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World news about "Benjamin Netanyahu" published by euronews.
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has urged the West not to be fooled by Iran's diplomacy on its nuclear programme.. On November 24, Iran agreed to… 10/03/2014
Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu is visiting Washington, but for the first part of their meeting had to sit and wait while President Barack Obama… 04/03/2014
German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu held a joint news conference in Jerusalem, marking the start of two days of… 25/02/2014
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu told German Chancellor Angela Merkel on Monday that Iran's nuclear programme was the biggest threat to world… 25/02/2014
Israel has successfully tested its upgraded Arrow missile interceptor for the second time. The warhead is designed to manoeuvre in space to counter what… 03/01/2014
US Secretary of State John Kerry has arrived in Israel in his latest bid to re-energise the Middle East peace process. The visit, Kerry's tenth to the… 02/01/2014
Israel has released 26 Palestinian prisoners as part of US-brokered peace efforts, while announcing it will build more homes in Jewish settlements. The… 31/12/2013
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has visited Pope Francis at the Vatican – the first time the two leaders have met face to face. Topics discussed… 02/12/2013
French President Francois Hollande's vowed to take a hard line toward Iran in nuclear talks this week as he began a three-day visit to Israel on… 17/11/2013
John Kerry's participation in talks on Iran's nuclear programme is fuelling speculation of a breakthrough. The US Secretary of State was warmly welcomed in… 08/11/2013
A grim picture of Middle East peace talks has been painted by the Israeli prime minister as US Secretary of State John Kerry pursues shuttle diplomacy aimed… 06/11/2013
Diplomatic handshakes disguised the differences between Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and US Secretary of State John Kerry when they met in Rome… 24/10/2013
Social media networks have been inundated with pictures of young Iranians wearing jeans. It comes after Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said in a… 07/10/2013
Speaking at the 68th session of the United Nations General Assembly in New York, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu warned that the rapprochement moves… 01/10/2013
The Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has undergone a successful operation to treat an umbilical hernia. He is expected to be released from hospital… 11/08/2013
On the day Iran's new president takes office, Israeli prime minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, has said he believes there is no difference between the old and new… 04/08/2013
The Palestinian Authority has welcomed the Israeli decision to release 104 prisoners. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu had to persuade his cabinet… 28/07/2013
Remembering the past Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu has opened a Holocaust exhibition at the Auschwitz Nazi death camp in Poland. Just a few hours… 13/06/2013
Israeli forces have been carrying out attack drills as part of a three day exercise known as "Turning Point 7". The drills included simulated rocket… 29/05/2013
The conflict in Syria dominated talks between Russian President Vladimir Putin and Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu as the two met at Putin's… 14/05/2013
Israel's Prime Minister has said he will stop asking for a double bed to be installed on airplanes taking him on short flights in Europe, after the practice… 13/05/2013
Israeli media reports say Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is visiting China, has stalled new Jewish settlement building to help US-led peace… 07/05/2013
The US Secretary of State John Kerry took part in a remembrance ceremony in Jerusalem to mark Holocaust Day. He is in the middle east trying to nudge both… 08/04/2013
Turkey has welcomed the surprise Israeli apology for the deaths aboard the Gaza-bound flotilla. It is reported the leaders of the two countries spoke by… 23/03/2013
The mending of relations between Turkey and Israel has been hailed as a key stabilising factor for the Middle East. Israel officially apologised for killing… 23/03/2013
The end of President Barack Obama's visit to Israel coincided with an historic apology… It was made by the Israeli government to Turkey for the killing of… 22/03/2013
US President Barack Obama arrived in Jordan for talks with King Abdullah II, which are expected to focus on the conflict in Syria. Fighting there is causing a… 22/03/2013
Barack Obama says the United States is investigating whether chemical weapons have been used in Syria – and has warned that the regime will be held… 20/03/2013
Barack Obama has promised America's "unwavering support" for Israel's security. He was speaking shortly after arriving in the country on the first overseas… 20/03/2013
Barack Obama has promised America's 'unwavering support' for Israel's security. He was speaking shortly after arriving in the country on the first overseas… 20/03/2013
Israel has a new government, nearly two months after inconclusive elections left Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu struggling to form a coalition. Netanyahu… 19/03/2013
As Israel prepares for a visit by US President Barack Obama, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has named Moshe Yaalon, a right-wing former armed forces chief… 17/03/2013
Israel's Prime Minister has sharpened his tone towards Iran, ahead of a visit to the Middle East by US President Barack Obama later this month. Benhamin… 05/03/2013
There is hardly any doubt about a victory for the Netanyahu-Lieberman coalition in Israeli elections on January 22. Opinion polls show Prime Minister… 07/01/2013
A more than 70 percent majority of the United Nations General assembly members voted in favour of non-member observer status for the Palestinian people as a… 30/11/2012
For months Israel has been publicly preparing for possible action against Iran but is frustrated that it does not have Washington's support for a military… 27/09/2012
Cancelling an early election date like flicking a switch Benjamin Netanyahu justifies as a move to help Israel face its challenges. The unity government… 08/05/2012
How did the freedom swap become possible? All the time Gilad Shalit was held prisoner, Israelis held vigil. They kept up pressure to free him. Not only an… 18/10/2011
Israel faces a dilemma with the Palestinians' planned bid for recognition of statehood at the United Nations in New York this week. Israel's claim to be a… 19/09/2011
The US Secretary of State says no agreement has been reached yet between world powers and Iran over its nuclear programme. John Kerry has broken off a tour… 08/11/2013
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has denied that Israel has agreed to resume peace talks with the Palestinians on the basis of working with the 1967… 18/07/2013
The European Union has confirmed that projects in Israeli settlements built on occupied Palestinian land will no longer qualify for EU funding. Israel's… 16/07/2013
Israeli President Shimon Peres has given Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu another 14 days to form a new government, after he was failed to do during the… 03/03/2013
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has announced a coalition deal with former Israeli Foreign Minister and longtime rival Tzipi Livni. Her main role will be… 20/02/2013
Israel's prime minister has warned against media "overexposure" of the intelligence services. He was responding to the case of an Israeli-Australian found… 17/02/2013
Coalition talks are underway in Israel, after a general election produced deadlock between the right-wing and centre-left blocs. Prime Minister Benjamin… 23/01/2013
The surprise rise of the centre-left is threatening to derail the current Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Commentators see it as a vote against right-wing… 23/01/2013
In Israel exit polls suggest the predicted shift to the right has ended in a dead heat. The centre-left Yasher Atid party has risen to a close second place… 23/01/2013
Neck and neck. Current Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's win is not as clear cut as latest exit polls suggest there is no outright winner. With 99… 23/01/2013
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has emerged from Israel's election poised to form its next government, according to exit polls. He wasted no time in… 23/01/2013
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's rightist Likud-Beitenu party looks set for re-election with a reduced majority, according to exit polls. Leftist parties… 22/01/2013
Israelis have been voting in a general election that looks set to take the country further to the right. The outcome is widely expected to bring the… 22/01/2013
Israelis are voting in a general election that looks set to take the country further to the right. There has been little in the way of election fever… 22/01/2013
Israel goes to the polls in an election that looks set to take the country further to the right. It means a move away from peace with the Palestinians and… 22/01/2013
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu looks on course for a third successive term in office. But it's tight. Polls show declining support for the… 21/01/2013
Unlike civilians, the Israeli military won't get a day off for the country's general election on Tuesday. So instead soldiers were allowed to vote two days… 20/01/2013
The Israeli Prime Minister has put Iran at the top of his re-election campaign. Benjamin Netanyahu pledged that halting Tehran's nuclear programme would be… 26/12/2012
There has been no meeting of minds on the Israeli settlement issue as Benjamin Netanyahu's met Angela Merkel in Berlin. The Israeli Prime Minister and the… 06/12/2012
The Israeli prime minister has remained defiant over controversial settlement plans during a visit to Europe, as Israel presses ahead with proposals to build… 05/12/2012
There has been a flurry of international disquiet about Israel's decision to press ahead with a major programme of building Jewish settlements in occupied… 03/12/2012
The Israeli government has already anounced concrete reactions to the UN vote on Palestine. It announced it would keep back about 75-million euros in tax… 02/12/2012
In an historic move the United Nations General Assembly is expected to upgrade the status of Palestine on Thursday afternoon. The application in the… 29/11/2012
Severe computer problems have delayed results of an election within Israel's right-wing Likud party to decide candidates for parliamentary elections in… 25/11/2012
Israel has let it be known that if the ceasefire with the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip collapses, the result will be a renewed and harsher military… 22/11/2012
In Israel the diplomatic day ended for Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu in talks with US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. Tuesday had started with hopes… 21/11/2012
With Palestinian militant rockets continuing to rain down on Israel, Israel's army is making no secret of the fact it is preparing to take tougher… 15/11/2012
Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has spoken of his determination to bring an end to Hamas' attacks. "In the past 24 hours Israel has made it clear… 15/11/2012
French President François Hollande and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on Thursday visited the Jewish school in Toulouse where a gunman shot dead… 01/11/2012
Members of Israel's Likud Party have voted in favour of a controversial merger. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu last week announced plans to join… 30/10/2012
The Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has called an early general election months ahead of schedule. He says the poll to elect the new Knesset will… 09/10/2012
The Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has called an early general election months ahead of schedule. He says the poll will take place as soon as… 09/10/2012
Israel's prime minister has told the United Nations General Assembly a "red line" must be drawn in Iran's efforts to enrich uranium. And Benjamin Netanyahu… 27/09/2012
Thousands of Israelis have rallied in Tel Aviv against austerity measures by Benjamin Netanyahu's government and the high cost of living. This latest show… 05/08/2012
When Benjamin Netanyahu persuaded Kadima to join his coalition in May, Israeli newspapers nicknamed their prime minister "King Bibi". But now his… 18/07/2012
President Vladimir Putin is in Israel at the start of a Middle East tour aimed at reinforcing Russia's position in the region. In the coastal city of… 25/06/2012
A Israeli government report into the deadly attack on a Gaza-bound Turkish aid ship in 2010 has criticised Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's "decision… 13/06/2012
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has accused the West of dragging its heels over Iran's disputed nuclear programme. He also said the enrichment of… 30/05/2012
Benjamin Netanyahu has stunned Israel by forming a unity government that could give him a freer hand to seek peace with the Palestinians and attack Iran's… 08/05/2012
Plans for an early election in Israel have been called off and a unity government has been formed instead. The opposition, centrist, Kadima party is… 08/05/2012
Israeli prime minster Benjamin Netanyahu has reportedly agreed to form a national unity government with the main opposition party. According to Israeli… 08/05/2012
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu is to call a snap election within four months. The next national vote was not due until October 2013, but he wants… 07/05/2012
Israel's military chief says he does not believe Iran will decide to produce a nuclear bomb. Lieutenant-General Benny Gantz comments appear to contradict… 25/04/2012
Two minutes silence was marked across Israel on Thursday to remember the victims of the Holocaust. Sirens echoed across the country to mark the national… 19/04/2012
Israel has cut ties with the UN Human Rights Council over its investigation into Jewish settlements in the occupied West Bank. The decision means the West… 26/03/2012
Israel's Supreme Court has given Jewish settlers until August to evacuate Migron, the biggest illegal outpost in the occupied West Bank. A government-backed… 26/03/2012
The funerals of the four victims of Monday's Toulouse school shooting have taken place amid an out pouring of grief in Israel. At the centre, Eva Sandler… 22/03/2012
Revulsion and anger have been the dual responses from the international community to the murders in France. With the victims all having Israeli connections… 20/03/2012
Israeli war planes carried out new air strikes on Gaza on Sunday night. Medics say three people were killed including a 12-year-old boy. Witnesses said one… 12/03/2012
US president Barack Obama has told Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu that the USA will always have "Israel's back". Attempting to head off any… 05/03/2012
In a move aimed at deterring Israel from launching a premature strike on Iran, Barack Obama has called for diplomacy over aggression. The US president was… 05/03/2012
Three days before the Israeli and US leaders meet to discuss Iran's nuclear programme, both men have set out their countries' positions. Barack Obama said… 02/03/2012
Israel is blaming Iran and its Lebanese ally Hezbollah for near-simultaneous car bomb attacks on diplomatic targets in India and Georgia. In New Delhi, the… 13/02/2012
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu looks set to lead his party into a possible early election. His right wing Likud party is holding its leadership… 31/01/2012
Flowers are one of the few things Gazans can export. After four and half years of the Israeli blockade and the partial destruction of Gaza's industry in the… 26/12/2011
French President Nicolas Sarkozy called the Israeli Prime Minister 'a liar' during the G20 summit in Cannes. The remark about Benjamin Netanyahu was made… 08/11/2011
Overhearing a private chat between two world leaders is something of a journalist's dream and a diplomat's nightmare. And that is what several journalists… 08/11/2011
Both Palestinian and Israeli families have been burying their dead in a recent upsurge in cross- border violence. Attempts by Egypt to broker a ceasefire… 31/10/2011
There are hopes for a ceasefire between Palestinian militants in Gaza and Israel after the Islamic Jihad group accepted an Egyptian-brokered truce. This… 30/10/2011
The vast majority of Israelis approve of the exchange but there are some who oppose it and there was even a last minute attempt to block it through the… 18/10/2011
All eyes are on Jerusalem following Israel's approval of planning permission for a block of 1,100 new homes in the Arab east of the city. The homes will be… 27/09/2011


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Swift Spaghetti Recipe
Louise Miller of Westminster, Maryland adds dry onion soup mix to the water when cooking her spaghetti, then stirs in a nicely seasoned meat. "This dish has so much flavor that I'm always asked for the recipe," she shares.
- 5-1/2 cups water
- 1 package (7 ounces) spaghetti
- 1 envelope onion soup mix
- 1 pound ground beef
- 1 can (8 ounces) tomato sauce
- 1 can (6 ounces) tomato paste
- 1 tablespoon dried parsley flakes
- 1 teaspoon dried oregano
- 1/2 teaspoon dried basil
- 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon garlic powder
- In a large saucepan, bring water to a boil. Add spaghetti and dry soup mix. Cook for 12-15 minutes or until spaghetti is tender (do not drain). Meanwhile, in a large skillet, cook beef over medium heat until no longer pink; drain. Stir in the tomato sauce, tomato paste, parsley, oregano, basil and garlic powder. Add to the spaghetti mixture; heat through. Yield: 4-6 servings.
Originally published as Swift Spaghetti in Quick Cooking
September/October 2001, p55
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Reviewed Mar. 9, 2009
Our favorite spaghetti recipe yet, including the picky eater!
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subset: commoncrawl


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In response to Mr. Cutright's after-the-fact justification of the war in Iran, one would have to say "baloney." We went into the war because of the weapons of mass destruction which proved to be made up by the Bush administration. Who can forget Colin Powell pointing to pictures and saying how obvious the weapons of mass destruction were. Justifying the war after the fact became a popular game the American people seemed OK with.
However, Lowe was right, it was a war that should never have been fought, the 400 American lives and the 100,000 Iraqi lives that were lost, were lost in vain. That still causes me sorrow when I think of it.
The trillion-plus dollars that were borrowed and spent for that war could have been used elsewhere, or not at all. The USA cannot afford to remove every bad guy in the world if it involves going to war. How about the millions of terrible deaths in the Sudan? Nothing mentioned there. We can't afford to be the police of the world.
Mike Chapman


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History of agriculture
Agriculture involving domestication of plants and animals was developed around 10,000 B.C. although earlier people began altering communities of flora and fauna for their own benefit through other means such as fire-stick farming prior to that.[1][2] Agriculture has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. The Fertile Crescent of Western Asia, Egypt and India were sites of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern China, Africa's Sahel, New Guinea, parts of India and several regions of the Americas.[3] Agricultural techniques such as irrigation, crop rotation, the application of fertilizers were developed soon after the Neolithic Revolution but have made significant strides in the past 200 years. The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints.
In the past century, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the replacement of human labor by synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective breeding, and mechanization. The recent history of agriculture has been closely tied with a range of political issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs, and farm subsidies. In recent years, there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of mechanized agriculture, and increasing support for the organic movement and sustainable agriculture.
Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. The transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies, based on evidence from south west Asia and China, indicates an antecedent period of intensification and increasing sedentism known as the Natufian in south West Asia and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that a range of food resources was being used more intensively. Wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted. Evidence is also now emerging that the crops grown initially were wild and not domesticated.[4] Crops such as emmer and einkorn wheat do not appear to have become domesticated until well into the Neolithic and 'ancient cultivated rice' (Oryza sativa) took 3000 years to become domesticated.
Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant. The fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times elsewhere, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. When major climate change took place after the last ice age (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons.[5] These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. These plants tended to put more energy into producing seeds than into woody growth. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.
The Oasis hypothesis was proposed by Raphael Pumpelly in 1908, and popularized by Vere Gordon Childe who summarized the hypothesis in his book Man Makes Himself[6] This hypothesis maintains that as the climate got drier, communities contracted to oases where they were forced into close association with animals which were then domesticated together with planting of seeds. The hypothesis has little contemporary support[citation needed], as the climate data for the time does not support the hypothesis.
The Hilly Flanks hypothesis, proposed by Robert Braidwood in 1948, suggests that agriculture began in the hilly flanks of the Taurus and Zagros Mountains, and that it developed from intensive focused grain gathering in the region.[7]
The Feasting model by Brian Hayden[8] suggests that agriculture was driven by ostentatious displays of power, such as throwing feasts to exert dominance. This required assembling large quantities of food which drove agricultural technology.
The Demographic theories were proposed by Carl Sauer[9] and adapted by Lewis Binford[10] and Kent Flannery. They describe an increasingly sedentary population, expanding up to the carrying capacity of the local environment, and requiring more food than can be gathered. Various social and economic factors help drive the need for food.
The evolutionary/intentionality hypothesis, advanced by scholars including David Rindos,[11] is the idea that agriculture is a co-evolutionary adaptation of plants and humans. Starting with domestication by protection of wild plants, followed specialization of location and then domestication.
The Levantine Primacy Model was developed in the 1980s by Ofer Bar-Yosef and his collaborators. This provides a cultural ecology explanation, based on the idea that some areas were better favoured with domesticable plants and animals than others.[12]
The domestication hypothesis put forth by Daniel Quinn and others states that first humans stayed in particular areas, giving up their nomadic ways, then developed agriculture and animal domestication.
Another hypothesis is that humans were prevented from staying in one place for much of their history, due to the risk of attacks from other tribes.[13]
The Innovation and Specialisation Model was put forward recently by Rupert Gerritsen, in Australia and the Origins of Agriculture (2008). This hypothesis considers the question in terms of economic development and treats agriculture as a form of specialisation arising from two factors, higher population densities and innovation in areas of higher net natural productivity, and long-term advantageous information acquisition at nodal points in communication in long range scale-free networks.
Development of agriculture[edit]
Identifying the exact origin of agriculture remains problematic because the transition from hunter-gatherer societies began thousands of years before the invention of writing.
Anthropological and archaeological evidence from sites across Southwest Asia and North Africa indicate use of wild grain (e.g., from the c. 20,000 BCE site of Ohalo II in Israel, many Natufian sites in the Levant and from sites along the Nile in the 10th millennium BCE). There is even evidence of planned cultivation and trait selection: grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from Epi-Palaeolithic (10,000+ BCE) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria, but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication.
Previously, archaeobotanists/paleoethnobotanists had traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics in search of the origins of agriculture. One notable example is the semi-tough rachis (and larger seeds) traced to just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 BCE) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. However, studies have demonstrated monophyletic characteristics attained without any human intervention, implying that what some may perceive as domestication among rachis could have occurred quite naturally.[14] In fact, the timescale insisted upon for rachis domestication (approx. 3,000 years) coincidentally has been demonstrated to directly coincide with the statistically generated timeframe numerically modeled that would be required for monophyly to be reached if a population were simply abandoned and left to only natural demands, implying that if any sort of human intervention had occurred at all then the timescale insisted upon should be considerably shorter (than 3,000 years).[14]
It was not until after 9500 BCE that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on PPNB sites in the Levant, although the consensus is that wheat was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale.
At around the same time (9400 BCE), another study argues, parthenocarpic fig trees appear to have been domesticated.[15] The simplicity associated with cutting branches off fig trees and replanting them alongside wild cereals owes to the basis of this argument.[16]
By 7000 BCE, sowing and harvesting reached Mesopotamia, and there, in the fertile soil just north of the Persian Gulf, Sumerians systematized it and scaled it up. By 8000 BCE farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile River. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was first domesticated, probably from teosinte, in the Americas around 3000-2700 BCE, though there is some archaeological evidence of a much older development. The potato, the tomato, the pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was quite extensive terracing of steep hillsides in much of Andean South America. Agriculture was also independently developed on the island of New Guinea.[17]
Recent discoveries in Europe, such as Cyprus and mainland Greece has shown that farming started early in south east Europe. In Franchthi Cave in Greece there are no certain gathering of plant foods attested before ca. 11,000 BCE, although large numbers of seeds of the Boraginaceae family may come from plants gathered to furnish soft bedding or for the dye which their roots may have supplied. First appearing at ca. 11,000 BCE are lentils, vetch, pistachios, and almonds. Then ca. 10,500 BCE appear a few very rare seeds of wild oats and wild barley. Neither wild oats nor wild barley become at all common until ca. 7000 BCE[18][19] in Cyprus. The oldest agricultural settlement ever found on a Mediterranean island has been discovered in Klimonas. between 9100 and 8600 BCE organized communities were farming and they build half-buried mud brick communal buildings, 10 meters in diameter and surrounded by dwellings, that must have been used to store the village's harvests. Remains of carbonized seeds of local plants and grains introduced from the Levantine coasts (including emmer, one of the first Middle Eastern wheats) have also been found in Klimonas.[20]
There is evidence of emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats and pigs that suggest a food producing economy in Greece and the Aegean by 7000 BCE.[21] Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500 BCE.[21] Céide Fields in Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 3500 BCE and are the oldest known field systems in the world.[22][23] The horse was domesticated in the Pontic steppe around 4000 BCE.[24]
In China, rice and millet were domesticated by 8000 BCE, followed by the beans mung, soy and azuki. In the Sahel region of Africa local rice and sorghum were domestic by 5000 BCE. Local crops were domesticated independently in West Africa[citation needed] and possibly in Ethiopia. In New Guinea, ancient Papuan peoples are thought to have begun practicing agriculture around 7000 BCE. They began domesticating sugarcane and root crops. Pigs may also have been domesticated around this time. By 3000 BCE, Papuan agriculture was characterized by water control for irrigation.[25][page needed] Evidence of the presence of wheat and some legumes in the 6th millennium BCE have been found in the Indus Valley. Oranges were cultivated in the same millennium. The crops grown in the valley around 4000 BCE were typically wheat, peas, sesame seed, barley, dates and mangoes. By 3500 BCE cotton growing and cotton textiles were quite advanced in the valley. By 3000 BCE farming of rice had started. Other monsoon crops of importance of the time was cane sugar. By 2500 BCE, rice was an important component of the staple diet in Mohenjodaro near the Arabian Sea. By this time the Indians had large cities with well-stocked granaries. Three regions of the Americas independently domesticated corn, squashes, potato and sunflowers.
Regional history[edit]
By the Bronze Age, wild food contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the usual diet. If the operative definition of agriculture includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation, and use of a specialized labour force, the title "inventors of agriculture" would fall to the Sumerians, starting c. 5500 BCE. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering, and allows for the accumulation of excess product for off-season use, or to sell/barter. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with agriculture was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. Sumerian agriculture supported a substantial territorial expansion which along with internecine conflict between cities, made them the first empire builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by farming in the fertile Nile valley, achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.[citation needed]
In Sumer, barley was the primary crop; wheat, flax, dates, apples, plums, and grapes were grown as well. Mesopotamian agriculture was both supported and limited by flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as floods came in late spring or early summer from snow melting from the Anatolian mountains. The timing of the flooding, along with salt deposits in the soil, made farming in Mesopotamia difficult. Sheep and goats were domesticated, kept mainly for meat and milk, butter and cheese being made from the latter. Ur, a large town that covered about 50 acres (20 hectares), had 10,000 animals kept in sheepfolds and stables and 3,000 slaughtered every year. The city's population of 6,000 included a labour force of 2,500, cultivating 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land. The labour force contained storehouse recorders, work foremen, overseers, and harvest supervisors to supplement labourers. Agricultural produce was given to temple personnel, important people in the community, and small farmers.[citation needed]
The land was plowed by teams of oxen pulling light unwheeled plows and grain was harvested with sickles in the spring. Wagons had solid wheels covered by leather tires kept in position by copper nails and were drawn by oxen and the Syrian onager (now extinct). Animals were harnessed by collars, yokes, and headstalls. They were controlled by reins, and a ring through the nose or upper lip and a strap under the jaw. As many as four animals could pull a wagon at one time. The horse was domesticated in Ukraine around 4000 BCE, and was in use by the Sumerians around 2000 BCE.[citation needed]
Roman Empire[edit]
In classical antiquity, Roman agriculture built from techniques pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18-88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80-500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera.[26]
The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by owner and his family; slaves doing work under supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm's produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.[26] There was a great deal of commerce between the provinces of the empire, all the regions of the empire became interdependent with one another, some provinces specialized in the production of grain, others in wine and others in olive oil, depending on the soil type.
Ancient China[edit]
Records from the Warring States (481 BC-221 BCE), Qin Dynasty (221 BC-207 BCE), and Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 CE) provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture which included a nationwide granary system, and widespread use of sericulture. An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the Chimin Yaoshu of 535 CE, written by Jia Sixia.[27] Jia's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer survive.[28] The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.[29] The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313 CE.[28]
For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC.[30] Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet chain pump by the 1st century CE, powered by a waterwheel or oxen pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.[31] Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems,[32] it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland.[33]
Indus civilization[edit]
Cotton was cultivated by the 5th millennium BCE-4th millennium BCE.[34]
Wheat, barley, and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE; Domestication of sheep and goat soon followed.[35] Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goat—continued in Mehrgarh culture by 8000-6000 BCE.[36][37] This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant.[35] Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows—either of two or of six—and storing grain in granaries.[37][38] By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir.[37] Archaeological evidence indicates that rice was a part of the Indian diet by 8000 BCE.[39][unreliable source?] The Encyclopædia Britannica—on the subject of the first certain cultivated rice—holds that:[40] A number of cultures have evidence of early rice cultivation, including China, India, and the civilizations of Southeast Asia.
Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE.[41] The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers.[41] Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BCE in the Indus Valley Civilization.[42]
In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, more than 6,000 years ago. It gradually spread across North America and was the major crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration.[43] Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of squash and beans. Cocoa was also a major crop in domesticated Mexico and Central America. The turkey, one of the most important meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.
In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, and fertilized their soil. However, their greatest agricultural technique was the chinampas, or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens". These were used to make the swampy areas around the lake suitable for farming. To make chinampas, canals were dug through the marshy islands and shores, then mud was heaped on huge mats made of woven reeds. The mats were anchored by tying them to posts driven into the lake bed and then planting trees at their corners that took root and secured the artificial islands permanently. The Aztecs grew corn, squash, vegetables, and flowers on chinampas.
South America[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. (March 2014) |
In the Andes region of South America the major domesticated crop was potatoes, domesticated perhaps 5,000 years ago. Large varieties of beans were domesticated, in South America, as well as animals, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Coca, still a major crop, was also domesticated in the Andes.
The Andean civilizations were predominantly agricultural societies; the Incas took advantage of the ground, conquering the adversities like the Andean area and the inclemencies of the weather. The adaptation of agricultural technologies that already were used previously, allowed the Incas to organize the production a diversity of products of the coast, mountain and jungle, so them could be able to redistribute to villages that did not have access to other regions. The technological achievements reached to agricultural level, had not been possible without the workforce that was at the disposal of the Sapa Inca, as well as the road system that was allowing to store adequately the harvested resources and to distribute them for all the territory.
North America[edit]
The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S. appear to have domesticated numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco,[44] varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marshelder and little barley, were domesticated.[45][46] Other wild foods may have undergone some selective cultivation, including wild rice and maple sugar. The most common varieties of strawberry were domesticated from Eastern North America.[47] Two major crops, pecans and Concord grapes, were utilized extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.[48][49]
The natives in what is now California and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire-stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture.[50][51][52][53]
From the time British colonization of Australia began in 1788, Indigenous Australians were characterised as being nomadic hunter-gatherers who did not engage in agriculture or other forms of food production, despite some evidence to the contrary. Rhys Jones, however, proposed in 1969 that Indigenous Australians engaged in systematic burning as a way of enhancing natural productivity, what has been termed fire-stick farming.[54] In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the Gunditjmara and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years.[55] Professor Harry Lourandos suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of 'intensification' in progress across Australia,[56] a process that appeared to have in progress over the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts have led Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape.[2]
It is now being argued that in two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, forms of early agriculture were being practiced, whereby plants were being sown or planted on a large scale and the yield being stored or preserved in significant amounts.[2]:281–304[57] It also appears that the people in these regions were living in permanent settlements of significant size (over 200 residents, possibly up to 1,000), in dwellings large enough to house 10 or more people, and they exhibited high degrees of sedentism. The Nhanda and Amangu of the central west coast grew yams (Dioscorea hastifolia), while various groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested bush onions (yaua - Cyperus bulbosus), native millet (cooly, tindil - Panicum decompositum) and a sporocarp, ngardu (Marsillea drumondii).
Middle Ages and early modern period[edit]
Population continued to increase along with land use. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, methane emissions rose an average of 31 million tons per year. This average annual rise is almost as high as the United States produced annually in 2012. Methane gas was produced primarily by domesticating animals and the growing of rice.[58]
Arab lands[edit]
From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world underwent a transformation in agricultural practice which has been described by some as the "Arab Agricultural Revolution". This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice led to significant changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[59][60]
Muslim traders covered an expansive area of the Old World, and these trade routes enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world.[60] Historian Andrew Watson has argued that this diffusion introduced a number of crops of major importance to Europe by way of Al-Andalus, along with the techniques for their cultivation. Important crops involved in this transfer included sugar cane, rice, and cotton. A number of additional fruit trees, nut trees, and vegetables were also transferred.
Agricultural technologies that were widely adopted during this period included intensive irrigation systems, crop rotation systems, and use of agricultural manuals. A sophisticated system of irrigation made use of norias, water mills, water raising machines, dams and reservoirs. Some irrigation infrastructure and technology was continued from Roman times, and some introduced by Muslims.
The Middle Ages saw significant improvements in the agricultural techniques and technology. During this time period, monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The manorial system, which existed under different names throughout Europe and Asia, allowed large landowners significant control over both their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or serfs.[61] During the medieval period, the Arab world was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation.[62] Population continued to increase along with land use. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, methane emissions rose an average of 31 million tons per year. This average annual rise is almost as high as the United States produced annually in 2012. Methane gas was produced primarily by domesticating animals and growing rice.[63]
By 900 AD in Europe, developments in iron smelting allowed for increased production, leading to developments in the production of agricultural implements such as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes. The plough was significantly improved, developing into the mouldboard plough, capable of turning over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of forests in that area and a significant increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population.[64] A similar plough, which may have developed independently, was also found in China as early as the 9th century.[65] At the same time, farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation to a three field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations led to different crops being planted, including legumes such as peas, lentils and beans. Inventions such as improved horse harnesses and the whippletree also changed methods of cultivation.[64] Watermills were initially developed by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and used to grind grains into flour, cut wood and process flax and wool, among other uses.[66]
Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century.[67] Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies[68][69] have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met.[70]
Columbian exchange[edit]
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc traveling from the New World to the Old, and several varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips going from the Old World to the New. There were very few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world, and had a lasting effect on many cultures.[71] Since being introduced by Portuguese in the 16th century,[72] maize and manioc have replaced traditional African crops as the continent's most important staple food crops.[73]
After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became an important staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European diet. The nutrition boost caused by increased potato consumption resulted in lower disease rates, higher birth rates and lower mortality rates, causing a population boom throughout the British Empire, the US and Europe.[74] The introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of guano imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an arsenic compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed: 17 major famines in England alone between 1523 and 1623. Although initially almost eliminating the danger of famine, the resulting dependence on the potato eventually caused the European Potato Failure, a disastrous crop failure from disease resulting in widespread famine, and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone.[75]
Modern agriculture[edit]
British agricultural revolution[edit]
Use of primitive agricultural techniques was the historical standard. The vast majority of the world population engaged in subsistence agriculture and yields remained low. Between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, Great Britain saw a massive increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation and selective breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution. By the early 19th century, agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before. It is estimated that the productivity of wheat went up from about 19 bushels per acre in 1720 to 21–22 bushels by the middle of the century and finally stabilised at around 30 bushels by 1840.[76]
The Agricultural Revolution was a major turning point in history. The population of England in 1750 reached the level of 5.7 million, just as it had done in the past in around 1350 and again in 1650. This time, instead of a Malthusian catastrophe occurring from plague or famine, the population growth remained sustained.
One of the keys to the British Agricultural Revolution was the development of ways of keeping and improving the arable land in Great Britain to counteract the loss of the soil's plant nutrients in cropping a given area. Higher yielding land was added to higher yielding crops with more yield/acre. Farm workers using more productive tools and machinery produced more crops with fewer workers. The Agricultural Revolution picked up speed as the Industrial Revolution and the advances in chemistry produced the scientific knowledge, wealth and technology for a more systematic development of commercial fertilizers and new and more productive agricultural machinery.
Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as Samuel Hartlib, Walter Blith and others.[77] The main problem in sustaining agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and in some places crop rotation was used. A four-field rotation was popularised by the British agriculturist Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The use of turnip was especially important as the legume roots were an important source of nutrients for the soil.
Another catalyst for improvement came from the Enclosure movement. Prior to the 18th century, agriculture across Europe used the feudal open field system with subsistence farmers cropping strips of land in fields held in common and splitting up the produce; this was very inefficient and reduced incentive to improve the productivity. Many farms began to be enclosed by Yeomen who improved the use of their land. This process accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries with special acts of Parliament to expedite the legal process. This culminated in the General Enclosure Act of 1801, which sanctioned large-scale land reform.
The mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another important factor. Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding, and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the New Leicester sheep.
Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various agricultural operation, such as Jethro Tull's seed drill of 1701 that mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham iron plough in 1730[78] to James Small's improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies was producing 86 plough models for different soils.[79] Traction machines also began to replace horsepower on the farms in the 19th century.
The scientific investigation of fertilization began at the Rothamsted Experimental Station in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of sodium nitrate deposits in Chile, was imported to Britain by John Thomas North as well as guano (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of phosphate from the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid.[80]
The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 that removed tariffs on food imports, and the development of steamships and railways, which revolutionised the transportation of food, allowed a truly global market for food to emerge. This reduced volatility in food prices as scarcity in one area could be offset by cheap imports from another area.
The work of Charles Darwin and Gregor Mendel created the scientific foundation for plant breeding that led to its explosive impact over the past 150 years.[81] Firms, such as Gartons Agricultural Plant Breeders began to market hybrid crops in the 1890s.
20th century[edit]
Dan Albone constructed the first commercially successful gasoline-powered general purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923 International Harvester Farmall tractor marked a major point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical harvesters (combines), planters, transplanters and other equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing agriculture.[82] These inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater volumes of high-quality produce per land unit.[83]
The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after World War II, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.[84]
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, water pollution, and farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic movement.[85] Famines continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climactic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s.[86]
Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation, Hydroponics, and the development of economically viable biofuels such as Ethanol.
Green Revolution[edit]
The Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s.[87] The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution" credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.
Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food.[88]
Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in the past 15–20 years.[89] The genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years".[89] It takes a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade.[89] Crop rotation helps to prevent resistances.[89]
Organic farming[edit]
Though the intensive farming practices pioneered and extended in recent history generally led to increased outputs, they have also led to the destruction of farmland, most notably in the dust bowl area of the United States following World War I. As global population increased, agriculture continued to replace natural ecosystems with monoculture crops. Activists such as Sir Albert Howard began the organic movement as a reaction to the widely used intensive agriculture practices. In recent years, growing awareness has led to increased interest in such areas of agriculture as organic farming, permaculture, heirloom plants and biodiversity, the growth of the Slow Food movement, and an ongoing discussion surrounding the potential for sustainable agriculture.
See also[edit]
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- Across Australia, early Europeans commented again and again that the land looked like a park. With extensive grassy patches and pathways, open woodlands and abundant wildlife, it evoked a country estate in England. Bill Gammage has discovered this was because Aboriginal people managed the land in a far more systematic and scientific fashion than we have ever realised.
- For over a decade, he has examined written and visual records of the Australian landscape. He has uncovered an extraordinarily complex system of land management using fire, the life cycles of native plants, and the natural flow of water to ensure plentiful wildlife and plant foods throughout the year.
- We know Aboriginal people spent far less time and effort than Europeans in securing food and shelter, and now we know how they did it. With details of land-management strategies from around Australia, The Biggest Estate on Earth rewrites the history of this continent, with huge implications for us today. Once Aboriginal people were no longer able to tend their country, it became overgrown and vulnerable to the hugely damaging bushfires we now experience.
- ... And what we think of as virgin bush in a national park is nothing of the kind."
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- ^ Anderson, M. Kat (2006). Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources. University of California Press. ISBN 0520248511.
- ^ Jones, R. (1969) Fire-stick Farming. Australian Natural History, 16:224
- ^ Williams, E. (1988) Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford
- ^ Lourandos, H. (1997) Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
- ^ Gerritsen 2008
- ^ Stromberg, Joseph (February 2013). "Classical gas". Smithsonian 43 (10): 18. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
- ^ Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24711-X.
- ^ a b Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), p. 8-35.
- ^ Jourdan, Pablo. "Medieval Horticulture/Agriculture". Ohio State University. Retrieved 2013-04-24.
- ^ Janick, Jules (2008). "Islamic Influences on Western Agriculture". Purdue University. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
- ^ Stromberg, Joseph (February 2013). "Classical gas". Smithsonian 43 (10): 18. Retrieved August 27, 2013.
- ^ a b Backer, Patricia. "Part 1 – Medieval European history". History of Technology. San Jose State University. Retrieved 2013-04-24.
- ^ Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Medieval Science, Technology And Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Volume 11 of The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages Series. Psychology Press. p. 270. ISBN 0415969301.
- ^ Newman, Paul B. (2001). Daily Life in the Middle Ages. McFarland. pp. 88–89. ISBN 0786450525.
- ^ Campbell, Bruce M. S.; M. Overton (1993). "A New Perspective on Medieval and Early Modern Agriculture: Six Centuries of Norfolk Farming, c.1250-c.1850". Past and Present 141: 38–105. doi:10.1093/past/141.1.38.
- ^ Campbell, Bruce M.S. (2000). English Seigniorial Agriculture, 1250–1450. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30412-1.
- ^ Stone, David (2005). Decision-Making in Medieval Agriculture. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924776-5.
- ^ John Langdon (2010). Robert E. Bjork, ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 20–23. ISBN 978-0-19-866262-4.
- ^ Crosby, Alfred. "The Columbian Exchange". The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved 2013-05-11.
- ^ Wagner, Holly. "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa". The Ohio State University. Retrieved 2013-05-11.
- ^ Florence Wambugu and John Wafula, ed. (2000). "Advances in Maize Streak Virus Disease Research in Eastern and Southern Africa". International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications. Retrieved 2013-04-16.
- ^ Chapman, Jeff. "The Impact of the Potato". History Magazine (2).
- ^ Mann, Charles C. (November 2011). "How the Potato Changed History". Smithsonian.
- ^ Snell, K.D.M (1985). Annals of the Labouring Poor, Social Change and Agrarian England 1660–1900. Cambridge University Presslocation=Cambridge, UK. ISBN 0-521-24548-6. Chapter 4
- ^ Thirsk, Joan. "'Blith, Walter (bap. 1605, d. 1654)'". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
- ^ The Rotherham Plough
- ^ Barlow, Robert Stockes; "300 Years of Farm Implements and Machinery 1630–1930"; Krause Publications (2003); p.33; ISBN 978-0873496322
- ^ Coprolite Fertilizer Industry in Britain [3] Accessed 3 Apr 2012
- ^ Noel Kingsbury (2009). Hybrid: The History and Science of Plant Breeding. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- ^ Janick, Jules. "Agricultural Scientific Revolution: Mechanical". Purdue University. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
- ^ Reid, John F. (Fall 2011). "The Impact of Mechanization on Agriculture". The Bridge on Agriculture and Information Technology 41 (3).
- ^ "A Historical Perspective". International Fertilizer Industry Association. Retrieved 2013-05-07.
- ^ Philpott, Tom (19 April 2013). "A Brief History of Our Deadly Addiction to Nitrogen Fertilizer". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2013-05-07.
- ^ "Ten worst famines of the 20th century". Sydney Morning Herald. 15 August 2011.
- ^ Hazell, Peter B.R. (2009). "The Asian Green Revolution". IFPRI Discussion Paper (Intl Food Policy Res Inst). GGKEY:HS2UT4LADZD.
- ^ Barrionuevo, Alexei; Bradsher, Keith (8 December 2005). "Sometimes a Bumper Crop Is Too Much of a Good Thing". The New York Times.
- ^ a b c d Tilman D, Cassman KG, Matson PA, Naylor R, Polasky S (August 2002). "Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices". Nature 418 (6898): 671–7. doi:10.1038/nature01014. PMID 12167873.
- Bar-Yosef, O. and Meadows, R. H. The origins of agriculture in the Near East. In T. D. Price and A. Gebauer (eds) Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, pp. 39–94 (1995).
- Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds. Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern Times (1999). 427 pp.
- Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture (1977)
- Collingham, E. M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (2011)
- Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C. C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial Era (1981). 256 pp.
- Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years, 1997.
- Federico, Giovanni, Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800-2000 (2005) 416pp. highly quantitative
- Rupert Gerritsen, Australia and the Origins of Agriculture (2008) (online Google Books preview)
- Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History (1999) online edition
- Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (2nd ed. 1999).
- Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (1990).
- Hillman, G. C. Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation. In D. R. Harris (ed.) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 159–203. (1996).
- Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History, 1969 43:4, 463-75. in JSTOR in Britain, 1750–1850
- Ludden, David, ed. New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia (1999). excerpt and online search from Amazon.com; also online edition
- McNeill, William H. "How the Potato Changed the World's History." Social Research 1999 66(1): 67–83. Issn: 0037-783x Fulltext: Ebsco, by a leading historian
- Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart' A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis, New York: Monthly Review Press, 2006, ISBN 1-58367-121-8, Marxist perspective
- Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (1982)
- Prentice, E. Parmalee. Hunger and history: the influence of hunger on human history (1939). online edition
- Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008), 315pp a standard scholarly history
- Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato, (1949)
- Sato, Y. 2003 Origin of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River basin. In Y. Yasuda (ed.) The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture, pp. 143–150. (2003)
- Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (2008)
- Ambrosoli, Mauro. The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350-1850 (1997). 460 pp.
- Bakels, C. C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC - AD 1000 (2009)
- Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870-1947 (1987)
- Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history . 1965. 511 pp
- Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America, (1925). free online edition
- Harvey, Nigel. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales (1980). 232 pp.
- Herr, Richard, ed. Themes in Rural History of the Western World (1993). 277 pp.
- Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450-1815 (1996). 361 pp.
- Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard. Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction (Routledge, 1995)
- Kussmaul, Ann. A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538-1840 (1990). 216 pp.
- Langdon, John. Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (1986). 331 pp.
- McNeill, William H. "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland," Journal of Modern History 21 (1948): 218–21. in JSTOR
- Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (1970)
- Slicher van Bath, B. H. The agrarian history of Western Europe, AD 500-1850
- Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (8 vol 1978)
- Williamson, Tom. Transformation Of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700-1870 (2002)
United States[edit]
- Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis (1993)
- Fite, Gilbert C. American Farmers: The New Minority (1981)
- Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America, (1925). online edition
- Gray, L.C. History of agriculture in the southern United States to 1860 (1933) Volume I online; Volume 2 online
- Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. U. of Virginia Press, 2004. 320 pp.
- Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (2002)
- Mundlak, Yair. "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture." Journal of Economic Literature 2005 43(4): 989-1024. Issn: 0022-0515 Fulltext: in Ebsco
- Robert, Joseph C. The story of tobacco in America (1949) online edition
- Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (1981)
- Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (1936) online edition
- Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607-1972 (1972)
- Weeden, William Babcock. Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789 (1891) 964 pages; online edition
- Yeargin, Billy. North Carolina Tobacco: A History (2008)
- Bill Gammage, The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines Made Australia (2011).
- Rupert Gerritsen, Australia and the Origins of Agriculture (2008).
- Jones, R. Fire-stick Farming. Australian Natural History, 16(1969): 224.
- Lourandos, H. Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory (1997)
- Williams, E. Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia (1988).
External links[edit]
- Early Agricultural Remnants and Technical Heritage is a multidisciplinary project investigating the development of non-industrial agricultural techniques, with a focus on Europe.
- Tracing the Evolution of Organic/Sustainable Agriculture A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, National Agricultural Library.
- The history of the UK countryside The history of the UK countryside, farming and agriculture, a unique 3D animated guide chronicling the last 15000 years in 20 key stages.


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The Digital Scrapbook Artisan Guild is home to the highly acclaimed digital e-zine, The Artisan Notebook. We are a membership site offering our members a monthly digital scrapbook kit as well as a monthly subscription to our e-zine. In addition the Guild offers guild classes and tutorials to help you grow in your digital scrapbook abilities. We are dedicated to teaching and inspiring people in the craft of digital scrapbook design.
The Guild's online community is dedicated to creating an environment of learning and encouragement that helps advance the craft of digital scrapbooking. We invite you to come and be a part of this special place!
Dee Bee Designs New Collection "Buddies and Pals"
This collection is bursting with energy with a bright, playful color scheme of red, orange, green and blue. The fun mix of patterns, textures and colors in combination with all the gears, sprockets, circles and beaded wires are a perfect complement to scrapping photos and telling the stories of all the boys in our lives. [...]
Continue Reading →Dee Bee Designs New Collection "Irish Blessings"
This collection celebrates those early days of spring. Days that are filled with soft greens and gentle blues as the garden comes back to life after a long, cold winter. In March we celebrate St. Patrick's Day and so this kit also gives a nod to the Emerald Isle with its color scheme and lovely [...]
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As a girl growing up in San Fernando, California our summers were spent packing up the family station wagon and driving the Ventura Highway toward the beach. Santa Monica, Malibu, Ventura Beach was my playground and this kit is a tribute to those long-lost days. Regardless of the names of the beaches you visit this [...]
Continue Reading →New Dee Bee Designs, "Abounding Love"
Dee Bee Designs has created this darling new collection as part of the May Pickle Barrel promo at Pickleberry Pop. Each set is just $1.00 through Monday, May 20. This darling collection is filled with lots of fun flowers and delicate feminine touches that is perfect of all your that express love for the special [...]
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Dee Bee Designs has created this darling new collection as part of the April Pickle Barrel promo at Pickleberry Pop. Each set is just $1.00 through Monday, April 22. Surf, sea and sky these are the wonderful elements of summer that this fun collection celebrates. This collection is sure to complement all your spring, summer [...]
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This collection was originally designed as part of the January 2013 Guild Club package for the Digital Scrapbook Artisan Guild. The colors of this collection are those of the soft, downy under-feathers of a gentle dove. There are nine 12×12 .jpeg backgrounds that are softly patterned and textured. The neutral grey, green and lavender colors [...]
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Dee Bee Designs has created this darling new collection as part of the March Pickle Barrel promo at Pickleberry Pop. Each set is just $1.00 through Monday, March 18. This darling kit celebrates is a light-hearted take on the idea of a spring trip to the zoo. It will work well for all of your [...]
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As we get ready to start another weekend the weather in Southern California is gloomy, overcast and gray. That got me to thinking about the color gray and its uses in our scrapbook layouts. Gray is considered a "cool" neutral color. It is a very easy to color to work with that blends with just [...]
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Welcome to Miami-Dade County's My Home
My Home is an interactive web service that joins geographical mapping with several databases to provide users like you with helpful information about your property.
Quick Start Instructions
First Time Users - Help to Get You Going!
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Centre for Metropolitan History
City of London tithe assessments: 1638-72
People in Place project
Supporting documents
Introduction to the tithe assessments
Citation Show another format: BHO MLA Turabian Chicago MARC21 Wikipedia
'All Hallows Honey Lane: Tithe assessment 1638', City of London tithe assessments: 1638-72. URL: http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=118320 Date accessed: 12 March 2014. Add to my bookshelf
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These dwell in Cheapside These [dwell] in Hony Lane These [dwell] in Trumpe Alley [Totals] 21 May 1638 Footnotes
Lambeth MS. 272: Lists of inhabitants of London parishes 1638, fo. 32 All Hallows Honey La.
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« 50 Cent Attends Festival Screening of 'All Things Fall Apart'Demi Lovato Covers Lil Wayne's 'How to Love' [Video] »Chris Brown's Never-Before-Seen Rap-Up Photo ShootChris Brown gets photo shoot fresh in these never-before-seen Polaroids from his Rap-Up shoot from December 2009. The images, photographed by Gavin Thomas, were taken the same day the "Look at Me Now" singer released his third album Graffiti. Breezy modeled high-end wintery fashions and thick-rimmed glasses as he posed in a penthouse suite overlooking New York City's Lower East Side. Swag! TweetYou can leave a response, or trackback from your own site. 35 Comments
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Speak For Yourself: Scientists Claim We Would Never Survive A Zombie Apocalypse
According to a couple of Canadian researchers, the human race could never weather a zombie uprising. Pfft, speak for yourselves, Canucks -- I'M A SURVIVOR!
Based on models of rampant infectious diseases, say researchers, civilization would be doomed if we were ever attacked by zombies.
If society were ever attacked by zombies, we would probably be doomed, and quickly. That was the conclusion of two university researchers in Ottawa, Ontario, who set up mathematical models hypothesizing zombie attacks as infectious diseases with the well-known characteristics of zombie biology from popular fiction. In fact, according to a July BBC News report, zombies are more threatening than virulent diseases because they can regenerate (unless decapitated or incinerated, of course). More troubling was the researchers' presumption that zombies move slowly, as in older movies, but in recent fiction, they're super-quick, making them nearly invincible.
Oh man, as much as I do respect a couple of Canadians with calculators plugging away at a mathematical model they created using the info they gathered from Shawn of the Dead and Zombieland, this is one blogger who isn't succumbing to the zombie apocalypse. Robot, sure, but not zombies.
Thanks to Gideon, who isn't going out in any sort of apocalypse. Except perhaps a sexpocalypse. Just kidding!
This rescue robot, the red-headed stepsister of this beast, was designed to rescue humans from areas firemen can't easily access. Apparently, the seemingly unnamed robot can not only carry a 110 kilogram person over difficult terrain with ease, but monitor the occupant's vit... / Continue →
Hyundai teamed up with The Walking Dead comic creator Robert Kirkman to create a "Zombie Survival Machine" version of their Elantra Coupe, which will be unveiled at next month's San Diego Comic Con but not available for retail purchase. *eying picture* WELL DARN. The car was... / Continue →
Note: Slightly larger version HERE for those of you with eyes in the back of your head that have to use a mirror to see the monitor. Will you survive the zombie apocalypse? I dunno, I guess it depends on what kind of zombies you're dealing with. Because I'm gonna be honest... / Continue →


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Furlough day for most Md. agencies Friday
May 27, 2011 - 06:24 am
ANNAPOLIS, Md. (AP) - State agencies throughout Maryland will be closed or offering reduced services for a furlough day.
The service reduction day on Friday is one of five for most state employees in fiscal year 2011. The furlough does not apply to emergency workers.
The Department of Natural Resources service centers will be closed, but state parks and other lands managed by DNR will be open. Motor Vehicle Administration offices will be closed Friday through the Memorial Day holiday on Monday.
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I'm trying to add power to a crappy home depot 10x6 aluminum shed that is about 18" away from my house. I really only need one outlet for a light bulb so I can get tools in and out at night. The shed is in a horrible position and will god willing be replaced within the next 2 years or so, there is no headroom, and I think should have been thrown out before it was purchased. The shed sits on a concrete slab. I won't be running any power tools or refrigerators or anything of the sort in there. one or two light bulbs is it. In the attic, I have a brand new 12 gauge/20 amp circuit that powers some outlets and light bulbs in the attic. I put these in to see what I was doing while working up there and cleaning out the junk the old owners left for me. These lights and outlets are very rarely ever used.. only when I'm up there storing stuff or renovating something. So I want to tap into this new circuit in the attic, and then run the wire outside using grey plastic conduit.. down the wall and install a GFCI outlet on the back of the house. I was then planning on using an extension cord run through a grommet in the back of the wall of the shed.
I know the extension cord is the hack part of the job, but I don't really see a more reasonable way.
It seems silly to break up the concrete for a run of 18".. and although easy enough to do, it just doesn't seem "right" to add an 18" piece of conduit to "bridge" that gap.
Any advice?
(in the picture below.. ignore the crap on the roof, its a fence post and 2 rakes)
Follow your plans for a pvc conduit out of the attic, down to a bell box, install a gfi in that, put an "in-use" cover on that, come out of the underside with some flexible watertight conduit and go into the shed with that to an outlet box, and wire up your lights from there.
Use the output side of the gfi to protect the shed.