text: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kilogram Kilogram language initials CIPM) recommended in 2005 that the kilogram be redefined in terms of a fundamental constant of nature.[3] No final decision is expected before 2011.[4] The nature of mass A computer-generated image of the International Prototype Kilogram ("IPK"). The IPK is the kilogram. It sits next to an inchbased ruler for scale. The IPK is made of a platinum-iridium alloy and is stored in a vault at the BIPM in Sèvres, France. Like the other prototypes, the edges of the IPK have a four-angle chamfer to minimize wear (although only three can be seen in this image—even at high magnification). For other kilogramrelated images, see External links, below. The kilogram or kilogramme[Note 1] (symbol: kg) is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI, from the French Le Système International d'Unités). The kilogram is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram[1] (IPK),[Note 2] which is almost exactly equal to the mass of one liter of water. It is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name. It is also the only SI unit that is still defined in relation to an artifact rather than to a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. In everyday usage, the mass of an object, which is measured in kilograms, is often referred to as its weight. However, the term weight in strict scientific contexts refers to the gravitational force of an object. Throughout most of the world, force is measured with the SI unit newton and the non-SI unit kilogram-force. Similarly, the avoirdupois (or international) pound, used in both the Imperial system and U.S. customary units, is a unit of mass and its related unit of force is the pound-force. The avoirdupois pound is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg,[2] making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Many units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram so its stability is important. After the International Prototype Kilogram had been found to vary in mass over time, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (known also by its FrenchThe chains on the swing hold all the child's weight. If one was to stand behind her at the bottom of the arc and try to stop her, they would be acting against her inertia, which arises purely from mass, not weight. The kilogram is a unit of mass, the measurement of which corresponds to the general, everyday notion of how "heavy" something is. However, mass is actually an inertial property; that is, the tendency of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. According to Sir Isaac Newton's 322-year-old laws of motion and an important formula that sprang from his work, F = ma, an object with a mass, m, of one kilogram will accelerate, a, at one meter per second per second (about one-tenth the acceleration due to earth's gravity)[Note 3] when acted upon by a force, F, of one newton. While the weight of matter is entirely dependent upon the strength of gravity, the mass of matter is constant (assuming matter is not traveling at a relativistic speed with respect to an observer).[Note 4] Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor; they are "weightless." However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10‑kilogram object at the same rate as a 1‑kilogram object. On earth, a common swing set can demonstrate the relationship of force, mass, and acceleration without 1 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia being appreciably influenced by weight (downward force). If one were to stand behind a large adult sitting stationary in a swing and give him a strong push, the adult would accelerate relatively slowly and swing only a limited distance forwards before beginning to swing backwards. Exerting that same effort while pushing on a small child would produce much greater acceleration. Kilogram platinum alloy known as "Pt‑10Ir", which is 90% platinum and 10% iridium (by mass) and is machined into a right-circular cylinder (height = diameter) of 39.17 mm to minimize its surface area.[8] The addition of 10% iridium improved upon the all-platinum Kilogram of the Archives by greatly increasing hardness while still retaining platinum's many virtues: extreme resistance to oxidation, extremely high density, satisfactory electrical and thermal conductivities, and low magnetic susceptibility. The IPK and its six sister copies are stored at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (known by its French-language initials BIPM) in an environmentally monitored safe in the lower vault located in the basement of the BIPM's House of Breteuil in Sèvres on the outskirts of Paris (see External images, below for photographs). Three independently controlled keys are required to open the vault. Official copies of the IPK were made available to other nations to serve as their national standards. These are compared to the IPK roughly every 50 years. The IPK is one of three cylinders made in 1879. In 1883, it was found to be indistinguishable from the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives made eighty-four years prior, and was formally ratified as the kilogram by the 1st CGPM in 1889.[8] Modern measurements of the density of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water—purified water that has a carefully controlled isotopic composition—show that a cubic decimeter of water at its point of maximum density, 3.984 °C, has a mass that is 25.05 parts per million less than the kilogram.[9] This small difference, and the fact that the mass of the IPK was indistinguishable from the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives, speak volumes of the scientists' skills over 210 years ago when making their measurements of water's properties and in manufacturing the Kilogram of the Archives. History Early definitions See also Grave (mass) for more on the history of the kilogram. On 7 April 1795, the gram was decreed in France to be equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the meter, at the temperature of melting ice."[5] Since trade and commerce typically involve items significantly more massive than one gram, and since a mass standard made of water would be inconvenient and unstable, the regulation of commerce necessitated the manufacture of a practical realization of the water-based definition of mass. Accordingly, a provisional mass standard was made as a singlepiece, metallic artifact one thousand times more massive than the gram—the kilogram. At the same time, work was commissioned to precisely determine the mass of a cubic decimeter (one liter) of water.[Note 5][5] Although the decreed definition of the kilogram specified water at 0 °C—its highly stable temperature point—the French chemist, Louis LefèvreGineau and the Italian naturalist, Giovanni Fabbroni after several years of research chose to redefine the standard in 1799 to water's most stable density point: the temperature at which water reaches maximum density, which was measured at the time as 4 °C.[Note 6][6] They concluded that one cubic decimeter of water at its maximum density was equal to 99.9265% of the target mass of the provisional kilogram standard made four years earlier.[Note 7][7] That same year, 1799, an all-platinum kilogram prototype was fabricated with the objective that it would equal, as close as was scientifically feasible for the day, the mass of one cubic decimeter of water at 4 °C. The prototype was presented to the Archives of the Republic in June and on 10 December 1799, the prototype was formally ratified as the Kilogramme des Archives (Kilogram of the Archives) and the kilogram was defined as being equal to its mass. This standard stood for the next ninety years. Stability of the International Prototype Kilogram By definition, the error in the measured value of the IPK's mass is exactly zero; the IPK is the kilogram. However, any changes in the IPK's mass over time can be deduced by comparing its mass to that of its official copies stored throughout the world, a process called "periodic verification." For instance, the U.S. owns four 90% platinum / 10% iridium (Pt‑10Ir) kilogram standards, two of which, K4 and K20, are from the original batch of 40 replicas delivered in 1884.[Note 9] The K20 prototype was designated as the primary national standard of mass for the U.S. Both of these, as well as those from other nations, are periodically returned to the BIPM for verification.[Note 10] Note that none of the replicas has a mass precisely equal to that of the IPK; their masses are calibrated and documented as offset values. For instance, K20, the U.S.'s International Prototype Kilogram Since 1889, the SI system defines the magnitude of the kilogram to be equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram,[1] often referred to in the professional metrology world as the "IPK". The IPK is made of a 2 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kilogram replicas immediately begin gaining mass again. The BIPM even developed a model of this gain and concluded that it averaged 1.11 µg per month for the first 3 months after cleaning and then decreased to an average of about 1 µg per year thereafter. Since check standards like K4 are not cleaned for routine calibrations of other mass standards—a precaution to minimize the potential for wear and handling damage—the BIPM's model has been used as an "after cleaning" correction factor. Mass drift over time of national prototypes K21–K40, plus two of the IPK's sister copies: K32 and K8(41).[Note 8] All mass changes are relative to the IPK. The initial 1889 starting-value offsets relative to the IPK have been nulled.[10] The above are all relative measurements; no historical mass-measurement data is available to determine which of the prototypes has been most stable relative to an invariant of nature. There is the distinct possibility that all the prototypes gained mass over 100 years and that K21, K35, K40, and the IPK simply gained less than the others. primary standard, originally had an official mass of 1 kg − 39 µg in 1889; that is to say, K20 was 39 µg less than the IPK. A verification performed in 1948 showed a mass of 1 kg − 19 µg. The latest verification performed in 1999 shows a mass precisely identical to its original 1889 value. Quite unlike transient variations such as this, the U.S.'s check standard, K4, has persistently declined in mass relative to the IPK—and for an identifiable reason. Check standards are used much more often than primary standards and are prone to scratches and other wear. K4 was originally delivered with an official mass of 1 kg − 75 µg in 1889, but as of 1989 was officially calibrated at 1 kg − 106 µg and ten years later was 1 kg − 116 µg. Over a period of 110 years, K4 lost 41 µg relative to the IPK.[11] Beyond the simple wear that check standards can experience, the mass of even the carefully stored national prototypes can drift relative to the IPK for a variety of reasons, some known and some unknown. Since the IPK and its replicas are stored in air (albeit under two or more nested bell jars), they gain mass through adsorption of atmospheric contamination onto their surfaces. Accordingly, they are cleaned in a process the BIPM developed between 1939 and 1946 known as "the BIPM cleaning method" that comprises lightly rubbing with a chamois soaked in equal parts ether and ethanol, steam cleaning with bi-distilled water, and allowing the prototypes to settle for 7–10 days before verification.[Note 11] Cleaning the prototypes removes between 5 and 60 µg of contamination depending largely on the time elapsed since the last cleaning. Further, a second cleaning can remove up to 10 µg more. After cleaning—even when they are stored under their bell jars—the IPK and its K48, above, came from the second batch of kilogram replicas to be produced. It was delivered to Denmark in 1949 with an official mass of 1 kg + 81 µg. Like all other replicas, it is stored under two nested bell jars virtually all the time. Still, its mass and that of the IPK diverged markedly in only 40 years; the mass of K48 was certified as 1 kg + 112 µg during the 1988–1992 periodic verification.[10] Because the first forty official copies are made of the same alloy as the IPK and are stored under similar conditions, periodic verifications using a large number of replicas—especially the national primary standards, which are rarely used—can convincingly demonstrate the stability of the IPK. What has become clear after the third periodic verification performed between 1988 and 1992 is that masses of the entire worldwide ensemble of prototypes have been slowly but inexorably diverging from each other. It is also clear that the mass of the IPK lost perhaps 50 µg over the last century, and possibly significantly more, in comparison to its official copies.[10][12] The reason for this drift has eluded physicists who have dedicated their careers to the SI unit of mass. No plausible mechanism has been proposed to explain either a steady decrease in the mass of the IPK, or an increase in that of its replicas dispersed throughout the world.[Note 12][13][14][15] This relative nature of the changes amongst 3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia the world's kilogram prototypes is often misreported in the popular press, and even some notable scientific magazines, which often state that the IPK simply "lost 50 µg" and omit the very important caveat of "in comparison to its official copies."[Note 13] Moreover, there are no technical means available to determine whether or not the entire worldwide ensemble of prototypes suffers from even greater long-term trends upwards or downwards because their mass "relative to an invariant of nature is unknown at a level below 1000 µg over a period of 100 or even 50 years."[12] Given the lack of data identifying which of the world's kilogram prototypes has been most stable in absolute terms, it is equally as valid to state that the first batch of replicas has, as a group, gained an average of about 25 µg over one hundred years in comparison to the IPK.[Note 14] What is known specifically about the IPK is that it exhibits a short-term instability of about 30 µg over a period of about a month in its after-cleaned mass.[16] The precise reason for this short-term instability is not understood but is thought to entail surface effects: microscopic differences between the prototypes' polished surfaces, possibly aggravated by hydrogen absorption due to catalysis of the volatile organic compounds that slowly deposit onto the prototypes as well as the hydrocarbon-based solvents used to clean them.[15][17] Scientists are seeing far greater variability in the prototypes than previously believed. The increasing divergence in the masses of the world's prototypes and the short-term instability in the IPK has prompted research into improved methods to obtain a smooth surface finish using diamond-turning on newly manufactured replicas and has intensified the search for a new definition of the kilogram. See Proposed future definitions, below.[18] Kilogram The magnitude of many of the units comprising the SI system of measurement, including most of those used in the measurement of electricity and light, are highly dependent upon the precise mass of a 130-year-old, golf ball-size cylinder of metal stored in a vault in France. light would be affected; the candela—following the change in the watt—would in turn affect the lumen and lux. Because the magnitude of many of the units comprising the SI system of measurement is ultimately defined by the mass of a 130-year-old, golf ball-sized piece of metal, the quality of the IPK must be diligently protected to preserve the integrity of the SI system. Yet, in spite of the best stewardship, the average mass of the worldwide ensemble of prototypes and the mass of the IPK have likely diverged another 4.7 µg since the third periodic verification 20 years ago.[Note 15] Further, the world's national metrology laboratories must wait for the fourth periodic verification to confirm whether the historical trends persisted. Fortunately, definitions of the SI units are quite different from their practical realizations. For instance, the meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum during a time interval of 1⁄299,792,458 of a second. However, the meter's practical realization typically takes the form of a helium-neon laser, and the meter's length is delineated—not defined—as 1,579,800.298728 wavelengths of light from this laser. Now suppose that the official measurement of the second was found to have drifted by a few parts per billion (it is actually exquisitely stable). There would be no automatic effect on the meter because the second—and thus the meter's Importance of the kilogram The stability of the IPK is crucial because the kilogram underpins much of the SI system of measurement as it is currently defined and structured. For instance, the newton is defined as the force necessary to accelerate one kilogram at one meter per second squared. If the mass of the IPK were to change slightly, so too must the newton by a proportional degree. In turn, the pascal, the SI unit of pressure, is defined in terms of the newton. This chain of dependency follows to many other SI units of measure. For instance, the joule, the SI unit of energy, is defined as that expended when a force of one newton acts through one meter. Next to be affected is the SI unit of power, the watt, which is one joule per second. The ampere too is defined relative to the newton, and ultimately, the kilogram. With the magnitude of the primary units of electricity thus determined by the kilogram, so too follow many others; namely, the coulomb, volt, tesla, and weber. Even units used in the measure of 4 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia length—is abstracted via the laser comprising the meter's practical realization. Scientists performing meter calibrations would simply continue to measure out the same number of laser wavelengths until an agreement was reached to do otherwise. The same is true with regard to the real-world dependency on the kilogram: if the mass of the IPK was found to have changed slightly, there would be no automatic effect upon the other units of measure because their practical realizations provide an insulating layer of abstraction. Any discrepancy would eventually have to be reconciled though because the virtue of the SI system is its precise mathematical and logical harmony amongst its units. If the IPK's value were definitively proven to have changed, one solution would be to simply redefine the kilogram as being equal to the mass of the IPK plus an offset value, similarly to what is currently done with its replicas; e.g., "the kilogram is equal to the mass of the IPK + 42 ppb" (equivalent to 42 µg). The long-term solution to this problem, however, is to liberate the SI system's dependency on the IPK by developing a practical realization of the kilogram that can be reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification. The units of measure in such a practical realization would have their magnitudes precisely defined and expressed in terms of fundamental physical constants. While major portions of the SI system would still be based on the kilogram, the kilogram would in turn be based on invariant, universal constants of nature. While this is a worthwhile objective and much work towards that end is ongoing, no alternative has yet achieved the uncertainty of a couple parts in 108 (~20 µg) required to improve upon the IPK. However, as of April 2007, the U.S.'s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) had an implementation of the watt balance that was approaching this goal, with a demonstrated uncertainty of 36 µg.[19] See Watt balance, below. Kilogram ultimately based on, or traceable to, fundamental constants. Others are devices that measure either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned, kilogram test masses and which express their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to fundamental constants. Measuring the weight of test masses requires the precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories. All approaches would precisely fix one or more constants of nature at a defined value. These different approaches are as follows: Atom-counting approaches Carbon-12 Though not offering a practical realization, this definition would precisely define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of carbon‑12 atoms. Carbon‑12 (12C) is an isotope of carbon. The mole is currently defined as "the quantity of entities (elementary particles like atoms or molecules) equal to the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon‑12." Thus, the current definition of the mole requires that 1000⁄12 (83⅓) moles of 12C has a mass of precisely one kilogram. The number of atoms in a mole, a quantity known as the Avogadro constant, is experimentally determined, and the current best estimate of its value is 6.02214179(30)×1023 entities per mole (CODATA, 2006). This new definition of the kilogram proposes to fix the Avogadro constant at precisely 6.02214179×1023 with the kilogram being defined as "the mass equal to that of 1000⁄12 · 6.02214179×1023 atoms of 12C." The accuracy of the measured value of the Avogadro constant is currently limited by the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant—a measure relating the energy of photons to their frequency. That relative standard uncertainty has been 50 parts per billion since 2006. By fixing the Avogadro constant, the practical effect of this proposal would be that the uncertainty in the mass of a 12C atom—and the magnitude of the kilogram—could be no better than the current 50 ppb uncertainty in the Planck constant. Under this proposal, the magnitude of the kilogram would be subject to future refinement as improved measurements of the value of the Planck constant become available; electronic realizations of the kilogram would be recalibrated as required. Conversely, an electronic definition of the kilogram (see Electronic approaches, below), which would precisely fix the Planck constant, would continue to allow 83⅓ moles of 12C to have a mass of precisely one kilogram but the number of atoms comprising a mole (the Avogadro constant) would continue to be subject to future refinement. A variation on a 12C-based definition proposes to define the Avogadro constant as being precisely 84,446,8863 (≈6.02214098×1023) atoms. An imaginary realization of a 12-gram mass prototype would be a cube Proposed future definitions The kilogram is the only SI unit that is still defined in relation to an artifact. Note that the meter was also once defined as an artifact (a single platinum-iridium bar with two marks on it). However, it was eventually redefined in terms of invariant, fundamental constants of nature that are delineated via practical realizations (apparatus) that can be reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification. Today, physicists are investigating various approaches to do the same with the kilogram. Some of the approaches are fundamentally very different from each other. Some are based on equipment and procedures that enable the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort) using measurement techniques and material properties that are 5 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia of 12C atoms measuring precisely 84,446,886 atoms across on a side. With this proposal, the kilogram would be defined as "the mass equal to 84,446,8863 × 83⅓ atoms of 12C." The value 84,446,886 was chosen because it has a special property; its cube (the proposed new value for the Avogadro constant) is evenly divisible by twelve. Thus with this definition of the kilogram, there would be an integer number of atoms in one gram of 12C: 50,184,508,190,229,061,679,538 atoms.[20][Note 16] Avogadro project Kilogram using optical interferometry to an uncertainty of about 0.3 nm on the radius—roughly a single atomic layer. The precise lattice spacing between the atoms in its crystal structure (≈192 pm) would be measured using a scanning X-ray interferometer. This permits its atomic spacing to be determined with an uncertainty of only three parts per billion. With the size of the sphere, its average atomic mass, and its atomic spacing known, the required sphere diameter can be calculated with sufficient precision and uncertainty to enable it to be finishpolished to a target mass of one kilogram. Experiments are being performed on the Avogadro Project's silicon spheres to determine whether their masses are most stable when stored in a vacuum, a partial vacuum, or ambient pressure. However, no technical means currently exist to prove a long-term stability any better than that of the IPK's because the most sensitive and accurate measurements of mass are made with dualpan balances like the BIPM's FB‑2 flexure-strip balance (see External links, below). Balances can only compare the mass of a silicon sphere to that of a reference mass. Given the latest understanding of the lack of long-term mass stability with the IPK and its replicas, there is no known, perfectly stable mass artifact to compare against. Single-pan scales capable of measuring weight relative to an invariant of nature with a long-term uncertainty of only 10–20 parts per billion do not yet exist. Another issue to be overcome is that silicon oxidizes and forms a thin layer (equivalent to 5–20 silicon atoms) of silicon dioxide (quartz) and silicon monoxide. This layer slightly increases the mass of the sphere, an effect which must be accounted for when polishing the sphere to its finish dimension. Oxidation is not an issue with platinum and iridium, both of which are noble metals that are roughly as cathodic as oxygen and therefore don't oxidize unless coaxed to do so in the laboratory. The presence of the thin oxide layer on a silicon-sphere mass prototype places additional restrictions on the procedures that might be suitable to clean it to avoid changing the layer's thickness or oxide stoichiometry. All silicon-based approaches would fix the Avogadro constant but vary in the details of the definition of the kilogram. One approach would use silicon with all three of its natural isotopes present. About 7.78% of silicon comprises the two heavier isotopes: 29Si and 30Si. As described in Carbon‑12 above, this method would define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of 12C atoms by fixing the Avogadro constant; the silicon sphere would be the practical realization. This approach could accurately delineate the magnitude of the kilogram because the masses of the three silicon nuclides relative to 12C are known with great precision (relative uncertainties of 1 ppb or better). An alternative method for creating a silicon sphere-based kilogram proposes to use isotopic separation techniques to enrich the silicon until it is nearly pure 28Si, which has a relative atomic mass of One of the master opticians at the Australian Centre for Precision Optics (ACPO) is holding a 1 kg, single-crystal silicon sphere for the Avogadro project. These spheres are among the roundest man-made objects in the world. If the best of these spheres were scaled to the size of earth, its high point—a continent-size area—would gently rise to a maximum elevation of only 2.4 m above "sea level."[Note 17] Another Avogadro constant-based approach, known as the Avogadro project, would define and delineate the kilogram as a softball-size (93.6 mm diameter) sphere of silicon atoms. Silicon was chosen because a commercial infrastructure with mature processes for creating defect-free, ultra-pure monocrystalline silicon already exists to service the semiconductor industry. To make a practical realization of the kilogram, a silicon boule (a rod-like, single-crystal ingot) would be produced. Its isotopic composition would be measured with a mass spectrometer to determine its average relative atomic mass. The boule would be cut, ground, and polished into spheres. The size of a select sphere would be measured 6 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 27.9769265325(19). With this approach, the Avogadro constant would not only be fixed, but so too would the atomic mass of 28Si. As such, the definition of the kilogram would be decoupled from 12C and the kilogram would instead be defined as 28 atoms of Si (≈35.74374043 fixed moles of 28Si atoms). Physicists could elect to define the kilogram in terms of 28Si even when kilogram prototypes are made of natural silicon (all three isotopes present). Even with a kilogram definition based on 28Si, a silicon-sphere prototype made of nearly pure 28Si would necessarily deviate slightly from the defined number of moles of silicon to compensate for various chemical and isotopic impurities as well as the effect of surface oxides.[21] 1000 Kilogram approached very closely to 100% only at ion energies of less than around 1 eV (<1 km/s for gold).[22] If the kilogram is one day defined as a precise quantity of gold or bismuth atoms deposited with an electric current, not only would the Avogadro constant and the atomic mass of gold or bismuth be precisely fixed, but so too would the value of the elementary charge (e), likely to 1.602176487×10−19 C (from the present 2006 CODATA value of 1.602176487(40)×10−19). Doing so would effectively define the ampere as a flow of 1⁄1.602176487×10 (6,241,509,647,120,417,390) electrons per second past a fixed point in an electric circuit. The SI unit of mass would thus be fully defined by having precisely fixed the values of the Avogadro constant and elementary charge, and by exploiting the fact that the atomic masses of bismuth and gold atoms are invariant, universal constants of nature. One challenge in maturing an ion-accumulationbased kilogram into a practical realization is the development of a deposition chamber/balance system that enables the convenient calibration of a reasonable quantity of transfer standards relative to any single internal ion-deposited prototype. The mass prototypes produced by ion deposition techniques are nothing like the freestanding platinum-iridium prototypes currently in use; they are deposited onto—and become part of—an electrode imbedded into one pan of a special balance that is part of the device. Further, the ion-deposited material doesn't have a hard, highly polished surface that can be vigorously cleaned like those of current prototypes. Gold, while dense and a noble metal (resistant to oxidation and the formation of other compounds), is extremely soft so an internal gold prototype would have to be kept well isolated and scrupulously clean to avoid contamination and the potential of wear from having to remove the contamination. Bismuth, which is an inexpensive metal used in low-temperature solders, slowly oxidizes when exposed to room-temperature air and forms other chemical compounds and so would not produce a stable reference mass unless it was continually maintained in a vacuum or inert atmosphere. −19 ⁄27.9769265325 · 6.02214179×1023 Ion accumulation Another Avogadro-based approach, ion accumulation, would define and delineate the kilogram by precisely creating new metal prototypes on demand. It would do so by accumulating gold or bismuth ions (atoms stripped of an electron) and counting them by measuring the electrical current required to neutralize the ions. Gold (197Au) and bismuth (209Bi) were chosen because they can be safely handled and have the two highest atomic masses among the mononuclidic elements that can be treated as if it is virtually non-radioactive (bismuth) or is perfectly stable (gold). See also Table of nuclides.[Note 18] With a gold-based definition of the kilogram for instance, the relative atomic mass of gold would be fixed as precisely 196.9665687, from the current value of 196.9665687(6). As with a definition based upon carbon‑12, the Avogadro constant would also be fixed. The kilogram would then be defined as "the mass equal to that of precisely 1000⁄196.9665687 · 6.02214179×1023 atoms of gold" (precisely 3,057,443,620,887,933,963,384,315 atoms of gold or about 5.07700371 fixed moles). Ion-accumulation techniques, while a relatively new field of study, have advanced rapidly. In 2003, experiments with gold at a current of only 10 µA demonstrated a relative uncertainty of 1.5%.[22] Yet, follow-on experiments using bismuth ions and a current of 30 mA were expected to accumulate a mass of 30 g in six days and to have a relative uncertainty of better than 1 part in 106.[23] Among the many technical challenges of the ion-deposition apparatus is in obtaining a sufficiently high ion current (mass deposition rate) while simultaneously decelerating the ions so they can all deposit onto the target electrode embedded in a balance pan. Experiments with gold showed the ions had to be decelerated to very low energies to avoid sputtering effects—an effect wherein ions that have already been counted either ricochet off or are dislodged from a target electrode. The deposited mass fraction in the 2003 experiments Electronic approaches Watt balance The watt balance is essentially a single-pan weighing scale that measures the electric power necessary to oppose the weight of a kilogram test mass as it is accelerated by gravity. It is a variation of an ampere balance in that it employs an extra calibration step that nulls the effect of geometry. The electric potential in the watt balance is delineated by a Josephson voltage standard, which allows voltage to be linked to an invariant constant of nature with extremely high precision and stability. Its circuit resistance is calibrated against a quantum Hall resistance standard. The watt balance requires 7 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kilogram The NIST's watt balance is a project of the U.S. Government to develop an "electronic kilogram." The vacuum chamber dome, which lowers over the entire apparatus, is visible at top. exquisitely precise measurement of gravity in a laboratory (see "FG‑5 absolute gravimeter" in External images, below). For instance, the NIST compensates for earth's gravity gradient of 3.09 µGal per centimeter when the elevation of the center of the gravimeter differs from that of the nearby test mass in the watt balance; a change in the weight of a one-kilogram test mass of about 3.16 µg/ cm. As of April 2007, the NIST's implementation of the watt balance was demonstrating a combined relative standard uncertainty (CRSU) at 68% probability of 36 µg and a short-term resolution of 10–15 µg.[19] The UK's National Physical Laboratory's watt balance was demonstrating a CRSU of 70.3 µg as of 2007.[24] Ultimately, the watt balance would define the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant, which is a measure that relates the energy of photons to their frequency. The Planck constant would be fixed, where h = 6.62606896×10−34 J·s (from the 2006 CODATA value of 6.62606896(33)×10−34 J·s) and the kilogram would be defined as "the mass of a body at rest whose equivalent energy equals the energy of photons whose frequencies sum to 1.356392733×1050 Hz."[25] The virtue of electronic realizations like the watt balance is that the definition and dissemination of the kilogram would no longer be dependent upon the stability of kilogram prototypes, which must be very carefully handled and stored. It would free physicists from the need to rely on assumptions about the stability of those prototypes, including those that would be manufactured under atom-counting schemes. Instead, hand-tuned, close-approximation mass standards would simply be weighed and documented as being equal to one kilogram plus an offset value. With scales, the kilogram would not only be defined in electrical terms, it would also be delineated in electrical terms. Mass artifacts calibrated in a watt balance would effectively become transfer standards. Gravity is measured with exceptional precision with the help of a laser interferometer. The laser's pattern of interference fringes—the dark and light bands above—blooms at an ever faster rate as a free-falling corner reflector drops inside an absolute gravimeter. The pattern's frequency sweep is timed by an atomic clock. Further, one additional term in all scale-based realizations—acceleration due to gravity—is currently measured using dropping-mass absolute gravimeters that contain an iodine-stabilized helium-neon laser interferometer. The fringe-signal, frequency-sweep output from the interferometer is measured with a rubidium atomic clock. Thus, the 'gravity' term in the delineation of an all-electronic kilogram would also be measured relative to invariants of nature. Scales like the watt balance also permit more flexibility in choosing materials with especially desirable properties for mass standards. For instance, Pt‑10Ir could continue to be used so that the specific gravity of newly produced mass standards would be the same as existing national primary and check standards (≈21.55 g/ml). This would reduce the relative uncertainty when making mass comparisons in air. Alternately, entirely different materials and constructions could be explored with the objective of producing mass standards with greater stability. For instance, osmiumiridium alloys could be investigated if platinum's propensity to absorb hydrogen (due to catalysis of VOCs and hydrocarbon-based cleaning solvents) and atmospheric mercury proved to be sources of instability. Also, vapor-deposited, protective ceramic coatings like nitrides could be investigated for their suitability to isolate these new alloys. The challenge with watt balances is not only in reducing their uncertainty, but also in making them truly practical realizations of the kilogram. Nearly every aspect of watt balances and their support equipment requires such extraordinarily precise and accurate, stateof-the-art technology that—unlike a device like an atomic clock—few countries would currently choose to fund 8 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia their operation. For instance, the NIST's watt balance used four resistance standards, each of which was rotated through the watt balance every two to six weeks after being calibrated in a different part of NIST headquarters facility in Gaithersburg, Maryland. It was found that simply moving the resistance standards down the hall to the watt balance after calibration altered their values 10 ppb (equivalent to 10 µg) or more. Present-day technology is insufficient to permit stable operation of watt balances between even biannual calibrations. If the kilogram is defined in terms of the Planck constant, it is likely there will only be a few—at most—watt balances initially operating in the world. Ampere-based force Kilogram 6,241,509,647,120,417,390 elementary charges. It would necessarily follow that the ampere would be an electrical current of this precise quantity of elementary charges per second passing a given point in an electric circuit. The virtue of a practical realization based upon this definition is that unlike the watt balance and other scale-based methods, all of which require the careful characterization of gravity in the laboratory, this method delineates the magnitude of the kilogram directly in the very terms that define the nature of mass: acceleration due to an applied force. Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to develop a practical realization based upon accelerating masses. Experiments over a period of years in Japan with a superconducting, 30 g mass supported by diamagnetic levitation never achieved an uncertainty better than ten parts per million. Magnetic hysteresis was one of the limiting issues. Other groups are continuing this line of research using different techniques to levitate the mass.[26] SI multiples Because SI prefixes may not be concatenated (serially linked) within the name or symbol for a unit of measure, SI prefixes are used with the gram, not the kilogram, which already has a prefix as part of its name.[27] For instance, one-millionth of a kilogram is 1 mg (one milligram), not 1 µkg (one microkilogram). • When the Greek lowercase "µ" (mu) in the symbol of microgram is typographically unavailable, it is occasionally—although not properly—replaced by Latin lowercase "u". • The microgram is often abbreviated "mcg", particularly in pharmaceutical and nutritional supplement labeling, to avoid confusion since the "µ" prefix is not well recognized outside of technical disciplines.[Note 20] Note however, that the abbreviation "mcg", is also the symbol for an obsolete CGS unit of measure known as the "millicentigram", which is equal to 10 µg. • The unit name "megagram" is rarely used, and even then, typically only in technical fields in contexts where especially rigorous consistency with the units of measure is desired. For most purposes, the unit "tonne" is instead used. The tonne and its symbol, t, were adopted by the CIPM in 1879. It is a non-SI unit accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI. In English speaking countries it is usually called "metric ton".[28] Note also that the unit name "megatonne" or "megaton" (Mt) is often used in general-interest literature on greenhouse gas emissions whereas the equivalent value in scientific papers on the subject is often the "teragram" (Tg). A magnet floating above a superconductor bathed in liquid nitrogen demonstrates perfect diamagnetic levitation via the Meissner effect. Experiments with an ampere-based definition of the kilogram flipped this arrangement upside-down: an electric field accelerated a superconducting test mass supported by fixed magnets. This approach would define the kilogram as "the mass which would be accelerated at precisely 2×10−7 m/s2 when subjected to the per-meter force between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, placed one meter apart in vacuum, through which flow a constant current of 1⁄1.602176487×10 (≈6,241,509,647,120,417,390) elementary charges per second." Effectively, this would define the kilogram as a derivative of the ampere rather than present relationship, which defines the ampere as a derivative of the kilogram. This redefinition of the kilogram would result from defining the elementary charge (e) as precisely 1.602176487×10−19 coulomb rather than the current 2006 CODATA value of 1.602176487(40)×10−19. This would effectively define the coulomb as being the sum of −19 9 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia SI multiples for gram (g) Submultiples Value 10–1 g 10–2 g 10–3 g 10–6 g 10–9 g 10–12 g 10–15 g 10–18 g 10–21 g 10–24 g Symbol dg cg mg µg ng pg fg ag zg yg Name decigram centigram milligram microgram (mcg) nanogram picogram femtogram attogram zeptogram yoctogram Multiples Value 101 g 102 g 103 g 106 g 109 g 1012 g 1015 g 1018 g 1021 g 1024 g Symbol dag hg kg Mg Gg Tg Pg Eg Zg Yg Name decagram hectogram kilogram megagram (tonne) gigagram teragram petagram exagram zettagram yottagram Kilogram Common prefixes are in bold face.[Note 19] Glossary • : Isolated and its effect changed in form, often simplified or made more accessible in the process. • : A simple human-made object used directly as a comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity. • : 1. A standard body's backup replica of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK). 2. A secondary kilogram mass standard used as a stand-in for the primary standard during routine calibrations. • : A formal, specific, and exact specification. • : The physical means used to mark a boundary or express the magnitude of an entity. • : To widely distribute the magnitude of a unit of measure, typically via replicas and transfer standards. • : Abbreviation of "International Prototype Kilogram" (CG image), the mass artifact in France internationally recognized as having the defining mass of precisely one kilogram. • : The extent or numeric value of a property • : A replica of the IPK possessed by a nation. • : A readily reproducible apparatus to conveniently delineate the magnitude of a unit of measure. • : 1. A replica of the IPK possessed by a nation 2. The least used replica of the IPK when a nation possesses more than one. • : 1. A human-made object that serves as the defining comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity. 2. A human-made object that serves as the comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity. 3. The IPK and any of its replicas • : An official copy of the IPK. • : One of six official copies of the IPK that are stored in the same safe as the IPK and are used as check standards by the BIPM. • : An artifact or apparatus that reproduces the magnitude of a unit of measure in a different, usually more practical, form. See also • • • • • 1795 in science 1799 in science Inertia International System of Units (SI) International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) Gram Grave (orig. name of the kilogram, history of) Gravimetry Kilogram-force • • • • • Litre Metric system Mass Mass versus weight National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Newton SI base units Standard gravity Tonne (metric ton) Watt balance Weight • • • • • • • • • • • • 10 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Kilogram to-be-obsoleted poids de marc system. The newer, highly accurate measurements by Lefèvre‑Gineau and Fabbroni concluded that the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at the new temperature of 4 °C—a condition at which water is denser—was actually less massive, at 18,827.15 grains, than the earlier inaccurate value assumed for 0 °C water. France's metric system had been championed by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand‑Périgord. On 30 March 1791, four days after Talleyrand forwarded a specific proposal on how to proceed with the project, the French government ordered a committee known as the Academy to commence work on accurately determining the magnitude of the base units of the new metric system. The Academy divided the task among five commissions. The commission charged with determining the mass of a cubic decimeter of water originally comprised Lavoisier and Haüy but their work was finished by Louis Lefèvre‑Gineau and Giovanni Fabbroni. Neither Lavoisier nor Haüy can be blamed for participating in an initial—and inaccurate—measurement and for leaving the final work to Lefèvre‑Gineau and Fabbroni to finish in 1799. As a member of the Ferme générale, Lavoisier was also one of France's 28 tax collectors. He was consequently convicted of treason during the waning days of the Reign of Terror period of the French Revolution and beheaded on 8 May 1794. Lavoisier's partner, Haüy, was also thrown into prison and was himself at risk of going to the guillotine but his life was spared after a renown French naturalist interceded. [8] Prototype No. 8(41) was accidentally stamped with the number 41, but its accessories carry the proper number 8. Since there is no prototype marked 8, this prototype is referred to as 8(41). [9] The other two Pt‑10Ir standards owned by the U.S. are K85, which is used for watt balance experiments (see Watt balance, above), and K650, which was an early attempt with a new series of prototypes (K64–K80) that were diamond-turned directly to a finish mass. K650 has a density of 21.53537 g/ml, which is normal for Pt‑10Ir alloy. However, as its finished mass was roughly 2000 µg less than one kilogram, it is unsuitable for use as a national prototype and is instead known as a mass "standard"—not a "prototype.". However, it serves well for special duties, such as a stability reference when K4 and K20 are transported to the BIPM and back. There are three other diamond-turned, Pt‑10Ir replicas that are not formally considered to be "prototypes": K651, K690, and K691. [10] Extraordinary care is exercised when transporting prototypes. In 1984, the K4 and K20 prototypes Notes [1] The spelling kilogram is used by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), but sometimes the spelling kilogramme is also used in British English. Known also by its French-language name Le Grand K. In professional metrology (the science of measurement), the acceleration of earth's gravity is taken as standard gravity (symbol: gn), which is defined as precisely 9.80665 meters per square second (m/s2). The expression "1 m/s2 " means that for every second that elapses, velocity changes an additional 1 meter per second. In more familiar terms: an acceleration of 1 m/s2 can also be expressed as a rate of change in velocity of precisely 3.6 km/h per second (≈2.2 mph per second). According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, the relativistic mass (apparent mass with respect to an observer) of an object or particle with rest mass m0 increases with its speed as M = γm0 (where γ is the Lorentz factor). This effect is vanishingly small at everyday speeds, which are by orders of magnitude less than the speed of light, but becomes noticeable at very high speeds. For example, traveling at just 10% the speed of light with respect to an observer—exceedingly fast compared to everyday speeds (about 108 million km/h or 67 million mph)—increases an object's relativistic mass just over 0.5%. As regards the kilogram, relativity's effect upon the constancy of matter's mass is simply an interesting scientific phenomenon that has zero effect on the definition of the kilogram and its practical realizations. The same decree also defined the liter as follows: "Liter: the measure of volume, both for liquid and solids, for which the displacement would be that of a cube [with sides measuring] one-tenth of a meter." Original text: "Litre, la mesure de capacité, tant pour les liquides que pour les matières sèches, dont la contenance sera celle du cube de la dixièrne partie du mètre." Modern measurements show the temperature at which water reaches maximum density is 3.984 °C. However, the scientists at the close of the 18th century concluded that the temperature was 4 °C. The provisional kilogram standard had been fabricated in accordance with a single, inaccurate measurement of the density of water made earlier by Antoine Lavoisier and René Just Haüy, which showed that one cubic decimeter of distilled water at 0 °C had a mass of 18,841 grains in France's soon- [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] 11 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia were hand-carried in the passenger section of a commercial airliner. [11] Before the BIPM's published report in 1994 detailing the relative change in mass of the prototypes, different standard bodies used different techniques to clean their prototypes. The NIST's practice before then was to soak and rinse its two prototypes first in benzene, then in ethanol, and to then clean them with a jet of bi-distilled water steam. [12] Note that if the ∆ 50 µg between the IPK and its replicas was entirely due to wear, the IPK would have to have lost 150 million billion more platinum and iridium atoms over the last century than its replicas. That there would be this much wear, much less a difference of this magnitude, is thought unlikely; 50 µg is roughly the mass of a fingerprint. Specialists at the BIPM in 1946 carefully conducted cleaning experiments and concluded that even vigorous rubbing with a chamois—if done carefully—did not alter the prototypes' mass. More recent cleaning experiments at the BIPM, which were conducted on one particular prototype (K63), and which benefited from the then-new NBS‑2 balance, demonstrated 2 µg stability. Many theories have been advanced to explain the divergence in the masses of the prototypes. One theory posits that the relative change in mass between the IPK and its replicas is not one of loss at all and is instead a simple matter that the IPK has gained less than the replicas. This theory begins with the observation that the IPK is uniquely stored under three nested bell jars whereas its six sister copies stored alongside it in the vault as well as the other replicas dispersed throughout the world are stored under only two. This theory is also founded on two other facts: that platinum has a strong affinity for mercury, and that atmospheric mercury is significantly more abundant in the atmosphere today than at the time the IPK and its replicas were manufactured. The burning of coal is a major contributor to atmospheric mercury and both Denmark and Germany have high coal shares in electrical generation. Conversely, electrical generation in France, where the IPK is stored, is mostly nuclear. This theory is supported by the fact that the mass divergence rate—relative to the IPK—of Denmark's prototype, K48, since it took possession in 1949 is an especially high 78 µg per century while that of Germany's prototype has been even greater at 126 µg/century ever since it took possession of K55 in 1954. However, still other data for other replicas isn't supportive of this theory. This mercury absorption theory is just one of many advanced by the specialists to account for the relative change in mass. To date, each theory Kilogram has either proven implausible, or there are insufficient data or technical means to either prove or disprove it. Even well respected organizations incorrectly represent the relative nature of the mass divergence as being one of mass loss, as exemplified by this site at Science Daily, and this site at PhysOrg.com, and this site at Sandia National Laboratories. The root of the problem is often the reporters' failure to correctly interpret or paraphrase nuanced scientific concepts, as exemplified by this 12 September 2007 story by the Associated Press published on PhysOrg.com. In that AP story, Richard Davis—who used to be the NIST's kilogram specialist and now works for the BIPM in France—was correctly quoted by the AP when he stated that the mass change is a relative issue. Then the AP summarized the nature of issue with this lead-in to the story: "A kilogram just isn't what it used to be. The 118-year-old cylinder that is the international prototype for the metric mass, kept tightly under lock and key outside Paris, is mysteriously losing weight - if ever so slightly." Like many of the abovelinked sites, the AP also misreported the age of the IPK, using the date of its adoption as the mass prototype, not the date of the cylinder's manufacture. This is a mistake even Scientific American fell victim to in a print edition. The mean change in mass of the first batch of replicas relative to the IPK over one hundred years is +23.5 µg with a standard deviation of 30 µg. Per The Third Periodic Verification of National Prototypes of the Kilogram (1988–1992), G. Girard, Metrologia 31 (1994) Pg. 323, Table 3. Data is for prototypes K1, K5, K6, K7, K8(41), K12, K16, K18, K20, K21, K24, K32, K34, K35, K36, K37, K38, and K40; and excludes K2, K23, and K39, which are treated as outliers. This is a larger data set than is shown in the chart at the top of this section, which corresponds to Figure 7 of G. Girard's paper. Assuming the past trend continues, whereby the mean change in mass of the first batch of replicas relative to the IPK over one hundred years was +23.5 σ30 µg. The uncertainty in the Avogadro constant narrowed since this proposal was first submitted to American Scientist for publication. The 2006 CODATA value for the Avogadro constant has a relative standard uncertainty of 50 parts per billion and the only cube root values within this uncertainty must fall within the range of 84,446,889.8 ±1.4; that is, there are only three integer cube roots (…89, …90, and …91) in this range and the value 84,446,886 falls outside of it. Unfortunately, none of the three integer values within the range possess the property of their cubes being divisible by twelve; [13] [14] [15] [16] 12 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia one gram of 12C could not comprise an integer number of atoms. If the value 84,446,886 was adopted to define the kilogram, many other constants of nature and electrical units would have to be revised an average of about 0.13 part per million. The straightforward adjustment to this approach advanced by the group would instead define the kilogram as "the mass equal to 84,446,8903 × 83⅓ atoms of carbon‑12." This proposed value for the Avogadro constant (≈6.02214184×1023) falls neatly within the 2006 CODATA value of 6.02214179(30)×1023) and the proposed definition of the kilogram produces an integer number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon‑12 (602,214,183,858,071,454,769,000 atoms), but not for 1 gram or 1 kilogram. [17] The sphere shown in the photograph has an out-ofroundness value (peak to valley on the radius) of 50 nm. According to ACPO, they improved on that with an out-of-roundness of 35 nm. On the 93.6 mm diameter sphere, an out-of-roundness of 35 nm (undulations of ±17.5 nm) is a fractional roundness (∆r /r ) = 3.7×10−7. Scaled to the size of earth, this is equivalent to a maximum deviation from sea level of only 2.4 m. The roundness of that ACPO sphere is exceeded only by two of the four fused-quartz gyroscope rotors flown on Gravity Probe B, which were manufactured in the late 1990s and given their final figure at the W.W. Hansen Experimental Physics Lab at Stanford University. Particularly, "Gyro 4" is recorded in the Guinness database of world records (their database, not in their book) as the world's roundest man-made object. According to a published report (221 kB PDF, here) and the GP‑B public affairs coordinator at Stanford University, of the four gyroscopes onboard the probe, Gyro 4 has a maximum surface undulation from a perfect sphere of 3.4 ±0.4 nm on the 38.1 mm diameter sphere, which is a ∆r /r = 1.8×10−7. Scaled to the size of earth, this is equivalent to an undulation the size of North America rising slowly up out of the sea (in molecular-layer terraces 11.9 cm high), reaching a maximum elevation of 1.14 ±0.13 m in Nebraska, and then gradually sloping back down to sea level on the other side of the continent. [18] In 2003, the same year the first gold-deposition experiments were conducted, physicists found that the only naturally occurring isotope of bismuth, 209Bi, is actually very slightly radioactive, with the longest known radioactive half-life of any naturally occurring element that decays via alpha radiation—a half-life of 19±2×1018 years. As this is 1.4 billion times the age of the universe, 209Bi is considered a stable isotope for most practical Kilogram applications (those unrelated to such disciplines as nucleocosmochronology and geochronology). In other terms, 99.999999983% of the bismuth that existed on earth 4.567 billion years ago still exists today. Only two mononuclidic elements are heavier than bismuth and only one approaches its stability: thorium. Long considered a possible replacement for uranium in nuclear reactors, thorium can cause cancer when inhaled because it is over 1.2 billion times more radioactive than bismuth. It also has such a strong tendency to oxidize that its powders are pyrophoric. These characteristics make thorium unsuitable in ion-deposition experiments. See also Isotopes of bismuth, Isotopes of gold and Isotopes of thorium. [19] Criterion: A combined total of at least 250,000 Google hits on both the U.S. spelling (‑gram) and the U.K./International spelling (‑gramme). [20] The practice of using the abbreviation "mcg" rather than the SI symbol "µg" was formally mandated for medical practitioners in 2004 by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) in their "Do Not Use" List: Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols because hand-written expressions of "µg" can be confused with "mg", resulting in a thousand-fold overdosing. The mandate was also adopted by the Institute for Safe Medication Practices. References [1] [2] ^ "Resolution of the 1st CGPM (1889)". BIMP. http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/1/1/. "Appendix 8 – Customary System of Weights and Measures" (1.6 MB PDF). National Bureau of Standards (predecessor of the NIST). http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/ SP447/app8.pdf. "Frequently Asked Questions". National Research Council Canada. http://inms-ienm.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ faq_mech_e.html#Q1. "Converting Measurements to Metric--NIST FAQs". NIST. http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/faqs/qmetric.htm. "Metric Conversions". U.K. National Weights & Measures Laboratory. http://www.nwml.gov.uk/faqs.aspx?ID=8. "Fed-Std-376B, Preferred Metric Units for General Use By the Federal Government" (294 KB PDF). NIST. http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Metric/upload/ fs376-b.pdf. 94th Meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005) Recommendation 1: Preparative steps towards new definitions of the kilogram, the ampere, the kelvin and the mole in terms of fundamental constants 23rd General Conference on Weights and Measures (2007). Resolution 12: On the possible redefinition [3] [4] 13 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia of certain base units of the International System of Units (SI). ^ "Decree on weights and measures". 7 April 1795. http://smdsi.quartier-rural.org/histoire/18germ_3.htm. "L'histoire du mètre, la détermination de l'unité de poids". http://histoire.du.metre.free.fr/fr/index.htm. Ronald Edward Zupko (1990). Revolution in Measurement: Western European Weights and Measures Since the Age of Science. DIANE Publishing. ^ New Techniques in the Manufacture of PlatinumIridium Mass Standards, T. J. Quinn, Platinum Metals Rev., 1986, 30, (2), pp. 74–79 Water Structure and Science, Water Properties, Density maximum (and molar volume) at temperature of maximum density, a (by London South Bank University). Link to Web site. ^ The Third Periodic Verification of National Prototypes of the Kilogram (1988–1992), G. Girard, Metrologia 31 (1994) 317–336 The Kilogram and Measurements of Mass and Force, Z. J. Jabbour et al., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 106, 2001, 25–46 (3.5 MB PDF, here) ^ Redefinition of the kilogram: a decision whose time has come, Ian M. Mills et al., Metrologia 42 (2005), 71–80 The SI unit of mass, Richard Davis, Metrologia 40 (2003), 299–305 Recalibration of the U.S. National Prototype Kilogram, R. S. Davis, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 90, No. 4, July–August 1985 (5.5 MB PDF, here). ^ Conjecture why the IPK drifts, R. Steiner, NIST, 11 Sept. 2007. Report to the CGPM, 14th meeting of the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), April 2001, 2. (ii); General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003, which stated "The kilogram is in need of a new definition because the mass of the prototype is known to vary by several parts in 108 over periods of time of the order of a month…" (3.2 MB ZIP file, here). BBC, Getting the measure of a kilogram. General section citations: Recalibration of the U.S. National Prototype Kilogram, R. S. Davis, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 90, No. 4, July–August 1985 (5.5 MB PDF, here); and The Kilogram and Measurements of Mass and Force, Z. J. Jabbour et al., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 106, 2001, 25–46 (3.5 MB PDF, here) ^ Uncertainty Improvements of the NIST Electronic Kilogram, RL Steiner et al., Instrumentation and Measurement, IEEE Transactions on, 56 Issue 2, April 2007, 592–596 Georgia Tech, " A Better Definition for the Kilogram?" 21 September 2007 (press release). NPL: Avogadro Project; Australian National Measurement Institute: Redefining the kilogram Kilogram [5] [6] [7] [22] [23] [24] [8] [25] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [26] [15] [16] [27] [28] through the Avogadro constant; and Australian Centre for Precision Optics: The Avogadro Project ^ The German national metrology institute, known as the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB): Working group 1.24, Ion Accumulation General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003 (3.2 MB ZIP file). "An initial measurement of Planck's constant using the NPL Mark II watt balance", I.A. Robinson et al., Metrologia 44 (2007), 427–440; NPL: NPL Watt Balance Joshua P Schwarz et al. (July–August 2001). "Hysteresis and Related Error Mechanisms in the NIST Watt Balance Experiment" (888 KB PDF). Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards and Technology 106 (4). http://nvl.nist.gov/pub/nistpubs/jres/106/4/ j64schw.pdf. B.N. Taylor et al. (1999). "On the redefinition of the kilogram". Metrologia 36: 63–64. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/ 36/1/11. "Fundamental physical constants: "Energy Equivalents" calculator". NIST. http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/ Convert?exp=0&num=1&From=kg&To=hz&Action=Convert+value+and+sh NIST. Beyond the kilogram: redefining the International System of Units. Press release. http://www.nist.gov/ public_affairs/ newsfromnist_beyond_the_kilogram.htm. R. Steiner, A Watt Balance On Its Side, NIST, 24 September 2007. BIPM: SI Brochure: Section 3.2, The kilogram BIPM: SI Brochure: Section 4.1, Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI, and units based on fundamental constants: Table 6 External links External images BIPM: The IPK in three nested bell jars NIST: K20, the US National Prototype Kilogram, resting on an egg crate fluorescent light panel BIPM: Steam cleaning a 1 kg prototype before a mass comparison BIPM: The IPK and its six sister copies in their vault The Age: Silicon sphere for the Avogadro Project NPL: The NPL's Watt Balance project NIST: This particular Rueprecht Balance, an Austrianmade precision balance, was used by the NIST from 1945 until 1960 [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] 14 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia BIPM: The FB‑2 flexure-strip balance, the BIPM's modern precision balance featuring a standard deviation of one ten-billionth of a kilogram (0.1 µg) BIPM: Mettler HK1000 balance, featuring 1 µg resolution and a 4 kg maximum mass. Also used by NIST and Sandia National Laboratories' Primary Standards Laboratory Micro-g LaCoste: FG‑5 absolute gravimeter, (diagram), used in national laboratories to measure gravity to 2 µGal accuracy Kilogram • The U.K.'s National Physical Laboratory (NPL): An overview of the problems with an artifact-based kilogram • NPL: Avogadro Project • NPL: NPL watt balance • Metrology in France: Watt balance • Australian National Measurement Institute: Redefining the kilogram through the Avogadro constant • International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM): Home page • NZZ Folio: What a kilogram really weighs • NPL: What are the differences between mass, weight, force and load? • BBC: Getting the measure of a kilogram • National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): NIST Improves Accuracy of 'Watt Balance' Method for Defining the Kilogram Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram" Categories: SI base units, Units of mass This page was last modified on 15 May 2009, at 05:48 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers 15


text:
Coulson 'received £600,000 pay-off' on quitting NotW
Andy Coulson received a £600,000 leaving package when he resigned as editor of the News of the World over the phone hacking scandal in 2007, the Old Bailey heard today.
Coulson said the agreement he made was for two years' pay plus a month for every year served. He added: "I did not consider that unusual."
Mr Coulson denies one count of conspiring to hack phones and two counts of conspiring to commit misconduct in a public office.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Pipeline Blast Rattles Moundsville Residents
Homeowners Flee as Fireball Erupts Saturday
April 8, 2014
MOUNDSVILLE — Cooking breakfast in his kitchen shortly before 8 a.m. Saturday, Frank Elza J....
Dag nabit ,I thought they were just doing some fourth of july pre testing.
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Wow. No injuries and no property damage. yawn... And no info on HOW many little old ladies reporter-turned-activist Casey Junkins ran over in his race to the site of the non-devastation. Wake me up when you have more than squawking and clucking... zzzzzzzzz......
0 Agrees | 2 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
What is with this whole Big Foot revival movement? Ive seen some people that look like early man, but come on.
0 Agrees | 2 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Ask Williams what percentage of welds were X-rayed and ask them if ANY near YOUR property were!
Go ask ANY welder that works or has worked at PPG, Bayer, AEP, etc etc etc if they EVER were allowed to put a pipeline into service without first passing X-ray!
Their answer will be NEVER!
0 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Now how long they gonna delay rebuilding this thing? Dont let the Eco Jihadists get ahold of this. They will start inventing creatures they say are endangered. Ignoring the endangered humans that cant afford to heat their homes.
2 Agrees | 4 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
ugly: The Sissonville pipeline rupture occurred December 11, 2012. Photos and film of it are rather spectacular. In addition to the burned homes, the pavement on a section of the Interstate actually melted and cracked, and had to be replaced. No info on WHO paid for the repaving. Again, it was a spectacular incident. The National Transportation Safety Board did issue a report of investigation, and lawsuits have been filed.
3 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Wasn't long ago (about 18 months)near Sissonville 5 homes were leveled. I-77 was actually melted. Including the guard rails.Laws today are written to protect corporate interest instead of protecting the citizen. This is completely the opposite of what our founding fathers intended.
3 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
and when you remove the trees on these hillsides without replacing them you will get these slips.learned that in second grade.
4 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Spectra Energy just received FERC approval for a 30 inch pipeline through Jefferson county in Ohio. With Spectra's track record I agree with SaveAppalachia that this will not be the last big boom we see in the Ohio Valley. ***********naturalgaswatch****/?p=1400
5 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
How awful for Elza and others that are in such close proximity. I would not want to be living this way, not knowing when such a mishap can occur. Yet how many of us can walk away from the homes we have payed for and go live someplace else. Horrible way to live.
5 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
No x-ray to check for leaks once the pipelines were hastily built, harsh winter and wet spring will lead to more land slips, this isn't the last big boom we will see folks. Is the pipeline so fragile that a slip can rupture the line?? Either it is, or there are lies being told as to why it really happened. Either way, we are in trouble in the OV as almost every hill has a pipeline now...
4 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
Well either Casey or Mr. Elza is lying. I'm trying to figure out how Mr. Elza could be in the kitchen cooking breakfast and still feel the heat from the initial fireball.
3 Agrees | 6 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
This is the consequence of lobbyists writing the laws to protect the public.
4 Agrees | 0 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
How awful. I hope they wont delay fixing the pipe.
1 Agrees | 1 Disagrees | Report Abuse »
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text:
The titular girl is [[Performer~P73238~Lupe Velez~lupevelez]], a tempestuous cabaret entertainer. [[Performer~P117294~Donald Woods~donaldwoods]] plays a staid American ad man who hires her for a New York nightclub. Woods is engaged to be married, but secretly harbors affection for Velez. The volatile Ms. Velez is less subtle, and actively campaigns for the affections of Woods, with the help of Donald's lovably larcenous Uncle Matt ([[Performer~P22048~Leon Errol~leonerrol]]). Though not intended as such...more
All The Girl from Mexico cast + crew photos
Movies.com, the ultimate source for everything movies, is your destination for new movie trailers, reviews, photos, times, tickets + more! Stay in the know with the latest movie news and cast interviews at Movies.com.


text:
Video profile
Volusia Heart Group
311 N Clyde Morris Blvd
Ste 320
Daytona Beach, FL 32114
Phone Number
Locations and availability (3)
A medical license is required for a doctor to practice medicine in a particular state. Requirements vary by state but most require, at a minimum, post-graduate training in the doctor's specific specialty. An NPI number is a national identifier unique to an individual health care provider and is managed by the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS).
Learn more about Dr. Humayun Jamidar:
View the full profile to get information on:
- Qualifications
- What's important to you
View full profile
Patient Reviews
- Currently 4 of 4 stars
The overall average patient rating of Dr. Humayun Jamidar is Excellent.
Specialties & Research
Dr. Humayun Jamidar, MD is board certified in Internal Medicine, Cardiovascular Disease, and Interventional Cardiology.
- He has special expertise in 5 areas:
- Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS)
- Defibrillators
- Heart Block
- High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
- Unstable Angina
Education & Awards
Dr. Jamidar graduated from The Queen's University Of Belfast, Ireland.
Dr. Jamidar has 12 hospital affiliations:
- Florida Hospital Flagler
- Florida Hospital
Accepted Insurance Plans
Dr. Jamidar accepts these health insurances in at least one office:
- Florida Health Care Plan - 2 plans
- United Healthcare - 2 plans
- Blue Cross Blue Shield of Florida - 9 plans
- Americhoice - 1 plan
- Cigna - 3 plans
- Great-West Healthcare - 3 plans
- Unicare - 2 plans
- AvMed Health Plans - 3 plans
- Humana - 2 plans
- Spanish
Similar doctors nearby
Dr. Arthur Crossman
Dr. Larry Diaz
Dr. Loredo Lawsin
Dr. Thendrex Estrella
Dr. Twethida Oung
Dr. Hassan Alkhatib
- Additional Information
- Where does Dr. Humayun A. Jamidar practice?
Dr. Humayun Jamidar practices Internal Medicine, Cardiovascular Disease, Interventional Cardiology, and Cardiology near Daytona Beach, FL.
Additional practice locations include: Port Orange, FL.
See Daytona Beach Internists and Daytona Beach Cardiologists.


text:
Portobello Market
Restaurants & Cafes
Pubs & Bars
Notting Hill Carnival
About Me
Contact Me
Homewares/Home Design
Farrow & Ball
21/22 Chepstow Corner,
W2 4XE Tel:
020 7221 2328
Website: www.farrow-ball.com
Underground: Notting Hill Gate or Bayswater
The Notting Hill showroom, with a distinctive new look for Farrow & Ball, displays the entire Farrow & Ball colour palette in a full range of interior and exterior eco friendly paint finishes, alongside the complete collection of hand crafted wallpapers, over two floors.
Susie Watson Designs
139 Portland Road, W11
Website: www.susiewatsondesigns.co.uk
Underground: Holland Park or Ladbroke Grove
The fifth Susie Watson Designs store, this beautiful shop on two floors is full of charming and useful handmade products for the home!
11 Blenheim Crescent, W11
Underground: Notting Hill Gate or Ladbroke Grove
Wonderful home accessories (bowls, dishes, lamps, vases) all handmade from fused glass.
The Travel Bookshop
13 Blenheim Crescent, W11 2EE Tel: 020 7229 5260
Website: www.thetravelbookshop.co.uk
Underground: Notting Hill Gate or Ladbroke Grove
In the film (I'll stop going on about it soon, I promise) Hugh Grant's character is the owner of a travel bookshop for which this was the inspiration. This is one of those fantastic little, unique bookshops - a great range of books, informative staff, serenely quiet and where you are able to sit and read without being peered at or pounced on.
Alice & Astrid
30 Artesian Road, W2 Tel: 020 7985 0888
Website: www.aliceandastrid.com
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Beautiful nightwear and ligerie, these items are too good to keep private - you'll want to show them off!
66-68 Ledbury Road, W11 Tel: 020 7229 1515
Website: www.brora.co.uk
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Wonderful range of sumptious cashmere clothes, for men, women and the little kiddies too!
The Dispensary
25 Pembridge Road, W11 Tel: 020 7221 9290
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Stocking "streetwear" fashion, you never know what kind of combinations you'll find here.
Fiorentini + Baker London
302 Westbourne Grove, W11 Tel:
020 7221 5757
Website: www.fiorentini-baker.com
Underground: Notting Hill Gate/Ladbroke Grove
With many celebrity fans (Sarah Jessica Parker, Jennifer Anniston) and a big following already, many shoe addicts will be very pleased to hear of the opening of a Fiorentini + Baker store in London - the first dedicated store outside of Italy, where the line is based. The store stocks each latest collection, as well as a selection of accessories, jewellery and vintage clothing from other designers.
Heidi Klein
174 Westbourne Grove, W11 Tel: 020 7243 5665
Website: www.heidiklein.co.uk
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
For all your (beach and sun) pre-holiday needs - beautiful bikinis, swimsuits, sandals, kaftans and sarongs from various designers. I had my eye on a lovely Missoni bikini...not much use for February in London, sigh. Oh, and aside from kitting yourself out, what else do you need to do before you go on holiday? That's right, waxing and tanning...luckily, these are also available here!!
The Jacksons
5 All Saints Road, W11 Tel: 020 7792 8336
Underground: Ladbroke Grove or Westbourne Park
The place to come for Notting Hill accessories: hats, bags, shoes - and even furry beanbags.
Nakedly Nothing
230 Portobello Road, W11 Tel: 020 7221 2910
Website: www.nothingshop.co.uk
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Stocks own-label women's clothing and accessories.
Question Air
229 Westbourne Grove, W11 Tel: 020 7221 8163
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Fantastic unique pieces. Great selection of jeans, too.
Cath Kidson
158 Portobello Road, W11 Tel:
Website: www.cathkidston.co.uk
Underground: Notting Hill Gate/Ladbroke Grove
A new store, selling delightful products from the Cath Kidson range - homewares, clothing, accessories, kids items and fabrics.
FARA Notting Hill
10 Elgin Crescent, W11 2HX Tel:
020 7243 6381
Underground: Ladbroke Grove
Visitors to the world famous Portobello Market, are drawn to the FARA Charity Shop on Elgin Crescent by the amazing window creations of the talented team. From Tartan Punk to Kitsch - the message of each window is not overstated, rather left to the interpretation of the onlooker and a discussion point of passers-by. Inside, the fitting room walls are daubed in customer's words, international greetings and philosophical reflections. The eclectic mix of clothing, bric-a-brac and books on sale and very high standard of customer service ensures a fascinating and rewarding shopping experience for all those who visit.
Opening Hours: Monday - Saturday 10.00 to 6.00, Sunday 11.00 to 5.00
Children's Stores
Anna Bonas
177 Westbourne Grove, W11 Tel: 020 7229 3160
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Lovely selection of designer jewellery, watches and hangbags.
77 Portobello Road, W11 Tel: 020 7221 0472
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Very wide selection of jewellery at reasonable prices, a bespoke service is available too.
Wild At Heart
Turquoise Island, Westbourne Grove, W11 Tel: 020 7727 3095
Website: www.wildatheart.com
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Although high prices are the order of the day here, the flowers are gorgeous and the actual design of the building that houses this florist is simply stunning (and award-winning too).
Music and Video Exchange
28 & 30 Pembridge Road W11 and 36 & 38 Notting Hill Gate W11
Website: www.mveshops.co.uk
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
All sorts of second-hand records, tapes, CDs and videos including rock, pop, soul, reggae and jazz.
Rough Trade
130 Talbot Road, W11 Tel: 020 7229 8541
Website: www.roughtrade.com
Underground: Notting Hill Gate or Ladbroke Grove
Fantastic music shop selling 12" and 7" singles, LPs and CDs. Looking for that new release, or that recent French house number? Here's the place to come. If you don't know what you're looking for, there's lists of music that the staff recommend displayed on the walls to help guide you on your way. Also the place to pick up flyers to club nights and put up notices to find like-minded musicians to start bands with.
Organic Food
Planet Organic
42 Westbourne Grove, W2 Tel: 020 7221 7171
Website: www.planetorganic.com
Underground: Bayswater or Queensway
A bit away from all the other W11 shops described here, this organic food "supermarket" stocks ordinary groceries as well meat and fresh fish.
African Escape
127 Portobello Road, W11 Tel: 020 7221 6650
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Great selection of African goods, and at good prices too.
195 Westbourne Grove, W11 Tel: 020 7727 8673
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Smell like a celebrity! Well, buy the candles and toiletries that they use, at least.
Wong Singh Jones
253 Portobello Road, W11 Tel: 020 7792 2001
Underground: Notting Hill Gate
Glow in the dark stuff, beaded cutains, 70s goodies, general kitsch pieces - the kind of things you might find in a shop named as it is.


text:
Uncovering Europe's best budget hotels since 2001.
Home > Travel Blog > Rome > Rome Sights >
By Sav D'Souza in Rome—Whether it's dining al fresco, taking in the ancient sights, or paying a visit to one of the many piazzas, Rome offers lots of perfect places to indulge in the pleasure of people watching. The best part? Taking in a passerby or two is free and open to everyone. Just keep those shades on, unless you want to get caught!
Here are four of my favorite spots for people watching in Rome.
The Spanish Steps
Taking its name because of the Spanish ambassador who once lived here, the steps leading up from Piazza di Spagna to the Trinita dei Monti church are ideal for taking a rest after a day's shopping in the nearand all those fabulous tourists and Romans—go by.
Piazza Trilussa
Just over the Ponte Sisto bridge in Trastevere is Piazza Trilussa. This is a lively piazza full of young Romans who congregate till the early hours. On any given evening you could witness anything from an impromptu guitar concert, locals crooning old Calabrian tunes from a bygone era, or see some breakout flamenco dancing. Keep an eye out for the regular, and very amusing exploits, of Indian magician "Guarda". Cheapo tip: There's a small ice cream parlor just off Piazza v.Pallotti where you can grab a few cold bottles of beer for just €1.50 before heading for the piazza.
With a host of fun restaurants and wines bars circling the piazza, this is another ideal spot for watching Romans in their natural environment. Come late into the evening and the place has a more lively frenetic energy to it which can border on the chaotic. On occasion, it's not for the fainthearted. Cheapo tip: Head for La Vineria (Campo de' Fiori, 15) for a perfect ringside seat and great, inexpensive wine by the glass.
Isola Tiberina
At sundown, the Tiber Island is a fantastic place for an easy stroll and a good bout of people watching. It's a wonderfully relaxed and laid back environment. There's an outdoor cinema, and loads of vendors selling all manner of delicious foods. Choose from all manner of bars, grab a drink, and then pop a squat on a cozy sofa—or in the case of one bar—a bed! It's accessible from Ponte Fabricio. Cheapo tip: The cocktails around here can be on the expensive side. Buy a couple of bottles at a local shop beforehand.
How about Piazza Novona? Not as crowded as Campo de'Fiori and the same number of restaurants, lots of artists and musicians. What about plaza area around The Pantheon?
Choose from all manner of bars, grab a drink, and then pop a squat on a cozy sofa—or in the case of one bar—a bed! It's accessible from Ponte Fabricio. Cheapo tip: The cocktails around here can be on the expensive side. Buy a couple of bottles at a local shop beforehand.


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text:
Amazon buys video game streaming company Twitch
In its second-largest acquisition, Amazon buys the company for $970 million.
Amazon buys video game streaming company Twitch
In its second-largest acquisition, Amazon buys the company for $970 million.
Newegg takes same-day delivery into its own hands
The computer and electronics e-retailer is unleashing its own fleet of delivery vehicles in Los Angeles.
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Retailers find success by fulfilling web orders from stores when they have the order management process down right.
Posted 04/02/2014Thad RueterPost a comment
Related Content:Orderdynamics | Ship From Store | Same Day Delivery
Half of the top 10 U.S. e-retailers now invite other merchants to sell through their sites. Will the strategy help rivals slow down Amazon?
Posted 01/06/2014Thad RueterPost a comment
Related Content:Marketplace | Sears | Amazon Prime
Fulfilling web items from stores is not cheap, but it yields benefits.
Posted 06/03/2013Thad RueterPost a comment
Related Content:Ship From Store
Amazon gets into gifting on Facebook.
Posted 01/03/2013Zak StamborPost a comment
Following Amazon's lead, Wal-Mart and the USPS test same-day delivery.
Posted 11/01/2012Thad Rueter1 comments
Related Content:Same Day Delivery
E-commerce in China is big and getting bigger. It's also becoming more innovative.
Posted 10/01/2012Don Davis1 comments
IRCE 2012 reflects the reality of the web's growing role in retail.
Posted 05/01/2012Don DavisPost a comment
Wal-Mart's own think tank, @WalMartLabs, is inviting consumers to compete with new product ideas submitted on YouTube videos. Winners will get a change to sell their products on Walmart.com.
Posted 02/01/2012Zak StamborPost a comment
Amazon and Apple attract most of their web site traffic from outside of North America, but 83% of traffic to Wal-Mart sites comes from the U.S. and Canada
Posted 08/31/2011Thad RueterPost a comment
Show competitors' prices? Some e-retailers say the gains in trust offset the potential loss of sales.
Posted 05/27/2010Don DavisPost a comment


text:
Oprah Winfrey made her film debut in "The Color Purple," a 1985 release from another book adaptation, this time from Alice Walker's novel.
( Warner Bros. )
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If he was my Dad, I would have to go into hiding.
Quote from: BP on June 03, 2007, 11:38:27 PMIf he was my Dad, I would have to go into hiding.I agree, rosin bag grenades scare the hell out of me.
Nice, although your little brother being bald and having a nice goatee makes me laugh inside.
You should hook him and Seed up on a play date...


text:
Tel: (616)361-5483
Grades: PK - 8 | 178 students
Assumption School provides high-quality Christ-centered education for students in preschool through eighth grade.
Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary School is dedicated to providing a quality Catholic education for students in levels K-8.
Our goal is to teach, model, and promote Gospel Values within a God-centered environment.
Our commitment is to living the Good News of Jesus Christ through Message, Community, Worship, and Service.
It is our goal to build a foundation of faith and academic excellence by encouraging educational achievement, sound values, and Christian service.
Our Catholic faith is incorporated into everyday life through teaching, modeling, and promoting gospel values in a God-centered learning environment of love, respect, and discipline.
School Overview
|School Membership(s)School Assoc.
|National Catholic Educational Association (NCEA)
Other school association(s)
|Religious Affiliation
|Roman Catholic
|Grades Offered
|Grades Prekindergarten - 8
|Year Founded
Student Body
|Total Students
|178 students
|Student Body Type
|% Students of Color
State avg.: 14%
|Students by Grade
Academics and Faculty
|Total Classroom Teachers
|9 teachers
|Student : Teacher Ratio
National avg.: 13:1
|% Faculty w/Advanced Degree
|Average Class Size
|19 students
|Classroom Dress Code
Finances and Admission
|Admission Deadline
|None / Rolling
|Yearly Tuition Cost
|Tuition Notes
|Family Plan Available
|% on Financial Aid
|Average Financial Aid Grant
|Acceptance Rate
National avg.: 85%
|Admissions Director
|Mike Micele
|Total Sports Offered
|8 sports
|Baseball, Basketball, Cheering, Cross Country, Football, Soccer, Softball, VolleyballBaseball, Basketball,
Cheering, Cross Country,
Football, Soccer,
Softball, Volleyball,
Nearby Schools:
The nearest high school is NorthPointe Christian Elementary & Pre-School and Middle/High School (5.1 miles away)
The nearest preschool is NorthPointe Christian Elementary & Pre-School and Middle/High School (5.1 miles away)
All Schools |High Schools High Schools |Elementary Schools Elementary Schools |Preschools Preschools |Public Schools Public Schools
Show me:
- School Location Miles Students Grades
Grand Rapids North East KinderCare
6018 Coit Avenue Northeast
Grand Rapids , MI , 49525
(616)361-9177Early Childhood / Day Cares1.9 mi | students | Gr. NS-PK
Rockford Rockford Christian School
Rockford , MI , 49341
(616)574-6400Special Program Emphasis (Christian)4.6 mi | 233 students | Gr. K-9
RockfordOur Lady Of Consolation School
4865 11 Mile Rd Ne
Rockford , MI , 49341
(616)866-2427(Roman Catholic)5 mi | 242 students | Gr. K-9
Grand Rapids NorthPointe Christian Elementary & Pre-School and Middle/High School
540 Russwood NE
Grand Rapids , MI , 49505
(616)363-4869(Christian)5.1 mi | 717 students | Gr. PK-12
Grand RapidsNorthpointe Elementary & Preschool
540 Russwood Street Ne
Grand Rapids , MI , 49505
(616)363-4869(Baptist)5.1 mi | 189 students | Gr. PK-5
School Reviews
Area Statistics
Recent Articles
Updated August 17, 2014
Getting involved with your child's school benefits both you and the school. It's a win-win for all concerned.
SAT test prep takes time to do properly. We explore some of your options here.
Choosing the right private school for your child involves comparing schools as opposed to ranking them.


text:
135 Auburn Ave
Atlanta, GA 30303
Atlanta, GA 30303
Map / Directions »
Phone: 404-523-2739
Tue-Sat 10am-5pm
Editor's Picks, History Museums, Museums
10BEST Says
History Museums: APEX stands for the African-American Panoramic Experience. As you walk through this exhibit, you'll be inundated with images depicting African-American lives from the days of slavery through the Civil War, continuing to the present day. This unique museum combines historic and artistic displays to create a fascinating and informative experience. MARTA: King Memorial