bill to allow dogs on restaurant patios in the city. (MayorSlay.com) You knew this was coming: The Chinese government has banned imported meat from seven U.S. companies. (CNN) You knew this was coming, too: The SEC is ... More >>
Some say Pulitzer Inc.'s sale to Lee Enterprises blew in quicker than a shotgun wedding. Others saw it coming a mile away.
Banished from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch a decade ago, Joseph Pulitzer IV lives in self-imposed exile in Wyoming. What went wrong?
Week of August 4, 2004
Dr. William J. Catalona built an unrivaled repository of blood and tissue samples. Washington University wants to keep it. Now a judge will decide: Who owns the prostates?
Week of October 23, 2002
When Emerson pulls out of this small southern town, it'll leave bitterness and broken promises behind. That's what happens when a marriage ends badly.
When it comes to ripping people off, John Tiller and the Civil Rights Legal Defense Team just keep going and going
Doe Run's owner has done this before -- and that has regulators braced for trouble
Laclede Gas and state regulators knew about corroding underground service lines for years � and did little to fix the problem. Tom and Mary Hessel are among St. Louisans who�ve been burned as a result.
Trying to collect a half-million-dollar debt from Floyd Warmann, the hunter becomes the hunted
St. Louis has a long and tortured history with the Admiral, home of the President Casino, but the city is about to gamble another $3 million to keep it afloat. It's a risky bet.
Published the week of April 26
The St. Louis Cardinals want your money for their $370 million ballpark. But before the game begins, somebody needs to reshuffle the deck.
Published the week of March 29
Why TWA keeps losing money and how Carl Icahn keeps cashing in at the airline's expense
Written and directed by Ben Younger
Developers of a Lemay casino have political muscle on their side. But the School Sisters of Notre Dame are betting on a higher power.
Developers like the Sansone Group are using a state law to rake in millions of tax dollars for retail projects in the burbs. Trouble is, the legislation was designed to help blighted inner cities.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Conservation Biology
Colleges › College Majors › Conservation Biology
A program that focuses on the application of the biological sciences to the specific problems of biodiversity, species preservation, ecological sustainability, and habitat fragmentation in the face of advancing human social, economic, and industrial pressures. Includes instruction in ecology, environmental science, biological systems, extinction theory, human-animal and human-plant interaction, ecosystem science and management, wetland conservation, field biology, forest and wildlife biology, and natural history.
Conservation Biology Colleges - 31 Schools
Arizona State University IN Tempe, AZ
Boston University IN Boston, MA
Brigham Young University-Provo IN Provo, UT
Canisius College IN Buffalo, NY
Cedar Crest College IN Allentown, PA
Central Lakes College-Brainerd IN Brainerd, MN
Central Michigan University IN Mount Pleasant, MI
Columbia University in the City of New York IN New York, NY
Florida Institute of Technology IN Melbourne, FL
Frostburg State University IN Frostburg, MD
Lake Superior State University IN Sault Ste Marie, MI
Philadelphia University IN Philadelphia, PA
Prescott College IN Prescott, AZ
Saint Anselm College IN Manchester, NH
Smith College IN Northampton, MA


text:
Jeanies View, Tonevane, Blennerville, Tralee, Co. Kerry
€290,000Detached House|4 Beds|5 Baths|Finance with EBS
- Overview
- Other properties in this area
Insure this property
Getting Home Insurance is very easy.
Visit aib.ie today
Finance this property
Visit ebs.ie today to calculate your monthly repayments.More information
Property Overview:
- For Sale by Private Treaty
Show on Map
Property Description:Attractive, 4 bedroomed detached dormer style dwelling on circa 1/2 acre plot just off the main Tralee to Dingle road adjacent to Blennerville Village, 3km west of Tralee Town. The dwelling was newly constructed in 1999 is well maintained and is complete with floor coverings, curtains & fittings.
- Tarmacadam driveway
- Shed to rear 12'x 24'
- White PVC fascia & Soffit
- TIled Roof
- Woodgrain PVC windows to front, White PVC to rear
Energy Performance Indicator: 173.82 kWh/m2/yrWhat's this?BER No. 101519247
BER Details
What is BER?
A Building Energy Rating (BER) indicates the energy performance of a property. Using a scale of A to G, higher rated homes will have lower energy bills.Learn more
Daft Property Shortcode:http://www.daft.ie/1741474
Date Entered/Renewed:17/9/2014 (45 days ago)
Property Views:3,951
Loading Properties
Map Legend:Street level match (ie the property could be anywhere along the street)
Address:Jeanies View, Tonevane, Blennerville
Nearby Areas:Killmey, Craiques, Farmer's Bridge, Newtown, Spa
Street view
Useful Information
Stamp Duty: This residential property is in the €1 - €1,000,000 price bracket, therefore the following stamp duty applies:
|Stamp Duty:
|All Purchasers:
For a full explanation see our Stamp duty page.
Property price history
€290,000Sep 11, 2014
€290,000 First Listed Dec 04, 2013
Residential Property Price Register - Sold in this area
Rea, Kilflynn, Tralee, Co. Kerry €175,000 | 30/09/14 | Second-Hand Dwelling House/Apartment
Caherslee, Tralee, Co. Kerry €133,000 | 26/09/14 | Second-Hand Dwelling House/Apartment
Alanna, Oakpark, Tralee, Co. Kerry €85,000 | 18/09/14 | Second-Hand Dwelling House/Apartment
13 Racecourse Lawn, Tralee, Co. Kerry €150,000 | 15/09/14 | Second-Hand Dwelling House/Apartment
34 Moyderwell, Tralee, Co. Kerry €51,000 | 12/09/14 | Detached House | 2 Bedrooms | 1 Bathroom


text:
Blood Monkey
uugh, movie is still playing as I type this, mainly because I'm waiting on some stuff to dry and reorganizing my desk a little. For the must part it kind of blows.
Apparently this is a mix of king kong and predator, and no, there are no redeeming qualities within this piece of visual representation of acid fart.
What I heard: a whole lot of nonsensical zoologist bullcrap and really bad acting, worse than my writing and more shame inducing than my punctuation, when some sort of zoologist sends hordes of experienced hunters and scientists to trap this unknown type of ape, just to get mauled by the noble beast who otherwise would just be minding it's own business. More dumb teenagers and field experts were sent just to be kidnapped and forced into the crazy zoologist expedition. Shit this is not even entertainingly bad, poke it with a cattle rod if appears near you. I'm turning this off.


text:
Wagers against SodaStream International Ltd. (SODA:US), the Israeli maker of home soda machines, are climbing from a two-year low amid concern sales will miss the company's growth forecast for 2013.
Short interest (SODA:US) on SodaStream was 16.5 percent of shares outstanding on Oct. 30, up from 11.7 percent in June, according to data compiled by Bloomberg and Markit, a London-based research firm. That compares with a 2.7 percent average for companies in the Nasdaq Composite Index. About 89 percent of SodaStream shares available for lending have been borrowed by investors, the first step in a short sale, the data showed.
The carbonated drink maker will need sales growth to outpace analysts' estimates in order to match the company's forecast (SODA:US) of a 30 percent annual increase. The fourth quarter has accounted for 32 percent of annual revenue since 2009 and the second half of the year made up 57 percent. Sales will increase to $565.3 million in 2013, trailing the company's $567.2 million forecast, according to the mean estimate of nine analysts compiled by Bloomberg.
"You would have to expect some slowdown because the retail distribution is becoming more mature in the U.S.," Michael Kass, a New York-based manager of emerging-market and international stocks at Baron Capital Inc., which oversees $20 billion in assets, said by phone. "It's reasonable in the short term that it takes a breather," Kass said of the stock price.
Revenue Misses
While revenue for the three-month period ending Sept. 30 rose 29 percent to $144.6 million, it trailed the $145.2 million mean estimate of nine analysts compiled by Bloomberg. The company's sales had beaten forecasts by 9.8 percent on average over the previous 11 quarters, compared with the 1.4 percent mean of similar beverage companies. The stock fell 11 percent on Oct. 30, the biggest drop in 20 months.
The company said last week that 2013 sales will increase about 30 percent to $567.2 million, reiterating a prior forecast (SODA:US). It was the first time this year that SodaStream hasn't raised its forecast.
"In-line sales generally don't do it for growth stocks" Philip Terpolilli, an analyst at Longbow Research LLC in Independence, Ohio, said by e-mail on Oct. 30. "Shareholders will no doubt be focused on fourth-quarter results and their performance year over year."
Bearish Wagers
Forty seven percent of SodaStream's float, a measure of its tradable shares, have been sold short in bearish bets as of Oct. 15, the second-most among U.S.-traded household durable companies, according to data compiled by Bloomberg. That was more than the 44 percent sold short as of Sept. 30 and 36 percent as of July 31.
"The amount of shares that can be borrowed from lending programs has stayed high," Alex Brog, a director at Markit in London, said on Nov. 1. "This implies that the long holders have been selling, which has put pressure on short sellers to cover their positions. The recent fall in the absolute level of short interest does not imply an increase in positive sentiment."
A short sale is one in which stock is borrowed and then sold, with the expectation of profit by repurchasing the shares at a lower price to be returned to the lender. SodaStream's short-float percentage compares with the 30 percent of Keurig-maker Green Mountain Coffee Roasters Inc. (GMCR:US) and the 1.2 of Starbucks Corp. (SBUX:US)
Competition Looms
SodaStream so far faces competition from smaller brands, including the Primo Flavorstation made by Winston-Salem, North Carolina-based Primo Water Corp. (PRMW:US), with a market value of $58.1 million.
It benefits from the so-called razor-blade model of retailing, where profit relies on customers repeatedly buying complementary products such as gas tanks, flavor pouches and coffee pods.
"People don't understand the business," David Kaplan, an analyst at Barclays Plc in Tel Aviv who recommends buying the shares, said by phone on Oct. 23. "They are creating a new category of beverage in the United States. They are selling a product whose trends are different from the trends of the traditional soft-drink companies."
Recent developments could see bigger players enter the market which could further crimp SodaStream's sales.
Fizzio Filing
Starbucks filed on Sept. 18 an application to register the term Fizzio for a machine that makes beverages, including soft drinks, data from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office show. The Seattle-based company said in the filing that the Fizzio could be used for other purposes including its restaurants, which might not directly compete with SodaStream initially. Starbucks could grow its soda business into a billion-dollar business, according to Wedbush Securities LLC.
"I look at Starbucks not necessarily as a coffee company but as a global consumer-products company," Nick Setyan, an analyst at Wedbush in Los Angeles, said by phone on Oct. 22. "Whether it's ice cream to soda drinks to iced coffee to the evolution of juices, they can take any product, whether they buy it for $50 million or they create it themselves, and turn it into a billion-dollar distribution. They can do it with any product and, frankly, soda is right up their alley."
Green Mountain
Green Mountain's Keurig unit also filed an application to register a mark for "Karbon," a product it said would be used with "machines for the production of cold water, soda, still, carbonated and sparkling beverages."
"I don't see this as an immediate infringement on SodaStream but could it be down the road? That's a definite possibility," Will Slabaugh, an analyst at Stephens Inc., said by phone from Little Rock, Arkansas, on Oct. 22. "Starbucks' first choice here is to capitalize on their positioning as far as being a premier food-and-beverage company, so selling that product in stores is their first priority."
The decline in third-quarter gross margin "was primarily attributable to higher percentage of subcontracted manufacturing and the strengthening of the shekel," the company said in a statement on Oct. 30.
The shekel has gained 5.6 percent in 2013 against the dollar, the most among 31 major currencies tracked by Bloomberg, eroding exporters' profits. Check Point Software Technologies Ltd., the Israeli maker of network-security gear, said that the shekel's 3.2 percent appreciation against the dollar in the third quarter hurt results by approximately $3 million, or 1.8 percent of profit.
"It's easy for the optimists to make long-term assumptions based on the current trajectory and say, 'Here is the potential in five years,'" said Baron's Kass. "When in the short term the momentum of those data points is slowing, it's easy for the pessimists to say, 'See, it's reversing' and the penetration and behavior story is over."
To contact the reporter on this story: Matthew Kanterman in New York at firstname.lastname@example.com
To contact the editor responsible for this story: Tal Barak Harif at firstname.lastname@example.com


text:
Can You benefit from 5 Life Lessons?
Merry Christmas, Happy Holidays and Hello,
December 25th is the day that my family celebrates Christmas. This year it started out as a very hard day for me, got positive, flowed back down hill and ultimately turned out just the way it should have. The universe (or God, if you prefer), has a way of doing that. Perhaps Christmas or another day was a tough day for you too. However, there are lessons in everything that happens in life – should we chose to look for them.
Many people have this image of what Christmas is supposed to look like. We get these images from TV, movies, stories,, magazines – the list goes on and on. I refer to them as "Hallmark" events, since the greeting card industry does such a beautiful job of putting these images into beautiful cards. But are these images reality for you? The same images are offered for other traditional holidays and events, like Thanksgiving, Birthdays, Graduations, Anniversaries and more. When the "image" we have does not turn into the reality that we live in – it can be not only hard but down right depressing and emotional.
I am normally a very up beat and positive person. I LOVE my life, and I always try to find the good in everyone and everything. For the past few months, there has been a lot of stress in my world – mostly related to sources outside my sphere of influence. I consciously know that there is nothing I can do, but the feeling of overwhelm can be immense. I can be happy one moment and in tears the next. (Please don't worry about me, I have strong support and know that this is a temporary thing).
Christmas was one of those rollercoaster days for me. Our family is not only divided, but blended, AND extended and yet we all love one another even with the flaws of reality. We have never had what many would call a "Hallmark" Christmas. Since my boys were very little, there has always been juggling to ensure that each set of parents and grandparents could spend time with them, and although it was never easy, we always made it work out for everyone concerned.
The longest standing tradition, has been that everyone capable comes together for breakfast at our home on Christmas morning. We open our stockings, share a great breakfast and then back to the tree where we open our gifts, one at a time. We don't spend a lot of money on gifts, but we always have a nice time. Each family member is then free to leave without any guilt or expectation from our side. Those that want to stay for the day can do so, those that want to visit elsewhere, or simply go back to their own home, go without pressure from me. We enjoy our times in the morning, and never feel disappointed in one another's plans.
This year was going to be different and I knew in advance this longstanding tradition was going to be broken. When I went to bed on Christmas eve - I mentally prepared myself to wake up in a positive state and was determined to stay up beat. I wanted the day to be the best it could be. In the morning, when I awoke, it was perfect. It was a great weather day for those travelling on the roads. My husband already had the coffee brewing and when I came downstairs the fireplace was lit, the tree lights were plugged in, the house looked beautiful and then……things started to go wrong.
A phone call was made to make sure one of our family members was on his way. He informed my husband he would not be coming – he was mad at someone else that would be there. I discretely called him back and explained that this was not the time or place to allow frustration to impact the rest of the gathering. I gave him the option to attend or not, but did put pressure on him to think of other people. (he did choose to attend and arrived a short time later) Shortly after the phone call, a different family member noted that I was not myself, and asked why. Normally I would have just brushed off the concern, but my sense of overwhelm kicked in and I broke into tears and explained the situation. My tears impacted him and more feelings were hurt.
Christmas? where was the "Hallmark" moment of people laughing and gathering round. The situation got way too emotional, way too quickly. Feelings were hurt, a few people prepared to leave, others stood back in disbelief and others pretended they didn't know what was going on. I felt like everything was getting out of control and out of context.
I took a short few minutes to calm myself down, and then I applied and re-considered the following Life Lessons;
Life Lesson # 1 "when emotions are up, intelligence is down." I forced myself to stop being emotional and then calmly approached each person who was involved. I spoke to them from my heart, I asked them to choose to stay and acknowledged that Christmas day did not have to look like any other Christmas's past or like on TV. When we chose to run away when things get uncomfortable, things just get more awkward over time. I asked them to stay and to trust that the day would work out fine.
Each person choose to stay. It was a bit awkward at first, but as we sat down to open stockings and later sat down to breakfast, things settled in nicely. I don't want to say that everything turns out rosy… just better, by being willing to communicate, and not to let emotions make our decisions for us.
Life Lesson # 2 "we cannot change what we do not acknowledge". If we are having a hard time with something, the best we can do is acknowledge and communicate, both within our selves, and when appropriate, to the other people involved. Acknowledge the situation, decide if you are willing to take steps forward to make it better and then take a small step in the right direction. Give yourselve permission to "As is it" , meaning acknowledge the way it is, and move forward.
Life Lesson # 3 – "a small step forward in the right direction, is far better than a held position of righteousness or hopelessness". At least you have forward momentum in the right direction. A small step of action lends itself to a better view. Will the picture or viewpoint be perfect. No, but it will become less blurry and become clearer as you move forward.
Life Lesson # 4 – "Being willing to look from a different perspective – gives you a better view". Put yourself in someone elses shoes. Decide how you want to live on your side of the event. With head held high and hope on the horizon or with hurt in your heart and anger or resentment building.
Life Lesson # 5 – "Taking responsibility to initiate communication, gives you the power to take control of how you think and feel"
I wrote this blog in bits and pieces on Christmas day, and part way through the process, I got a phone call that touched my heart. I did not expect to hear from these family members, but they took the initiative to phone me. "A". "J" and "J" & "M" Thank you, I love you with all my heart.
Later, as I was reviewing the blog, just prior to publishing it, I got another phone call – this one from one of the family members that was here for breakfast and the chaos. This time our conversation was not at all emotional with tears, but with love. Thank you "C".
Big hugs to all of you.
I've got a few other people in my life that I have chosen to reconnect with - and if it turns out the way I hope, beautiful. If not, at least I know that I tried, and that I have the power to keep trying as often as I feel able. Family and friends are important – and although we cannot always pick our family, we can pick how we choose to stay in touch and how often. We can also pick how we feel when rejection happens or when bridges get built.
We are in control of how we feel. No one can "make" us feel any particular way, we "chose" how we feel. Start to mindshift from the negative into the positive, or at least from the "poor me" into the "potential of me", it feels great to be in control!
2011 is fast approaching, and with a new year brings new hope, and a fresh start in the minds of many. I chose NOT to wait for a particular date to move forward, and I respectfully suggest that neither should you. I hope you will take at least one of the 5 life lessons I have shared above, put it into play as soon as you can, and see the positive changes that you can apply to your life or circumstance.
Finally, somewhere along the way I learned this saying;
Yesterday is History
the Future is a Mystery
Today is the Present …. A GIFT
Take today for the Gift that it is, warm thoughts to each of you who reads this! Norma
If you enjoyed this page, and would like to buy me a coffee, I appreciate it! and I REALLY would love you to send me your thoughts!
One Response to "Can You benefit from 5 Life Lessons?"
From: David
Subject: Thanks… Your lessons hit the spot!
Message Body:
I was typing a response (small essay!) and lost it all into cyberspace… and don't know where it went… this one is short and to the point:
Thank you for sharing your story. I read it and identified with the five lessons and this confirmed what I needed to do/learn to move forward. Your message was META for me!


text:
Sprinkle Pink Events
Join us in October at the Sprinkle Pink events below! Sprinkle Pink events and activities
heighten the awareness of breast and other cancers, offer educational opportunities and raise
money, while having fun! Click Here for more Sprinkle Pink Event and Details!
Window Contest 2014
Click Here to participate in the 2014 Window Contest.
Donate to your favorite Mammo Man
Click here to donate today!
Donate to the Aid for Mammography Fund
Click here to donate to the Aid for Mammography Fund
Traveling Raffle 2014
Tickets will be on sale October 1st - 15th, Cost is $1 each or $5 for six.
Sprinkle Pink Grand Finale
Blacksmith Brewery in Stevensville - Friday, October 24, 2014 from 5:30pm to 8:00pm
Sprinkle Pink Turn & Burn - Barrel Race
Sapphire Event Center, Corvallis - Saturday, October 25, 2014 at 9am
Events Calendar
Please join us in attending the many health education classes and events available
at your local hospital.
Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS) - September 19th
Hospice Volunteer Training - September 23th & 30th and October 7th & 14th
Childbirth Classes - October 6th, 13th, 20th, and 27th
Arthritis Foundation Walk with Ease - October 14th through December 11th (Tuesdays and Thursdays)
Arthritis Foundation Exercise Programs - October 13 through December 10th (Mondays and Wednesdays)
Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) - October 22nd
Blood Drive - October 23rd
Heartsaver First Aid with CPR and AED - October 28th and 29th
Marcus Daly's is focused on meeting our patients and community needs. Enjoy reading
about the many different ways your hospital makes a difference in your community.
Blood Drive July 17th at Marcus Daly Memorial Hospital
Cancer Survivors Dinner to be held at Marcus Daly Memorial Hospital
Congestive Heart Failure - Part 2
May 2014 Classes at Marcus Daly Memorial Hospital
Speakers share insight at inaugural event
LTE Tulip sale thanks
Legal notice regarding Medicare does not affect hospital operations
Three hospice volunteers recognized for dedication
Awards rain down on Marcus Daly Hospital
Improved Image Quality
Weather helps speed along ICU
Community Health Needs Assessment Report
2013 Community Health Needs Assessment Report
HealthLines Newsletter
Learn about hospital services, awards, staff and more!
Winter 2014
Marcus Daly's Medical Staff is committed to you and your health. Enjoy the health education
columns that are printed in the Ravalli Republic every Wednesday and available to you online.
Social Communication
Improving movement during the aging process: focus on Parkinson's Disease
Exercise can help your joint pain and arthritis
Joint Pain
Hand and Upper Extremity Conditions
Facial Cosmetic Surgery
| (406) 363-2211
1200 Westwood Drive, Hamilton, Montana, 59840


text:
Saxon Math Teacher Resources
Find Saxon Math educational ideas and activities
Showing 1 - 20 of 108 resources
MULTIPLYING NUMBERS - TEACHER'S GUIDE (4th, Saxon Math)
In this teacher's guide, 4th graders are taught to multiply numbers on a calculator. Guided practice is offered. Finally, students do independent practice. The worksheet corresponds to Grade 4 Saxon Math, pages 13-17.
4th Math 17 Views 30 Downloads
Saxon Math K Extension and Enrichment Student Problems
In this math activity, students solve ten story problems. These problems are aligned with the Saxon Math K program and are designed to be used one at a time. Problems use numbers small enough for kindergarten students to solve with manipulatives or drawings.
K Math 27 Views 66 Downloads
MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING FRACTIONS, TEACHER'S GUIDE (7, SAXON MATH, Pp. 25-28)
In this teacher's guide to the multiplying and dividing fractions worksheet, students learn that fractions are converted to decimals on a calculator. Students have guided practice multiplying a fraction by a whole number; multiplying a fraction by a fraction; and dividing fractions and mixed numbers, all on a calculator.
6th - 7th Math 44 Views 106 Downloads
Graphing Calculator Activity - Probability Simulation
Young scholars determine the probability of given events. They use their graphing calculator to generate data. This four-page worksheet contains detailed graphing calculator instructions and three multi-step problems. A terrific exercise in simulating probabilities.
7th - 9th Math 7 Views 80 Downloads CCSS: Adaptable
DIVIDING NUMBERS: TEACHER'S GUIDE (5 - Saxon Math, pp. 18-20)
Use a Saxon math teachers' guide for division to help 5th graders perform basic division on a calculator by entering the dividend, the division key, the divisor number and finally the equal key. Guided practice is provided. Finally, they will work independently to complete an 8-problem practice worksheet.
5th Math 3 Views 10 Downloads
Plotting Functions
Youngsters use a graphing calculator to assist in creating a function table. They graph the function on a coordinate plane. They explore the relationship between the domain and range in the graph. This four-page worksheet contains two multi-step problems.
8th - 9th Math 33 Views 327 Downloads CCSS: Adaptable
Number Line: Negative Numbers
In this graphing calculator worksheet for the TI-83 calculator, students first observe a demonstration for calculating negative numbers. Next, students use their graphing calculator to answer 6 thoughtful T/F and short answer questions. For use with Saxon Math L.
6th - 8th Math 3 Views 0 Downloads
Supplementary Exercises: Fractions & Polygons
Middle schoolers arrange fractions in descending order. They read short story problems and determine ratios, percents and decimals. Pupils determine fractional parts and add fractions. This four-page worksheet contains 13 problems.
6th - 8th Math 6 Views 27 Downloads
Graphing Calculator Activity: Transformations
In this transformation worksheet, students use a graphing calculator to answer questions involving translation an image from one coordinate plane to another. They identify the transformation and coordinates of the figure. Six practice problems are provided after guided practice examples are given.
7th - 8th Math 4 Views 11 Downloads
Graphing Calculator Activity: Graphing Functions
In this graphing calculator activity, students explore how to generate a table for a specified function and then create a graph of the function. Seven short answer and one multiple choice question is provided for individual practice.
8th - 10th Math 11 Views 16 Downloads
Adding and Subtracting Money- Teacher's Guide, Guided Practice, and Worksheets
In this adding and subtracting money worksheet packet, 4th graders participate in guided practice before completing a 6 question practice worksheet. They determine the value of addition and subtraction problems with money. They identify paper money and coin amounts in order to perform the operations, and solve short word problems.
4th Math 27 Views 46 Downloads
Graphing Calculator Activity: Non-Linear Functions
In this graphing calculator activity, students observe the steps in using a graphing calculator to figure the coordinates in a non-linear function. Individually, they evaluate given a specified function, create a table, sketch a graph of the function, and interpret the graph.
8th - 9th Math 3 Views 6 Downloads


text:
Overall Control Plan for Managing Flying Insects
When evaluating flying insect management strategies, each building is different and as such will have different needs and problems which must be addressed through an integrated program to achieve satisfactory flying insect control. To accomplish adequate fly control it is helpful to divide the environment into three basic zones, keeping in mind during each aspect of the evaluation, what can be done in each zone to reduce the overall fly activity in each of the critical areas. The first area of concern is the exterior environment. The second zone is the structural barrier between the exterior and the interior; that is the walls, entry doors, overhead doors, and conveyor entries that separate the exterior from the interior working area. The third zone is the basic interior working areas.The second priority is to set up and maintain the structure in such a way as to prevent as much fly entry as possible. Finally the third step is to pick up flies on the interior with insect light traps and other control methods before they reach more sensitive storage or manufacturing areas where food or other product contamination may occur.
The place to start when making such an evaluation is on the exterior because no matter what steps are taken, there will always be flies on the outside of the building(s). The exterior zone is inspected first because the more that is done to reduce the number of flies on the outside, the fewer the number of flies that will be able to gain entry.
Not all aspects of the plant environment that might affect the level of fly activity can be controlled by our efforts. Examples include exterior temperature, humidity, or odors issuing from the plant. It is important therefore to identify these attributes of the plant environment and take steps to control fly activity on the exterior applying control approaches that effectively compete with these factors.
Download Battle Of Giants – Mutant Insects Nintendo Ds Game For Free
They are the only Nintendo approved download site.I downloaded all my favorites call of duty – World at War, Brain Age 2, Battle of Giants – Mutant Insects Nintendo DS Game, Sims and Sims 3 immediately from this reliable site. They are the best, when it comes to free dsi game downloads.They keep updating their database everyday then and there, and their database is ever growing. So if youwanna try all new dsi games, then dsi download center is the best place for you. For just $39 you can download unlimited dsi games…and that is quite awesomeTry all your favorite full version Nintendo Ds Emulator Game Roms. Stop swiping your credit card to get Nintendo dsi points and try dsi download center. Enjoy your Dsi to the full potential today.


text:
- freely available
- re-usable
Animals 2014, 4(2), 331-347; doi:10.3390/ani4020331
Published: 16 June 2014
Simple Summary
The effects of stress on health outcomes in animals are well documented. Veterinary clinicians may be able to improve their patients' care by better understanding how to recognize and reduce stress in those patients. This review will describe the physiology of the mammalian stress response and known health consequences of psychogenic, rather than physical, stress; as well as methods of measuring stress in animals. While the review will address stress in a range of domestic species, it will specifically focus on dogs.
Evidence to support the existence of health consequences of psychogenic stress has been documented across a range of domestic species. A general understanding of methods of recognition and means of mitigation of psychogenic stress in hospitalized animals is arguably an important feature of the continuing efforts of clinicians to improve the well-being and health of dogs and other veterinary patients. The intent of this review is to describe, in a variety of species: the physiology of the stress syndrome, with particular attention to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; causes and characteristics of psychogenic stress; mechanisms and sequelae of stress-induced immune dysfunction; and other adverse effects of stress on health outcomes. Following that, we describe general aspects of the measurement of stress and the role of physiological measures and behavioral signals that may predict stress in hospitalized animals, specifically focusing on dogs.
1. Introduction
In recent decades, the effects of stress on human health, and methods to reduce its prevalence, have received a great deal of attention. It is a long recognized phenomenon that husbandry and transport stress can dramatically affect animal health in livestock, and stress is beginning to be recognized as a factor in naturally occurring disease in humans [1,2]. The clinical relevance of stress in small animal veterinary patients has not been examined, but it seems likely that the impact of stress on clinical outcomes, such as survival rates or the speed of recovery from surgery, is under-appreciated. The implications that stress has for human health care outcomes and health in livestock serve as a foundation from which to extrapolate an analogous concern for our small animal veterinary patients. Reducing stress in companion animals under veterinary care is clearly important for their mental well-being, and is even more important if pharmacologic or non-pharmacologic interventions can also prevent disease or improve healthcare outcomes.
The experience of hospitalization may be expected to include several factors which are known to induce stress in veterinary species such as the dog, including separation from the primary caretaker [3], environment [4], novel stimuli [5], increased noise levels [6], and a constrained environment [7,8]. An investigation of behavior and heart rate of pre-operative hospitalized dogs suggests that these animals experience stress [9], yet there is little detail regarding the effects of such stress on health outcomes for dogs. This is likely in part due to a lack of understanding of stress by veterinary clinicians, as well as a lack of tools for accurate identification and quantification of stress in dogs. Investigation of the causes and effects of stress on the hospitalized small animal patient requires an understanding of both its physiology and pathophysiology, and of available methods of quantification in that particular species. The purpose of this review is to describe the physiology of the stress syndrome, characteristics of stressors, stress-induced immune dysfunction, and other adverse effects of stress on health using a cross-species approach. Following that, general aspects of the measurement of stress and the role of behavioral signals that may predict it are described, specifically focusing on dogs.
2. Physiology of the Stress Syndrome
The stress response is a normal part of daily life, and is only harmful when triggered too intensely or for too long [10,11]. Peripheral expression of the stress response is modulated via two systems, the sympatho-adreno-medullary (SAM) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.
The SAM axis mediates the well-known "fight or flight" response, an initial, rapid response to an immediate stressor. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system and subsequent release of catecholamines (epinephrine and norephinephrine) from sympathetic nerve terminals and the adrenal medulla results in a state of physiologic readiness for response. Manifestations of SAM axis activation include mydriasis, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, cutaneous vasoconstriction, an alert state, and increased plasma glucose and free fatty acid concentrations [12].
A slower response to a stressor, with effects in minutes to hours or days, is mediated by activation of the HPA axis leading to the release of glucocorticoids (GCs) from the adrenal cortex. This endocrine portion of the mammalian stress response originates in the hypothalamus, with release of corticotropin releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin. These hormones in turn stimulate the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the pituitary gland, resulting in the production and release of GCs from the adrenal glands. Peripherally circulating GCs, cortisol and corticosterone, provide negative feedback to this system [12]. Glucocorticoids influence a large number of metabolic processes, including protein, glucose, and fatty acid metabolism, and immune function [13], and can induce a catabolic state [14], while corticotropin releasing hormone suppreses gastro-intestinal motility [15,16] and arginine vasopressin regulates the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), cAMP generation, and fluid balance [17]. Acting jointly, these hormones can also influence growth, thyroid function, and reproduction [18].
3. Classification and Causes of Stress
Stress can be classified in a variety of ways, and different classifications of stress may have different consequences for health outcomes. Stress can be acute or chronic. In the laboratory setting, acute stress is sometimes defined as having a duration of less than one hour [19]. Chronic stressors in the laboratory often persist for 4–5 days, though chronic psychosocial stress in humans can last years [20]. These definitions differ from clinical perceptions of acute versus chronic disease, in which a disease lasting as long as several weeks may still be considered acute [21,22].
The term "stress" covers several different concepts: physiologic stress, non-physiologic or psychogenic stress, and distress [10]. Physiologic stress describes exposure to positive or negative physical, systemic, or environmental challenges that perturb the body's homeostasis. In a veterinary setting, negative physiologic stress may be induced by systemic illness, trauma, and surgery. Similarly, psychogenic stress describes exposure to psychological or social challenges which result in disruption of psychological well-being. Negative psychogenic stress in a domesticated animal may be induced by separation from a caretaker, being subjected to invasive procedures in the absence of familiar caretakers, or exposure to a novel environment [23]. Positive psychogenic stress has been less widely studied, but may be understood to refer to situations such as reunion with a caretaker or engagement in a highly anticipated game such as fetch. Negative psychogenic stressors may account for some degree of avoidable morbidity in medical care, if measures to reduce stressors exist. Both physiologic and psychogenic stress are a normal part of life, and the healthy body and mind can adapt to maintain normal function [11]. Stress becomes distress when the body cannot restore homeostasis in the face of overwhelming physiologic stress, or when overwhelming psychogenic stress threatens mental well-being [10]. When marked, stress is associated with numerous pathophysiological sequellae, ranging from poor mental to poor physical well-being. This review is concerned with negative psychogenic stress, especially as it proceeds to distress. Following the stress literature, the term "stress" will be used to refer to "distress."
Psychogenic stressors may be classified as social/non-social [24] or controllable/uncontrollable [25]. A social stressor involves aversive interactions with a hostile conspecific, such as aggressive dogs in facing cages, or separation from the attachment figure, as opposed to a nonsocial stressor, such as exposure to aversive environmental conditions, such as elevated noise levels. An uncontrollable stressor is not escapable by the animal, such as inescapable electric shock or restraint for medical procedures, as opposed to a controllable stressor, such as social stress mitigated by retreat to the rear of the cage. All of these types of stressors might be present in a veterinary medical setting; hostile conspecifics might present a social stressor, and restraint for a medical procedure might present an uncontrollable stressor. Practically, social stressors due to a lack of accommodation to canine body language and needs by their human caregiver are also uncontrollable, and are arguably widely encountered in veterinary care.
Different stressors are known to cause varying levels of activation of metabolic and endocrine responses in laboratory animals [26,27], and may also have varying consequences in hospitalized animals. For example, social stressors such as defeat in conflict with a conspecific activate the sympathetic nervous system more strongly than non-social stressors (restraint and shock) in rats [24]. Uncontrollable stressors, e.g., stressors from which the animal cannot escape and which cannot be mitigated, appear to activate the stress response more strongly across species than controllable stressors. This has been shown with escapable versus inescapable electric shocks in dogs [25]. Enhanced skill in assessment of and response to body language cues, as well as addressing a hospitalized animal's environmental needs, may produce an overall reduction in psychogenic stress.
4. The Effects of Stress on Health Outcomes
There is ample evidence from laboratory, clinical, and epidemiological trials demonstrating that acute and chronic psychogenic stress can result in negative consequences on both human and non-human animals, contributing to increased patient morbidity or mortality [28]. These health implications include, but are not limited to, susceptibility to infection and sepsis, impaired antibody responses to vaccination, slowed wound healing, and development of gastric ulceration [28,29,30]. Chronic stress from anxiety disorders is associated with shortened lifespan in dogs [31]. Outcomes of particular relevance to hospitalized animals will be discussed under the subheadings below.
4.1. Interactions between the Stress Response and the Immune System
There is a complex interplay between the stress response and the immune system, which varies based on the duration (acute or chronic), timing (before or after immune challenge), and type (social or non-social, controllable or uncontrollable) of the stressor. The balance between the immunoenhancing and immunosuppressive effects of stress is complex, and any stressor may theoretically be immunoenhancing or immunosuppressive in a particular individual, based on the aforementioned variables.
The initial stress response to a psychogenic stressor or an injury is often immunoenhancing and pro-inflammatory [32]. Acute stress enhances T lymphocyte responsiveness and appropriate differentiation into T helper 1 (Th1) or T helper 2 (Th2) lymphocytes [19,33]. Increased endogenous GC production associated with acute stress may result in a "stress leukogram," characterized by a peripheral neutrophilia, lymphopenia, eosinopenia, and monocytosis due to redistribution and increased trafficking of white blood cells [34]. Circulating natural killer cell numbers may also increase, and the levels of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines are altered [35,36]. Taken together, these changes prepare the immune system for an impending challenge, such as microbial invasion.
As time passes and an acute stressor becomes chronic, the effects of the stress response on the immune system may shift from immunoenhancement to immunosuppression. Glucocorticoids can inappropriately suppress the Th1 response and enhance the Th2 response [33]. Chronic stress can also be associated with leukopenia, lymphopenia, and reduced leukocyte phagocytic capacity [37]. These immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties of the chronic stress response may be adaptive to limit systemic inflammation while permitting a controlled, localized inflammatory response to injury or infection, or to shift from the innate immune response to the adaptive immune response when the stressor is of longer duration, allowing enough time for the slower adaptive response to be effective [32,33].
However, when activation of the stress response is exaggerated or prolonged, it may lead to inappropriate immunosuppression [38]. For example, chronic stress induced immunosuppression in humans can lead to increased susceptibility to infection and neoplasia and decreased response to vaccination [28,39]. In mice, chronic restraint and acoustic stress results in decreased ability to eliminate bacterial infection associated with mild peritonitis [38].
The timing of the stressor is also important. The immunoenhancing effects of acute stress are best realized when the stressor is timed to occur just before immune challenge. When a stressor occurs after the onset of an immune response, the stressor is more likely to be suppressive, even in the acute setting [19].
In addition to the duration and timing of the stressor, the type of stressor may also affect the pro-versus anti-inflammatory consequences of that stress. For example, social disruption stress in mice is pro-inflammatory, and presumed to be an adaptive response, since it is often associated with physical conflict resulting in wounds [40].
Hospitalized animals may be exposed to both acute and chronic stressors of a variety of types, including social, nonsocial, uncontrollable, and controllable. The interactions of immunoenhancing acute stressors versus immunosuppressing chronic stressors may be difficult to predict. However, as stressors associated with hospitalization of companion animals often occur after the challenge that initially prompted presentation of the animal to the veterinary hospital, they may be expected to be immunosuppressive, not immunoenhancing. Similarly, as the animal's time in the hospital extends, the stress of hospitalization becomes more likely to act as chronic rather than acute stress, and therefore becomes more likely to suppress rather than enhance the immune response.
4.2. Response to Vaccination
Acute stress, on the order of minutes or hours, is immunoenhancing, so that stress may essentially serve as a natural adjuvant when it occurs at the time of vaccination [19] and has been shown in mice to induce a long-lasting increase in immunity [41] through enhancement of both the adaptive and innate arms of the immune system [42]. Timing is essential, however, because psychogenic stressors occurring after vaccination have been associated with a poorer antibody response [43], and a stressor which becomes chronic may suppress rather than enhance immune activity [19]. These beneficial effects appear to be mediated by endogenous glucocorticoids in physiologic, not pharmacologic, concentrations [19].
4.3. Susceptibility to Sepsis
Stress may influence an animal's susceptibility to sepsis. In sepsis, an exaggerated systemic response to infection occurs, which results in increased mortality and may be more damaging than the original infection [40]. Studies in mice suggest that increased GC concentrations due to psychogenic stress might provide protection against sepsis due to the immunosuppressive effects of GCs, or might increase susceptibility to sepsis due to increased GC resistance, depending on the effects of different stressor types [13,44]. It is not known whether stress might increase or decrease susceptibility to sepsis in hospitalized veterinary patients.
4.4. Wound Healing
In humans, both acute and chronic psychogenic stress can negatively affect wound healing, even when activated for as short a time as several hours or days, as may be the case in hospitalized animals [45]. Chronic psychogenic stressors shown to affect wound healing in humans include examination stress, care taking for dementia patients, and marital stress [46]. Additionally, greater amounts of stress perceived pre-operatively in humans predict slower wound healing [45]. Therefore, psychogenic stress during hospitalization might be expected to affect wound healing in veterinary patients with traumatic wounds and surgical incisions.
4.5. Gastrointestinal System
Stress has been shown in humans and in laboratory animals to induce the development of stomach ulcers, particularly in conjunction with pathogens such as Helicobacter pylori, or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [47]. Chronic stress is also associated with the exacerbation of inflammatory bowel disease in humans [48], and stressful environment and anxious personality traits are associated with chronic idiopathic large-bowel disease in dogs [49]. Dogs undergoing significant physiological stress in the form of the physical exertion of a sled race are at increased risk of developing gastric lesions [50]. In addition to physiological stress, sled dogs are arguably exposed to psychogenic stress in the form of exposure to unfamiliar environments, interactions with unfamiliar conspecifics, and the race itself. Similarly, hospitalized animals are exposed to physiologic stressors, in the form of illness or trauma, in addition to psychogenic stressors. However, effects of hospitalization stress on gastrointestinal function in dogs have not yet been investigated.
4.6. Cardiovascular System
The detrimental effects of psychogenic stress on cardiovascular function in humans and laboratory animals are well recognized. Acute social stress increases T-wave alternans in normal dogs, and has triggered atrial fibrillation in humans [51,52]. Acute psychogenic stress is associated with hypercoagulability and thrombotic tendencies in humans, which is exacerbated in subjects who are also undergoing chronic stress [53,54]. Additionally, chronic psychogenic stress is associated with coronary artery disease and hypertension in humans, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence, morbidity, and mortality [55,56,57]. It is not known at this time how stress affects the cardiovascular systems of hospitalized animals with or without heart disease.
5. Quantification of Stress
Although the effects of stress on health outcomes have been well studied in humans and animal models, little work has been done to evaluate the effects of different stressors on health outcomes in hospitalized animals with naturally occurring disease. It is likely that, as in other species, effects of stress on specific health outcomes in veterinary patients will vary depending on the duration, timing, and type of stressor(s). In order to better understand how stress affects hospitalized veterinary patients, reliable measurement tools are essential. As various markers of stress can be species specific, the following section focuses primarily on the dog.
Quantification of stress is difficult. Both physiological and behavioral measures have been used to quantify psychogenic stress. However, both approaches have drawbacks, and results may be challenging to interpret. Theoretically, psychogenic stress may be objectively evaluated by measuring the circulating concentrations of SAM or HPA axis hormones, or associated physiologic parameters, such as heart rate variability as a representation of autonomic tone. In practice, no single hormone or physiological response is ideal for measuring psychogenic stress, and it has been suggested that multiple parameters should be used simultaneously to improve accuracy [10]. There are no known physiological measurements of stress which can serve as specific markers of distress; measuring stress is made difficult by confounding factors, such as measurements that describe the function of the immune system in addition to characterizing the stress response. Behavioral measures of stress suffer from similar non-specificity, and are in many ways less well understood than physiological measures.
5.1. Physiological Measures of Stress
Physiological measurements of stress include assessment of the HPA axis (usually cortisol measurement), salivary immunoglobulin (Ig)A (sIgA), and the neutrophil:lymphocyte (N:L) ratio. The benefits and limitations of each of these are discussed below. Additionally, Table 1 summarizes some physiological measures of stress in regards to their invasiveness, the time period that they reflect, and daily variation.
|Table 1. Physiological measurements of stress in dogs.
|Time period reflected
|Daily variation
|Plasma cortisol
|3–40 minutes
|Salivary cortisol
|4–40 minutes
|Urinary cortisol
|6–12 hours
|Salivary IgA
|0–30 minutes
|N:L ratio
5.1.1. The HPA Axis
Measurement of HPA axis activity through concentrations of GCs such as cortisol and corticosterone is the most widely used hormonal measurement of psychogenic stress, and is commonly used in humans and dogs [58,59,60]. Cortisol concentrations in the plasma, saliva, or urine have been shown to significantly increase in dogs 15–30 minutes after the onset of a stressor, indicating increased HPA axis activation [61]. Because blood collection is moderately invasive, many animals will display increased cortisol concentrations after immobilization and venipuncture. However, cortisol secretion in response to collection does not affect the values in dogs if venipuncture and collection can be completed in less than 3 minutes, or if saliva collection can be completed in less than 4 minutes [62]. Salivary cortisol concentrations are frequently used in stress studies of dogs because they are strongly correlated with plasma cortisol, are less invasive, and require less training of the handler performing the collection [59,63]. Urine contains both cortisol and its metabolites, and may be collected non-invasively. Urine cortisol:creatinine ratios provide a summary of HPA axis activity over several hours, and are therefore more useful for measurement of chronic stress than of HPA axis response to an acute stressor [64].
The evaluation of HPA axis activation by means of cortisol concentration measurement has multiple limitations. Measurement of cortisol activity reflects physical and/or psychological arousal, and therefore is not a specific measurement of psychogenic stress. The level of psychogenic distress experienced by an individual may be only moderately associated with cortisol concentrations, due to the intricate relationship of HPA axis function and metabolic demands [59,65]. In fact, activation of the HPA axis may indicate positive stress rather than distress, as it is activated in dogs after time in the dog park [66] or in sled dogs anticipating a race [67]. Moreover, due to the degree of variability in cortisol concentrations between individuals, no reliable species reference ranges exist, and basal concentrations must be evaluated with reference to a control group [68]. Daily variability in cortisol concentrations is such that sampling the same animal on multiple days is recommended where possible [62]. Additionally, samples should be obtained at the same time of day to avoid possible diurnal variability [69]. These samples may be affected by daily experience, including sleep patterns, meal content, and recent exercise [69,70,71].
To some extent, study design can mitigate the issue of variability in cortisol concentrations, by pairing similar subjects in statistical analysis, taking multiple samples, taking samples at the same time of day, and by limiting the variety of ages, breeds, and life experience where possible. However, cortisol alone is not a highly reliable measurement of stress. Despite its common use, it has proven to be a problematic tool at best, due to its extreme inter- and intra-individual variability.
5.1.2. Salivary Immunoglobulin (Ig) A
Salivary immunoglobulin(Ig)A (sIgA) is a well-known marker of stress in humans [72]. sIgA concentrations have been shown to negatively correlate with cortisol concentrations in dogs, and have been used to evaluate both acute and chronic stress in dogs [73,74]. Limitations of using sIgA concentrations to assess stress are that they change rapidly, will decline immediately after the presentation of a stressor, have significant diurnal variation, and may fail to distinguish between physiologic and psychogenic stress [73,75]. Because sIgA concentrations significantly correlate with plasma cortisol concentrations, they may be subject to similar variation, though causes of variability of sIgA are not as well described in domesticated animals as are causes of cortisol variability [74].
5.1.3. Neutrophil: Lymphocyte (N:L) Ratio
Because both acute and chronic stress are known to be associated with neutrophilia and lymphopenia, an increased neutrophil:lymphocyte (N:L) ratio has been used as a marker of stress in human and veterinary studies, including studies in dogs [8,76]. Using the N:L ratio has the advantage of a several-hour time delay from the onset of the stressor, so that it may be used to measure baseline stress levels in dogs who have recently arrived at a veterinary hospital.
Limitations of the N:L are similar to those of GC concentrations, in that it cannot distinguish between physiologic and psychogenic stress and is invasive; therefore, this marker may not be appropriate for all studies [76]. This ratio suffers from less variability than cortisol concentrations, but is correspondingly less responsive in the short term to the effects of very acute stressors [76]. Additionally, its use in veterinary studies of stress is much less common and less well understood than the use of cortisol.
5.1.4. Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability
Sympathetic nervous system activation during psychogenic stress results in increased heart rate, which has been used to assess acute stress in dogs [3,77,78,79]. However, heart rate elevation has been found to be a non-specific marker of distress, increasing in cases of positive and negative stress, as well as with increased motor activity [3,77,79]. Heart rate ordinarily varies over time due to the prevailing balance of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system input. During stressful events, heart rate variability (HRV) declines as the heart rate remains mostly elevated, and this parameter can be measured and interpreted. Decreased HRV has been shown to be present in dogs which may be suffering from stress due to hospitalization [9]. Heart rate variability has also been used as a marker of acute stress in humans [80] and lab animals [24], and may prove valuable as a marker of acute stress in dogs. Heart rate variability measurement requires continuous monitoring, typically accomplished via attachment of telemetry equipment [78,79], but more simple and feasible methods developed for human athletes hold promise for studies of stress in dogs [81,82]. Ideally, dogs should be acclimated to wearing telemetry devices, in order to avoid the confounding of the response to the experimental stressor with a reaction to the equipment [77].
5.1.5. Additional Physiologic Measures
ACTH, norepinephrine, and epinephrine [8,83] have been used as biomarkers of stress in dogs, but only rarely. Additional measures of physiologic change have been documented in dogs post-surgically, including decreased prolactin, monocytosis, eosinopenia, and increased C-reactive protein and haptoglobin [23], but these measures have not been used as biomarkers of stress in dogs.
5.1.6. Limitations of Physiologic Measurements of Stress
An understanding of the limitations of measurement of physiologic changes to evaluate psychogenic stress is important when designing stress studies using these measurements. What one individual experiences as a stressor, another may not, and stimuli which evoke a stress response in one individual may not do so in another. A standardized stress stimulation tool in humans, the Trier Social Stress Test, produces a stress response measurable with cortisol in only 70–80% of tested individuals [84]. Similarly, a hospital environment triggering a stress response in one dog may not do so in another individual coming from a comparatively more stimulating or stressful home environment. In other words, though physiologic changes are likely to reflect an animal's distress, prediction of what constitutes a stressor for a specific individual may be difficult if the animal's prior history is unknown. Conclusions from studies using purpose-bred dogs of uniform age, breed, gender, and life experience should be applied to pet dogs, a population which might vary in all of those parameters, only with caution. On the other hand, studies on pet dogs may be confounded by variability in such a large number of parameters that the necessary sample size to reach statistical significance may be much larger than for uniform populations.
5.2. Behavioral Markers of Stress in Dogs
Behavioral measures of stress have been used to inform interpretation of physiological markers of stress such as cortisol concentrations or heart rate, and are non-invasive [4,58,60,64]. However, behavior may be difficult to interpret, and may not be constant for different stressors [85]. In one study of stress in dogs moved to a new kennel environment, behaviors thought to be associated with stress showed no correlation with urinary cortisol concentrations [60]. The interpretation of individual behaviors may be contextual, so that behaviors may be linked to stress in some situations but not others. Oral activity such as lip licking increases after some acute stressors, including pulling the dog's head down by a rope, opening an umbrella, or pressing the dog down to the floor [86]. However, oral activity does not increase after other acute stressors, such as a loud sound or the presentation of a moving toy car [60]. Similarly, paw lifting is increased in dogs subjected to austere housing compared to dogs with more enriched housing, but not in dogs introduced to an animal shelter [60,85]. Therefore, stress behaviors cannot be grouped into categories such as "behaviors in response to acute stress" or "behaviors in response to housing stress," but must be considered for a particular environment.
5.3. The Need for Behavioral Stress Assessment Instruments for Hospitalized Dogs
Hospitalization represents a predictable set of stressors, including separation from the caretaker and exposure to novel surroundings, which may have an impact on the outcome of medical treatment. If behaviors were determined to correlate positively or negatively with cortisol concentrations or other physiologic markers, generation of stress assessment scales or instruments may be possible. Validation of scales is necessary, to guard against errors in the development process, and to ensure reproducibility.
Validated behavioral instruments have been used to assess and study other states in dogs, such as acute pain, postoperative pain, and pain from osteoarthritis [86,87,88]. Pain is a state that, like stress, has no "gold standard" for detection in non-verbal beings, even experimentally, but the emergence of pain scales in veterinary medicine has enhanced the study of interventions and assessments greatly in recent years.
Published studies of stress in dogs commonly involve measurement of salivary cortisol. Due to cortisol's variability and non-specificity as a marker of stress, the addition of a second marker may increase the reliability of behavioral instruments to detect stress [10]. However, the measurement of multiple physiologic variables represents a challenge in the clinical study of patient populations, particularly when such measures may themselves perturb the state of the system being studied in the subject.
In addition to allowing the study of the effects of stress on health care outcomes, behavioral assessment may provide a useful clinical diagnostic measure. Salivary cortisol is not useful for "point of care" detection of stress levels in hospitalized patients, since measurement requires an immunoassay and strict controls. Clinical evaluation of stress levels of patients currently involves interpretation of behavior [23]. Our recent work has contributed to the literature by providing some evidence for correlation of specific behavior combinations associated with salivary cortisol in hospitalized dogs [89]; however, it was necessary to observe the dogs over a period of time (20 minutes), and this was considered too cumbersome for a useful clinical observation period. Behavior is an inexpensive and non-invasive parameter to assess, but due to its high variability and lack of understanding of the specific sources of that variability in different situations, it may be difficult to interpret [85]. Therefore, in order for behavior to be a useful indicator, there is a need for more investigation into correlations between stress markers and behavior in hospitalized dogs.
6. Conclusions
Both because of a growing recognition of its potential to affect health outcomes in humans and animals, and because the experience of psychogenic distress is unpleasant, veterinarians should recognize the importance of identification and reduction of psychogenic distress in their patients. Therefore, there is a need for investigation into methods of measurement of stress in hospitalized animals. If we can produce behavioral assessment instruments, or "stress scales," to enable identification of highly stressed patients, then this may aid in determining the extent to which negative outcomes are associated with increased stress and methods to reduce its impact on the patient. As evidence accumulates in support of the fact that psychogenic stress has important health consequences across a range of species, a general understanding on the part of clinicians, as well as investigation of its recognition and means of mitigation using validated stress assessment tools, are important features of our evolving quest to improve the well-being and health of veterinary patients.
This manuscript represents a portion of a thesis submitted by Jessica Hekman to the Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences as partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Science degree.
This project was supported by the National Center for Research Resources and the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP) of the National Institutes of Health through Grant Number T32 RR018267.
This publication was also supported by Grant Number UL1 RR025752 from the National Center for Research Resources. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NCRR.
Supported in part by the National Institute of Health and the U.S. Army.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References and Notes
- M. Oikawa, S. Hobo, T. Oyamada, and H. Yoshikawa. Effects of orientation, intermittent rest and vehicle cleaning during transport on development of transport-related respiratory disease in horses. J. Comp. Pathol. 2005, 132, 153–168, doi:10.1016/j.jcpa.2004.09.006. 15737342
- J. Salak-Johnson, and J. McGlone. Making sense of apparently conflicting data: Stress and immunity in swine and cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 2007, 85, E81–E88, doi:10.2527/jas.2006-538.
- G. Fallani, E. Prato Previde, and P. Valsecchi. Behavioral and physiological responses of guide dogs to a situation of emotional distress. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 90, 648–655, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.12.001.
- E.F. Hiby, N.J. Rooney, and J.W.S. Bradshaw. Behavioural and physiological responses of dogs entering re-homing kennels. Physiol. Behav. 2006, 89, 385–391, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.07.012.
- T. King, P.H. Hemsworth, and G.J. Coleman. Fear of novel and startling stimuli in domestic dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2003, 82, 45–64, doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(03)00040-6.
- G. Sales, R. Hubrecht, A. Peyvandi, S. Milligan, and B. Shield. Noise in dog kennelling: Is barking a welfare problem for dogs? Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1997, 52, 321–329, doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01132-X.
- R.C. Hubrecht, J.A. Serpell, and T.B. Poole. Correlates of pen size and housing conditions on the behaviour of kennelled dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1992, 34, 365–383, doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(05)80096-6.
- B. Beerda, M.B.H. Schilder, W. Bernadina, J.A.R.A.M. Van Hooff, H.W. De Vries, and J.A. Mol. Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. II. Hormonal and immunological responses. Physiol. Behav. 1999, 66, 243–254, doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(98)00290-X.
- M.A.-M. Väisänen, A.E. Valros, E. Hakaoja, M.R. Raekallio, and O.M. Vainio. Pre-operative stress in dogs—A preliminary investigation of behavior and heart rate variability in healthy hospitalized dogs. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 2005, 32, 158–167, doi:10.1111/j.1467-2995.2005.00188.x.
- P.A. Ward, R.J. Blanchard, V. Bolivar, M.J. Brown, F. Chang, J.P. Herman, and S.L. Zawistowski. Recognition and Alleviation of Distress in Laboratory Animals; Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press, 2008.
- R.M. Sapolsky, L.M. Romero, and A.U. Munck. How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocr. Rev. 2000, 21, 55–89. 10696570
- L.M. Romero, and L.K. Butler. Endocrinology of stress. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2007, 20, 89–95.
- T. Remer, C. Maser-Gluth, and S. Wudy. Glucocorticoid measurements in health and disease—Metabolic implications and the potential of 24-h urine analyses. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2008, 8, 153–170, doi:10.2174/138955708783498096.
- C.J. Wray, J. Mammen, and P.-O. Hasselgren. Catabolic response to stress and potential benefits of nutrition support. Nutrition 2002, 18, 971–977, doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(02)00985-1. 12431720
- Y. Taché, and B. Bonaz. Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors and stress-related alterations of gut motor function. J. Clin. Invest. 2007, 117, 33–40, doi:10.1172/JCI30085.
- L. Bueno, and J. Fioramonti. Effects of corticotropin-releasing factor, corticotropin and cortisol on gastrointestinal motility in dogs. Peptides 1986, 7, 73–77, doi:10.1016/0196-9781(86)90064-1.
- T. Aoyagi, Y. Izumi, M. Hiroyama, T. Matsuzaki, Y. Yasuoka, A. Sanbe, and A. Tanoue. Vasopressin regulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system via V1a receptors in macula densa cells. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 2008, 295, F100–F107, doi:10.1152/ajprenal.00088.2008.
- E. Charmandari, C. Tsigos, and G. Chrousos. Endocrinology of the stress response. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2005, 67, 259–284, doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.67.040403.120816.
- F.S. Dhabhar. A hassle a day may keep the pathogens away: The fight-or-flight stress response and the augmentation of immune function. Integr. Comp. Biol. 2009, 49, 215–236, doi:10.1093/icb/icp045.
- A. Hänsel, S. Hong, R.J.A. Cámara, and R. Von Kaenel. Inflammation as a psychophysiological biomarker in chronic psychosocial stress. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 35, 115–121, doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.012.
- R. Bellomo, C. Ronco, J.A. Kellum, R.L. Mehta, P. Palevsky, and Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative workgroup. Acute renal failure—Definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: The Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit. Care 2004, 8, R204–R212, doi:10.1186/cc2872.
- M. Depke, L. Steil, G. Domanska, U. Völker, C. Schütt, and C. Kiank. Altered hepatic mRNA expression of immune response and apoptosis-associated genes after acute and chronic psychological stress in mice. Mol. Immunol. 2009, 46, 3018–3028, doi:10.1016/j.molimm.2009.06.014.
- C. Siracusa, X. Manteca, J. Cerón, S. Martínez-Subiela, R. Cuenca, S. Lavín, F. Garcia, and J. Pastor. Perioperative stress response in dogs undergoing elective surgery: Variations in behavioural, neuroendocrine, immune and acute phase responses. Anim. Welf. 2008, 17, 259–273.
- A. Sgoifo, J.M. Koolhaas, E. Musso, and S.F. De Boer. Different Sympathovagal Modulation of Heart Rate During Social and Nonsocial Stress Episodes in Wild-Type Rats. Physiol. Behav. 1999, 67, 733–738, doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(99)00134-1.
- N.K. Dess, D. Linwick, J. Patterson, J.B. Overmier, and S. Levine. Immediate and proactive effects of controllability and predictability on plasma cortisol responses to shocks in dogs. Behav. Neurosci. 1983, 97, 1005–1016, doi:10.1037/0735-7044.97.6.1005.
- S.L. Bowers, S.D. Bilbo, F.S. Dhabhar, and R.J. Nelson. Stressor-specific alterations in corticosterone and immune responses in mice. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2008, 22, 105–113, doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.07.012.
- S.S. Dickerson, and M.E. Kemeny. Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychol. Bull. 2004, 130, 355–391, doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355.
- R. Glaser, and J.K. Kiecolt-Glaser. Stress-induced immune dysfunction: Implications for health. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2005, 5, 243–251, doi:10.1038/nri1571.
- C.M. Royer, M. Willard, K. Williamson, J.M. Steiner, D.A. Williams, and M. Davis. Exercise stress, intestinal permeability and gastric ulceration in racing Alaskan sled dogs. Equine Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2005, 2, 53–59, doi:10.1079/ECP200446.
- A. Vitalo, J. Fricchione, M. Casali, Y. Berdichevsky, E.A. Hoge, S.L. Rauch, F. Berthiaume, M.L. Yarmush, H. Benson, G.L. Fricchione, and J.B. Levine. Nest Making and Oxytocin Comparably Promote Wound Healing in Isolation Reared Rats. PLoS ONE 2009, 4, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005523.
- N.A. Dreschel. The effects of fear and anxiety on health and lifespan in pet dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2010, 125, 157–162, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2010.04.003.
- S.C. Segerstrom, and G.E. Miller. Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychol. Bull. 2004, 130, 601–630, doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601.
- I.J. Elenkov. Glucocorticoids and the Th1/Th2 balance. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2004, 1024, 138–146, doi:10.1196/annals.1321.010. 15265778
- A. Palsgaard-Van Lue, A.L. Jensen, H. Strøm, and A.T. Kristensen. Comparative analysis of haematological, haemostatic, and inflammatory parameters in canine venous and arterial blood samples. Vet. J. 2007, 173, 664–668, doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.03.003.
- H. Engler, L. Dawils, S. Hoves, S. Kurth, J.R. Stevenson, K. Schauenstein, and V. Stefanski. Effects of social stress on blood leukocyte distribution: The role of alpha- and beta-adrenergic mechanisms. J. Neuroimmunol. 2004, 156, 153–162, doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.08.005.
- A. Steptoe, M. Hamer, and Y. Chida. The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating inflammatory factors in humans: A review and meta-analysis. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2007, 21, 901–912, doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.03.011.
- C. Kiank, B. Holtfreter, A. Starke, A. Mundt, C. Wilke, C. Schutt, C. Heijnen, A. Kavelaars, and C. Schütt. Stress susceptibility predicts the severity of immune depression and the failure to combat bacterial infections in chronically stressed mice. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2006, 20, 359–368, doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2005.10.151.
- C. Kiank, M. Entleutner, B. Fürll, A. Westerholt, C.-D.D. Heidecke, and C. Schütt. Stress-induced immune conditioning affects the course of experimental peritonitis. Shock 2007, 27, 305–311, doi:10.1097/01.shk.0000239754.82711.c0.
- J.I. Webster Marketon, and R. Glaser. Stress hormones and immune function. Cell. Immunol. 2008, 252, 16–26, doi:10.1016/j.cellimm.2007.09.006.
- R. Avitsur, N. Powell, D. Padgett, and J. Sheridan. Social interactions, stress, and immunity. Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 2009, 29, 285–293, doi:10.1016/j.iac.2009.02.006.
- S. Dhabhar, and K. Viswanathan. Short-term stress experienced at time of immunization induces a long-lasting increase in immunologic memory. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2005, 289, R738–R744, doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00145.2005.
- K. Viswanathan, C. Daugherty, and F.S. Dhabhar. Stress as an endogenous adjuvant: Augmentation of the immunization phase of cell-mediated immunity. Inter. Immunol. 2005, 17, 1059–1069, doi:10.1093/intimm/dxh286.
- G.E. Miller. Psychological stress and antibody response to influenza vaccination: When is the critical period for stress, and how does it get inside the body? Psychosom. Med. 2004, 66, 215–223, doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000116718.54414.9e.
- C.M. Otto. Sepsis in veterinary patients: What do we know and where can we go? J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care 2007, 17, 329–332, doi:10.1111/j.1476-4431.2007.00253.x.
- E. Broadbent. Psychological Stress Impairs Early Wound Repair Following Surgery. Psychosom. Med. 2003, 65, 865–869, doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000088589.92699.30.
- L. Vileikyte. Stress and wound healing. Clin. Dermatol. 2007, 25, 49–55, doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2006.09.005.
- J.R. Caso, J.C. Leza, L. Menchen, and L. Menchén. The effects of physical and psychological stress on the gastro-intestinal tract: Lessons from animal models. Curr. Mol. Med. 2008, 8, 299–312, doi:10.2174/156652408784533751.
- R. Maunder, and S. Levenstein. The Role of Stress in the Development and Clinical Course of Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Epidemiological Evidence. Curr. Mol. Med. 2008, 8, 247–252, doi:10.2174/156652408784533832.
- M.S. Leib. Treatment of Chronic Idiopathic Large-Bowel Diarrhea in Dogs with a Highly Digestible Diet and Soluble Fiber: A Retrospective Review of 37 Cases. J. Vet. Int. Med. 2000, 14, 27–32, doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2000.tb01495.x.
- M.S. Davis, M.D. Willard, S.L. Nelson, R.E. Mandsager, B.S. McKiernan, J.K. Mansell, and T.W. Lehenbauer. Prevalence of Gastric Lesions in Racing Alaskan Sled Dogs. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2003, 17, 311–314, doi:10.1111/j.1939-1676.2003.tb02453.x.
- J.A. Kovach, B.D. Nearing, and R.L. Verrier. Angerlike behavioral state potentiates myocardial ischemia-induced T-wave alternans in canines. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2001, 37, 1719–1725, doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(01)01196-2.
- R.C. Ziegelstein. Acute emotional stress and cardiac arrhythmias. JAMA 2007, 298, 324–329, doi:10.1001/jama.298.3.324.
- R. Von Känel, J.E. Dimsdale, T.L. Patterson, I. Grant, and R. Känel. Acute procoagulant stress response as a dynamic measure of allostatic load in Alzheimer caregivers. Ann. Behav. Med. 2003, 26, 42–48, doi:10.1207/S15324796ABM2601_06.
- P.H. Wirtz, L.S. Redwine, C. Baertschi, M. Spillmann, U. Ehlert, and R. von Känel. Coagulation activity before and after acute psychosocial stress increases with age. Psychosom. Med. 2008, 70, 476–481, doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e31816e03a5.
- J.E. Dimsdale. Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008, 51, 1237–1246, doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2007.12.024.
- M. Esler, N. Eikelis, M. Schlaich, G. Lambert, M. Alvarenga, T. Dawood, D. Kaye, D. Barton, C. Pier, L. Guo, C. Brenchley, G. Jennings, and E. Lambert. Chronic mental stress is a cause of essential hypertension: Presence of biological markers of stress. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2008, 35, 498–502, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1681.2008.04904.x.
- M. Hamer, K. O'Donnell, A. Lahiri, and A. Steptoe. Salivary cortisol responses to mental stress are associated with coronary artery calcification in healthy men and women. Eur. Heart J. 2010, 31, 424–429, doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp386.
- A. Haverbeke, C. Diederich, E. Depiereux, and J.M. Giffroy. Cortisol and behavioral responses of working dogs to environmental challenges. Physiol. Behav. 2008, 93, 59–67, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.07.014.
- D.H. Hellhammer, S. Wüst, and B.M. Kudielka. Salivary cortisol as a biomarker in stress research. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2009, 34, 163–171, doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.10.026.
- N.J. Rooney, S.A. Gaines, and J.W.S. Bradshaw. Behavioural and glucocorticoid responses of dogs (Canis familiaris) to kennelling: Investigating mitigation of stress by prior habituation. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 92, 847–854, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.06.011.
- I.C. Vincent, and A.R. Michell. Comparison of cortisol concentrations in saliva and plasma of dogs. Res. Vet. Sci. 1992, 53, 342–345, doi:10.1016/0034-5288(92)90137-Q.
- A.J. Kobelt, P.H. Hemsworth, J.L. Barnett, and K.L. Butler. Sources of sampling variation in saliva cortisol in dogs. Res. Vet. Sci. 2003, 75, 157–161, doi:10.1016/S0034-5288(03)00080-8.
- A. Levine, O. Zagoory-Sharon, R. Feldman, J.G. Lewis, and A. Weller. Measuring cortisol in human psychobiological studies. Physiol. Behav. 2007, 90, 43–53, doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.08.025.
- S. Schatz, and R. Palme. Measurement of Faecal Cortisol Metabolites in Cats and Dogs: A Non-invasive Method for Evaluating Adrenocortical Function. Vet. Res. Commun. 2001, 25, 271–287, doi:10.1023/A:1010626608498.
- M.B. Hennessy. Using hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal measures for assessing and reducing the stress of dogs in shelters: A review. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2013, 149, 1–12, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2013.09.004.
- L. Ottenheimer Carrier, A. Cyr, R.E. Anderson, and C.J. Walsh. Exploring the dog park: Relationships between social behaviours, personality and cortisol in companion dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2013, 146, 96–106, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2013.04.002.
- C.T. Angle, J.J. Wakshlag, R.L. Gillette, T. Stokol, S. Geske, T.O. Adkins, and C. Gregor. Hematologic, serum biochemical, and cortisol changes associated with anticipation of exercise and short duration high intensity exercise in sled dogs. Vet. Clin. Pathol. 2009, 38, 370–374, doi:10.1111/j.1939-165X.2009.00122.x.
- R. Palme, S. Rettenbacher, C. Touma, S.M. El-Bahr, and E. Möstl. Stress hormones in mammals and birds: Comparative aspects regarding metabolism, excretion, and noninvasive measurement in fecal samples. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2005, 1040, 162–171, doi:10.1196/annals.1327.021. 15891021
- J. Kolevska, V. Brunclik, and M. Svoboda. Circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion in dogs of different daily activities. Acta Vet. Brno 2003, 72, 599–605.
- L.L. Durocher, K.W. Hinchcliff, K.K. Williamson, E.C. McKenzie, T.C. Holbrook, M. Willard, C.M. Royer, and M.S. Davis. Effect of strenuous exercise on urine concentrations of homovanillic acid, cortisol, and vanillylmandelic acid in sled dog. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2007, 68, 107–111, doi:10.2460/ajvr.68.1.107.
- M.R. Raekallio, E.K. Kuusela, M.E. Lehtinen, M.K. Tykkyloinen, P. Huttunen, and F.C. Westerholm. Effects of exercise-induced stress and dexamethasone on plasma hormone and glucose concentrations and sedation in dogs treated with dexmedetomidine. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2005, 66, 260–265, doi:10.2460/ajvr.2005.66.260.
- A. Takahashi, S. Uchiyama, and Y. Kato. Immunochromatographic assay using gold nanoparticles for measuring salivary secretory IgA in dogs as a stress marker. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 2009, 10, doi:10.1088/1468-6996/10/3/034604.
- A. Kikkawa, Y. Uchida, T. Nakade, and K. Taguchi. Salivary secretory IgA concentrations in beagle dogs. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 2003, 65, 689–693, doi:10.1292/jvms.65.689.
- S. Skandakumar, G. Stodulski, and J. Hau. Salivary IgA: A possible stress marker in dogs. Anim. Welf. 1995, 4, 339–350.
- I. Takahashi, T. Nochi, and J. Kunisawa. The mucosal immune system for secretory IgA responses and mucosal vaccine development. Inflamm. Regen. 2010, 30, 40–47, doi:10.2492/inflammregen.30.40.
- A.K. Davis, D.L. Maney, and J.C. Maerz. The use of leukocyte profiles to measure stress in vertebrates: A review for ecologists. Funct. Ecol. 2008, 22, 760–772, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01467.x.
- B. Beerda, M.B.H. Schilder, J.A.R.A.M. van Hooff, H.W. de Vries, and J.A. Mol. Behavioural, saliva cortisol and heart rate responses to different types of stimuli in dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1998, 58, 365–381, doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00145-7.
- C. Palestrini, E.P. Previde, C. Spiezio, and M. Verga. Heart rate and behavioural responses of dogs in the Ainsworth's Strange Situation: A pilot study. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2005, 94, 75–88, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2005.02.005.
- K. Maros, A. Dóka, and Á. Miklósi. Behavioural correlation of heart rate changes in family dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2008, 109, 329–341, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2007.03.005.
- X. Wang, X. Ding, S. Su, Z. Li, H. Riese, J.F. Thayer, F. Treiber, and H. Snieder. Genetic influences on heart rate variability at rest and during stress. Psychophysiology 2009, 46, 458–465, doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00793.x.
- V.S.M. Jonckheer-Sheehy, C.M. Vinke, and A. Ortolani. Validation of a Polar® human heart rate monitor for measuring heart rate and heart rate variability in adult dogs under stationary conditions. J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res. 2012, 7, 205–212, doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2011.10.006.
- A. Essner, R. Sjöström, E. Ahlgren, and B. Lindmark. Validity and reliability of Polar® RS800CX heart rate monitor, measuring heart rate in dogs during standing position and at trot on a treadmill. Physiol. Behav. 2013, 114, 1–5. 23499770
- W.C. Engeland, P. Miller, and D.S. Gann. Pituitary-adrenal adrenomedullary responses to noise in awake dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 1990, 258, R672–R677. 2156460
- B.M. Kudielka, A. Buske-Kirschbaum, D.H. Hellhammer, and C. Kirschbaum. HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: Impact of age and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004, 29, 83–98, doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00146-4.
- B. Beerda, M.B.H. Schilder, J.A.R.A.M. van Hooff, H.W. de Vries, and J.A. Mol. Behavioural and hormonal indicators of enduring environmental stress in dogs. Anim. Welf. 2000, 9, 49–62.
- L. Holton, P. Pawson, A. Nolan, J. Reid, and E.M. Scott. Development of a behaviour-based scale to measure acute pain in dogs. Vet. Rec. 2001, 148, 525–531, doi:10.1136/vr.148.17.525.
- J.T. Hudson, M.R. Slater, L. Taylor, H.M. Scott, and S.C. Kerwin. Assessing repeatability and validity of a visual analogue scale questionnaire for use in assessing pain and lameness in dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2004, 65, 1634–1643, doi:10.2460/ajvr.2004.65.1634.
- C.M. Morton, J. Reid, E.M. Scott, L.L. Holton, and A.M. Nolan. Application of a scaling model to establish and validate an interval level pain scale for assessment of acute pain in dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2005, 66, 2154–2166, doi:10.2460/ajvr.2005.66.2154. 16379662
- J.P. Hekman, A.Z. Karas, and N.A. Dreschel. Salivary cortisol concentrations and behavior in a population of healthy dogs hospitalized for elective procedures. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2012, 141, 149–157, doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2012.08.007.
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).


text:
I am and I believe most Americans, are absolutely sick to death of all the childish and outlandish negative political advertisements that make up the presidential election every four years. What a sad commentary on what otherwise should be a civil and respectful process. Simply state how you would improve the next four years and […]
Sick of the negative campaign ads
11/06/12 at 4:54pm by Letters Editor | Comments
Sick of the ceaseless campaining
11/05/12 at 5:02pm by Letters Editor | Comments
Thank you, John Kiesewetter, for your Sunday column. I can't wait until this election is over so the constant inundation of TV noise, mail pieces, road signs and phone calls will go away. I can't even stand to watch the news any longer because of the ads, one after another. I don't know what the […]
Sick of campaign ads
11/02/12 at 4:58pm by Letters Editor | Comments
I guess I am like every other person trying to watch TV the past few weeks: Sick of the constant ads for this upcoming election, not only on TV but on radio and internet. The reason I am writing is the last ad produced by Michael Moore. It is obscene. Mr. Moore you have convinced […]
Campaign is dirtiest since Goldwater
10/23/12 at 12:01pm by Letters Editor | Comments
I cannot remember a nastier presidential campaign going back to the Barry Goldwater attempt in the mid 1960′s. This one makes all others that I have witnessed seem like child's play. Governor Romney seems to lack specifics about his plans if he is elected and President Obama, who has trouble running on his past performance […]
Campaign incivility the norm for PACs
10/17/12 at 12:04pm by Letters Editor | Comments
Visiting and reading the exhibits at the childhood home of the good Cincinnati Republican President and Supreme Court Justice, William Howard Taft, we find his thoughts on political campaigns. " Tariffs, railroads, and regulation were issues in the campaign of his time. Taft viewed himself as a moderate who would make reform work without making […]
We've survived negative campaigns before
10/06/12 at 11:58am by Letters Editor | Comments
In his book, "Benjamin Franklin: An American Life," Walter Isaacson wrote: "Modern election campaigns are often criticized for being negative and today's press is slammed for being scurrilous. But the most brutal of modern attack ads pale in comparison to the barrage of pamphlets in the 1764 Assembly election. Pennsylvania survived them, as did Franklin, […]
Make candidates fact-check their campaign ads
09/21/12 at 11:55am by Letters Editor | Comments
Here's an idea. Cancel the first presidential debate between Obama and Romney and instead, have the two candidates watch their own ads against each other on live television and then require them both to supply the source of the facts those ads are based on. Let's see if either candidate has the character to say […]
Citizen's United decision a godsend to independents
09/18/12 at 4:52pm by Letters Editor | Comments
Interesting that just as the challenger Mandel pulls even with incumbent Brown, The Enquirer is up in arms about the evils of political advertising in the Ohio senatorial campaign ("Senate contest makes ugly TV"). It seems Halloween has arrived a few weeks early as the Enquirer stirs up the specter of "dark money" to describe […]
Reasons to pass Issue 2
09/18/12 at 11:53am by Letters Editor | Comments
Are you tired of gerrymandered Congressional districts that enable out-of-touch politicians to worry more about their own careers than Ohio voters? Then vote YES for Issue 2. Are you tired of politicians who go to extremes to protect their friends in Congress, as well as their lobbyists, but not the citizens of our state? Then […]
Brown must be doing something right
09/17/12 at 5:00pm by Letters Editor | Comments
In response to "Senate contest makes for ugly TV". I don't know about anyone else, but every time I hear an ad that states it is sponsored by Karl Rove at Crossroads and Crossroads GPS, all I hear is David Koch and Karl Rove attempting to buy the senate by skewering Sherrod Brown. Karl Rove […]
About The LettersThe Enquirer receives dozens of letters to the editor each week - and because of space limitations, only a fraction of them can appear in print. Here online, we are able to post all of the letters we receive that add to the community conversation. We do not post letters that we deem inappropriate, however. Join the conversation by submitting a letter below or adding your comments to posted letters.
Letter Categories
Recently Posted Letters
- Tax break article gave readers one-sided view
- Parents also play a role in kids' dental health
- Streetcar project will soon be known as 'Flynn's Folly'
- Newly elected councilman is a breath of fresh air
- Tolls, taxes help secure our future
- 'Judge not' on either side of gay issues
- Reality check needed on the topic of marriage
- Congress considered 'mean' only because Dems are now in minority
- Seelbach's responsible bid rule stance stinks
- It's the responsibility of the voter to get it right