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This article is about the construction material. For other uses, see Concrete (disambiguation).
Concrete is a construction material that consists of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel limestone or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand or manufactured sand and water) and chemical admixtures.
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing and placement due to a chemical process known as hydration.The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. It is used to make pavements, architectural structures, foundations, motorways/roads, overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles.
Concrete is used more than any other man-made material on the planet.[1] As of 2005 about six billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, which equals one cubic meter for every person on Earth. Concrete powers a US $35 billion industry which employs more than two million workers in the United States alone. More than 55,000 miles of freeways and highways in America are made of this material. The People's Republic of China currently consumes 40% of the world's cement [concrete] production.
HistoryIn Serbia, remains of a hut dating from 5600 BC have been found, with a floor made of red lime, sand, and gravel. The pyramids of Shaanxi in China, built thousands of years ago, contain a mixture of lime and volcanic ash or clay.[2]
The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as cement in their concrete. The Egyptians used lime and gypsum cement. In the Roman Empire, concrete made from quicklime, pozzolanic ash/pozzolana and an aggregate made from pumice was very similar to modern Portland cement concrete. The secret of concrete was lost for 13 centuries until in 1756, the British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early 1840s. In modern times the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a byproduct of coal fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount of quarrying and landfill space required. The properties of concrete have been altered since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost resistant. In modern times, researchers have added other materials to create concrete that is extremely strong, and even concrete that can conduct electricity.
CementPortland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. English engineer Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824; it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum). When mixed with water, the resulting powder will become a hydrated solid over time.
High temperature applications, such as masonry ovens and the like, generally require the use of a refractory cement; concretes based on Portland cement can be damaged or destroyed by elevated temperatures, but refractory concretes are better able to withstand such conditions.
WaterPotable water can be used for manufacturing concrete. The water/cement ratio (mass ratio of water to cement) is the key factor that determines the strength of concrete. A lower w/c ratio will yield a concrete which is stronger and more durable, while a higher w/c ratio yields a concrete with a larger slump, so it may be placed more easily.[3] Cement paste is the material formed by combination of water and cementitious materials; that part of the concrete which is not aggregate or reinforcing. The workability or consistency is affected by the water content, the amount of cement paste in the overall mix and the physical characteristics (maximum size, shape, and grading) of the aggregates.
Specifically, for every 4 lbs (or kg) of cement, 1 lb (or kg) of water is needed to complete the hydration reaction. This results in a water/cement ratio of 1/4 or 25%. In reality, a batch of concrete made with a 25% ratio would be too dry to be workable, so ratios of 35% to 40% are used, with plasticizers added to increase workability if needed.
AggregatesThe water and cement paste hardens and develops strength over time. In order to ensure an economical and practical solution, both fine and coarse aggregates are utilised to make up the bulk of the concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. However, it is increasingly common for recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) to be used as partial replacements of natural aggregates, whilst a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers.
Typically, a batch of concrete can be made by using 1 part portland cement, 2 parts dry sand, 3 parts dry stone, 1/2 part water. The parts are in terms of weight - not volume. For example, 1 cubic foot of concrete would be made using 22 lbs cement, 10 lbs water, 41 lbs dry sand, 70 lbs dry stone (1/2" to 3/4" stone). This would make 1 cubic foot of cement and would weigh about 143 lbs. The sand should be mortar or brick sand (washed and filtered if possible) and the stone should be washed if possible. Organic materials (leaves, twigs, etc) should be removed from the sand and stone to insure the highest strength.
Chemical admixturesChemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.[4] The most common types of admixtures are:
- Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Without accelerants, concrete may take centuries to cure. Craig Taylor at Los Alamos says "The cement in the Great Wall of China has not yet reached a chemically neutral state. But the supercritical carbon dioxide treatment achieves the chemically stable condition in minutes or hours." http://www.lanl.gov/news/index.php/fuseaction/home.story/story_id/1552.
- Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
- Air-entrainers add and distribute tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's durability. However, entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air may result in 5% decrease in compressive strength.
- Plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort.
- Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of plasticizers which have fewer deleterious effects when used to significantly increase workability. Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete (and have been called water reducers due to this application) while maintaining workability. This improves its strength and durability characteristics.
- Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
- Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
- Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
- Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and reduce dewatering of the paste.
Mineral admixtures and blended cementsThere are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties. These very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures),[4] or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements).[5]
- Fly ash: A by product of coal fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.[6]
- Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by product of steel production, is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.[7]
- Silica fume: A byproduct of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for workability.[8]
- High Reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is important.
FibersShort fibers of steel, glass, synthetic or natural materials can be incorporated in the concrete during mixing. See Fiber reinforced concrete.
Mixing concreteThorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality concrete. Therefore, equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work. Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete.[9] The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water, and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.[10]
High-Energy Mixed Concrete (HEM concrete) is produced by means of high-speed mixing of cement, water and sand with net specific energy consumption at least 5 kilojoules per kilogram of the mix. It is then added to a plasticizer admixture and mixed after that with aggregates in conventional mixer. This paste can be used itself or foamed (expanded) for lightweight concrete.[11] Sand effectively dissipates energy in this mixing process. HEM concrete fast hardens in ordinary and low temperature conditions, and possesses increased volume of gel, drastically reducing capillarity in solid and porous materials. It is recommended for precast concrete in order to reduce quantity of cement, as well as concrete roof and siding tiles, paving stones and lightweight concrete block production.
CharacteristicsDuring hydration and hardening, concrete needs to develop certain physical and chemical properties. Among other qualities, mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability are necessary.
WorkabilityWorkability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration), and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive water will lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be readily made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
Workability can be measured by the "slump test," a simplistic measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod in order to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity. A relatively dry sample will slump very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175 mm).
Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as mid-range or high-range water reducing agents (super-plasticizers) without changing the water/cement ratio. It is bad practice to add extra water at the concrete mixer.
High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
CuringBecause the cement requires time to fully hydrate before it acquires strength and hardness, concrete must be cured once it has been placed and achieved initial setting. Curing is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition until hydration is relatively complete. Good curing is typically considered to provide a moist environment and control temperature. A moist environment promotes hydration, since increased hydration lowers permeability and increases strength resulting in a higher quality material. Allowing the concrete surface to dry out excessively can result in tensile stresses, which the still-hydrating interior cannot withstand, causing the concrete to crack.
Also, the amount of heat generated by the exothermic chemical process of hydration can be problematic for very large placements. Allowing the concrete to freeze in cold climates before the curing is complete will interrupt the hydration process, reducing the concrete strength and leading to scaling and other damage or failure.
The effects of curing are primarily a function of geometry (the relation between exposed surface area and volume), the permeability of the concrete, curing time, and curing history.
Improper curing can lead to several serviceability problems including cracking, increased scaling, and reduced abrasion resistance.
StrengthConcrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength (about 10% of the compressive strength). As a result, concrete always fails from tensile stresses — even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete elements subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced. Concrete is most often constructed with the addition of steel or fiber reinforcement. The reinforcement can be by bars (rebar), mesh, or fibres, producing reinforced concrete. Concrete can also be prestressed (reducing tensile stress) using internal steel cables (tendons), allowing for beams or slabs with a longer span than is practical with reinforced concrete alone. Inspection of concrete structures must be non-destructive, so equipment such as a Schmidt hammer is used to estimate concrete strength.
The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cement ratio (w/c) [water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm)], the design constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed. All things being equal, concrete with a lower water-cement (cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than a higher ratio. The total quantity of cementitious materials (Portland cement, slag cement, pozzolans) can affect strength, water demand, shrinkage, abrasion resistance and density. As concrete is a liquid which hydrates to a solid, plastic shrinkage cracks can occur soon after placement; but if the evaporation rate is high, they often can occur during finishing operations (for example in hot weather or a breezy day). If no restraints existed the concrete would simply shrink, aggregate interlock and steel reinforcement cause tensile stresses to develop within the concrete and due to its low tensile strength, has the effect of plastic shrinkage cracking of various depths at the surface. Properly tooled control joints or saw cuts in slabs provide a plane of weakness so that cracks occur unseen inside the joint, making a nice aesthetic presentation. In very high strength concrete mixtures (greater than 10,000 psi), the strength of the aggregate can be a limiting factor to the ultimate compressive strength. In lean concretes (with a high water-cement ratio) the use of coarse aggregate with a round shape may reduce aggregate interlock.
Experimentation with various mix designs begins by specifying desired "workability" as defined by a given slump, durability requirements, and the required 28 day compressive strength. The characteristics of the cementitious content, coarse and fine aggregates, and chemical admixtures determine the water demand of the mix in order to achieve the desired workability. The 28 day compressive strength is obtained by determination of the correct amount of cementitious to achieve the required water-cement ratio. Only with very high strength concrete does the strength and shape of the coarse aggregate become critical in determining ultimate compressive strength.
The internal forces in certain shapes of structure, such as arches and vaults, are predominantly compressive forces, and therefore concrete is the preferred construction material for such structures.
Wired.com reported on April 13th, 2007, that a team from the University of Tehran, competing in a contest sponsored by the American Concrete Institute, demonstrated several blocks of concretes with abnormally high compressive strengths between 50,000 and 60,000 PSI at 28 days[1]. The blocks appeared to use an aggregate of steel fibres and quartz -- a mineral with a compressive strength of 160,000 PSI, much higher than typical high-strength aggregates such as granite (15,000-20,000 PSI).
C20 is a standard abbreviation for a mix of concrete that has a compressive strength of 20 N/mm²(2900psi).
ElasticityThe modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is relatively linear at low stress levels but becomes increasing non-linear as matrix cracking develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-30 GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to 50 GPa.
Expansion and shrinkageConcrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However if no provision is made for expansion very large forces can be created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not capable of withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and contraction.
As concrete matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing reaction taking place in the material, although the rate of shrinkage falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time (for all practical purposes concrete is usually considered to not shrink any further after 30 years). The relative shrinkage and expansion of concrete and brickwork require careful accommodation when the two forms of construction interface.
Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to it's originally-placed volume.
CrackingConcrete cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or by applied loading. Engineers are familiar with the tendency of concrete to crack, and where appropriate, special design precautions are taken to ensure crack control. This entails the incorporation of secondary reinforcing, for example deformed steel bars, placed at the desired spacing to limit the crack width to an acceptable level. Water retaining structures and concrete highways are examples of structures where crack control is exercised. The objective is to encourage a large number of very small cracks, rather than a small number of large, randomly-occurring cracks.
All concrete structures will crack to some extent. One of the early designers of reinforced concrete, Robert Maillart, employed reinforced concrete in a number of arched bridges. His first bridge was very simple, using a large volume of concrete, and Maillart noticed that large areas of the structure were very cracked. He then realised that if the concrete was very cracked, it must not be contributing to the strength of the structure - but yet the structure clearly worked. Therefore, his later designs simply removed the cracked areas, leading to slender, beautiful concrete arches. The Salginatobel Bridge is an example of this.
Cracking is also a primary indicator of structural distress in reinforced concrete elements. For example, a properly designed reinforced concrete beam failing as a result of overloading will exhibit a pronounced increase in the number and width of cracks. This can allow remediation, repair, or if necessary, evacuation of an unsafe area.
Shrinkage crackingShrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage, or thermal effects. Restraint is provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other boundary conditions) or internally (differential drying shrinkage, reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, a crack will develop. the number and width of shrinkage cracks that develop are influenced by the amount of shrinkage that occurs, the amount of restraint present, and the amount and spacing of reinforcement provided.
Concrete is placed while in a wet (or plastic) state, and therefore can be manipulated and moulded as needed. Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained significant strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased by keeping it damp for a longer period during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement, which increases shrinkage and cracking.
Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within 0 to 2 days of placement, while drying-shrinkage cracks develop over time. Precautions such as mixture selection and joint spacing can be taken to encourage cracks to occur within an aesthetic joint instead of randomly.
Tension crackingConcrete members may be put into tension by applied loads. This is most common in concrete beams, where a transversely applied load will put one surface into compression and the opposite surface into tension (due to induced bending). The portion of the beam that is in tension may crack - the size and length of cracks is dependent on the magnitude of the bending moment and the design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point under consideration. Reinforced concrete beams are designed to crack in tension rather than in compression. This is achieved by providing reinforcing steel which yields before failure of the concrete in compression occurs and in so doing provides a warning mechanism.
CreepCreep is the term used to describe the permanent movement or deformation of a material in order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete which is subjected to forces is prone to creep. Creep can sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a concrete structure or element, but it also must be controlled. The amount of primary and secondary reinforcing in concrete structures contributes to a reduction in the amount of shrinkage, creep and cracking.
Physical PropertiesThe coefficient of thermal expansion of Portland cement concrete is 0.000008 to 0.000012 (per degree Celsius).[12]
The density varies, but is around 150 pounds per cubic foot (2400 kg/m³).[13]
Damage modes
FireDue to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing of steel structures. However, concrete itself may be damaged by fire.
Up to about 300 °C, the concrete undergoes normal thermal expansion. Above that temperature, shrinkage occurs due to water loss; however, the aggregate continues expanding, which causes internal stresses. Up to about 500 °C, the major structural changes are carbonation and coarsening of pores. At 573 °C, quartz undergoes rapid expansion due to Phase transition, and at 900 °C calcite starts shrinking due to decomposition. At 450-550 °C the cement hydrate decomposes, yielding calcium oxide. Calcium carbonate decomposes at about 600 °C. Rehydration of the calcium oxide on cooling of the structure causes expansion, which can cause damage to material which withstood fire without falling apart. Concrete in buildings that experienced a fire and were left standing for several years shows extensive degree of carbonation.
Concrete exposed to up to 100 °C is normally considered as healthy. The parts of a concrete structure that is exposed to temperatures above approximately 300 °C (dependent of water/cement ratio) will most likely get a pink color. Over approximately 600 °C the concrete will turn light grey, and over approximately 1000 °C it turns yellow-brown[14] One rule of thumb is to consider all pink colored concrete as damaged, and to be removed.
Fire will expose the concrete to gasses and liquids that can be harmful to the concrete, among other salts and acids that occur when fire-gasses get in contact with water.
Aggregate expansionVarious types of aggregate undergo chemical reactions in concrete, leading to damaging expansive phenomena. The most common are those containing reactive silica, that can react (in the presence of water) with the alkalis in concrete (K2O and Na2O, coming principally from cement). Among the more reactive mineral components of some aggregates are opal, chalcedony, flint and strained quartz. Following the reaction (Alkali Silica Reaction or ASR), an expansive gel forms, that creates extensive cracks and damage on structural members. On the surface of concrete pavements the ASR can cause pop-outs, i.e. the expulsion of small cones (up to 3 cm about in diameter) in correspondence of aggregate particles. When some aggregates containing dolomite are used, a dedolomitization reaction occurs where the magnesium carbonate compound reacts with hydroxyl ions and yields magnesium hydroxide and a carbonate ion. The resulting expansion may cause destruction of the material. Far less common are pop-outs caused by the presence of pyrite, an iron sulfide that generates expansion by forming iron oxide and ettringite. Other reactions and recrystallizations, e.g. hydration of clay minerals in some aggregates, may lead to destructive expansion as well.
Sea water effectsConcrete exposed to sea water is susceptible to its corrosive effects. The effects are more pronounced above the tidal zone than where the concrete is permanently submerged. In the submerged zone, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate ions precipitate about 30 micrometers thick layer of brucite on which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as aragonite occurs. These layers somewhat protect the concrete from other processes, which include attack by magnesium, chloride and sulfate ions and carbonation. Above the water surface, mechanical damage may occur by erosion by waves themselves or sand and gravel they carry, and by crystallization of salts from water soaking into the concrete pores and then drying up. Pozzolanic cements and cements using more than 60% of slag as aggregate are more resistant to sea water than pure Portland cement.
Bacterial corrosionBacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect on concrete. However, anaerobic bacteria in untreated sewage tend to produce hydrogen sulfide, which is then oxidized by aerobic bacteria present in biofilm on the concrete surface above the water level to sulfuric acid which dissolves the carbonates in the cured cement and causes strength loss. Concrete floors lying on ground containing pyrite are also at risk. Using limestone as the aggregate makes the concrete more resistant to acids, and the sewage may be pretreated by ways increasing pH or oxidizing or precipitating the sulphides in order to inhibit the activity of sulphide utilizing bacteria.
Chemical attacks
ChloridesChlorides, particularly calcium chloride, have been used to shorten the setting time of concrete.[15] However, calcium chloride and (to a lesser extent) sodium chloride have been shown to leach calcium hydroxide and cause chemical changes in Portland cement, leading to loss of strength,[16] as well as attacking the steel reinforcement present in most concrete.
SulphatesSulphates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical changes to the cement, which can cause significant microstructural effects leading to the weakening of the cement binder.
Physical damage
Types of concreteVarious types of concrete have been developed for specialist application and have become known by these names.
Regular concrete
High-strength concreteHigh-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally greater than 6,000 pounds/square inch (40 MPa). High-strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (w/c) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate bond.
Low w/c ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability, superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as normally occurs in regular concrete.
In some applications of high-strength concrete the design criterion is the elastic modulus rather than the ultimate compressive strength.
High-performance concreteHigh-performance concrete (HPC) is a relatively new term used to describe concrete that conforms to a set of standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all high-performance concrete is high-strength. Some examples of such standards currently used in relation to HPC are:
- Ease of placement
- Compaction without segregation
- Early age strength
- Long-term mechanical properties
- Permeability
- Density
- Heat of hydration
- Toughness
- Volume stability
- Long life in severe environments
Self-compacting concretesDuring the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed concretes that are self-compacting, known as self-consolidating concrete in the United States. These self-compacting concretes (SCCs) are characterized by:
- extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 700-750 mm, rather than slump
- no need for vibrators to compact the concrete
- placement is simpler
- no bleed water, or aggregate segregation
- no need for a viscosity modifying agent (VMA)
As of 2005, self-compacting concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some European countries. In the US precast concrete industry, SCC represents over 75% of concrete production. 38 departments of transportation in the US accept the use of SCC for road and bridge projects.
This emerging technology is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates instead of older "high-range water reducers", and viscosity modifiers to address aggregate segregation.
The term Gunite is occasionally used for shotcrete, but properly refers only to dry-mix shotcrete, and once was a proprietary name.
Pervious concretePervious concrete is sometimes specified by engineers and architects when porosity is required to allow some air movement or to facillitate the drainage and flow of water through structures. Pervious concrete is referred to as "no fines" concrete because it is manufactured by leaving out the sand or "fine aggregate". A pervious concrete mixture contains little or no sand (fines), creating a substantial void content. Using sufficient paste to coat and bind the aggregate particles together creates a system of highly permeable, interconnected voids that drains quickly. Typically, between 15% and 25% voids are achieved in the hardened concrete, and flow rates for water through pervious concrete are typically around 480 in./hr (0.34 cm/s, which is 5 gal/ft²/ min or 200 L/m²/min), although they can be much higher. Both the low mortar content and high porosity also reduce strength compared to conventional concrete mixtures, but sufficient strength for many applications is readily achieved.
Pervious concrete pavement is a unique and effective means to address important environmental issues and support sustainable growth. By capturing rainwater and allowing it to seep into the ground, porous concrete is instrumental in recharging groundwater, reducing stormwater runoff, and meeting US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stormwater regulations. The use of pervious concrete is among the Best Management Practices (BMPs) recommended by the EPA, and by other agencies and geotechnical engineers across the country, for the management of stormwater runoff on a regional and local basis. This pavement technology creates more efficient land use by eliminating the need for retention ponds, swales, and other stormwater management devices. In doing so, pervious concrete has the ability to lower overall project costs on a first-cost basis.
Cellular concreteAerated concrete produced by the addition of an air entraining agent to the concrete (or a lightweight aggregate like expanded clay pellets or cork granules and vermiculite ) is sometimes called Cellular concrete. See also aerated autoclaved concrete.
Cork-cement compositesCork granules are obtained during production of bottle stoppers from the treated bark of Cork oak or Quercus suber trees.[18] These trees are mainly found in Portugal, Spain and North Africa.[19] Portugal is the largest cork producing country, followed by Spain. The waste cork granules have a density of about 300 kg/m³, which is lower than that of most of the lightweight aggregates used for making lightweight concrete. It has been found that cork granules do not significantly influence cement hydration. However, cork dust can influence hydration.[20] Cork cement composites have several advantages over standard concrete, such as lower thermal conductivities, lower densities and good energy absorption characteristics. These composites can be made of density (400 -1500 kg/m³), compressive strength (1-26 MPa) and flexural strength (0.5 – 4.0 MPa).
Roller-compacted concreteRoller-compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong monolithic block.[21] Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as the low cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours.
Glass concreteThe use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times, with large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the concrete.
Asphalt concreteStrictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous materials replacing cement as the binder.
Rapid strength concreteThis type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after been manufactured. This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork early and to move forward in the building process at record time, repair road surfaces that become fully operational in just few hours.
Rubberized concreteWhile "rubberized asphalt concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete ("rubberized PCC") is still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2007 [2] [3] [4] [5].
Polymer ConcretePolymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate. Polymer concrete can gain a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example, a polymer mix may reach 5000 psi in only four hours. Polymer concrete is generally more expensive than conventional concretes.
LimecreteLimecrete or lime concrete is concrete where cement is replaced by lime.[22]
Concrete testingsquare inch (psi). Twenty eight days is a long wait to determine if desired strengths are going to be obtained, so three-day and seven-day strengths can be useful to predict the ultimate 28-day compressive strength of the concrete. A 25% strength gain between 7 and 28 days is often observed with 100% OPC (ordinary Portland cement) mixtures, and up to 40% strength gain can be realized with the inclusion of pozzolans and supplementary cementitious materials (SCM's) such as fly ash and/or slag cement. As strength gain depends on the type of mixture, its constituents, the use of standard curing, proper testing and care of cylinders in transport, etc. it becomes imperative to proactively rely on testing the fundamental properties of concrete in its fresh, plastic state.
Concrete is typically sampled while being placed, with testing protocols requiring that test samples be cured under laboratory conditions (standard cured). Additional samples may be field cured (non-standard) for the purpose of early 'stripping' strengths, that is, form removal, evaluation of curing, etc. but the standard cured cylinders comprise acceptance criteria. Concrete tests can measure the "plastic" (unhydrated) properties of concrete prior to, and during placement. As these properties affect the hardened compressive strength and durability of concrete (resistance to freeze-thaw) , the properties of slump (workability), temperature, density and age are monitored to ensure the production and placement of 'quality' concrete. Tests are performed per ASTM International or CSA (Canadian Standards Association) and European methods and practices. Technicians performing concrete tests MUST be certified. Structural design, material design and properties are often specified in accordance with ACI International code (www.concrete.org); with test methods, production and delivery under the "prescription" or "performance" purchasing options per ASTM C94 (www.astm.org).
Compressive strength tests are conducted using an instrumented hydraulic ram to compress a cylindrical or cubic sample to failure. Tensile strength tests are conducted either by three-point bending of a prismatic beam specimen or by compression along the sides of a cylindrical specimen.
Concrete recycling
Pieces of concrete collected from demolition sites are put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks, and rocks. Crushing facilities accept only uncontaminated concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials. Metals such as rebar are accepted, since they can be removed with magnets and other sorting devices and melted down for recycling elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits the strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On March 3rd, 1983, a government funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) started a global research project on the recycling of different construction materials. They approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was biproducts of concrete based waste.
Recycling concrete provides environmental benefits, as recycling concrete saves landfill space and using recycled concrete as aggregate reduces the need for gravel mining.
Use of concrete in structures
Mass concrete structuresThese include gravity dams such as the Hoover Dam and the Three Gorges Dam and large breakwaters. Concrete that is poured all at once in one block (so that there are no weak points where the concrete is "welded" together) is used for tornado shelters.
Reinforced concrete structures
Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing that is designed and placed in structural members at specific positions to cater for all the stress conditions that the member is required to accommodate.
Prestressed concrete structures
The prestressing is achieved by using steel tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting the concrete, in pre-tensioned concrete, or only later once the concrete has cured, in post-tensioned concrete.
See also
- Aerated Autoclaved Concrete
- Anthropic rock
- Asphalt concrete
- Brutalist architecture, encouraging visible concrete surfaces.
- Building construction
- Cement
- Concrete canoe
- Concrete mixer
- Concrete masonry unit
- Concrete recycling
- Controlled Permeability Formwork
- Decorative concrete
- Fibre reinforced concrete
- Fireproofing
- Formwork
- Litracon
- High performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites
- High Reactivity Metakaolin
- Mortar
- Papercrete, a composite material of paper and cement or clay
- Plasticizer
- Portland cement
- Precast concrete
- Prefabricated
- Prestressed concrete
- Pykrete, a composite material of ice and cellulose
- Ready-mix concrete
- Reinforced concrete
- Seacrete
- Slab-on-grade foundations
1. ^ The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, by Bjorn Lomborg, p 138.
2. ^ Wild, Stan (27 Jan. 2007). "Concrete evidence". New Scientist (2588): 21.
3. ^ [6]
4. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Admixtures. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
5. ^ Kosmatka, S.H.; Panarese, W.C. (1988). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Skokie, IL, USA: Portland Cement Association, pp. 17, 42, 70, 184. ISBN 0-89312-087-1.
6. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Fly Ash. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
7. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
8. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Silica Fume. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
9. ^ Premixed Cement Paste
10. ^ Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
11. ^ U.S. Patent 5,443,313 - Method for producing construction mixture for concrete
12. ^ [7]
13. ^ [8]
14. ^ Norwegian Building Research Institute, publication 24. Fire-damage to buildings.
15. ^ Accelerating Concrete Set Time (1 June 1999). Retrieved on 16 January 2007.
16. ^ ;Kejin Wanga, Daniel E. Nelsena and Wilfrid A. Nixon, "Damaging effects of deicing chemicals on concrete materials", Cement and Concrete Composites Vol. 28(2), pp 173-188. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2005.07.006
17. ^ [9]
18. ^ Gibson, L.J. & Ashby, M.F. 1999. Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties; 2nd Edition (Paperback), Cambridge Uni. Press. pp.453-467.
19. ^ Olley, P. 1992. Cork. In: Doran, D.K.(Ed.). Construction Materials Reference Book, Chapter 26. Butterworth, Oxford. pp. 26/1-5.
20. ^ Karade S.R., Irle M.A., Maher K. 2006. Influence of granule properties and concentration on cork-cement compatibility. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff. 64: 281–286 (DOI 10.1007/s00107-006-0103-2).
21. ^ [10]
22. ^ An Investigation Into The Feasibility Of Timber And Limecrete Composite Flooring
2. ^ Wild, Stan (27 Jan. 2007). "Concrete evidence". New Scientist (2588): 21.
3. ^ [6]
4. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Admixtures. Retrieved on 2007-01-25.
5. ^ Kosmatka, S.H.; Panarese, W.C. (1988). Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Skokie, IL, USA: Portland Cement Association, pp. 17, 42, 70, 184. ISBN 0-89312-087-1.
6. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Fly Ash. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
7. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
8. ^ U.S. Federal Highway Administration. Silica Fume. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
9. ^ Premixed Cement Paste
10. ^ Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete
11. ^ U.S. Patent 5,443,313 - Method for producing construction mixture for concrete
12. ^ [7]
13. ^ [8]
14. ^ Norwegian Building Research Institute, publication 24. Fire-damage to buildings.
15. ^ Accelerating Concrete Set Time (1 June 1999). Retrieved on 16 January 2007.
16. ^ ;Kejin Wanga, Daniel E. Nelsena and Wilfrid A. Nixon, "Damaging effects of deicing chemicals on concrete materials", Cement and Concrete Composites Vol. 28(2), pp 173-188. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2005.07.006
17. ^ [9]
18. ^ Gibson, L.J. & Ashby, M.F. 1999. Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties; 2nd Edition (Paperback), Cambridge Uni. Press. pp.453-467.
19. ^ Olley, P. 1992. Cork. In: Doran, D.K.(Ed.). Construction Materials Reference Book, Chapter 26. Butterworth, Oxford. pp. 26/1-5.
20. ^ Karade S.R., Irle M.A., Maher K. 2006. Influence of granule properties and concentration on cork-cement compatibility. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff. 64: 281–286 (DOI 10.1007/s00107-006-0103-2).
21. ^ [10]
22. ^ An Investigation Into The Feasibility Of Timber And Limecrete Composite Flooring
External links
- American Concrete Institute, ACI
- American Concrete Pavement Association, ACPA
- History of Concrete
- Effect of curing on the tensile strength of medium to high strength concrete
- Cement Concrete & Aggregates AustraliaPDF (1.12 MiB) - Concrete basics
Types of road
Access via interchanges
|Autobahn • Autopista • Autostrada • Autostrasse • Auto-estrada • Expressway • Freeway • Lebuhraya • Motorway
Other types of access
|2+1 road • Divided highway • Expressway • Farm-to-market road • Highway • Parkway • Super two • Two-lane freeway • Collector-distributor road • Express-collector setup
|Low speed
|Arterial road • Boulevard • Frontage road • Road • Street
|Low speed low traffic
|Alley • Cul-de-sac • Driveway • Lane
|Dual carriageway • Interchange • Range road • Concession road • County road • Roundabout • Toll road
|Surface types
|Asphalt concrete • Brick • Cobblestone • Concrete • Corduroy road • Dirt road • Gravel road • Ice road • Macadam • Oiled road (Bitumen) • Plank road • Tarmac • Winter road
Concrete can refer to:
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- Concrete (material), a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and cement binder
- Reinforced concrete, also called ferroconcrete in some countries, is concrete with embedded reinforcement
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In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The name "cement" goes back to the Romans who used the term "opus caementitium" to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was
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Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage in many parts of the world, as it is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco and most non-specialty grout.
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Fly ash (one of several coal combustion products, or CCPs) is the finely divided mineral residue resulting from the combustion of coal in electric generating plants. Fly ash consists of inorganic, incombustible matter present in the coal that has been fused during combustion into a
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Construction aggregate, or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of coarse particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, and recycled concrete.
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Gravel is rock that is of a certain particle size range. In geology, gravel is any loose rock that is at least two millimeters (2mm) in its largest dimension (about 1/12 of an inch) and no more than 75 millimeters (about 3 inches).
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Sand is a granular material made up of fine mineral particles. It is a naturally occurring, finely divided rock.
Sand comprises particles, or granules, ranging in diameter from 0.0625 (or 1⁄16 mm) to 2 millimeters.
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Sand comprises particles, or granules, ranging in diameter from 0.0625 (or 1⁄16 mm) to 2 millimeters.
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Water (H2O, HOH) is the most abundant molecule on Earth's surface, composing of about 70% of the Earth's surface as liquid and solid state in addition to being found in the atmosphere as a vapor.
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chemical reaction is a process that results in the interconversion of chemical substances.[1] The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
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Mineral hydration is an inorganic chemical reaction where water is added to the crystal structure of a mineral, usually creating a new mineral, usually called a hydrate.
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sidewalk (chiefly North American English), pavement (British English and Philadelphia dialect), footpath (Australian English, Irish English, Indian English and New Zealand English) or footway
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An architectural structure is a free-standing, immobile outdoor construction.
The structure may be permanent. Typical examples include buildings and nonbuilding structures such as bridges, dams, electricity pylons, and radio masts.
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The structure may be permanent. Typical examples include buildings and nonbuilding structures such as bridges, dams, electricity pylons, and radio masts.
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A foundation is a structure that transfers loads to the ground. Foundations are generally broken into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations.
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Shallow foundations
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Motorway is a term for both a type of road and a classification or designation. Motorways are high capacity roads designed to carry fast motor traffic safely. In the UK they are predominantly dual-carriageway roads, with two, three or four lanes in each direction (usually three),
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road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places.[1] Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[2]
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overpass (called a flyover in the UK and most Commonwealth countries) is a bridge, road, railway or similar structure that crosses over another road or railway.
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Parking is the act of stopping a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied for more than a brief time. It is against the law virtually everywhere to park a vehicle in the middle of a highway or road; parking on one or both sides of a road, however, is commonly permitted.
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brick is red and bad for your teeth.
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HistoryThe oldest shaped bricks found date back to 7,500 B.C . They have been found in Çayönü, a place located in the upper Tigris area in south east Anatolia close to Diyarbakir.
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Block may refer to:
Objects that resemble rectangular prisms:
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Objects that resemble rectangular prisms:
- A large concrete or stone brick
- Block (sailing), a single or multiple pulley used on sailboats
- Cylinder block, the main part of an internal combustion engine
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The word footing has a number of meanings:
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- Architecture, Foundation (architecture)
- Translation Science, Footing (translation theory)
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fence is a freestanding structure designed to restrict or prevent movement across a boundary. It is generally distinguished from a wall by the lightness of its construction: a wall is usually restricted to such barriers made from solid brick or concrete, blocking vision as well as
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Pole may refer to:
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- A solid cylindrical object with length greater than its diameter e.g:
- Barber's pole, advertising a barber shop;
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20th century - 21st century - 22nd century
1970s 1980s 1990s - 2000s - 2010s 2020s 2030s
2002 2003 2004 - 2005 - 2006 2007 2008
2005 by topic:
News by month
Jan - Feb - Mar - Apr - May - Jun
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1970s 1980s 1990s - 2000s - 2010s 2020s 2030s
2002 2003 2004 - 2005 - 2006 2007 2008
2005 by topic:
News by month
Jan - Feb - Mar - Apr - May - Jun
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1,000,000,000 (alternately known as one thousand million and one billion, see below) is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001.
In scientific notation, it is written as 109.
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In scientific notation, it is written as 109.
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cubic metre (symbol m³) is the SI derived unit of volume. It is the volume of a cube with edges one metre in length. In the United States it is spelled cubic meter. An alternate name, which allowed a different usage with SI prefixes, was the stère.
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"In God We Trust" (since 1956)
"E Pluribus Unum" ("From Many, One"; Latin, traditional)
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"In God We Trust" (since 1956)
"E Pluribus Unum" ("From Many, One"; Latin, traditional)
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1 mile =
SI units
0 m 0 km
US customary / Imperial units
0 ft 0 yd
SI units
0 m 0 km
US customary / Imperial units
0 ft 0 yd
"Miles" redirects here. For other uses, see Miles (disambiguation).
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freeway — also known as a highway, superhighway, autoroute, autobahn, autopista, autovía, autostrada, dual carriageway, expressway, or motorway — is a type of road designed for safer high-speed operation of motor vehicles through the elimination of at-grade
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Highway is a term commonly used to designate major roads intended for travel by the public between important destinations, such as cities. The term highway can also be varied country-to-country, and can be referred to a road, freeway, superhighway,
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March of the Volunteers (义勇军进行曲)
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March of the Volunteers (义勇军进行曲)
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This article is copied from an article on Wikipedia.org - the free encyclopedia created and edited by online user community. The text was not checked or edited by anyone on our staff. Although the vast majority of the wikipedia encyclopedia articles provide accurate and timely information please do not assume the accuracy of any particular article. This article is distributed under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License.


text:
Following the explosive return of Grammy award-winning trio, Dirty Vegas, with 2011's 'Electric Love', the trio offer a blazing set of remixes of 'Emma', one of the standout tracks of the album. This release features remixes from Fred Falke, Tim Goldsworthy, Black Strobe, and Pezzner.
This compilation of remixes span across flavors and influences, and the notable group of remixers come together to deliver a solidly-represented release: Fred Falke's other recent remixes include Little Boots, U2, The Gossip, Grizzly Bear, Lykke Li, La Roux, Metronomy and more. Tim Goldsworthy is the producer of UNKLE, The Rapture, Hercules & Love Affair, Cut Copy, Phoenix and has collaborated with Massive Attack and James Murphy of LCD Soundsystem. Black Strobe and Pezzner both Top 5 artists on Beatport. Black Strobe has repeatedly charted on Juno Download as a #1 artist. Preview all of the tracks on our soundcloud, listen to the full tracks on our youtube, and download them from beatport!
Dirty Vegas – Emma (Remixes) [Preview] by OmRecords
Posted in: Music
// Advertise // Om Creative Services // Links // © Om Entertainment Group 2009 //

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Vibram Natural Games June 23 to 26 2011 in Millau (Aveyron), FranceThu, 09/06/2011 - 16:23 — Petzl News
For the fourth edition the Vibram Natural Games (NG) move to a new spot.
Close to the wild water stadium, the "Maladrerie" plaza will host the best of climbing, kayaking, MTB freestyle and enduro, slacklining and paragliding. Faithfull to the original concept of the Petzl RocTrip the Natural Games will gather all the outdoor sport fanatics for great shows, contests and concerts.
Natural Games: Full House for the Petzl TeamFri, 02/07/2010 - 17:07 — Petzl News
Great blue sky and intense heat were on the plate for this year's edition of the Vibram Natural Games. The return to normal summer conditions surprised most of us after such a cold and rainy spring in southern France !!! Sport Climbing, Bouldering, Slackline, Freestyle Kayak, Paragliding, downhill and dirt mountain bike contests were all blessed by the blue sky and athletes heated up the show for the great pleasure of the huge crowd of spectators.
Gravity trip
Gravity Trip : Get ready!Thu, 17/06/2010 - 09:22 — Petzl News
The Vibram Natural Games will occur this year from June 25 to June 27 in Millau (Aveyron- France). A unique rendez-vous for all outdoor sport enthousiasts, it's all about sharing your passion, giving your best and having fun.
Infinity Lane - the filmFri, 14/08/2009 - 20:17 — Petzl News
Check out the Petzl Millau Roctrip film, featuring the 90m Infinity Lane routes...
17 minutes of amazing climbing to get you psyched!


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This trendy set of flatware is the perfect compliment to any serving dishes. Just in time for spring, your picnic basket & your summer outings or for daily use!
- Set includes 16 pieces for a total of four place settings.
- Stainless steel. 18 / 0
- The best stocking stuffer ideas for men, kids, women, boys, girls & your wife!
- Title: Flatware Service for 4 Stainless Steel with Trendy Coffee Colored Handles for Spring


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Harry Readers Less Stressed Than Oprah ViewersMisc
November 10, 2003, 06:30 PM
A recent study suggests that Harry Potter readers are far less stressed than Oprah viewers.
New York Times best-selling author Hale Dwoskin, who commissioned the American telephone survey, says adults who said they are fond of the fictional character were 50% less likely to take medication to ease anxiety than Oprah fans. He also suggests that the reason Harry Potter followers are less stressed could be that they avoid facing their problems head-on:
"Some people who are into Harry Potter are into denial, into fantasy".
I have to go feed my unicorn now and then hide under my bed for the rest of the evening; have a good night, everyone!


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Book your room at Prime Hotel Villa Patrizi
Please enter your travel dates.
4-star Art Deco hotel with a complimentary breakfast in Rome (Nomentano)
This hotel is located in Rome (Nomentano), close to National Central Library of Rome, Colosseum, and Roman Forum. Also nearby are Diocletian Bath and Borghese Gallery.
Hotel Features
A complimentary buffet breakfast is available. Prime Hotel Villa Patrizi also features a coffee shop/café, complimentary wireless Internet access, and limo/town car service.
Room Amenities
LCD televisions come with premium satellite channels. Guestrooms also feature complimentary wireless Internet access, air conditioning, and climate control.Information missing or incorrect? Tell us!
Prime Hotel Villa Patrizi
At your hotel
The hotel offers a coffee shop/café. A complimentary breakfast is offered each morning. A computer station is located on site and high-speed wireless Internet access is complimentary. Business-related amenities at this 4-star property consist of limo/town car service and a meeting room. For a surcharge, the property provides a roundtrip airport shuttle (available on request) and a train station pick-up service. This Art Deco hotel also offers a terrace, tour/ticket assistance, and multilingual staff.
- One meeting room
- Computer station
- Luggage storage
- Train station pickup (surcharge)
- Terrace
- Dry cleaning/laundry service
- Limo or Town Car service available
- Free Wi-Fi
- Airport transportation (surcharge)
- Room service (limited hours)
- Coffee shop or café
- Total number of rooms - 22
- 24-hour front desk
- Garden
- Free breakfast
- Elevator/lift
- Number of floors - 3
- Concierge services
- Tours/ticket assistance
- Multilingual staff
- Year Built 2000
- Number of buildings/towers - 1
Stay connected
Available in all rooms: Free Wi-Fi
Available in some public areas: Free Wi-Fi
In your room
- Complimentary toiletries
- Free Wi-Fi
- Premium TV channels
- Designer toiletries
- Climate control
- Pay movies
- Cribs/infant beds (surcharge)
- Soundproofed rooms
- Air conditioning
- Minibar
- Daily housekeeping
- Private bathroom
- Hair dryer
- In-room safe
- Satellite TV service
- Bidet
- Slippers
- Shower only
- Desk
- Blackout drapes/curtains
Eat and drink
A complimentary buffet breakfast is served each morning between 7 AM and 10:30 AM.
Room service (during limited hours) is available.
The fine print for Prime Hotel Villa Patrizi
When you arrive
Check-in time starts at 2 PM
Minimum check-in age is 18
When you leave
Check-out time is noon
How you can pay
Accepted at this hotel: American Express, Diners Club, MasterCard, Visa
Your pets
Pets allowed, Maximum number of pets per room 1, Pet maximum weight in kg is 5
You need to know
Extra-person charges may apply and vary depending on hotel policy.
Government-issued photo identification and a credit card or cash deposit are required at check-in for incidental charges.
Special requests are subject to availability upon check-in and may incur additional charges. Special requests cannot be guaranteed.
- A tax is imposed by the city: EUR 6 per person, per night, up to 10 nights. This tax does not apply to children under 11 years of age.
- Late check-out fee: EUR 50
- Crib (infant bed) fee: EUR 30 per night
We should mention
Cash transactions at this property cannot exceed EUR 999.99, due to national regulations. For further details, please contact the property using information in the booking confirmation. This property offers transfers from the airport and train station (surcharges may apply). Guests must contact the property with arrival details 48 hours prior to arrival, using the contact information on the booking confirmation. Children 3 years old and younger stay free when occupying the parent or guardian's room, using existing bedding. Only registered guests are allowed in the guestrooms. Guests can arrange to bring pets by contacting the property directly, using the contact information on the booking confirmation.


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To make reservations by phone, call 1-800-GAYLORD (429-5673) in the USA and Canada (or any of our worldwide reservation telephone numbers).
Starting with breakfast and moving into lunch and dinner, Cascades serves modern classics in a dramatic atrium setting surrounded by soothing waterways.
Reservations required
A nod to President Andrew Jackson's nickname, our signature restaurant features 1855 Black Angus Beef seared to perfection, artisan cheeses and an extensive wine list. Located in Delta Atrium.
Enjoy the bold flavors of Mexico, signature margaritas, and selections from our tequila bar in a vibrant patio atmosphere. Located in Garden Conservatory Atrium.
Enjoy a dinner inspired by the Italian coastal town of Ravello. Begin with selections from our antipasti bar, sample housemade pasta—all in a lush garden setting. Located in Garden Conservatory Atrium.
Relax in sophisticated and chic surroundings with a diverse selection of wines. Located in Garden Conservatory Atrium.
Watch the game on one of 100+ HD TVs at this next generation sports bar, serving up tailgate-inspired favorites perfect for sharing. Located in Magnolia.
Experience the fine tradition of great Southern food. Sample hand selected "Tennessee Sippin' Whiskey" from the distillery. Located in Magnolia section.
Unwind at our antique wooden bar with a pint of craft beer and pub-style favorites. Located in Magnolia section.
This festive, yet casual restaurant serves up Tuscan-style pizza and pasta, freshly baked bread sticks and fresh salads. Located on the Delta Island.
Create a juicy, one-of-a-kind burger or sandwich—just the way you want it. Choose the size, choose the sides. Located on the Delta Island.
Find a tasty assortment of freshly-prepared pastries, sandwiches, wraps, salads and desserts. Located at the Magnolia entrance to the Garden Conservatory Atrium.
Choose from premium coffee drinks, fresh bakery and pastry items, and gourmet sandwiches at our signature coffee bar overlooking the twin falls in the Cascades Atrium. Located off the Cascades Lobby. We Proudly Serve Starbucks®.
Japanese-style sushi and a broad selection of traditional sake and beer are served amidst lazily swimming koi and the soothing sound of waterfalls inside the Cascades American Café. Located in the Cascades Atrium.
Enjoy a tapas-style menu, chilled champagne, wines, hand-crafted cocktails and your favorite bottled beer in a breathtaking setting overlooking twin waterfalls. Located in the Cascades Atrium.
Sip on classic and modern cocktails, cognac, whiskey, wine or beer at this unassuming yet decidedly upscale speakeasy. Located in the Delta Atrium.
Pick your frozen yogurt and pile on the toppings to create a one-of-a-kind sweet treat. Located in the Delta Atrium.
Satisfy your sweet tooth with the perfect handmade cookie or artisan Italian gelato. Located at the Magnolia entrance to the Garden Conservatory Atrium.


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Willamette University
900 State Street
Salem, Oregon 97301
503-370-6300 voice
A writing-centered course with a focus on developing the skills necessary for effective cross-cultural discourse. Working from readings about, as well as examples of, effective cross-cultural communication, students will explore and analyze the diversity of styles and genres appropriate to writing across cultures. The course will alternate focus to include such topics as Japanese culture, Middle East culture and alternate cultures within American society.
General Education Requirement Fulfillment: Writing centered


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Shepherd's Pies Recipe
When you need a real meat-and-potatoes fix, try this hearty layered casserole that blends from-scratch mashed potatoes with cream cheese and a meat filling. Your favorite barbecue sauce gives the dish an extra tang. —Cindy Kliskey, Pepperell, Massachusetts
- 5 pounds potatoes (about 10 medium), peeled and cubed
- 2 pounds ground turkey or beef
- 2 large onions, chopped
- 2 garlic cloves, minced
- 2 cans (15-1/2 ounces each) whole kernel corn, drained
- 1-1/2 cups barbecue sauce
- 2 packages (8 ounces each) cream cheese, softened
- 1/4 cup butter, cubed
- 1 teaspoon salt
- 1/4 teaspoon pepper
- 2 cups (8 ounces) shredded cheddar cheese
- Place potatoes in a stockpot and cover with water. Bring to a boil. Reduce heat; cover and cook for 10-15 minutes or until tender.
- Meanwhile, cook the beef, onions and garlic in a Dutch oven until meat is no longer pink; drain. Stir in corn and barbecue sauce.
- Drain potatoes; mash with cream cheese, butter, salt and pepper. Spoon meat mixture into two greased 13-in. x 9-in. baking dishes. Spread mashed potatoes over tops; sprinkle with cheese. Cover and freeze one casserole for up to 3 months.
- Bake the remaining casserole, uncovered, at 350° for 25-30 minutes or until bubbly.
- To use frozen casserole: Thaw in the refrigerator overnight. Remove from the refrigerator 30 minutes before baking. Bake, covered, at 350° for 1-1/4 hours or until bubbly. Uncover; bake 5-10 minutes longer or until heated through and cheese is melted. Yield: 2 casseroles (8 servings each).
Originally published as Shepherd's Pies in Simple & Delicious December/January 2013, p23
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Reviewed Aug. 24, 2013
My husband and I tried this recipe last night and loved it. The barbeque sauce gives it a southern flavor that we both enjoyed and he rated it as a new favorite!
Reviewed May. 14, 2013
Hit a home-run with this one! Just like the title of the magazine- simple and delicious! However, I didn't make the second one to freeze so I can't speak for the frozen/reheat quality. But fresh was amazing!
Reviewed Dec. 11, 2012
This was a slam dunk with the kids!
Reviewed Nov. 24, 2012
The barbecue sauce in this gave it a very strange taste.
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September 2, 2014
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Tebow's 316 yards leads to Internet salvations
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Posted on Jan 13, 2012 | by Michael Foust
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CHARLOTTE, N.C. (BP) -- When outspoken Christian quarterback Tim Tebow threw for 316 yards to help Denver upset favored Pittsburgh in the playoffs, millions flocked to the Internet to search for John 3:16 -- so much so that the day after the game, that Bible verse was the No. 1 search on Google.
As it turns out, some of those Google searches were of eternal significance.
The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association reports that more than 150 people have made a decision to accept Christ as their Savior as a result of searching for "John 3:16" in Google and then clicking on an advertisement for the BGEA's PeacewithGod.net website. BGEA can track that data because it began advertising on Google on Monday so that people who searched for "John 3:16" saw an ad for PeacewithGod.net. All total, 8,000 people searching for the verse clicked on PeacewithGod.net.
The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association often uses Google ads to advertise its website. Some examples include searches for "What happens when I die?" and "Does God exist?" The website has tallied more than 1 million visitors since it launched in May.
"We can respond to exactly what people are searching for at that moment -- and it's often a very simple next-step to the Gospel," John Cass, BGEA's director of internet evangelism, was quoted as saying in a BGEA article.
The fact that an outspoken Christian quarterback threw for 316 yards was, some said, not coincidental. Tebow has been known to write "John 3:16" on his eye black. There were other 3:16 curiosities:
-- Tebow's average for his 10 passes was 31.6 yards.
-- The overtime drew a 31.6 television rating.
-- Pittsburgh's time of possession was 31 minutes, 6 seconds.
The Broncos travel to New England Saturday to play the heavily favored Patriots. Tebow's unorthodox quarterback style and his last-minute heroics during the regular season and playoffs have led to a debate over whether God's hand is directly involved in the Broncos' wins. One of the more in-depth treatments to that question was written by Boyce College professor Owen Strachan in The Atlantic. The answer is neither "yes" nor "no," Strachan wrote.
"The Bible says that God oversees everything that happens in this world," Strachan wrote, quoting Jesus in Matthew 10:29: "Are not two sparrows sold for a penny. And not one of them will fall to the ground apart from your Father."
Strachan, who serves at the Louisville, Ky., school, continued, "But is God directly intervening on the football field in the same way that, for example, he did to cause the virgin birth of Luke 2 (in what is called 'primary causation')? That I don't know. It's not clear to my human eyes how this all shakes out. I do know that the Lord is working everything out according to his wise and mysterious counsel which, try as we might, we cannot fully understand."
Even if Tebow has the worst game of his career Saturday and loses, Strachan said, nothing about Tebow's faith -- or God's providence -- changes.
"Sometimes God grants believers great victories, and sometimes he asks them to walk through the fire," Strachan wrote. "This is true whether it is experienced on the football field, in the office, or in a country that rewards outspoken Christianity with a sword to the throat."
Strachan's column is available online at http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2012/01/does-god-care-whether-tim-tebow-wins-on-saturday/251273/.
Michael Foust is associate editor of Baptist Press. Get Baptist Press headlines and breaking news on Twitter (@BaptistPress), Facebook (Facebook.com/BaptistPress) and in your email (baptistpress.com/SubscribeBP.asp).
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By Julie Huss
---- — LONDONDERRY — The town's seniors have a new leader.
The Londonderry Senior Center welcomed Catherine Blash, 57, as the new senior affairs director. She will be paid $33,658 a year for the 29-hour-a-week position.
Brash comes to the center to lead programming and activities following the resignation in February of former director Stacy Thrall.
Brash said she wanted to apply for the job after serving as a coordinator for Rockingham Nutrition Meals on Wheels.
That job helped her get to know many of the local seniors.
"Not a day went by that I didn't get a hug from somebody," Blash said.
She said she became aware of the director's opening and decided to apply.
"I knew I could do it," she said.
She also has done a lot of volunteer work, including with the United Way.
The Atkinson resident is also a licensed real estate agent.
"I look forward to coming here every day," Blash said.
She credited Gladys Frederick for her guidance and support during the transitional time at the center.
Frederick took much of the lead at the center, Blash said, during the transition into a new director.
"She's still teaching me things," Blash said. "I'm going to be working hand in hand with her and I want to keep the seniors happy."
In addition to welcoming Blash, seniors are looking forward to possible renovations and repairs to the building.
The Mayflower Grange dates back to the early 1900s, when it was used for various community events and meetings.
Repairs to the building are long overdue.
During a recent Capital Improvement Projects meeting, senior center representatives told town officials there was still much work to be done.
The center's roof tops the list. When it snows heavily, the roof needs to be cleared often. Areas ripe for expanded space include the kitchen, and adding new bathrooms and office space.
New parking is also proposed for the rear of the historic building.
Right now, repairs could cost up to $700,000. Officials said grant funding might be available to cover some of the repair costs.


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Oct. 25, 2003
ATLANTA, Ga. - Despite 12 kills from freshman outside hitter Eva Stoilova (Sofia, Bulgaria) and 10 kills from junior outside hitter Candice Rose (Mechanicsville, Md.), JU could not better its record-tying streak of 11-straight victories as the Dolphins fell 3-0 (18-30, 28-30, 26-30) to Georgia State on Saturday night in the GSU Sports Arena. Senior outside hitter Radka Dimitrova (Sofia, Bulgaria) chipped in with nine kills in the loss, while sophomore setter Erin Donivan (Sarasota, Fla.) recorded her 200th career dig in the match, finishing with nine.
Prior to the loss, JU (12-11, 6-1 A-Sun) remained undefeated since Sept. 24 and won of 33 of the last 36 games. The loss is JU's first in Atlantic Sun play, but the Dolphins still remain near the top of the conference standings with three conference matches in the next two weeks.
Georgia State (24-5, 7-0 A-Sun) stunned JU with a 30-18 win in the first game before the Dolphins rebounded, battling to tie the score at 27 in the second game before eventually falling 30-28. JU remained in the hunt in the third game, tying the affair late at 26 before the Panthers recorded the final four points to claim a 30-26 victory.
JU returns home to take on Bethune-Cookman on Thursday, Oct. 30 at 7:30 p.m. in Swisher Gymnasium.


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The memorial service will be held at a later time for former area resident Darrell C. Russell, 70, who passed away on June 24.
English Funeral Chapel, Post Falls, Idaho, was in charge of arrangements.
The family suggests donations be made to the non-profit organization of the donorŌĆÖs choice.
For the full obituary, see the July 6 issue of the Deer Park Tribune.
A memorial service will be held 10 a.m. on July 9 at Riplinger Funeral Home and Crematory, N4305 Division, Spokane, for former Loon Lake resident Erma P. Bueghly, 95, who passed away on June 21.
Urn placement at Spokane Memorial Gardens will be held at 10 a.m. on July 11.
Online guest book is available at www.riplinger.com.
For the full obituary, see the July 6 issue of the Deer Park Tribune.
Memorial services were July 2 at the Clayton Community Church for longtime area resident Betty M. Higgins, 79, who passed away June 25.
Born on Aug. 11, 1931, in Springdale, she married Fred R. Higgins in 1949.
She loved to read books, play bingo, shoot pool and go to the casinos.
For the full obituary, see the July 6 issue of the Deer Park Tribune.
The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) will host public meetings July 13-14 to discuss proposed treatments to improve trout broodstock production and trout fishing at Kings Lake in Pend Oreille County.
Public meetings to discuss the rehabilitation proposal are scheduled from 7-9 p.m. on:
ŌĆó July 13 at the Create Art Center, W900 Fourth St., Newport.
ŌĆó July 14 at the WDFWŌĆÖs Eastern Region office, N2315 Discovery Place, Spokane Valley.
The Deer Park School District, which laid off its provisional staff in May, has begun rehiring some of the staffers for the upcoming school year.
The Deer Park School Board approved the rehiring of school district nurse Dawn Epler and speech language pathologist Kelly Pitts, both full-time employees, at its June 27 meeting.
EplerŌĆÖs rehiring was almost a given since the size of the school district mandates a full-time school nurse.
Superintendent Becky Cooke expects most of the provisional staff, which equaled 8.7 full-time employees, to be rehired in the next couple of months.
A celebration of life will be held from 12-3 p.m. on July 9 at the Spokane Valley Eagles Lodge, E16801 Sprague, for former Springdale businessman Gary J. Cummings, 63, who passed away on June 27 in Spokane Valley.
Born on April 5, 1948, to the late Clayton and Helen Cummings in Spokane, he worked as a brakeman for Burlington Northern Railroad before opening the Country Corral restaurant in Springdale.
Deer ParkŌĆÖs traditional Fourth of July celebration will expand this year with an old-fashioned community picnic planned by Zion Lutheran Church from 10 a.m.-5 p.m. on Monday at Mix Park.
The new event will include a kiddies parade at 10 a.m. Veterans of Foreign Wars Post No. 3067 in Deer Park will take part in the opening ceremonies at 11 a.m.
The picnic will also feature live bands, kids games, a talent show and quilt show.
Following the picnic, the sixth annual ŌĆ£As American As Apple PieŌĆØ concert will start at 7 p.m. at the Deer Park First Baptist Church, E1200 Crawford Ave.ŌĆÖ
While area residents continue to wait for summer to arrive, the Deer Park Concert Series brought some tropical heat to start the eighth annual event.
Bram Brata, which was a big splash when they played at Mix Park in 2008, repeated that performance on Saturday in front of a crowd of more than 200 who took in the concert under sunny albiet somewhat mild temperatures. The steel drum band, made up of high school students in the Tri-Cities area, played a mixture of jazz, pop, movie themes and reggae tunes for more than two hours.
Funeral services will be held at St. MaryŌĆÖs Catholic Church in Challis, Idaho, on July 1 for former longtime Deer Park resident Glen ŌĆ£BudŌĆØDoffing, 87, who passed away on June 20.
Mr. Doffing, a former city of Deer Park employee, and his wife, Myrna, lived in Deer Park for 50 years before moving to Challis. They wintered in Bouse, Ariz.
His wife, Myrna; a son, Rendall; and grandson, Rendall, all predeceased him.
He is survived by one son Kent (Linda) Doffing of Deer Park; one daughter, Glenda (Bill) Ebberts of Challis; five grandchildren; and seven great-grandchildren.
A memorial service will be 11 a.m. on July 18 at the Deer Park First Baptist Church, E1200 Crawford, for Deer Park/Loon Lake resident Orrie Gates, 95, who passed away on June 24.
Her husband, Clarence Gates, and a grandson, Rex Loho, both predeceased her.
She is survived by one daughter, Marcy (Dr. Ed Lohoff) of Loon Lake; one son, Marvin (Diana) Gates of Deer Park; seven grandchildren; one step-grandchild; 13 great-grandchildren; and six great-great-grandchildren.


text:
Vestas to cut 3,000 more jobs; reports 3Q loss
It did not say where the cuts could come.
The Danish wind turbine company, which has factories in Windsor, Brighton and Pueblo, also is seeking to sell a stake of as much as 20 percent, CFO Dag Andresen told Bloomberg News.
"What's important is that we have investors who understand the company, the segment that we are working in and also have a longer-term view," Andresen said.
Vestas planned to reduce the number of its employees to 16,000 by the end of next year. The company employed more than 22,700 people at the beginning of this year and had already announced job cuts of 3,700.
The workforce reduction will help Vestas save $510 million, the company said.
This year, Vestas has trimmed its manufacturing workforce in Colorado from more than 1,700 to about 1,200 people at four factories, a figure which includes attrition, relocations and reductions. The company has blamed a slowdown in the U.S. wind industry largely due to uncertainty over a wind tax credit set to expire at the end of the year.
"This has led to a significant reduction in turbine orders for 2013, and the market slowdown is affecting Vestas' manufacturing facilities in Colorado," spokesman Andrew Longeteig said in a statement last month.
CEO Ditlev Engel said Vestas expected next year to be "tough" for the wind industry. The reductions will help the company adapt to future uncertainty in the wind market.
"However difficult it is to make further cost savings and also further reduce the workforce, it is simply necessary in order to create an even leaner and more agile Vestas to ensure the company's continued profitability in a very uncertain and unstable wind turbine market," Engel said in a statement. "I am, however, pleased to say that we expect a part of these reductions to happen through divestments, which means that our employees will maintain their jobs, only they will be working for a different employer than Vestas."
Vestas reported third-quarter revenue of $2.5 billion, 49 percent higher than a year ago, though the company's losses have totaled $440 million so far this year.
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PLAISTOW —Don't miss the 17th Annual NH Maple Weekend on March 23 and 24, from 10:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., at the Sugar House at Morningstar Farm, 13 Crane Crossing Road in Plaistow. The Sugar House at Morningstar Farm is one of the largest sugar houses in Rockingham County with over 2,000 taps. Come see how sap is collected and turned into maple syrup in our own sugar house. There will be a boiling demonstration and refreshments. Maple syrup, cream, jelly, nuts and candy available for sale. Stop in to enjoy this beautiful 42 acre farm and prize-winning reining horses.
For more information, call Chris Hicks at 603-479-0804, or email firstname.lastname@example.com.