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Wahhabi movement
|Central figures
|Related ideologies
Wahhabism (Arabic: وهابية, Wahhābiyyah) is a reactionary religious movement or offshoot branch of Islam [1][2] variously described as "orthodox", "ultraconservative",[3] "austere", "fundamentalist", "puritanical"[4] (or "puritan"),[5] an Islamic "reform movement" to restore "pure monotheistic worship",[6] or an "extremist movement".[7] It aspires to return to the earliest fundamental Islamic sources of the Quran and Hadith with different interpretation from mainstream Islam, inspired by the teachings of medieval theologian Ibn Taymiyyah and early jurist Ahmad ibn Hanbal.[8]
The majority of the world's Wahhabis are from Qatar, the UAE, and Saudi Arabia.[9] 46.87% of Qataris[9] and 44.8% of Emiratis are Wahhabis.[9] 5.7% of Bahrainis are Wahhabis and 2.17% of Kuwaitis are Wahhabis.[9]
Wahhabis are the "dominant minority" in Saudi Arabia.[10] There are 4 million Saudi Wahhabis since 22.9% of Saudis are Wahhabis (concentrated in Najd).[9] The radical beliefs of Wahhabism enables its followers to label non-Wahhabi and mainstream Muslims as apostates along with non-Muslims, thus paving the way for their bloodshed.[11][12] In July 2013, European Parliament identified the Wahhabi movement as the source of global terrorism and a threat to traditional and diverse Muslim cultures of the whole world.[13] Many buildings associated with early Islam, including mazaars, mausoleums, and other artifacts, have been destroyed in Saudi Arabia by Wahhabis from the early 19th century through the present day.[14][15]
Initially, Wahhabism was a revivalist movement instigated by an eighteenth century theologian, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) from Najd, Saudi Arabia,[16] who was opposed by his own father and brother for his non-traditional interpretation of Islam.[17] He attacked a "perceived moral decline and political weakness" in the Arabian Peninsula and condemned what he perceived as idolatry, the popular cult of saints, and shrine and tomb visitation,[18] advocating a purging of the widespread practices by Muslims that he considered impurities and innovations in Islam.[1] He eventually convinced the local Amir, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar, to help him in his struggle.[19] The movement gained unchallenged precedence in most of the Arabian Peninsula through an alliance between Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and the House of Muhammad ibn Saud, which provided political and financial power for the religious revival represented by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The alliance created the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, where Mohammed bin Abd Al-Wahhab's teachings are state-sponsored and the dominant form of Islam in Saudi Arabia.
The terms Wahhabi and Salafi and ahl al-hadith (people of hadith) are often used interchangeably,[20] but Wahhabism has also been called "a particular orientation within Salafism",[1] considered ultra-conservative and which rejects traditional Islamic legal scholarship as unnecessary innovation.[21][22] Salafism, on the other hand, has been termed as the hybridation between the teachings of Ibn Abdul-Wahhab and others which have taken place since the 1960s.[23][citation needed]
The appellation 'Wahhabi' is rejected by many people, including Muslims and non-Muslims. The term is mostly prevalent in anti-Saudi Arabian discourses, and is subsequently especially popular with Shias; in Saudi Arabia, the term is virtually non-existent. Saudi Arabian Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud publicly dismissed the label 'Wahhabism' as 'a doctrine that doesn't exist here (Saudi Arabia)' and said that 'Wahhabism' was a term coined by enemies of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. He defied efforts to locate the deviance of the form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia from the teachings of the Quran and Prophetic Hadiths.[24][25]
- 1 Definitions and etymology
- 2 Practices
- 3 History
- 4 Beliefs
- 5 Population
- 6 Notable leaders
- 7 International influence and propagation
- 8 Criticism and controversy
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 Further reading
- 12 External links
Definitions and etymology[edit]
Some definitions or uses of the term Wahhabi Islam include
- "a corpus of doctrines, but also a set of attitudes and behavior, derived from the teachings of a particularly severe religious reformist who lived in central Arabia in the mid-eighteenth century." (Gilles Kepel)[26]
- "pure Islam" (David Commins paraphrasing supporters definition),[27] that does not deviate from Sharia law in any way and should be called Islam and not Wahhabism.(Prince Salman bin Abdul Aziz, the governor of the Saudi capital Riyadh)[28]
- "a misguided creed that fosters intolerance, promotes simplistic theology, and restricts Islam's capacity for adaption to diverse and shifting circumstances." (David Commins paraphrasing opponents definition)[27]
- "a conservative reform movement ... the creed upon which the kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded, and [which] has influenced Islamic movements worldwide." (Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world)[29]
- "a sect dominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar" with footholds in "India, Africa, and elsewhere", with a "steadfastly fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in the tradition of Ibn Hanbal". (Cyril Glasse)[30]
- an "eighteenth-century reformist/revivalist movement for sociomoral reconstruction of society", "founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab" (Oxford Dictionary of Islam).[31]
- "the true salafist movement." Starting out as a theological reform movement, it had "the goal of calling (da'wa) people to restore the 'real' meaning of tawhid (oneness of God or monotheism) and to disregard and deconstruct 'traditional' disciplines and practices that evolved in Islamic history such as theology and jurisprudence and the traditions of visiting tombs and shrines of venerated individuals." (Ahmad Moussalli)[32]
- a term used by opponents of Salafism in hopes of besmirching that movement by suggesting foreign influence and "conjuring up images of Saudi Arabia". The term is "most frequently used in countries where Salafis are a small minority" of the Muslim community but "have made recent inroads" in `converting` the local population to Salafism. (Quintan Wiktorowicz)[33]
- a blanket term used inaccurately to refer to "any Islamic movement that has an apparent tendency toward misogyny, militantism, extremism, or strict and literal interpretation of the Quran and hadith" (Natana J. DeLong-Bas)[34]
According to Saudi writer Abdul Aziz Qassim, it was the Ottomans who "first labelled Abdul Wahhab's school of Islam in Saudi Arabia as Wahhabism". The British also adopted it and expanded its use in the Middle East. In the US the term "Wahhabi" was used in the 1950s to refer to "puritan Muslims", according to Life magazine.[36]
Wahhabis do not like—or at least did not like—the term. Ibn Abd-Al-Wahhab's was averse to the elevation of scholars and other individuals, including using a person's name to label an Islamic school.[37] According to Robert Lacey "the Wahhabis have always disliked the name customarily given to them" and preferred to be called Muwahhidun. English translation of that term, "Unitarians," however causes confusion with the Christian denomination (Unitarian Universalism) and other terms have not caught on. Like the Christian Quakers then, Wahhabis have "remained known by the name first assigned to them by their detractors."[38]
According to social scientist Quintan Wiktorowicz, "Wahhabi" has also been used by its opponents "to denote foreign influence", particularly in countries where they are "a small minority of the Muslim community, but have made recent inroads in "converting" the local population to the movement ideology".[33]
According to Saudi author Abdul Aziz Qassim, the name Wahhabis prefer is "the reform or Salafi movement of the Sheikh".[39] Wiktorowicz also urges use of the term Salafi, maintaining
one would be hard pressed to find individuals who refer to themselves as Wahhabis or organizations that use "Wahhabi" in their title, or refer to their ideology in this manner (unless they are speaking to a Western audience that is unfamiliar with Islamic terminology, and even then usage is limited and often appears as "Salafi/Wahhabi").[33]
However, authors at Global Security and Library of Congress state the term is now commonplace and used even by Wahhabi scholars in the Najd,[1][40] often called the "heartland" of Wahhabism.[41]
American scholar Christopher M. Blanchard distinguishes between the two by using Wahhabism to refer to "a conservative Islamic creed centered in and emanating from Saudi Arabia," and Salafiyya to refer to "a more general puritanical Islamic movement that has developed independently at various times and in various places in the Islamic world."[37]
As a religious revivalist movement that works to bring Muslims back from what it believes are foreign accretions that have corrupted Islam,[42] and believes that Islam is a complete way of life and so has prescriptions for all aspects of life, Wahhabism is quite strict in what it considers Islamic behavior.
While other Muslims might urge abstinence from alcohol, modest dress, and salat prayer, for Wahhabis prayer "that is punctual, ritually correct, and communally performed not only is urged but publicly required of men." Not only is wine forbidden, but so are "all intoxicating drinks and other stimulants, including tobacco." Not only is modest dress prescribed, but the type of clothing that should be worn, especially by women (a black abaya, covering all but the eyes and hands) is specified.[40]
Practices that have been forbidden by Wahhabi preachers include performing or listening to music, dancing, fortune telling, amulets, television programs (unless religious), smoking, playing backgammon, chess, or cards, drawing human or animal figures, acting in a play or writing fiction (both are considered forms of lying), dissecting cadavers (even in criminal investigations and for the purposes of medical research).[43] Common Muslim practices Wahhabis believe are contrary to Islam include listening to music in praise of Muhammad, praying to God while visiting tombs (including the tomb of Muhammad), celebrating mawlid (birthday of the Prophet)[44] building of minarets or use of ornamentation on or in mosques.[45] The driving of motor vehicles by women is allowed in most countries but Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia.[46][47][48]
Following the preaching and practice of Abdul Wahhab that coercion should be used to enforce following of sharia, an official committee has been empowered to "Command the Good and Forbid the Evil" (the so-called "religious police") [49][50] in Saudi Arabia—the one country founded with the help of Wahhabi warriors and whose scholars and pious dominate many aspects of the Kingdom's life. Committee "field officers" enforce strict closing of shops at prayer time, segregation of the sexes, prohibition of the sale and consumption of alcohol, driving of motor vehicles by women, and other social restrictions.[51]
Wahhabism emphasizes "Thaqafah Islamiyyah" or Islamic culture and the importance of avoiding non-Islamic cultural practices no matter how innocent they may appear,[52][53] on the grounds that the Sunna forbids imitating non-Muslims[54] Foreign practices sometimes punished and sometimes simply condemned by Wahhabi preachers as un-Islamic, include celebrating foreign days such as Valentine's Day[55] or Mothers Day.[52][54] shaving, cutting or trimming of beards,[56] giving of flowers,[57] standing up in honor of someone, celebrating birthdays (including the Prophet's), keeping or petting dogs.[43]
Wahhabism puts great store in behavior and appearance, robes for men long enough to cover the ankle are considered an example of unseemly pride, although not forbidden.[citation needed]
Like many conservative Muslims, Wahhabis believe that the different physiological structures and biological functions of the different genders mean that each sex is assigned a different role to play in the family. As a consequence Wahhabis believe Islam forbids wives' traveling or working outside the home at any particular job without their husband's permission—permission which may be revoked at any time. [58] As mentioned before, Wahhabism also forbids the driving of motor vehicles by women.
Despite this strictness, senior Wahhabi scholars of Islam in the Saudi kingdom have made notable exceptions in ruling on what is haram. Foreign non-Muslim troops are forbidden except when the king needed them to confront Saddam Hussein in 1990; gender mixing of men and women is forbidden, and fraternization with non-Muslims is discouraged, but not at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. Movie theaters and driving by women are forbidden except at the ARAMCO compound in eastern Saudi, populated by workers for the company that provides almost all the government's revenue.[59]
And more general rules of what is permissible have changed over time. After vigorous debate religious authorities allowed the use of paper money (in 1951), the abolition of slavery (in 1962), education of females (1964), and use of television (1965).[60]
Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab[edit]
Mohammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab studied in Basra and is reported to have developed his ideas there.[61][62] He is reported to have studied in Mecca and Medina while there to perform Hajj[63][64] before returning to his home town of 'Uyayna in 1740.
In 'Uyayna, he began to attract followers—including the ruler of the town, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar—and carry out some of his religious reforms including the leveling the grave of Zayd ibn al-Khattab (one of the Sahaba (companions) of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad), and the ordering of an adulteress be stoned to death. These actions were disapproved of by Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Nejd and ibn Abd-al-Wahhab was expelled from 'Uyayna.[65]
Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad ibn Saud in 1740 (1157 AH), two of whose brothers had been students of Ibn Abdal-Wahhab. Upon arriving in Diriyya, a pact was made between Ibn Saud and Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, by which Ibn Saud pledged to implement and enforce Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab's teachings, while Ibn Saud and his family would remain the temporal "leaders" of the movement.
Alliance with the House of Ibn Saud[edit]
Beginning in the last years of the 18th century Ibn Saud and his heirs would spend the next 140 years mounting various military campaigns to seize control of Arabia and its outlying regions.[66]
One of their most famous and controversial attacks was on Karbala in 1802 (1217 AH). There, according to a Wahhabi chronicler `Uthman b. `Abdullah b. Bishr:
[Wahhabis] scaled the walls, entered the city ... and killed the majority of its people in the markets and in their homes. [They] destroyed the dome placed over the grave of al-Husayn [and took] whatever they found inside the dome and its surroundings ... the grille surrounding the tomb which was encrusted with emeralds, rubies, and other jewels ... different types of property, weapons, clothing, carpets, gold, silver, precious copies of the Qur'an."[67]
In 1818 they were defeated by Ottoman forces.[66] However they eventually seized control of Hijaz and the Arabian peninsula after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, safeguarding their vision of Islam and in the process founding Saudi Arabia as a nation based around the tenets of Islam as preached by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.[68]
The Saudi government established the Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, a state religious police unit, to enforce religiously conservative rules of behaviour.[30]
According to some observers, as of the late 1990s and first decade of 2000, a split has developed in the Wahhabi/Salafi movement between those who support obedience to the House of Saud on the one hand, and those who focus on jihad (Salafist jihadists) against the US and (what they believe are) other enemies of Islam, supporting a removal of the House of Saud.[49][69]
Memoirs of Mr. Hempher (Confessions of a British Spy)[edit]
Memoirs of Mr. Hempher, The British Spy to the Middle East (also known as Confessions of a British Spy) is a forged document purporting to be the account by an 18th-century British agent, Hempher, of his instrumental role in founding Wahhabism, as part of a conspiracy to corrupt Islam.[70] It first appeared in 1888, in Turkish, in the five-volume Mir'at al-Haramayn of Ayyub Sabri Pasha.[70][71] It has been described as "an Anglophobic variation on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion".[72] It has been widely translated and disseminated, and still enjoys some currency in Iraq,[71][72][73] and elsewhere.[74]
The Wahhabi subscribe to Sunni Islam (though some people dispute that a Wahhabi is a Sunni).[75] and the primary doctrine of the uniqueness and unity of God (Tawhid);[18][76] the first aspect of which is belief in Allah and His Lordship, that He alone is the believer's lord, or Rabb; the second being that once one affirms the oneness of worship to Allah and Allah alone; the third being the belief and affirmation of Allah's Names and Attributes.
Wahhabi theology is very precise in its creed or Aqeedah where the Quran and Hadith are the only fundamental and authoritative texts taken with the understanding of the Salaf. Commentaries and "the examples of the early Muslim community (Ummah) and the four Rightly Guided Caliphs (AD 632–661)" known as Athar narrations are used to support these texts, hence the name of the school of theology given as Athari, but are not considered independently authoritative.[34]
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab further explains in his book Kitab al-Tawhid, which draws directly on material from the Quran and the narrations of the Prophet, that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers; fasting; Dua (supplication); Istia'dha (seeking protection or refuge); Ist'ana (seeking help), and Istigatha to Allah (seeking benefits and calling upon Allah alone). Therefore, making du'a or calling upon anyone or anything other than God, or seeking supernatural help and protection that is only befitting of a divine being from something other than Allah alone are acts of "shirk" and contradict the tenets of Tawhid.[77][page needed] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab further explains that Muhammad during his lifetime tried his utmost to identify and repudiate all actions that violated these principles.[77][page needed]
The most important of these commentaries are those by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in particular his book Kitab al-Tawhid, and the works of Ibn Taymiyyah.[citation needed] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was a follower of Ahmad ibn Hanbal's school of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) like most in Nejd at the time, but "was opposed to any of the schools (Madh'hab) being taken as an absolute and unquestioned authority".[77][page needed]
However Ibn Abd al-Wahhab did not totally condemn taqlid, or blind adherence, only at scholarly level in the face of a clear evidence or proof from a hadeeth or Qur'anic text.[78] Although Wahhabis are associated with the Hanbali school, early disputes did not center on fiqh.[79]
According to ibn Abdal-Wahhab there are three objectives for Islamic government and society: "to believe in Allah, enjoin good behavior, and forbid wrongdoing." This doctrine has been sustained by Wahhabis since his death in missionary literature, sermons, fatwa rulings, and explications of religious doctrine.[40] According to Muhammad ibn Abdal-Wahhab's teachings, a Muslim must present a bayah, or oath of allegiance, to a Muslim ruler during his lifetime to ensure his redemption after death. The ruler, conversely, is owed unquestioned allegiance from his people so long as he leads the community according to the laws of God.[40][80] Wahhabis have traditionally given their allegiance to the House of Saud, but a movement of "Salafi jihadis" has developed among those who believe Al Saud has abandoned the laws of God.[49][69] Wahhabis are similar to Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood in their belief in Islamic dominion over politics and government and the importance of dawah (proselytizing or preaching of Islam) not just towards non-Muslims but towards erring Muslims. However Wahhabi preachers are conservative and do not deal with concepts such as social justice, anticolonialism, or economic equality, expounded upon by Islamist Muslims.[81]
Condemnation of "priests" and other religious leaders[edit]
Wahhabism denounces the practice of total blind adherence to the interpretations of scholars, at a scholarly level, and of practices passed on within the family or tribe.[citation needed] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was dedicated to champion these principles and combat what was seen as the stagnation of Islamic scholarship which the majority of Muslims had seemingly fully adhered to without question, through taqlid of the established Ottoman clergy at the time.[citation needed]
His idea was that what he perceived to be blind deference to religious authority obstructs this direct connection with the Qur'an and Sunnah, leading him to deprecate the importance and full authority of leaders at the time, such as the scholars and muftis of the age. When arguing for his positions, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would use translations and interpretation of the verses (known as ayat in Arabic) of the Qur'an that were contrary to the consensus amongst the scholars of the age, and positions against which there had been consensus for centuries. This methodology was considered extremely controversial at the time, in opposition to established clergy of the era, and was refuted as being erroneous by a number of scholars.[82][83][84] However the Wahhabi movement saw itself as championing the re-opening of ijtihad, being intellectual pursuit of scholarly work clarifying opinions in the face of new evidence being a newly proven sound or sahih hadeeth, a discovered historical early ijma (scholarly consensus from the early Muslims) or a suitable analogy, qiyas, based on historical records; in contrast to the witnessed saturation of Islamic jurisprudence that no longer considered ijtihad to be a viable alternative to total scholarly taqlid, being total submission to previous scholarly opinion regardless of unquestionable proof that contradicts this.[85]
A popular misconception associated with the movement of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab is the condemnation of the legal schools of jurisprudence, however documentation of a letter correspondence by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab recorded by his son Abdallah refutes this accusation.[86]
And also we are upon the madhhab of Imaam Ahmad bin Hanbal in the matters of jurisprudence, and we do not show rejection to the one who made taqleed of one of the four Imaams as opposed to those besides them... And we do not deserve the status of absolute ijtihaad and there is none amongst us who lays claim to it, except that in some of the issues (of jurisprudence), when a plain, clear text from the Book, or a Sunnah unabrogated, unspecified and uncontradicted by what is stronger than it, and by which one of the four Imaams have spoken, we take it and we leave our madhhab ... And we do not investigate (scrutinize) anyone in his madhhab, nor do we find fault with him except when we come across a plain, clear text which opposes the madhhab of one of the four Imaams and it is a matter through which an open and apparent symbol
... Thus, there is no contradiction between (this and) not making the claim of independent ijtihaad, because a group from the scholars from the four madhhabs are preceded choosing certain preferred opinions in certain matters, who, whilst making taqleed of the founders of the madhhab (in general), opposed the madhhab (in those matters).
This was seen as a revival of the tradition recorded whereby the early students of the scholars of the Madh'habs would leave their teacher's position in light of a newly found evidence once the hadeeth had been collected.[87]
"... and this is not contradictory to the lack of the claim to ijtihaad. For it has been that a group of the imaams of the four madhaahib had their own particular views regarding certain matters that were in opposition to their madhhab, whose founder they followed." [88]
However some modern day adherents to wahhabism consider themselves to be 'non-imitators' or 'not attached to tradition', and therefore answerable to no school of law at all, observing instead what they would call the practice of early Islam. However, to do so does correspond to the ideal aimed at by Ibn Hanbal, and thus they can be said to be of his 'school' however only a scholar would be capable of this level of ijtihad and most Salafi scholars warn against this for the uneducated laymen.[89]
Adherents to the Wahhabi movement take their theological viewpoint with an aspiration to assimilate with the beliefs of the early Muslims, being the first three generations otherwise known as the Salaf. This theology was taken from exegesis of the Quran and statements of the early Muslims and later codified by a number of scholars, the most well known being the 13th century Syrian scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, into what is now known as the Athari theological creed. This was upheld by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in his various works on theology.[90]
And it is that we accept the aayaat and ahaadeeth of the Attributes upon their apparent meanings, and we leave their true meanings, while believing in their realities, to Allaah ta'aalaa. For Maalik, one of the greatest of the 'ulamaa' of the Salaf, when asked about al-istiwaa' in His Saying (ta'aalaa): "Ar-Rahmaan rose over the Throne." [Taa-Haa: 5] said: "Al-istiwaa' is known, the "how" of it is unknown, believing in it is waajib, and asking about it is bid'ah." [88]
Some criticism accuses this school as being anthropomorphic however Ibn Taymiyyah in his work Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah refutes the stance of the Mushabbihah (those who liken the creation with God: anthropomorphism) and those who deny, negate, and resort to allegorical/metaphorical interpretations of the Divine Names and Attributes. He contends that the methodology of the Salaf is to take the middle path between the extremes of anthropomorphism and negation/distortion. He further states that salaf affirmed all the Names and Attributes of God without tashbih (establishing likeness), takyeef (speculating as to "how" they are manifested in the divine), ta'teel (negating/denying their apparent meaning) and without ta'weel (giving it secondary/symbolic meaning which is different from the apparent meaning).[91][92]
One of the more detailed estimates of religious population in the Persian Gulf is by Mehrdad Izady who estimates, "using cultural and not confessional criteria", only than 4.56 million Wahhabis in the Persian Gulf region, about 4 million from Saudi Arabia, (mostly the Najd), and the rest coming overwhelmingly from the Emirates and Qatar.[9] Most Sunni Qataris are Wahhabis (46.87% of all Qataris)[9] and 44.8% of Emiratis are Wahhabis.[9] 5.7% of Bahrainis are Wahhabis and 2.17% of Kuwaitis are Wahhabis.[9]
Notable leaders[edit]
There has traditionally been a recognized head of the Wahhabi "religious estate", often a member of Al ash-Sheikh (a decedent of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab) or related to another religious head. For example, Abd al-Latif was the son of Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan.
- Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) was the founder of the Wahhabi movement.[93]
- Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1752-1826) was the head of Wahhabism after his father retired from public life in 1773. After the fall of the first Saudi emirate, Abd Allah went into exile in Cairo where he died.[93]
- Sulayman ibn Abd Allah (1780-1818) was a grandson of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and author of an influential treatise that restricted travel to and residing in land of idolaters (i.e. land outside of the Wahhabi area).[94]
- Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan (1780-1869) was head of the religious estate in the second Saudi emirate.[93]
- Abd al-Latif ibn Abd al-Rahman (1810-1876) Head of religious estate in 1860 and early 1870s.[93]
- Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Latif Al ash-Sheikh (1848-1921) was the head of religious estate during period of Rashidi rule and the early years of King Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud.[93]
- Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al ash-Sheikh (1893-1969) was the head of Wahhabism in mid twentieth century. He has been said to have "dominated the Wahhabi religious estate and enjoyed unrivaled religious authority."[95]
In more recent times, a couple of Wahhabi clerics have risen to prominence that have no relation to ibn Abd al-Wahhab.
- Abdul Aziz Bin Baz, has been called "the most prominent proponent" of Wahhabism during his time. He died in 1999.[96]
- Muhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen, another "giant" died in 2001. According to David Dean Commins, no one "has emerged" with the same "degree of authority in the Saudi religious establishment" since their deaths.[96]
International influence and propagation[edit]
Explanation for influence[edit]
Khaled Abou El Fadl attributed the appeal of Wahhabism to some Muslims as stemming from
- Arab nationalism, which followed the Wahhabi attack on the Ottoman Empire
- Reformism, which followed a return to Salaf (as-Salaf aṣ-Ṣāliḥ;)
- Destruction of the Hejaz Khilafa in 1925;
- Control of Mecca and Medina, which gave Wahhabis great influence on Muslim culture and thinking;
- Oil, which after 1975 allowed Wahhabis to promote their interpretations of Islam using billions from oil export revenue.[97]
Scholar Gilles Kepel, agrees that the tripling in the price of oil in the mid-1970s and the progressive takeover of Saudi Aramco in the 1974–1980 period, provided the source of much influence of Wahhabism in the Islamic World.
... the financial clout of Saudi Arabia had been amply demonstrated during the oil embargo against the United States, following the Arab-Israeli war of 1973. This show of international power, along with the nation's astronomical increase in wealth, allowed Saudi Arabia's puritanical, conservative Wahhabite faction to attain a preeminent position of strength in the global expression of Islam. Saudi Arabia's impact on Muslims throughout the world was less visible than that of Khomeini's Iran, but the effect was deeper and more enduring. .... it reorganized the religious landscape by promoting those associations and ulemas who followed its lead, and then, by injecting substantial amounts of money into Islamic interests of all sorts, it won over many more converts. Above all, the Saudis raised a new standard -- the virtuous Islamic civilization -- as foil for the corrupting influence of the West.[98]
Funding factor[edit]
Estimates of Saudi spending on religious causes abroad include "upward of $100 billion",[99] between $2 and 3 billion per year since 1975. (compared to the annual Soviet propaganda budget of $1 billion/year),[100] and "at least $87 billion" from 1987-2007[101]
Its largesse funded an estimated "90% of the expenses of the entire faith", throughout the Muslim World, according to journalist Dawood al-Shirian.[102] It extended to young and old, from children's madrasas to high-level scholarship.[103] "Books, scholarships, fellowships, mosques" (for example, "more than 1,500 mosques were built from Saudi public funds over the last 50 years") were paid for.[104] It rewarded journalists and academics, who followed it and built satellite campuses around Egypt for Al Azhar, the oldest and most influential Islamic university.[105] Yahya Birt counts spending on "1,500 mosques, 210 Islamic centres and dozens of Muslim academies and schools".[100][106]
This financial has done much to overwhelm less strict local interpretations of Islam, according to observers like Dawood al-Shirian and Lee Kuan Yew,[102] and has caused the Saudi interpretation (sometimes called "petro-Islam"[107]) to be perceived as the correct interpretation—or the "gold standard" of Islam—in many Muslims' minds.[108][109]
Criticism and controversy[edit]
Criticism by other Muslims[edit]
Generally, Sunni and Shia Muslims regard Wahhabism as the ideology which gave birth to many terrorist organizations that have perpetrated violent acts against them and innocents since the extremist movement was established. Several Sunni and Shia scholars have also condemned and opposed the ideology calling it twisted, violent and against Islam.
Initial opposition[edit]
Allegedly the first people to oppose Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab were his father Abd al-Wahhab, and his brother Salman Ibn Abd al-Wahhab who was an Islamic scholar and qadi. Salman Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was moved to write a book in refutation of his brothers' new teachings, known as, The Final Word from the Qur'an, the Hadith, and the Sayings of the Scholars Concerning the School of Ibn `Abd al-Wahhab.[17]
In "The Refutation of Wahhabism in Arabic Sources, 1745–1932",[110] Hamadi Redissi provides original references to the description of Wahhabis as a divisive sect (firqa) and outliers (Kharijites) in communications between Ottomans and Egyptian Khedive Muhammad Ali. Redissi details refutations of Wahhabis by scholars (muftis); among them Ahmed Barakat Tandatawin, who in 1743 describes Wahhabism as ignorance (Jahala).
Shi'a criticism[edit]
In 1801 and 1802, the Saudi Wahhabis under Abdul Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud attacked and captured the holy Shia cities of Karbala and Najaf in Iraq and destroyed the tombs of Husayn ibn Ali who is the grandson of Muhammad, and son of Ali (Ali bin Abu Talib), the son-in-law of Muhammad (see: Saudi sponsorship mentioned previously). In 1803 and 1804 the Saudis captured Mecca and Madinah and demolished various venerated shrines, monuments and removed a number of what was seen as sources or possible gateways to polytheism or shirk - such as the shrine built over the tomb of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad. In 1998 the Saudis bulldozed and allegedly poured gasoline over the grave of Aminah bint Wahb, the mother of Muhammad, causing resentment throughout the Muslim World.[111][112][113] Shi'a and other minorities in Islam insist that Wahhabis are behind targeted killings in many countries such as Iraq, Pakistan and Bahrain.
Sunni/Sufi criticism[edit]
Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a is a Somali paramilitary group consisting of Sufis and moderates opposed to the radical islamist group Al-Shabaab. They are fighting to prevent Wahhabism from being imposed on Somalia and protecting the country's Sunni-Sufi traditions and generally moderate religious views.[114]
The Syrian professor and scholar Dr. Muhammad Sa'id Ramadan al-Buti criticises the Salafi movement in a few of his works.[115]
The Sufi Islamic Supreme Council of America founded by the Naqshbandi sufi Shaykh Hisham Kabbani classify Wahhabbism as being extremist and heretical based on Wahhabbism's rejection of sufism and what they believe to be traditional sufi scholars.[116][117][118] Kabbani allegedly thanked UK Foreign Secretary Jack Straw in 2005 for the role the UK played in the Middle East, saying: "We are glad to see changes taking place in the political mechanisms in the Middle East. We hope to see an end to tyranny and we are happy to observe a strong upsurge in freedom of speech, freedom of belief and political openness in the region." [119]
Wahabbism is opposed by Hui Muslims in China, primarily by the Sufi Khafiya, Hanafi Sunni Gedimu and a number of Jahriyya. The Yihewani (Ikhwan) Chinese sect founded by Ma Wanfu in China was originally inspired by the Wahhabi movement however the group reacted with hostility to Ma Debao and Ma Zhengqing, who attempted to introduce Wahhabism as the Orthodox main form of Islam. They were branded as traitors of foreign influence, alien to the native popular cultural practices of Islam in China, and Wahhabi teachings were deemed as heresy by the Yihewani leaders. Ma Debao established a Salafi / Wahhabi order, called the Sailaifengye menhuan in Lanzhou and Linxia, separate from other Muslim sects in China.[120] Salafis have a reputation for radicalism among the Hanafi Sunni Gedimu and Yihewani. Sunni Muslim Hui avoid Salafis, including family members.[121] The number of Salafis in China is so insignificant that they are not included in classifications of Muslim sects in China.[122]
The Kuomintang Sufi Muslim general Ma Bufang, who backed the Yihewani (Ikhwan) Muslims, persecuted the Salafi / Wahhabi Muslims. The Yihewani forced the Salafis into hiding. They were not allowed to move or worship openly. The Yihewani had become secular and a Chinese nationalist organisation, and they considered the Salafis to be "Heterodox" (xie jiao), and "people who followed foreigner's teachings" (wai dao). After the Communist revolution the Salafis were allowed to worship openly until a 1958 crackdown on all religious practices.[123]
The Deobandi Alim Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki has argued that Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab viewed authentic sufism in a positive light comparing it to the sciences of tafseer, hadith, and fiqh.[124]
As proof, the Shaykh also cites a letter in which Abd-al-Wahhab writes;
We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari'ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (ta'wil) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.
Ottoman return of Mecca 1813 after being ousted by Salafis.
Battle of Medina (1812), Ottoman Army regains Medina from Salafis.
Ottoman loyalists gather against the Arab Revolt.
Wahhabism in the United States[edit]
A study conducted by the NGO Freedom House found Wahhabi publications in mosques in the United States. These publications included statements that Muslims should not only "always oppose" infidels "in every way", but "hate them for their religion … for Allah's sake", that democracy "is responsible for all the horrible wars... the number of wars it started in the 20th century alone is more than 130 wars," and that Shia and certain Sunni Muslims were infidels.[125][126] In a response to the report, the Saudi government stated, "[It has] worked diligently during the last five years to overhaul its education system" but "[o]verhauling an educational system is a massive undertaking."[127]
A review of the study by Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU) complained the study cited documents from only a few mosques, arguing most mosques in the U.S. are not under Wahhabi influence.[128] ISPU comments on the study were not entirely negative however, and concluded:
American-Muslim leaders must thoroughly scrutinize this study. Despite its limitations, the study highlights an ugly undercurrent in modern Islamic discourse that American-Muslims must openly confront. However, in the vigor to expose strains of extremism, we must not forget that open discussion is the best tool to debunk the extremist literature rather than a suppression of First Amendment rights guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution.[128]
Militant and political Islam[edit]
What connection, if any, there is between Wahhabism and Jihadi Salafis is disputed. Natana De Long-Bas, senior research assistant at the Prince Alwaleed Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding at Georgetown University, argues:
The militant Islam of Osama bin Laden did not have its origins in the teachings of Ibn Abd-al-Wahhab and was not representative of Wahhabi Islam as it is practiced in contemporary Saudi Arabia, yet for the media it came to define Wahhabi Islam during the later years of bin Laden's lifetime. However "unrepresentative" bin Laden's global jihad was of Islam in general and Wahhabi Islam in particular, its prominence in headline news took Wahhabi Islam across the spectrum from revival and reform to global jihad.[129]
Noah Feldman distinguishes between what he calls the "deeply conservative" Wahhabis and what he calls the "followers of political Islam in the 1980s and 1990s," such as Egyptian Islamic Jihad and later Al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri. While Saudi Wahhabis were "the largest funders of local Muslim Brotherhood chapters and other hard-line Islamists" during this time, they opposed jihadi resistance to Muslim governments and assassination of Muslim leaders because of their belief that "the decision to wage jihad lay with the ruler, not the individual believer".[130]
An analysis by START of the Global Terrorism Database reveals an increase from a few hundred in 1976 to 10,000 acts in 1983. In 2012, it found more than 8,500 terrorist attacks killed nearly 15,500 people, and six of the seven most deadly terror groups were affiliated with al Qaeda.[131]
However, Karen Armstrong states that Osama bin Laden, like most extremists, followed the ideology of Sayyid Qutb, not "Wahhabism".[132]
Destruction of Islam's early historical sites[edit]
The Wahhabi teachings disapprove of veneration of the historical sites associated with early Islam, on the grounds that only God should be worshipped and that veneration of sites associated with mortals leads to idolatry.[133] Many buildings associated with early Islam, including mazaar, mausoleums and other artifacts have been destroyed in Saudi Arabia by Wahhabis from early 19th century through the present day.[14][15] This practice has proved controversial and has received considerable criticism from Sunni and Shia Muslims and in the non-Muslim World.
Al-Baqi' before the demolition.[citation needed]
Mausoleum containing the bodies of Hassan[who?] and Fatimah[who?] before it was destroyed by Wahhabis.[citation needed]
The grave of Aminah; it was destroyed in 1998 by the Saudi Arabian government.
Ajyad Fortress atop the Bulbul hill was destroyed by the Saudi Arabian government.
See also[edit]
- Ghaliyya al-Wahhabiyya
- Salafi
- Ahl al-Hadith
- Islamism
- Muslim Brotherhood
- Ottoman–Saudi War
- Memoirs Of Mr. Hempher, The British Spy To The Middle East
- Islam in Saudi Arabia
- Salat
- Wudu
- Adhan
- Shirk (Islam)
- Bid'ah
- Islamic views on sin
- ^ a b c d "Wahhabi". GlobalSecurity.org. 2005-04-27. Archived from the original on 2005-05-07. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
- ^ although most Sunnis dispute this and tend to disassociate themselves with adherents to the Wahhabi Ideology.(source: http://www.sunnah.org, Wahhabism: Understanding the Roots and Role Models of Islamic Extremism, by Zubair Qamar, condensed and edited by ASFA staff)
- ^ Our good name: a company's fight to defend its honor J. Phillip London, C.A.C.I., Inc – 2008, "wahhabism is considered in particular an ultra-conservative orientation".
- ^ Kampeas, Ron. "Fundamentalist Wahhabism Comes to U.S.". Belief.net, Associate Press. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
- ^ "Wahhābī". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
- ^ Commins, David. The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. vi.
- ^ http://www.sunnah.org, Wahhabism: Understanding the Roots and Role Models of Islamic Extremism, by Zubair Qamar, condensed and edited by ASFA staff
- ^ "Wahhābī". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Demography of Religion in the Gulf". Mehrdad Izady. 2013.
- ^ "The Shiʻis of Saudi Arabia". pp. 56–57.
- ^ http://www.scarrdc.org/uploads/2/6/5/4/26549924/bederkawahhabism.pdf
- ^ Murdock, Heather (2013-08-13). "Boko Haram appears to take new tactic: Kill Muslims as they pray (+video) - CSMonitor.com". M.csmonitor.com. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
- ^ "European Parliament identifies Wahabi and Salafi roots of global terrorism - Blogs". Dawn.Com. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
- ^ a b c Rabasa, Angel; Benard, Cheryl (2004). "The Middle East: Cradle of the Muslim World". The Muslim World After 9/11. Rand Corporation. p. 103, note 60. ISBN 0-8330-3712-9.
- ^ a b c Howden, Daniel (August 6, 2005). "The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage". The Independent. Retrieved 2009-12-21.
- ^ "History of Islam – Sheikh Ibn Abdul Wahab of Najd – by Prof. Dr. Nazeer Ahmed, PhD". historyofislam.com.
- ^ a b The book is also known as The Divine Thunderbolts Concerning the Wahhabi School, (Al-Sawa`iq al-Ilahiyya fi Madhhab al-Wahhabiyya), source: Kingdom without borders: Saudi political, religious and media frontiers. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2012-09-17.
- ^ a b Esposito 2003, p. 333
- ^ M Zarabozo, Jamaal al Din (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Daw`ah and Guidance. p. pages 26 and 27.
- ^ "Wahabi & Salafi". alahazrat.net. Retrieved 2014-03-22. "Throughout history there have been different names for this Sect, but in the eighth century, one of their leaders use to call himself Salafi. Even today, this Sect has four names SALAFI, WAHABI, NAJDI and AHL-HADITH - although today they prefer to call themselves Salafi."
- ^ Washington Post, For Conservative Muslims, Goal of Isolation a Challenge
- ^ John L. Esposito, What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam, p.50
- ^ Stephane Lacroix, Al-Albani's Revolutionary Approach to Hadith. Leiden University's ISIM Review, Spring 2008, #21.
- ^ "There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says | The National". Thenational.ae. 2010-03-18. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
- ^ "Saudi Prince Salman: The Term 'Wahhabi' Was Coined by Saudi Arabia's Enemies". Islamdaily.org. 2010-05-14. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
- ^ Kepel, Gilles (2004). The War for Muslim Minds. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 157.
- ^ a b Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. viv. "While Wahhabism claims to represent Islam in its purest form, other Muslims consider it a misguided creed that fosters intolerance, promotes simplistic theology, and restricts Islam's capacity for adaption to diverse and shifting circumstances."
- ^ Mahdi, Wael (March 18, 2010). "There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says". The National. Abu Dhabi Media. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference. 2004. p. 727.
- ^ a b see also: Glasse, Cyril, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Rowman & Littlefield, (2001), pp.469–472
- ^ Esposito, John L. (ed.). "(entry for Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab)". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 123.
- ^ Moussalli, Ahmad (January 2009). "Wahhabism, Salafism and Islamism: Who Is The Enemy?". Conflicts Forum Monograph. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
- ^ a b c Wiktorowicz, Quintan. "Anatomy of the Salafi Movement" in Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 29 (2006): p. 235, footnote.
- ^ a b DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad (First ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 123–4. ISBN 0-19-516991-3.
- ^ name=ssh>Dr. Abdullah Mohammad Sindi. "The Direct Instruments of Western Control over the Arabs: The Shining Example of the House of Saud". Social sciences and humanities. Retrieved 4 June 2012.
- ^ "The King of Arabia". Life. 31 May 1943. p. 72. ISSN 00243019. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
- ^ a b Blanchard, Christopher M. "The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya". Updated January 24, 2008. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
- ^ Lacey, Robert (1981). The Kingdom. New York and London: Harcourt Brace Javonoich. p. 56.
- ^ There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says| Wael Mahdi| The National| March 18, 2010
- ^ a b c d "Saudi Arabia. Wahhabi Theology". December 1992. Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
- ^ Riedel, Bruce O. "Saudi Arabia, Elephant in the Living Room". The Arab Awakening: America and the Transformation of the Middle East. Brookings Institute Press. p. 160.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard, The Middle East, p.333
- ^ a b (from The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, by Khaled Abou El Fadl, Harper San Francisco, 2005 , p.160)
- ^ Battram, Robert A. Canada in Crisis (2): An Agenda for Survival of the Nation. Trafford. pp. 415–416.
- ^ Sharp, Arthur G. "What's a Wahhabi?". net places. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
- ^ Anderson, Shelly (2013). Falling Off the Edge of the World. Lulu. p. 137.
- ^ Roy, Olivier (2004). Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. Columbia University Press. p. 239. "The Taliban, despite their similarity to Wahhabis, never destroyed the graves of pirs (holy men) and emphasised dreams as a means of revelation, which is not a Wahhabi trait."
- ^ Shaykh `Abdul-`Aziz ibn `Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al Al-Shaykh, The General Mufty of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. "Interpretation of dreams and being wary of expansion in this matter". Portal of the General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta. Retrieved 23 March 2014. "[from Fatwa] ... Moreover, the interpretation of dreams is not part of the general knowledge that, if spread among Muslims, benefits them through providing a better understanding of correct beliefs and actions. Rather, it is as the Prophet (peace be upon him) described it, i.e. Ru'yas are glad tidings. In this regard, some of the Salaf (righteous predecessors) stated: "Ru'ya pleases and never harms a believer." Having said this, the field of interpreting dreams has expanded to the extent that there are now special programs on satellite channels, phone lines that reply to inquiries from the public, columns in newspapers and magazines, and places in clubs that aim to attract people and unjustly consume their wealth. All these practices are a great evil and trifle with this type of knowledge, which is part of prophethood."
- ^ a b c Kepel, Gilles (2004). The War for Muslim Minds: Islam and the West. Harvard University Press. p. 158. "Ibn Taymiyya and Abdul Wahhab counseled the strictest possible application of sharia in the most minuscule aspects of daily life and the use of coercion on subjects who did not conform to dogma. As Wahhabism began to exert its influence, a religious militia, the mutawaa -- bearded men armed with cudgels (and today, riding in shiny SUVs) -- was organized in Saudi Arabia to close down shops and office at prayer times five times a day."
- ^ Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised Edition ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 470. "Wahhabism is noted for its policy of compelling its own followers and other Muslims strictly to observe the religious duties of Islam, such as the five prayers, under pain of flogging at one time, and for the enforcement of public morals to a degree not found elsewhere."
- ^ Saudi Arabia's religious police 'contains extremists'| 4 February 2014|
- ^ a b Husain, The Islamist, 2007, p.250
- ^ Afshin Shahi. The Politics of Truth Management in Saudi Arabia. "Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab condemned many traditions, practices and beliefs that were an integral part of the religious and cultural consciousness of the Muslim community."
- ^ a b "A special day for mothers: Difference of opinion". Saudi Gazette. "[hadith] `Whoever imitates or resembles a nation, he is considered among them.`"
- ^ Many celebrate Valentine's Day in secret| Saudi Gazette.
- ^ A Saudi Woman Is Threatened After Tweeting About Beards|newyorker.com |February 19, 2014 |Katherine Zoepf
- ^ Eltahawy, Mona (July 1, 2004). "The Wahhabi war against 'infidels' and flowers". Islam Daily. Retrieved 22 March 2014. "... a Saudi friend forwarded me a copy of a fatwa, or religious ruling, issued by senior clerics. The fatwa banned the giving of flowers when visiting the sick in the hospital. The ruling observed: "It is not the habit of Muslims to offer flowers to the sick in hospital. This is a custom imported from the land of the infidels by those whose faith is weak. Therefore it is not permitted to deal with flowers in this way, whether to sell them, buy them or offer them as gifts.""
- ^ Brooks, Geraldine (1995). Nine Parts of Desire. Doubleday. p. 161. "[from the religious editor of the Saudi Gazette circa 1986-1995] There are legal and moral rights that become consequential on marriage. Because of their different physiological structures and biological functions, each sex is assigned a role to play in the family ... it is the husband who is supposed to provide for the family. If he cannot gain enough to support the family .. both ... may work for gain. However:
- The husband has the right to terminate a wife's working whenever he deems it necessary;
- He has the right to object to any job if he feels that it would expose his wife to any harm, seduction or humiliation;
- The wife has the right to discontinue working whenever she pleases."
- ^ House, Karen Elliott, On Saudi Arabia : Its People, past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future, Knopf, 2012, p.9
- ^ Max Rodenbeck (October 21, 2004). "Unloved in Arabia". New York Review of Books 51 (16).
- ^ Tarikh Najd by 'Husain ibn Ghannam, Vol. 1, Pg. 76–77
- ^ 'Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd, by 'Uthman ibn Bishr an-Najdi, Vol. 1, Pg. 7–8
- ^ Shaikh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, by Judge Ahmad ibn 'Hajar al-Butami, Pg. 17–19
- ^ Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: His Da'wah and Life Story, by Shaikh ibn Baaz, Pg. 21
- ^ Shaikh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, by Judge Ahmad ibn 'Hajar al-Butami, Pg. 28
- ^ a b English, Jeanette M. (February 2011) [2011]. "14" (Paper). Infidel behind the paradoxical veil 1 (first ed.). http://books.google.com/: AuthorHouse™. p. 260. ISBN 978-1-4567-2810-6. LCCN 2011900551. Retrieved 2012-04-11. "In the last years of the 18th century, Ibn Saud attempted to seize control of Arabia and its outer lying regions and his heirs spent the next 150 years in this pursuit. This was done at the expense of the overlords of the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, the house of Al Saud met with defeat at the hands of the Ottoman and Egyptian armies, resulting in the burning of Diriyah."
- ^ Wahhabism - A Critical Essay: Chapter 2
- ^ "Imam Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab, Ibn Saud information resource". "Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab sought the protection of Muhammad bin Saud, in Ad-Dariyah, the home of the House of Saud... ...they had interests in common, pre-eminently a desire to see all the Arabs of the Peninsula brought back to Islam in its simplest and purest form. In 1744, they therefore took an oath that they would work together to achieve this end."
- ^ a b Husain, Ed (2007). The Islamist : Why I joined Radical Islam in Britain, what I saw inside and why I left. Penguin Books. p. 246. "In contemporary Wahhabism there are two broad factions. One is publicy supportive of the House of Saud, and will endorse any policy decision reached by the Saudi government and provide scriptual justification for it. The second believe that the House of Saud should be forcibly removed and the wahhabi clerics should take charge. Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda are from the second school."
- ^ a b Evidence That Hempher's Diaries Are a Forgery by Abu.Iyaad, wahhabis.com, 20 August 2011.
- ^ a b Middle East Strategy at Harvard, Anti-Wahhabism: a footnote, by Bernard Haykel, 27 May 2008, pub John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University
- ^ a b Caught in the Crossfire by George Packer, 17 May 2004
- ^ Correspondence dated 24 Sep 2002, within the General Military Intelligence Directorate (GMID), regarding a research study titled, "The Emergence of AI-Wahhabiyyah Movement and its Historical Roots", by Col Al-'Amiri, Sa'id Mahmud Najm, Iraqi General Military Intelligence Directorate. Captured by USA, May 2003, and translated into English.
- ^ Waqf Ikhlas Publications No: 14, Confessions of a British Spy and British Enmity Against Islam, 8th edition, Waqf Ikhlas Publications No: 14, Istambul, 2001
- ^ sunnah.org, Wahhabism: Understanding the Roots and Role Models of Islamic Extremism, by Zubair Qamar, condensed and edited by ASFA staff
- ^ "Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2008-05-28.
- ^ a b c Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid
- ^ Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam, Vintage Books, 1982, p.61
- ^ Commins 2006, p. 12 According to Commins, Kitab al-Tawhid "has nothing to say on Islamic law, which guides Muslims' everyday lives. This is a crucial point. One of the myths about Wahhabism is that its distinctive character stems from its affiliation with the supposedly 'conservative' or 'strict' Hanbali legal school. If that were the case, how could we explain the fact that the earliest opposition to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab came from other Hanbali scholars? Or that a tradition of anti-Wahhabi Hanbalism persisted into the nineteenth century? As an expert on law in Saudi Arabia notes, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab produced no unprecedented opinions and Saudi authorities today regard him not as a mujtahid in fiqh [independent thinker in jurisprudence], but rather in da'wa or religious reawakening… The Wahhabis' bitter differences with other Muslims were not over fiqh [jurisprudence] rules at all, but over aqida, or theological positions.'"
- ^ House, Karen Elliott (2012). On Saudi Arabia : Its People, past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future. Knopf. p. 27. "Not only is the Saudi monarch effectively the religious primate, but the puritanical Wahhabi sect of Islam that he represents instructs Muslims to be obedient and submissive to their ruler, however imperfect, in pursuit of a perfect life in paradise. Only if a ruler directly countermands the comandments of Allah should devout Muslims even consider disobeying. `O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. [surah 4:59]`"
- ^ Lacey, Robert (2009). Inside the Kingdom : Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists, and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia. Viking. p. 56. "The ambitions of the Muslim Brotherhood were similar to those of the Salfis and also of the dawah wahhabiya (Wahhabi mission) -- to reestablish the order of Allah and to bring about the perfect Islamic states. But the rhetoric of the Brotherhood dealt in change-promoting concepts like social justice, anticolonialism, and the equal distribution of wealth. Politically they were prepared to challenge the estabishment in a style that was unthinkable to mainstream Wahhabis, who were reflexively defferential to their rulers, and enablers, the House of Saud."
- ^ http://mailofislam.webstarts.com/uploads/fitna-tul-wahhabiyyah.pdf
- ^ "Fitanatul Wahhabiya - LET US CORRECT OUR ISLAMIC FAITH". Correctislamicfaith.com. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ "wahabi, quran reading, sunni islam, wahhabism, wahhabi, become a muslim, islam followers, followers of islam". Yakhwajagaribnawaz.com. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ "Islam Question and Answer - Shaykh al-Albaani (may Allaah have mercy on him) was a great muhaddith and a mujtahid faqeeh". Islamqa.info. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ "Shaykh Abd Allaah Bin Muhammad Bin Abd Al-Wahhaab on Fiqh, Ijtihaad, Madhhabs and Taqlid". wahhabis.com.
- ^ "ijtihad (Islamic law) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ a b "Resource of authenticated documented letters written by Shaykh Muhammad Ibn Abd Al-Wahhab in the original arabic script". saaid.net.
"Forum which provides an english translation of the original arabic scripted letters". forums.islamicawakening.com.
- ^ Glasse, Cyril, The New Encyclopedia of Islam Altamira, 2001, p.407
- ^ Oleh: Luthfi Assyaukanie. "Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahab (1703-1791) - JIL English Edition". Islamlib.com. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ "Jism, Tajseem, and the Mujassimah (Anthropomorphists) in the Ash'arite Textbooks and in the Works of Shaykh ul-Islaam Ibn Taymiyyah: A Brief Comparison". Asharis.com. 2009-07-27. Retrieved 2012-06-12.
- ^ Ibn Taymiyyah. Sharh-Al-Aqeedat-Il-Wasitiyah. Dar us Salam Publications. "The followers of Ahlus Sunnah wal Jama'ah occupy a moderate position between the Ahlut Ta'teel (Jahmiyyah) and Ahlut Tamtheel (Mushabbiha), and are moderate between the Jabariyah sect and the Qadariyah sect regarding the Acts of Allah, and are moderate about the Promises of Allah between the Murji'ah and the Wa'eediyah sects among Qadariyah and are moderate on matters of the Faith and names of the religion between the Harooriyah and Mu'tazilah, and between the Murji'ah and Jahmiyah and are moderate regarding the Companions of the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, between the Raafidah and the Khawarij."
- ^ a b c d e Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 210.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 210.
- ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 111.
- ^ a b Caryle Murphy (15 July 2010). "A Kingdom Divided". GlobalPost. Retrieved 6 May 2014. "First, there is the void created by the 1999 death of the elder Bin Baz and that of another senior scholar, Muhammad Salih al Uthaymin, two years later. Both were regarded as giants in conservative Salafi Islam and are still revered by its adherents. Since their passing, no one "has emerged with that degree of authority in the Saudi religious establishment," said David Dean Commins, history professor at Dickinson College and author of "The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia.""
- ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, Harper San Francisco, 2005, p.70-72.
- ^ Kepel, Gilles (2003). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. I.B. Tauris. pp. 61–2.
- ^ documentary The Qur'an aired in the UK, The Qur'an review in The Independent
- ^ a b Yahya Birt, an academic who is director of The City Circle, a networking body of young British Muslim professionals, quoted in Wahhabism: A deadly scripture| Paul Vallely 01 November 2007
- ^ Saudi Arabia, Wahhabism and the Spread of Sunni Theofascism| By Ambassador Curtin Winsor, Ph.D.
- ^ a b Dawood al-Shirian, 'What Is Saudi Arabia Going to Do?' Al-Hayat, May 19, 2003
- ^ Abou al Fadl, Khaled, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, HarperSanFrancisco, 2005, p.48-64
- ^ Kepel, p. 72
- ^ Murphy, Caryle, Passion for Islam : Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience, Simon and Schuster, 2002 p. 32
- ^ Coolsaet, Rik. "Cycles of Revolutionary Terrorism, Chapter 7". In Rik Coolsaet. Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalisation Challenge: European and American. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. "The proliferation of brochures, free qurans and new Islamic centres in Malaga, Madrid, Milat, Mantes-la-Jolie, Edinburgh, Brussels, Lisbon, Zagreb, Washington, Chicago, and Toronto; the financing of Islamic Studies chairs in American universities; the growth of Internet sites: all of these elements have facilitated access to Wahhabi teachings and the promotion of Wahhabism as the sole legitimate guardian of Islamic thought."
- ^ Kepel 2002, pp. 69–75
- ^ Radical Islam in Central Asia
- ^ Kuan Yew Lee; Ali Wyne. Lee Kuan Yew: The Grand Master's Insights on China, the United States, and .... MIT Press. "But over the last 30-odd years, since the oil crisis and the petrodollars became a major factor in the Muslim world, the extremists have been proleytizing, building mosques, religious schools where they teach Wahhabism ... sending out preachers, and having conferences. Globalizing, networking. And slowly they have convinced the Southeast Asian Muslims, and indeed Muslims throughout the world, that the gold standard is Saudi Arabia, that that is the real good Muslim."
- ^ Kingdom without borders: Saudi political, religious and media frontiers
- ^ The Destruction of Holy Sites in Mecca and Medina By Irfan Ahmed in Islamic Magazine, Issue 1, July 2006
- ^ Nibras Kazimi, A Paladin Gears Up for War, The New York Sun, November 1, 2007
- ^ John R Bradley, Saudi's Shi'ites walk tightrope, Asia Times, March 17, 2005
- ^ "Somali rage at grave desecration". BBC News. 8 June 2009.
- ^ Why Does One Have to Follow a Madhhab? Debate Between Muhammad Sa'id al-Buti and a Leading Salafi Teacher, translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller, 1995, masud.co.uk , also on Answering Wahhabism and Salafism
- ^ "Radicalism: Its Wahhabi Roots and Current Representation",[dead link] Islamic Supreme Council of America
- ^ The Islamists Have it Wrong By Abdul Hadi Palazzi Middle East Quarterly, Summer 2001
- ^ On Islam and 500 most influential Muslims
- ^ The 'Neoconservative' Sufi Muslim Council : Uncover Traitor who destroy Islam and Umah. May 25, 2008
- ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 104. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Maris Boyd Gillette (2000). Between Mecca and Beijing: modernization and consumption among urban Chinese Muslims. Stanford University Press. pp. 79, 80. ISBN 0-8047-3694-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ John L. Esposito (1999). The Oxford history of Islam. Oxford University Press US. p. 462. ISBN 0195107993. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ BARRY RUBIN (2000). Guide to Islamist Movements. M.E. Sharpe. p. 800. ISBN 0-7656-1747-1. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ al-Makki, Abd al-Hafiz. "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband.org. Retrieved 30 May 2011. "Through the grace of Allah, I studied each volume page by page and never came across any place in which Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab criticizes, refutes or rejects Tasawwuf or any one of the Sufi shaykhs on account of his Tasawwuf."
- ^ Saudi Publications on Hate Ideology Invade American Mosques
- ^ quotes from a study "based on a year-long study of over two hundred original documents, all disseminated, published or otherwise generated by the government of Saudi Arabia and collected from more than a dozen mosques in the United States". New Report on Saudi Government Publications at the Wayback Machine (archived October 2, 2006)
- ^ "Saudi Arabia and the War on Terrorism". March 2006. Loeffler Tuggey Pauerstein Rosenthal LLP. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
- ^ a b "Freedom House". International Relations Center. 2007-07-26. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
- ^ Natana J. Delong-Bas, "Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad", (Oxford University Press: 2004), p. 279
- ^ After Jihad: American and the Struggle for Islamic Democracy by Noah Feldman, New York : Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003, p.47
- ^ Daniel Burke (2013-10-28). "Terrorist attacks and deaths hit record high, report shows". CNN.
- ^ Armstrong, Karen. The label of Catholic terror was never used about the IRA. guardian.co.uk
- ^ Salah Nasrawi, Mecca's ancient heritage is under attack – Developments for pilgrims and the strict beliefs of Saudi clerics are encroaching on or eliminating Islam's holy sites in the kingdom, Los Angeles Times, September 16, 2007. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
Further reading[edit]
- Imran N. Hosein (1996). 'The Caliphate, the Hejaz and the Saudi-Wahhabi Nation-State'. New York: Masjid Darul Qur'an.
- Algar, Hamid, Wahhabism : A Critical Essay, Islamic Publications International, ISBN 1-889999-13-X
- Delong-Bas, Natana J., Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-516991-3
- Holden, David and Johns, Richard, The House of Saud, Pan, 1982, ISBN 0-330-26834-1
- Al-Rasheed, Madawi, A History of Saudi Arabia, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-64412-7
- De Gaury, Gerald and Stark, Freya, Arabia Phoenix, Kegan Paul International Limited, ISBN 0-7103-0677-6, ISBN 978-0-7103-0677-7
- Oliver, Haneef James, The 'Wahhabi' Myth: Dispelling Prevalent Fallacies and the Fictitious Link with Bin Laden, T.R.O.I.D. Publications, February 2004, ISBN 0-9689058-5-4
- Quist, B. Wayne and Drake, David F., Winning the War on Terror: A Triumph of American Values, iUniverse, 2005, ISBN 0-595-67272-8
- Malik, S. K. (1986). The Quranic Concept of War. Himalayan Books. ISBN 81-7002-020-4.
- Swarup, Ram (1982). Understanding Islam through Hadis. Voice of Dharma. ISBN 0-682-49948-X.
- Trifkovic, Serge (2006). Defeating Jihad. Regina Orthodox Press, USA. ISBN 1-928653-26-X.
- Phillips, Melanie (2006). Londonistan: How Britain is Creating a Terror State Within. Encounter books. ISBN 1-59403-144-4.
- Commins, David Dean (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84885-014-X.
- Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
- Kepel, Gilles (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. trans. Anthony F. Roberts (1st English edition ed.). Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00877-4.
- Saint-Prot, Charles. Islam. L'avenir de la tradition entre révolution et occidentalisation (Islam. The Future of Tradition between Revolution and Westernization). Paris: Le Rocher, 2008.
External links[edit]
- "Wahhabism." Oxford Bibliographies Online: Islamic Studies.
- What Is a Salafi And Is Their Approach Valid?
- Leading American Academic Discusses the Wahhabi Myth
- Who First Used the Term 'Wahhabi'?
- The Ideology of Terrorism and Violence in Saudi Arabia: Origins, Reasons and Solution
- Does Saudi Arabia Preach Intolerance in the UK and US?
- Full Text of Kitab Al Tawhid by Ibn Abdul Wahhab
- Spero News – Bosnia: Muslims upset by Wahhabi leaders
- The Wahhabi Movement
- Wahhabi School
- History of early Wahhabism and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Urdu)
- Critical
- Analysis: Inside Wahhabi Islam
- Wahhabism: Understanding the roots and role models of islamic extremism
- The 'Wahhabi' Nemesis: Exposing those responsible for causing terror
- Wahabi Way (Arabic)
- Definitive Wahhabi Profile
- Saudi Publications on Hate Ideology
- Booknotes interview with Stephen Schwartz on The Two Faces of Islam: The House of Sa'ud from Tradition to Terror, February 2, 2003.


text:
About One Year Ago
Tim McGraw is in the best shape of his life -- now that he's quit drinking.
He tells People magazine, "I drank a lot from my point of view, and I needed to stop. I felt quitting was something I needed to do. I didn't feel I had any moral high ground with my kids in the long run."
Tim replaced the bottle with an intense workout regimen and has an impressive eight-pack to prove it. He says, "Working out is a great way to go out on stage. When I hit the stage, my adrenaline is going and I'm ready."
Tim releases his album Two Lanes of Freedom on Tuesday and hits the road for a 30-city tour in the spring.
In order to celebrate their 40th anniversary as a band, Alabama has announced that they will be hitting the high seas on a special fan appreciation cruise.
In a post on their official website, Alabama announced a fan cruise called the Alabama & Friends Festival at Sea, set for next October. The cruise is timed to mark 40 years since Alabama played their first gig, which was at the Bowery in Myrtle Beach.
"Think four or five days, warm weather, beaches, unique shows from us, shows from some of our favorite bands, and a few special surprises along the way," the posting says of the special cruise.
"While we are still figuring out all the details, we hope you will plan to join us next October for the biggest Alabama celebration yet."
Prices for the cruise start at $750 per guest, plus taxes and fees.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Recovered Brandon McCarthy looks for new lease on life with Arizona Diamondbacks
The Arizona Diamondbacks are gambling on right-handed hurler Brandon McCarthy recovering from a severe health incident a season ago to become an instrumental part of their starting rotation.
The 29-year-old free agent inked a two-year, $15.5 million contract with the D-backs this offseason and is expected to provide depth to an already impressive pitching staff.
McCarthy was struck on the right side of his head by a line drive off the bat of the Los Angeles Angels' Erick Aybar on Sept. 5.
"I was sort of hesitant as to what I could do or what I was capable of, and then once they pushed me through it, I realized actually I think I'm fine," McCarthy said after undergoing testing a month ago. "Ever since that day, I haven't been restricted by anything. I've felt no symptoms. It's become as much of a non-factor as something that major can be."
McCarthy had surgery for a brain contusion, skull fracture and epidural hemorrhage. Despite the severity of the injury he suffered, the right-hander passed his physical with the D-backs and received a positive report from a concession specialist at the University of Pittsburgh.
"I came through that two or three days of testing to where everything was extremely normal -- where I tested right where I would have if I hadn't had the incident," McCarthy stated.
The D-backs weren't the only team who wanted a chance to bring a recovered McCarthy into the fold. He amassed an 8-6 record with a 3.24 ERA and 73 strikeouts in 18 starts for the Oakland Athletics last season. The new D-back boasts a career 37-39 record with a 4.02 ERA and 447 punchouts in 654.1 IP in six major league seasons.
McCarthy said he chose the D-backs in part because of his own comfort level and familiarity of the area, with family members residing in both Scottsdale and Tucson. But the main reason he decided on Arizona was due to the impressive core of the ballclub.
"It's a team that's so close to being competitive and two years ago you're removed from an extremely competitive team, and I think all the ingredients are there for that," McCarthy said. "A really deep starting rotation, there's a lot of good offensive talent there, especially young talent. There's some good defensive players. I think you have everything that you're looking for, for a team to make a deep run and possibly win the whole thing."
For his own personal needs, McCarthy said the situation with the D-backs was exactly what he was seeking.
"When you're looking for something in the shorter term the way we were that's an important thing. You want to know that you are joining a good team and you could possibly be one of those final pieces too," McCarthy stated.
Off the field, the D-backs hurler is known for his witty persona and should be a positive influence and lively clubhouse presence. On the mound, McCarthy should benefit in a hitter's ballpark in large part to his refined mechanics that have reduced the number of fly balls he's allowed.
"I think more of an emphasis of getting the ground ball now is something that will help me, but it doesn't mean it's a guaranteed victory there," McCarthy said. "A tough park is a tough park. It's just there's still that emphasis on making pitches, making quality pitches."
- Does Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Trevor Cahill pitch better when Tuffy Gosewich is catching?
- Diamondbacks reinstate A.J. Pollock and Chris Owings from DL
- MLB debutant delivers for Padres in win over D-backs
- Cahill, D-backs' offense struggle in loss to Padres: By The Numbers
- Arizona Diamondbacks reinstate Daniel Hudson, Cody Ross from the disabled list
- Kirk Gibson, D-backs Manager - Tuesday September 2Kirk Gibson discusses Daniel Hudson returning to the D-backs roster.
- Augie Ojeda, former Arizona Diamondback - Friday August 29Doug and Wolf chat with former Diamondback Augie Ojeda.
- Travis Lee, former D-backs first baseman - Thursday August 28Travis Lee shares some stories and memories from playing with the D-backs.
- Derrick Hall, D-backs President and CEO - Thursday August 28Derrick Hall discusses the home plate rule in the new instant replay system.
- Tim Kurkjian, ESPN MLB insider - Wednesday August 27ESPN baseball analyst Tim Kurkjian believes Matt Williams is good for the Nationals.
- Kirk Gibson, D-backs manager - Tuesday August 26D-backs manager Kirk Gibson discusses possible changes to a six-man rotation.
- Reggie Sanders - former Diamondbacks outfielder - Tuesday August 26Reggie Sanders discusses the Diamondbacks' alumni game coming up this Saturday.


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Send Invites
I'm testing the "Send Invites" function. It doesn't send a notification or email to the invitees. I noticed the invites are in the members profile > Events > Invites tab, available to accept or reject, but how would anyone know the invites were there without a notification or email?
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Government Information
These resources will provide a wealth of information by and about the US and foreign governmernts, as well as NGOs. Further resources are available here.
ProQuest Congressional
One stop shopping for U.S. congressional publications. Provides index and abstracts of congressional publications back to 1789, including full text Congressional Hearings from 1824-present, full text Committee Prints from 1830-present, full text Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports from 1916-present, full text United States Congressional Serial Set from 1789-1969, and legislative histories from 1970-present. For more information on how to find hearings, consult the Congressional Tutorials homepage
American Presidency Project
Contains all major publications of the U.S. Office of the President, including: Public Papers of the President, Inaugural Addresses, Executive Orders, Signing Statements, and other information such as radio addresses, party platforms, videos of debates, and popularity polling data. This project was developed by two political science professors at UCSB.
GPO U.S. Government Publications
Indexes government documents printed by the US Government Printing Office since July 1976; documents include Congressional committee hearings, congressional debates and records, judiciary material, documents issued by departments such as Defense, State, Labor, and the Office of the President. Also includes links to Federal agency online resources.
CQ Press Library
A reference source on American politics and government that includes the following modules: CQ Congress Collection, CQ Political Handbook of the World, CQ Researcher Plus Archive, CQ Supreme Court, CQ Voting and Elections, CQ Washington Information Directory, CQ Weekly. Access individual modules or search across all CQ collections.
CQ Voting and Elections Collection
Offers documents and data, authoritative analyses, background information and definitions, chronology, and historical material related to specific elections (Congressional,presidential, and gubernatorial) and the electoral process in America. A data set of voting/election statistics is available for exporting/downloading. Part of the CQ Electronic Library collection.
CQ MoneyLine
Provides tracking of the flow of money in politics at the federal level with some state information from 1980 to the present. Enables tracking of contributions from Political Action Committees (PACs), individual donors to politicians, elected officials, and party committees; follow soft money through 527 groups, and retrieve information on thousands of lobbyists, indexed by client and issue.
DDRS (Declassified Documents Reference System)
Over 75,000 documents and almost 500,000 pages of materials declassified via the Freedom of Information Act and regular declassification requests, making broad-based and highly targeted investigation of government documents possible. Nearly every major foreign and domestic event of these years is covered.
A searchable archive of video from the United States House and Senate Floor Debates captured though C-SPAN, from 2006 to the present. Can be searched by topic/subject keyword or person. Video can also be freely downloaded by anyone.
Oyez Project
A multimedia archive devoted to the Supreme Court of the United States and its work. Contains all audio recorded in the Court since the installation of a recording system in October 1955, and summaries of major cases going back to the courts founding. The Project also provides biographical information on all justices and offers a virtual reality 'tour' of portions of the Supreme Court building, including the chambers of some of the justices.
United Nations Official Documents System
Full-text of United Nations documents, including legislative documents and official records since 1993, resolutions of the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council from 1946 onwards.
UNBISnet: UN Bibliograpic Information System
Contains bibliographic files with citations to UN documents indexed by the United Nations Dag Hammarskjd Library in New York and the UN Library in Geneva. Coverage is primarily from 1979 forward, however indexing for resolutions of the General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, Security Council and Trusteeship go back to 1946. Also contains files indexing speeches, voting records, and resolutions.
News Resources
Here are some general news and newsmedia databases. For a full listing of the Library's news resources, check this list.
Access World News
Provides full-text information and perspectives from over 600 U.S. and over 700 international sources. Offers strong regional coverage, indexing more than California newspapers such as Contra Costa Times (1995-current), Sacramento Bee (1984-current), San Francisco Chronicle (1985-current), and San Jose Mercury News (1985-current). Search categories include: California newspapers (121 titles), Greater Los Angeles (54 titles), major metropolitan titles (13 titles), Spanish-language news sources (48 titles), the World (almost 2000 titles), US (855 titles).
Provides general and business news and information from more than 9,000 sources in 22 languages, including influential local, national and international newspapers, leading business magazines, trade publications, and news wires. Includes the exclusive combination of The Wall Street Journal (1979-present), the Financial Times, Dow Jones and Reuters newswires and the Associated Press, as well as Reuters Fundamentals, and Bureau van Dijk company profiles.
LexisNexis Academic
Includes over 6,000 individual titles of international, national and local newspapers and wire services; radio and television transcripts; and business, medical, industry, and legislative magazines, journals, and newsletters. Wide geographic coverage and translations from foreign-language sources, as well as news services like the Associated Press, Agence France Press, El Pais and Xinhua (New China) News Agency.
ProQuest Newspapers
Indexes the New York Times (1999-present), Los Angeles Times (1985-present), Wall Street Journal (1982-present).
Historical Newspapers (ProQuest)
Indexes articles from Chicago Defender (1905-1975), Chicago Tribune (1849-1986), Los Angeles Times (1881-1986), New York Times (1851-2004), San Francisco Chronicle (1865-1922), Wall Street Journal (1889-1990), and Washington Post (1877-1991).
Last Update: 14 Jan 12:49 | Tagged with: legal studies


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text:
I owned the 70-300 DO lens for a couple of years. While it wasn't a bad lens, the DO did take a bit of a toll on IQ, particularly in situations where lens flare was likely (strong light source striking the front element). Bokeh was a little awkward/choppy at times also. I understand that the 400/4 DO is a very good lens.
I'd like to see a refinement in the DO design that would produce an even better optical quality. The light weight and relatively small package makes a strong selling point for this technology.
Canon has a number of recent patents for new DO lens technology, but it seems to be exceedingly difficult to manufacture. It is based on small particles immersed in a resin compound. The resultant radial dispersion of particles can produce a superior lens element that varies its properties radially. The issue is getting the spacing of the particles right in a consistent way, and that may never happen. You can't just pour a powder in a vat of resin and mold a bunch of identical lens elements. Every one will be different.
They did not specifically mention this technology in the patent, but did talk about a resin compound, so its in there somewhere.


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IA-Gov: Iowa Campaign Ethics Board to Investigate Jim Nussle
by Chris Woods, Thu Mar 30, 2006 at 11:06:48 AM EST
Press release from the Iowa Democratic Party just out:
"The Iowa Ethics and Campaign Disclosure Board voted today to investigate gubernatorial candidate Jim Nussle's campaign for potentially violating state campaign finance compliance laws.
"We applaud the Ethics Board's decision to investigate the campaign filings of Jim Nussle. The board has confirmed our belief that the Nussle campaign engaged in potentially unscrupulous financial activities that misled Iowans. Iowa's campaign finance reporting laws were established to shine a light on the financial activities of candidates for public office, and this investigation will do just that," said Iowa Democratic Party Executive Director Mike Milligan.
Last month, the Iowa Democratic Party filed a formal ethics complaint against the Nussle campaign with the Iowa Ethics and Campaign Disclosure Board. There are three areas of concern that warrant an investigation into ethics violations:
1. Mr. Nussle's state finance report fails to show any in-kind donations from the federal "Nussle for Congress Committee," while six individuals were simultaneously paid out of both accounts.
2. The development costs of Nussle's gubernatorial campaign website may have been paid for by the congressional campaign account, with no record of an in- kind donation to the gubernatorial campaign account.
3. Three congressional campaign expenditures, totaling $33,839.69 for media-production, were made to McCarthy Marcus Hennings in 2005. The official announcement tour of his bid for Governor was accompanied by a video. However, in the gubernatorial campaign state report there is no report of video or media production expenses to McCarthy Marcus Hennings until two months after his announcement."
You can find the full text of the original letter of complaint below the fold (my original post on the filing of the complaint is here). I'm glad to see the IECDB is taking this seriously and has now moved to investigate Nussle. This definitely isn't the type of the publicity the Nussle campaign's been looking for -- since, as Bacon notes, they've been relatively invisible the last month or so.
And I hope to hear Kyle's thoughts on the IECDB's decision to investigate -- he wasn't too optimistic when the IDP filed their original complaint, but maybe this means that the IECDB is serious about enforcing campaign finance laws and will be willing to push for or adopt changes (if, of course, they can get the legislature to issue the changes).
Cross-posted at Political Forecast.


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Ramadi / NINA / A force of the Rapid Intervention Regiment has found in Anbar today 7, Nov a cache of weapons and explosive devices east of Fallujah.A source in the regiment told the reporter of the National Iraqi News Agency / NINA /: "accurate security information helped the force to find the cache near the high way, east of the city of Fallujah."The source added that "an anti-explosives force has blown up the contents of the cache after the impossibility to be dismantled.' / End
Urgent .... Death toll of victims of the two explosions in Bayaa up to 58 killed and wounded
Maliki instructs the formation of two regiments to protect Amerli
Yankja area west of Tuz cleansed from the IS elements
The headquarters of the Army came under mortar attack east of Fallujah
Urgent.. /29/ people killed and wounding by the explosion of two car bombs southwest of Baghdad
Interior Ministry announces the cleansing of areas in Salah al-Din
Al-Jaafari and Nujaifi stress the importance of maintaining the constitutional timings to form the government
An attack on Tikrit University foiled, 3 vehicles destroyed, 20 elements of the IS killed
The sound of two strong explosions heard in western Baghdad
Masum discusses with a delegation from the National List means to form a government of national representation
Abadi to the UN mission: Forming the government negotiations going on smoothly
12 elements of the IS killed, 20 others wounded by an American air raid northwest of Mosul
The IS blew up 5 houses belonging to security forces south of Mosul
Six civilians were wounded by a roadside bomb east of Mosul
Two people injured by a roadside bomb exploded in the al-Shamiya in al- Quadissiya
Two nests for the IS destroyed south of Baghdad
A nest to the IS destroyed, 11 terrorists killed by artillery bombardment in Haditha district
/3/ snipers killed, a vehicle destroyed south of Baghdad
Nineveh governor, its police director discuss rehabilitating police to catch the security file in the province after liberating it
House Speaker Meets With Nikolai Miladinov
Muttahidoon: Names of ministries' candidates will be presented today
Elite Forces of anti-terrorism cleanse Sulaiman Bek and raise the Iraqi flag
The emergency meeting of the UN Human Rights Council on Iraq begins in Geneva
32 terrorists, including 8 Chechens, killed in Amerli
MoD: 56 terrorists killed, 27 captured in Amerli
The Islamic State executes six policemen and awakening elements in Kirkuk
Peshmerga controls Zommar district fully
22 bodies of the Islamic State received by the forensic medicine in Mosul
Maliki Meets With a number of security leaders In Amerli, urges them to liberate Mosul
Breaking News …. Maliki Arrives To Amerli


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Golden Squash Pie Recipe
Whether you take this yummy pie to a party or potluck, be prepare to share the recipe. An alternative to pumpkin pie, it bakes up high and flavorful.
- 4 eggs
- 4 cups mashed cooked butternut squash
- 1 cup buttermilk
- 1/4 cup butter, melted
- 2 teaspoons vanilla extract
- 2 cups sugar
- 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
- 1 teaspoon salt
- 1/2 teaspoon baking soda
- 2 unbaked pastry shell (9 inches)
- Ground nutmeg, optional
- In a bowl, combine the eggs, squash, buttermilk, butter and vanilla. Combine the dry ingredients; add to the squash mixture and mix until smooth. Pour into pastry shells. Cover edges loosely with foil.
- Bake at 350° for 35 minutes. Remove foil. Bake 25 minutes longer or until a knife inserted near the center comes out clean. Cool on a wire rack. Sprinkle with nutmeg if desired. Store in the refrigerator. Yield: 2 pies (6-8 servings each).
Originally published as Golden Squash Pie in Country Woman September/October 2000, p29
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Reviewed Oct. 30, 2009
If your family likes pumpkin pie, they will love this pie! It has a smoother texture and milder flavor, but still tastes rich and creamy. If you do not want the fuss of preparing the squash you can purchase already prepared butternut squash in the frozen foods section at the grocery store.
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Two years ago on Friday, Jeremy Irwin called 911 to report that his 10-month-old daughter was missing from her crib.
The search for baby Lisa Irwin captivated the nation and made international headlines. Two years later, her room remains much the same, except now it's filled with clothes she's never worn and birthday and Christmas presents she's never opened.
Irwin and his girlfriend, Debbie Bradley, continue to buy clothes and presents for their missing daughter whose third birthday would be next month. The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children released this week a portrait of what Lisa would look like up between her current age and up to five years old.
Bradley said she was overwhelmed, sad and happy when she saw the photo of what her daughter would look like at an older age.
"It's sad because it's not in person yet," she said.
At times, Bradley broke down while speaking exclusively with Inside Edition, which airs at 6:30 p.m. on KCTV5 and 9:30 p.m. on My-KSMO.
"This house is not a home anymore. Not without her," a tearful Bradley said.
She said it doesn't feel like two years since her daughter disappeared.
"It feels more like 10," she said.
Irwin pleaded for answers.
"It only takes one person to make the right call," he said.
Police have had tough questions for Bradley, who was home alone with Lisa and her two older brothers when the baby went missing. But Lisa's parents maintain they had nothing to do with her disappearance, and a stranger abducted her so she could be raised elsewhere.
Bradley said this is a case of human trafficking, and she remains convinced that Lisa will come home one day. She also maintains that her and Irwin have always cooperated with police.
However, police say they want to interview the couple separately and ask tough questions. On the advice of their attorneys, the couple is not doing so.
Copyright 2013 KCTV (Meredith Corp.) All rights reserved.
An audio recording, allegedly of the moment Michael Brown was shot, has surfaced and provided to CNN.
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Charity celebrates decade of success (From Daily Echo)
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Rose Road Association celebrates decade of success at Bradbury Centre
10:34am Monday 27th January 2014 in News By Melanie Adams, Crime Reporter
A HAMPSHIRE charity has celebrated ten years of helping to improve the lives of disabled youngsters and their families at its current home.
The Rose Road Association moved to the £5m Bradbury Centre a decade ago, when it was opened by the Earl of Wessex after fundraisers successfully raised the money needed to build the state-of-the-art building.
Families who have been supported by the vital service, which offers overnight breaks to children with disabilities, enjoyed a special party at the centre in Aldermoor Road to mark the milestone.
Speakers included Rose Road Association chief executive Heather Aspinall and director of business development Neil Wilson.
Among the guests was inspirational yachtsman Geoff Holt, the first disabled person to sail unassisted across the Atlantic Ocean.
The Rose Road Association was established in 1952 following an appeal letter in the Daily Echo for parents of children with cerebral palsy to form a support group in Southampton.
In 1996 the charity decided to build a new centre and launched an appeal with Matty the Mole as mascot. The £5m fundraising target was met in 2002 and construction for the new centre at Aldermoor began.
The opening was delayed by nine months after a devastating fire swept through the building in March 2003 but staff finally move into the Bradbury Centre just before Christmas that year.
Now the Rose Road Association provides services for more than 350 young people, with short breaks, play schemes and specialist support at the charity's Rosewood School.
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