text:
BeerAdvocate on your phone?! True story. Try the beta now.
Tickets for American Craft Beer Fest are on sale now! (May 30 & 31 in Boston, MA)
Top Sail Imperial Porter - Bourbon Barrel Aged (Brewmaster Reserve 2008) - Full Sail Brewery & Tasting Room & Pub
Displayed for educational use only; do not reuse. |
Ratings: 107 | Reviews: 97 | Show All Ratings:
Reviews by satowns:
3.68/5 rDev -10.2%
look: 4.5 | smell: 4.5 | taste: 3 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
Brewmaster's Reserve 2008
Pours like molasses, viscous and black. Nice dark brown head with great legs.
Aromas of raisin, fig, big bourbon, oak sting like a bee.
Wow, is this fortified? If there is porter in there, its been beaten down like a little school boy. This "beer" actually tingles the lips like young whiskey. In my opinion it's very left wing...out of balance. Hot and alcoholic. This beer could use a year or ten to mellow out. Aftertaste of vanilla extract. As the beer warms to room temperature, the bite is more likened to a kiss from Aunt Ruthie. The alcoholic hotness is toned down and you can pick up a little bit on the roasty character of the porter. Hops are passed out in the corner; you don't even realize they are at the party.
I think Ill buy another and let it sit in the basement until next Feb.
Music enjoyed whilst sampling: Schism by Tool
Serving type: bottle
02-27-2008 02:47:57 | More by satowns
More User Reviews:
3.95/5 rDev -3.7%
look: 4 | smell: 4.5 | taste: 4 | feel: 2.5 | overall: 4
A - Pours a deep black with little to no head or lace.
S - Oh Boy! Bourbonville here. The smell of the booze almost burns. A touch of roast and char. Really liking the smell.
T - Bourbon, Bourbon and more bourbon. It is hard to find anything else in this beer. There is some slight roasted notes, some char, sweet chocolate. But you really have to think about them. This is all bourbon all the way.
M - This is where the beer really starts to fall apart. As others have mentioned, this is incredibly thin. Nothing in the beer can stand up to the Bourbon. It is just too weak.
O - Not a bad beer overall. But falls short of other Bourbon Stouts in its class. Perhaps the issue here is that they used a porter instead of a stout. It is just so thin. I love bourbon barrel aged beers. I probably rated it higher than I should have based on that. I had this on the same day as the Abyss. They are the same price. Nowhere near in the same league. I will drink again. But not if there are other Bourbon Aged options available.
Serving type: on-tap
03-19-2012 21:46:09 | More by staggerlee024
3.58/5 rDev -12.7%
look: 4 | smell: 3.5 | taste: 3.5 | feel: 3 | overall: 4
Provided in a trade from doughanson way back when. Been holding onto this for no particular reason, and eventually having a 4 year old bourbon barrel aged porter became too enticing to hold on to any longer.
A: The pour is muddy and black, giving off about a finger of bubbly, fluffy, brown head that recedes rather quickly. A nice ring remains around the top of the beer, lacing nicely down the side of my Deschutes snifter.
S: A lot of chocolate and booze aromas wafting up from the dark liquid below. Dark fruits (I believe the bottle said to expect figs, which I think I'm smelling). Notes of bourbon, vanilla, and oak are all very nicely integrated. The aroma overall is deep and complex, but a bit too harsh on the booze.
T: Top Sail has aged well, but I think this might be on its way downhill. Some roast and dry dark chocolate are holding on to their last breathes, but booze, oak, and bourbon are beginning to win this war of flavor. A bit too focused on the barrel treatment, the taste is lacking additions from the base beer that are so important in a good bourbon barrel aged beer. Roast does take the cake on the backend, providing a little balance...just a little too late.
MF: A bit too thin, low carbonation, pretty dry finish, warming alcohol finish. I still enjoy drinking it, I just wish I had a few years ago.
O: For all its faults, Top Sail Brewmasters Reserve is still pretty good. I'm impressed this porter was able to still impart something to try and balance the additions from the barrel. It just falls a bit short. Overall, I would absolutely still recommend it to a friend. Especially the 2010 version.
Serving type: bottle
03-15-2012 22:46:25 | More by russwbeck
3.95/5 rDev -3.7%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4 | feel: 3.5 | overall: 4
I don't remember who shared this, but thanks, drank at Sean's place.
A - Black beer with a small tan head. Stuck around for a bit and left some spots and slight lacing.
S - Decent barrel and bourbon comes through on the nose. A bit of roast and chocolate with bitter coffee note coming in on the end.
T - Pretty big for a porter, but I guess that's why it's called an imperial. A little hot, with some roast, coffee, chocolate, dark fruit, barrel, vanilla. Pretty nice meld of favors.
M - Medium bodied, moderate carbonation, a bit hot.
O - A pretty good beer. I think it's cooled a bit since the last reviews, but there is still a little alcohol burn.
Serving type: bottle
06-05-2011 23:49:41 | More by AgentZero
4/5 rDev -2.4%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
Pours black with a small tan head. Big roast, oak and booze, with some vanilla behind it. Exactly as you might expect. Smells good, not decadent. Roast dominated imperial porter, with a slight cherry cordial flavor. Oak and integrated booze. Pretty tasty, though the cherry cordial flavor was curious and I was wondering if it was intended. Either way, it worked at the moment. A good bit of booze hangs through, but otherwise is pretty drinkable with a medium mouthfeel and low/med carbonation. The whole thing was very solid, but unspectacular.
Serving type: bottle
02-02-2011 14:53:11 | More by seeswo
4.18/5 rDev +2%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4.5 | feel: 3.5 | overall: 4
From notes.
Pretty much impenetrably black, very active, 1 finger mocha head lingers and leaves spotty lacing.
Bourbon and barrel both come through strongly up front. Later, with a swirl, start to get an unusual strong Earthyness, possibly from the oak, and the bourbon is less prominent. Mellow boozy esters emerge and take it to the finish. Long legs.
Sweet malt, chocolate, and roasted barley mingle and merge into the base upon which bourbon, oak, coffee, and mild bitter layers are stacked nicely.
Carbonation bite, full body, and strong warming. Pretty dry, a little bitter, and feels thinner than expected.
A sipper, of course. Extremely tasty and complex. Pretty smooth and balanced. What a treat! Try it if you can, and put some away for later.
Serving type: bottle
12-30-2010 21:49:59 | More by sprucetip
3.35/5 rDev -18.3%
look: 3.5 | smell: 3.5 | taste: 3.5 | feel: 3 | overall: 3
Big thanks to Kevin for sharing this one!
A-pours a dark black liquid with darker tan colored head.
S-the nose is huge, tons of bourbon and some dirty messy malt presence. notes of chocolate and anise with hints of meat in the back.
T-the taste is a little hot with a good bit of bourbon, notes of dark chocolate and some light meat flavors in there with a touch of burnt coffee bitterness.
M-creamy feel on a medium body with low carbonation and thins out in the back.
D-shows the booze a little too much and the bourbon is extremely strong lacking the malt presence to balance.
Serving type: bottle
08-17-2010 15:14:44 | More by cpetrone84
New York
4/5 rDev -2.4%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
Had at a small tasting thanks to nimbleprop.
a - Pours a dark black with less than an inch of tan head.
s - Smells of whiskey, oak, sweet, sticky dark fruits, and roasted malts.
t - Tastes of whiskey, oak, roasted malts, vanilla, and dark fruits.
m - Medium body and moderate carbonation.
d - A decent beer, but still a tiny bit hot. Would give another shot.
Serving type: bottle
08-07-2010 02:22:30 | More by mdfb79
4.18/5 rDev +2%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4.5 | feel: 3.5 | overall: 4
Pours thick and black with a small tan head.
Scent of sweet dark fruit, sugars, wet oak, caramel and a hint of bubblegum. A little more sweet than I prefer my Porters, but still a good scent.
Taste of charred oak, bourbon, caramel, ash, roasted malts and a very mild alcohol. Decidedly less sweet than the aroma in favor of dry barrel characteristics, this is very tasty stuff.
Mouthfeel is medium bodied and oily with a low amount of carbonation.
Serving type: bottle
06-04-2010 18:41:19 | More by paco1029384756
4.33/5 rDev +5.6%
look: 4 | smell: 4.5 | taste: 4.5 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
Thanks to Matt for sharing this beer at thirdeye11's tasting.
The beer pours a dark brown color with a tan head. The aroma is chocolate with roasted malt and dark fruit. I could smell this beer all day. The flavor is pretty sweet with oak, vanilla and bourbon as well as roasted malts and chocolate. The alcohol is slightly hot but goes well with the rest of the beer. Medium mouthfeel and low carbonation.
Serving type: bottle
04-26-2010 23:55:27 | More by Mora2000
New York
4.1/5 rDev 0%
look: 4 | smell: 4.5 | taste: 4 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
The beer pours a pitch black color with a thick frothy tan head that slowly fades to lacing. The aroma is great! It has a dry, earthy, black malt scent with adequate warmth and a killer bourbon barrel aroma. The taste is good. Again, the bourbon character is bold and up front, but well integrated into a bone dry black malt flavor. It goes down silky smooth and finishes with a nice bit of warmth. The mouthfeel is fine. It is a medium/full bodied beer with adequate carbonation. This is a very good beer. I really like the bourbon aroma in this one.
Serving type: bottle
02-24-2010 16:53:25 | More by WesWes
North Carolina
4.05/5 rDev -1.2%
look: 4 | smell: 4.5 | taste: 4 | feel: 3.5 | overall: 4
Tremendous thanks to JohnGalt1 for shipping this brew my way!
A- 22 oz. bottle decanted into a snifter glass reveals an inky, jet black liquid. A vigorous pour gets some head to appear, a good finger and a half of tan, soapy head. Lacing is good given the not so good head retention. I never really expect too much head on an imperial porter or stout.
S- Wow! Deeply complex, tons of chocolate, dark fruits, a hint of roasted coffee and a mild smokiness to it. As it warms the bourbon definitely makes it's presence known. One of the better BBA brews that I've smelled.
T- Just what I was hoping for, very similar to the smell. The dark fruits and bourbon seem to head up the flavors along with sweet, dark chocolates and a nice roastiness to it. The warmer it gets, the hotter it gets. I thought this would be less hot from the bourbon given the aging on it, but I have no comparison from a fresh one.
M- A bit thin, but overall very smooth and rich. Definitely warms up the chest as you drink it and was much appreciated on a cold winter night in Northern MI.
D- Despite the hotness of it, this brew left me wanting more. The overall complexity of it was excellent, and it wasn't overly sweet. A fantastic brew!
Thanks again Toby, truly appreciated!
Serving type: bottle
02-10-2010 16:44:50 | More by kbeals
3.95/5 rDev -3.7%
look: 4 | smell: 4.5 | taste: 4 | feel: 3.5 | overall: 3.5
Pours pitch black and completely opaque without even the slightest of lighter colored hues when held to a light source and a two finger frothy light beige head that fades into a lasting ring. Sporadic spots of lacing left behind.
Lots of bourbon in the nose with lots of earthy oak and deep roasted malt. Hints of bittersweet dark chocolate, burnt toast, smoke, roasted coffee bean,vanilla, toffee, licorice, leathery malt and sweet alcohol. Smells pretty complex but the oak is the most prominent characteristic followed by the heavy bourbon presence.
Slightly chewy medium body that is a bit lighter bodied than I expected with lots of hot bourbon and earthy oak flavor lingering throughout over the dark roasted malt notes. Underneath the strong bourbon flavor is a strong roasted malt profile that is slightly smokey with hints of bittersweet dark chocolate, roasted nut, coffee bean, burnt toast, licorice, sweet alcohol, sweet alcohol and subtle vanilla. Again, the oak presence is very strong adding a nice earthiness and level of complexity. A bit too hot still with too much of a bourbon presence for my liking and lots of warmth in the finish. This beer could be a little more balanced and is surprisingly very hot after over a year of aging. It definitely needs a bit more time to mellow out.
Serving type: bottle
01-23-2010 09:37:08 | More by corby112
3.9/5 rDev -4.9%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4 | feel: 4 | overall: 3.5
S: Vanilla, bourbon, sweet malt
A: Black body w/very dark brn head. minimal.
T: Bourbon, choc, vanilla, roasty and robust. Slight alcohol finish.
M: Medium/thick, good for style and strength
D: Ok for a big beer
Overall: Good balance, quite tasty.
Serving type: bottle
12-05-2009 23:23:23 | More by bret27
4/5 rDev -2.4%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
From BeerAdvocate Magazine Volume II, Issue II:
Second installment of their "Brewmaster's Reserve"
in 2008.
A shade or two from pitch black, sufficient frothing and a solid head retention which is great to see as some higher alcohol barrel-aged beers lack retention altogether. Big and clean up front, fumes of Bourbon and some higher alcohol from the fermentation. Deep oak, slight vanilla and charred malt in the nose. Creamy and smooth with a medium body, lighter than we anticipated. Hit of Bourbon wakes the palate up with a boozy warmth but not hot. Roasted flavor comes off a little tame as the oak flavor surrounds the taste buds. As it warms up, an undertone of coffee appears. Hop bitterness is balanced and there is some lingering hop flavor that throws down herbal and wild flower flavors. Finishes on the dry side with a long trail of oak and faint roasted grain.
Lighter than we thought, perhaps. More drinkable? Yes, and in a dangerous way. This beer really shows what barrel aging tastes like. Sip with caution. extreme beer lives on, seek this beer out.
Serving type: bottle
11-13-2009 19:20:23 | More by BeerAdvocate
Top Sail Imperial Porter - Bourbon Barrel Aged (Brewmaster Reserve 2008) from Full Sail Brewery & Tasting Room & Pub
out of 100
based on 107 ratings.


text:
Dennis Smith Jr. from South Beloit; posted a second consecutive National Figure 8 League victory as he looks forward to the upcoming 50-lap shootout that pays $500 to win next Wednesday July 13, 2011.
The 10-lap INEX Bandoleros feature got off to a quick start as Deanna Chandler, Machesney Park, Illinois; cruised to the early lead and found herself in victory circle.
Mary McBride, South Beloit, won the 10-lap Winged Women on Wheels main event as she came from the back of the pack.
Jason Dull, Machesney Park, Illinois won the Misfits division as he posted his first feature of the 2011 season.
Shown in victory circle is Rodney Mundt from Johnson Creek, Wisconsin won his INEX Legends main event.
Dwight Dunlap, Machesney Park, Illinois paced his fellow Allison Legacy compatriot Kyle Voss behind them to cruise to an easy feature win.
The old man's still got it. 'Mean' Gene Marocco. 71-year-old driver Rockford Speedway oldest competitor navigated past a determined Bobby Frisch en route to victory lane on the second Wild Wednesday of the season at the quarter-mile oval.
Matt Berger, Loves Park, Illinois notched the Bandits feature in his first career start in the division.
Please Note: Additional photos are posted on www.myfinishlinephotos.com website.
This article was posted to the website on July 7th, 2011

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Articles on this page are available in 1 other language: Spanish (7) (learn more)
Brief Summary
The monarch is one of the best known butterfly species. Although native to North and South America, it has expanded its distribution to Australia, many Pacific islands, and a few places in Europe. Monarch larvae, like those of many other Danaini, feed on milkweeds of the family Asclepiadaceae, from which they sequester cardiac glycosides that often render them unpalatable to potential predators. The species is perhaps best known for its annual migrations, from eastern North America to the mountains of central Mexico, and from western North America to the coast of California. The butterflies rest for the cool winter months in large aggregations which may contain tens of millions of individuals.
Left: Monarch larva feeding on milkweed host plant at Poco Sol (Caribbean slope below Monteverde), Costa Rica. Right: Overwintering monarchs covering a tree branch at Alpha Monarch research site, Mexico. Images © Greg and Marybeth Dimijian
North American Ecology (US and Canada)
- Scott, J. A. 1986. The butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press.
Comprehensive Description
General Description
Geographic Range
Monarch butterflies are found in North America, South America, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand, islands in the Pacific Ocean, Mauritius, the Canary Islands of the Atlantic, and Western Europe.
Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) The Monarch butterfly is attaining near worldwide distribution in suitable places, but is primarily a species of the Americas. Autumnal migrants occasionally stray to Europe including England; the species has been spread widely in the Pacific Ocean area and is well-established in Australia. However, the seasonal ranges in North America are vastly different, by millions of square kilometers. Essential overwintering areas for North American populations are limited to a few dozen places in coastal California and the mountains of Mexico. Specifically that means that the summer range includes portions of up to 49 of the 50 US states and southern portions of all Canadian Provinces bordering the US where milkweeds occur. However the winter range includes none of Canada and in the US only a few dozen square kilometers in California, and at least some years a bit of south Florida. Florida winter populations may be non-migratory and if so contribut little to summer populations. Some winters a few may persist in sothern Arizona.
Physical Description
Physical Description
Both male and female monarchs are bright orange with black borders and black veins. The veins on the female are thicker than those of the male. Male monarchs also have a swollen pouch on both of their hind wings.
Monarchs are poisonous to vertebrates. Their poison comes from the milkweed they feed on.
Monarchs also use their appearance to ward off predators. Orange is considered a warning color, which will warn predators that monarchs are poisonous, and not to attack them. From a distance, monarchs can blend into their surroundings. Sometimes, their spots will appear to be the eyes of a larger animal, and will ward off predators.
Range wingspan: 8.6 to 12.4 cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; poisonous
Diagnostic Description
Monarch butterflies have a wingspan of 3-4 1/2 inches (75-114 mm). The male is bright orange and has a black scent patch in the middle of the upper hind wing. The female is dull orange or brown with more thickly scaled black veins. The underside of the hind wing is light orange with black veins and a marginal black border with two rows of white spots. The upper front wing has a black apex (tip) with white spots. The sub-apex has light orange spots on a dark background. The underside of the front wing has white spots and yellow ovals in the outer portion.
- Opler, P. A. and A. Bartlett Wright. 1999. Western Butterflies. Peterson Field Guides. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, New York.
- Stewart, B., P. Brodkin, and H. Brodkin. 2001. Butterflies of Arizona. A Photographic Guide. West Coast Lady Press, Arcata, CA.
Monarch butterflies prefer warmer climates; they cannot tolerate frost. They like open country. Females spend much of their time around searching for or staying near the main food plant for the caterpillars (see food habits section). Monarch butterflies require thick tree covering during the winter. In California, they live in eucalyptus trees. These eucalyptus trees are not normally found in California, but were put there to replace trees that had been cut down. Biomes: temperate forest and rainforest, temperate grassland, chaparral, tropical rainforest, tropical deciduous forest, tropical scrub forest, tropical savanna and grasslands, mountains
Comments: Habitat is a complex issue for this species. In general breeding areas are virtually all patches of milkweed in North America and some other regions. The critical conservation feature for North American populations is the overwintering habitats, which are certain high altitude Mexican conifer forests or coastal California conifer or Eucalyptus groves as identified in literature. It appears virtually all North American monarchs overwinter in one of these two areas. Lethal cold would preclude successful overwintering in places like the Gulf Coast and much of Florida some years and it appears thse are not major wintering regions as used to be assumed. In addition certain major coastal migratory stopovers may be important conservation sites especially those in along Delaware Bay in New Jersey including Cape May where adults may holdover for several days awaiting suitable conditions for crossing the Bay. There are major, but probably less important, roosting sites farther north such as east of New Haven and probably others farther south perhaps even as far as Cuba. Coastal regions are important flyways and so nectar (wild or in gardens) is an important reseource in such places. In places like Hawaii and some others the species simply breeds year round and is not really migratory.
Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Monarch females lay their eggs on milkweed plants (Asclepias), these plants are then the main food for the caterpillars. Adult monarchs feed on nectar from many kinds of flowers.
Flowering Plants Visited by Danaus plexippus in Illinois
(observations are from Robertson, Graenicher, Betz et al., Reed, Hilty, Clinebell, Smith & Snow, Hapeman, Macior, Broyles & Wyatt, Willson & Bertin, Fothergill & Vaughn; this is the Monarch butterfly)
Apiaceae: Eryngium yuccifolium sn (Rb), Pastinaca sativa sn (Rb), Sium suave sn (Rb), Torilis arvensis sn (FV); Asclepiadaceae: Ampelamus albidus [plup sn] (H), Asclepias exaltata [plup sn] (BW), Asclepias incarnata [plpr sn] [plup sn] (Rb, Btz), Asclepias syriaca [plpr sn] (Rb), Asclepias tuberosa [plab] [plup] (Rb, Btz, H), Asclepias verticillata [plpr sn] [plup sn] (Rb, WB); Asteraceae: Aster drummondii sn (Gr), Aster furcatus sn (Gr), Aster laevis sn (Gr), Aster lanceolatus sn (Gr), Aster macrophyllus sn (Gr), Aster novae-angliae sn (Rb, Gr, H), Aster pilosus sn (Rb), Aster puniceus sn (Gr), Aster salicifolius sn (Rb), Bidens aristosa sn (Rb), Bidens cernua sn fq (Rb), Boltonia asterioides sn (Rb), Cirsium altissimum sn (Gr), Cirsium discolor sn (Rb, H), Cirsium hillii sn (Rb), Cirsium vulgare sn (Rb, Gr), Conoclinium coelestinum sn (Rb), Coreopsis tripteris sn (Rb), Echinacea pallida sn (Rb), Echinacea purpurea sn (Rb, H), Eupatoriadelphus purpureus sn (Rb, Gr, H), Eupatorium altissimum sn (H), Eupatorium perfoliatum sn (Rb, Gr), Euthamia graminifolia sn (Gr), Helianthus annuus sn (Rb, H), Helianthus grosseserratus sn fq (Rb), Helianthus mollis sn (H), Helianthus strumosus sn (Gr), Heliopsis helianthoides sn (Gr), Liatris aspera sn (Rb, H), Liatris pycnostachya sn (Rb), Liatris spicata sn (Gr), Oligoneuron rigidum sn (H, Re), Rudbeckia laciniata sn (Gr), Silphium integrifolium sn (H), Silphium laciniatum sn (Rb), Silphium perfoliatum sn (Rb), Silphium terebinthinaceum sn (H), Solidago canadensis sn (Rb, Gr), Solidago nemoralis sn (Rb), Taraxacum officinale sn (FV), Vernonia fasciculata sn (Rb); Boraginaceae: Mertensia virginica sn (Rb); Campanulaceae: Lobelia siphilitica sn (Rb); Caprifoliaceae: Symphoricarpos albus sn (Gr), Symphoricarpos occidentalis sn (Gr); Dipsacaceae: Dipsacus fullonum sn (Rb); Fabaceae: Melilotus alba sn (Rb), Robinia pseudoacacia sn np (Rb), Trifolium pratense sn (Rb), Trfiolium repens sn (FV); Lamiaceae: Agastache nepetoides sn (Rb), Blephilia hirsuta sn (Rb), Monarda fistulosa sn (Rb, Cl), Physostegia virginiana sn np (Rb), Salvia azurea sn np (H); Liliaceae: Lilium michiganense sn (Rb); Orchidaceae: Platanthera blephariglottis sn (SS), Platanthera ciliaris sn (SS), Platanthera peramoena sn (Hpm); Polemoniaceae: Phlox divaricata laphamii sn (Rb), Phlox glaberrima sn (Rb); Polygonaceae: Persicaria pensylvanica sn (H); Ranunculaceae: Delphinium tricorne sn np (Rb, Mc); Rosaceae: Crataegus crus-galli sn (Rb), Crataegus intricata sn (Rb), Malus coronaria sn (Rb), Prunus americana sn (Rb), Prunus serotina [flwr sn] (Rb); Rubiaceae: Cephalanthus occidentalis sn fq (Rb); Verbenaceae: Verbena stricta sn (Rb); Violaceae: Viola sororia sn (FV)
Hilty, J. Editor. 2014. Insect Visitors of Illinois Wildflowers. World Wide Web electronic publication. illinoiswildflowers.info, version (03/2014)
See: Abbreviations for Insect Activities, Abbreviations for Scientific Observers, References for behavioral observations
Population Biology
Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: > 300
Comments: This refers to global occurrences for the species as a whole and includes introduced populations in Hawaii, Australia etc., as well as central and South America. In these places and where non-migratory native populations occur, habitat may be more or less used all year. North American populations also have a lot of breeding habitat, most of it patchy and suboptimally managed for Monarch survival, but still producing millions of adults each summer. These face an annual bottleneck in terms of dependence on a few dozen overwintering areas. Western North American populations may also be under pressure from scarcity of good breeding sites, especially in dry years, and incompatible management.
Global Abundance
>1,000,000 individuals
Comments: At least millions of individuals, probably more than a billion in many years, worldwide.
General Ecology
Can contain poison derived from their larval foodplant that helps avoid predation by birds (Scott, 1986).
Life History and Behavior
- Scott, J. A. 1986. The butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press.
Life Cycle
Small caterpillars hatch from eggs laid by female Monarchs. They grow, shedding their skin to get bigger. Eventually each caterpillar stops growing and forms a case around itself called a chrysalis. Inside the chrysalis it changes its body its body in a process called metamorphosis. When it is done it emerges as an adult butterfly.
Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis
The mating period occurs in the spring, just prior to migration from the overwintering sites. The courtship of Danaus plexippus is fairly simple and less dependent on chemical pheromones in comparison with other species in its genus. Courtship is composed of two distinct stages, the aerial phase and the ground phase. During the aerial phase, the male pursues, nudges, and eventually takes down the female. Copulation occurs during the ground phase and involves the transfer of a spermatophore from the male to female. Along with sperm, the spermatophore is thought to provide the female with energy resources that aid her in carrying out reproduction and remigration.
Breeding interval: Monarch butterflies mate in the spring before they migrate.
Key Reproductive Features: semelparous ; sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous
In Baja California may be encountered throughout the year (November-April in coastal regions and June-October in the Mountains) (Brown et al., 1992)
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Danaus plexippus
Public Records: 18
Specimens with Barcodes: 82
Species With Barcodes: 1
Barcode data: Danaus plexippus
There are 39 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank. Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species. See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
Conservation Status
National NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N2N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N2N: Imperiled - Nonbreeding
The places where monarchs spend the winter are threatened. The United States and Mexico are trying to help the areas where monarch butterflies migrate.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: no special status
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Reasons: The Monarch is globally secure, because it is doing well in many places where populations are not native and/or not strongly migratory, which drives the G5 rank. However, this is misleading in North America where the Monarch is no longer secure because of serious threats to their obligate overwintering areas in Mexico (mostly) and and a recent order of magnitude decline in California based population, which apparently reflects threats in the western breeding range. Threats also exist in the eastern spring migration route (especially in Texas). The migratory North American populations have been declining in recent years with 2009 among the worst ever (2010 data not evaluated) for California winter population. Deteriorating spring climate conditions in Texas appear to be a major contributor to recently declining numbers in the eastern US in the 2000s. Western North American populations are probably more threatened than eastern ones because suitable milkweeds are less reliable in generally more arid western regions in dry periods. Rank Calculator v3.0 is also G5. Regardless of the fate of North american populations, the species as a whole is globally secure.
Environmental Specificity: Broad. Generalist or community with all key requirements common.
Comments: Very broad as a breeder everywhere and globally overall, but very narrow for overwintering populations in North America.
Other Considerations: Elimination of Mexican sites would mean virtual extinction of eastern North American populations. Nearly all western individuals had been thought to winter in California, but some of these also go to th mountains of Mexico. This species has become a significant ecotourism resource locally in Mexico.
Global Short Term Trend: Increase of 10-25% to decline of 30%
Comments: Difficult to assess globally. Stable to increasing in many places where it is not native and in some Neotropical places where it is. North American populations, which are still a large portion of the global total, are well documented to be declining, but fluctuate from year to year. California based populations may be down more than 90% from 1997-2009.
Global Long Term Trend: Increase of >25% to decline of 50%
Comments: See short term.
Degree of Threat: Medium
Comments: The species as a whole is not seriously threatened, but the typical subspecies may be secure mostly where it is not native. The monarch appears to be doing well or even increasing in may places, but not in its core North American range. The native eastern North American populations are in trouble at their overwintering grounds. Overwintering habitats in Mexico are primarily in a few hectares each and have been under pressure from logging, agricultural and urban development. California based populations are declining more due to problems in the breeding areas. Climate change is emerging as a current, rather than an expected, threat in Mexico, California, and Texas at least. There was some improvement in the eastern, as well as western, USA in 2010 so at least populations can still respond quickly to temporarily good conditions. Regardless of what happens in North America this species is at virtually no risk of global extinction in the forseeable future.
Biological Research Needs: The basics of Monarch biology, migration, etc. are now rather well known, although some of the details regarding western US populations may still need resolution. Main needs now appear to be understanding impacts of and how to prevent or mitigate habitat changes and climate change primarily in overwintering areas and during spring migration particularly in Texas. Accurate information for Central and South America needs to be compiled, because this is globally significant to the species even if unrelated to its status in North America.
Global Protection: Unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed
Comments: Too difficult to assess because needs vary so widely with local ecology.
Needs: Winter habitats in California and Mexico need protection from logging, development, etc. This need has been known for decades. In the near term mitigation of climate change impacts could become an urgent need.
Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Some milkweed plants are poisonous to cattle. Monarch butterflies help reduce the amount of these plants.
Compared to bees, butterflies are often less efficient at transferring pollen between plants because pollen often does not stick to their bodies and they lack specialized structures for collecting pollen. However, on the occasions in which pollen does stick to the butterflies' bodies, it is often inadvertently transferred to another flower while the butterflies are nectaring, earning them the title of pollinators.
Research has shown that most butterfly species do indeed end up pollinating some of the flowers they visit, and because monarch butterflies have such a long migration route they are potential pollinators to plants across the country! Studies have found that monarch butterflies do carry pollen from swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) and are, therefore, potential pollinators. Monarch butterflies are known pollinators of common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa), and rattlesnake master (Eryngium yuccifolium). Additionally, monarch butterflies feed on the nectar of many other plants, like rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa), desert broom (Baccharis spp.), aster (Aster spp.), sunflower (Helianthus spp.), goldenrod (Solidago spp.), verbena (Verbena spp.), clover (Trifolium spp.), and other milkweed species (Asclepias spp.).
Although adult monarchs feed on the nectar of many flowers, they will breed only where milkweed plants are found. That is because monarch larvae feed exclusively on milkweed plants. Milkweed plants contain compounds called cardenolide alkaloids that are toxic to most vertebrate herbivores if ingested. However, while monarch larvae feed on milkweed plants they also ingest the toxins. They then sequester the compounds in their bodies, wings, and exoskeletons, making both the larvae and adult butterflies toxic to many predators.
- The Monarch Butterfly in North America, US Forest Service
- Diversity and temporal change in the effective pollinators of Asclepias tuberosa, D. L. Venable, Ecology, Vol. 77, No. 4, 1996, p. 1061-1073, Pollinator Conservation Digital Library
- Migratory Pollinators Program: Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus), Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum
- Reproductive biology of Eryngium yuccifolium (Apiaceae), a prairie species, Brenda Molano-Flores, Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, Vol. 128, No. 1, 2001, p. 1-6, Pollinator Conservation Digital Library
Monarch butterfly
The Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a milkweed butterfly (subfamily Danainae) in the family Nymphalidae. It may be the best known of all North American butterflies. Since the 19th century, it has been found in New Zealand, and in Australia since 1871, where it is called the wanderer.[3][4][5] It is resident in the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira, and is found as an occasional migrant in Western Europe and a rare migrant in the United Kingdom.[6] Its wings feature an easily recognizable orange and black pattern, with a wingspan of 8.9–10.2 cm (3½–4 in).[7] (The viceroy butterfly is similar in color and pattern, but is markedly smaller, and has an extra black stripe across the hind wing.) Female monarchs have darker veins on their wings, and the males have a spot called the androconium in the center of each hind wing.[8] Males are also slightly larger than female monarchs. The Queen is a close relative.
The monarch is famous for its southward late summer/autumn migration from the United States and southern Canada to Mexico and coastal California, and northward return in spring, which occurs over the lifespans of three to four generations of the butterfly. The migration route was fully determined by Canadian entomologists Fred and Norah Urquhart[9] after a 38-year search, aided by naturalists Kenneth C. Brugger and Catalina Trail who solved the final piece of the puzzle by identifying the butterflies' overwintering sites in Mexico. The discovery has been called the "entomological discovery of the 20th century".[10] An IMAX film, Flight of the Butterflies, tells the story of the long search by the Urquharts, Brugger and Trail to unlock the secret of the butterflies' migration.[11] There is evidence that eastern North American populations of the monarch butterfly migrate to south Florida and Cuba.[12]
The common name "monarch" was first published in 1874 by Samuel H. Scudder because "it is one of the largest of our butterflies, and rules a vast domain";[13] however, the name may be in honour of King William III of England.[14]
The monarch was one of the many species originally named by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758. It was first placed in the genus Papilio.[15] In 1780, Jan Krzysztof Kluk used the monarch as the type species for a new genus; Danaus.
The monarch is closely related to two very similar species that formed the Danaus (Danaus) subgenus before 2005. The first is the Jamaican monarch (D. cleophile) from Jamaica and Hispaniola. The second is the southern monarch (D. erippus), of South America south of the Amazon river. The southern monarch is almost indistinguishable from the monarch as an adult, though the pupae are somewhat different, and is often considered a subspecies of the monarch proper. But analysis of morphological, mtDNA 12S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, nuclear DNA 18S rRNA and EF1 subunit α sequence data by Smith et al. (2005) indicates it is better considered a distinct species. The separation of the monarch and southern monarch is comparatively recent. In all likelihood, the ancestors of the southern monarch separated from the monarch's population some 2 mya, at the end of the Pliocene. At the time, sea levels were higher and the entire Amazonas lowland was a vast expanse of brackish swamp that offered hardly any butterfly habitat.[16]
Following the review of Smith et al. (2005), two subspecies of the monarch are recognized:[16]
- D. p. plexippus, the nominate subspecies, described by Linnaeus in 1758, is the migratory subspecies known from most of North America.
- D. p. megalippe, named in 1826 by Jacob Hübner, is a nonmigratory subspecies, and is found from Florida and Georgia southwards, throughout the Caribbean and Central America to the Amazon River. Three local forms were at first considered other subspecies, but are actually colour varieties of D. p. megalippe:
- D. p. m. forma leucogyne, named by Arthur G. Butler in 1884
- D. p. m. forma portoricensis, named in 1941 by A.H. Clark
- D. p. m. forma tobagi, also named in 1941 by A.H. Clark
Smith et al. did not take up Danaus plexippus nigrippus in their studies. According to Hay-Roe et al. (2007), this taxon is still recognised as a subspecies:[17]
- D. p. nigrippus, named in 1909 by Richard Haensch as forma: Danais [sic] archippus f. nigrippus, and is found in South America south of Nicaragua
Origin of name[edit]
Danaus (Greek Δαναός), a great-grandson of Zeus, was a mythical king in Egypt or Libya, who founded Argos; Plexippus was one of the 50 sons of Aegyptus, the twin brother of Danaus.
In Homeric Greek plexippos (πληξιππος) means "one who urges on horses", i.e. "rider or charioteer". In the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, at the bottom of page 467,[18] Linnaeus wrote that the names of the Danai festivi, the division of the genus to which Papilio plexippus belonged, were derived from the sons of Aegyptus.[19][20]
The monarch's wingspan ranges from 8.9–10.2 cm (3½–4 in).[7] The upper side of the wings is tawny-orange, the veins and margins are black, and in the margins are two series of small white spots. The fore wings also have a few orange spots near the tip. The underside is similar, but the tip of the fore wing and hind wing are yellow-brown instead of tawny-orange and the white spots are larger.[21]
The male has a black patch of androconial scales on either hind wing (in some butterflies, these patches disperse pheromones, but are not known to do so in monarchs), and the black veins on its wing are narrower than the female's. The male is also slightly larger.[21]
A color variation has been observed in Australia, New Zealand, Indonesia and the United States as early as the late 19th century. Named nivosus by lepidopterists, it is grayish-white in all areas of the wings that are normally orange. Generally, it is only about 1% or less of all monarchs, but has maintained populations as high as 10% on Oahu in Hawaii, possibly due to selective predation.[22]
Like all insects, the monarch has six legs, but uses the four hindlegs as it carries its two front legs against its body.[23]
The eggs are creamy white and later turn pale yellow. They are elongated and subconical, with about 23 longitudinal ridges and many fine traverse lines.[21] A single egg weighs about 0.46 mg (0.0071 gr), and measures about 1.2 mm (47 mils) high and 0.9 mm (35 mils) wide.[24][25]
The caterpillar is banded with yellow, black, and white stripes. The head is also striped with yellow and black. Two pairs of black filaments are seen, one pair on each end of the body. The caterpillar reaches a length of 5 cm (2 in).[26]
The chrysalis is blue-green with a band of black and gold on the end of the abdomen. Other gold spots occur on the thorax, the wing bases, and the eyes.[27]
Range and distribution[edit]
In North America, the monarch ranges from southern Canada to northern South America. It rarely strays to western Europe (rarely as far as Greece) from being transported by US ships or by flying there if weather and wind conditions are right. It has also been found in Bermuda, Cook Islands,[28] Hawaii, the Solomons, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Australia, New Guinea, Ceylon, India, the Azores, and the Canary Islands.[27]
Monarchs are especially noted for their yearly migration over long distances. In North America they make massive southward migrations starting in August until the first frost. There is a northward migration in the spring.[29] The monarch is the only North American butterfly that migrates both north and south as the birds do regularly, but no individual makes the entire round trip. Female monarchs lay eggs for the next generation during these migrations.[30] Painted Ladies also make a return migration from Africa to Northern Europe [31]
By the end of October, the population east of the Rocky Mountains migrates to the sanctuaries of the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve within the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak forests in the Mexican states of Michoacán and México. The western population overwinters in various coastal sites in central and southern California, United States, notably in Pacific Grove, Santa Cruz, and Grover Beach.
The length of these journeys exceeds the normal lifespan of most monarchs, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The last generation of the summer enters into a nonreproductive phase known as diapause, which may last seven months or more.[8] During diapause, butterflies fly to one of many overwintering sites. The overwintering generation generally does not reproduce until it leaves the overwintering site sometime in February and March.
The overwintered population of those east of the Rockies may reach as far north as Texas and Oklahoma during the spring migration. The second, third and fourth generations return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring. How the species manages to return to the same overwintering spots over a gap of several generations is still a subject of research; the flight patterns appear to be inherited, based on a combination of the position of the sun in the sky[32] and a time-compensated Sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock based in their antennae.[33][34] New research has also shown these butterflies can use the earth's magnetic field for orientation. The antennae contain cryptochrome, a photoreceptor protein sensitive to the violet-blue part of the spectrum. In presence of violet or blue light, it can function as a chemical compass, which tells the animal if it is aligned with the earth's magnetic field, but it cannot tell the difference between magnetic north or south. The complete magnetic sense is present in a single antenna.[35][36]
Monarch butterflies are one of the few insects that can cross the Atlantic. They are becoming more common in Bermuda, due to increased use of milkweed as an ornamental plant in flower gardens. Monarch butterflies born in Bermuda remain year round due to the island's mild climate. A few monarchs turn up in the far southwest of Great Britain in years when the wind conditions are right, and have been seen as far east as Long Bennington in Lincolnshire. In Australia, monarchs make limited migrations in cooler areas,[3] but the blue tiger butterfly is better known in Australia for its lengthy migration.[4] Monarchs can also be found in New Zealand. On the islands of Hawaii, no migrations have been noted.
Monarch butterflies are poisonous or distasteful to birds and mammals because of the presence of the cardiac glycosides contained in milkweed eaten by the larvae. The bright colors of larvae and adults are thought to function as warning colors. During hibernation, monarch butterflies sometimes suffer losses because hungry birds pick through them looking for the butterflies with the least amount of poison, but in the process kill those they reject.
One study examined wing colors of migrating monarchs using computer image analysis, and found migrants had darker orange (reddish-colored) wings than breeding monarchs.[37]
Research also has overturned a prevailing theory that the migration patterns of the eastern and western populations are due to genetic reasons and that their genetic material was different. The American populations have been found to be distinct from the populations in New Zealand and Hawaii, but not from each other.[38]
The monarch can be found in a wide range of habitats, such as fields, meadows, prairie remnants, urban and suburban parks, gardens, trees, and roadsides. It overwinters in conifer groves.[39][40]
Adult food sources[edit]
Although larvae eat only milkweed, adult monarchs are more flexible in their diets. Adult monarchs, well known for their completely liquid diet, have been seen on a number of different nectar plants. A list of nectar resources exploited by monarch butterflies is:
- Apocynum cannabinum – Indian hemp
- Asclepias californica – California milkweed
- Asclepias incarnata – swamp milkweed
- Asclepias syriaca – common milkweed
- Asclepias tuberosa – butterfly weed
- Aster sp. – asters
- Cirsium sp. – thistles
- Daucus carota – wild carrot
- Dipsacus sylvestris – teasel
- Erigeron canadensis – horseweed
- Eupatorium maculatum – spotted joe-pye weed
- Eupatorium perfoliatum – common boneset
- Hesperis matronalis – dame's rocket
- Medicago sativa – alfalfa
- Solidago sp. – goldenrod
- Syringa vulgaris – lilac
- Trifolium pratense – red clover
- Vernonia altissima – tall ironweed[40]
Males also take in moisture and minerals from damp soil and wet gravel, a behavior known as mud-puddling. The monarch has also been noticed puddling at an oil stain on pavement.[40] Adult butterflies are also attracted to the liquids of foods we consume; they will drink mushy slices of bananas, oranges, and watermelon.
The mating period for the overwinter population occurs in the spring, just prior to migration from the overwintering sites. The courtship is fairly simple and less dependent on chemical pheromones than other species in its genus.[41] Courtship is composed of two distinct stages, the aerial phase and the ground phase. During the aerial phase, the male pursues, nudges, and eventually takes down the female. Copulation occurs during the ground phase, where the male and female remain attached for about 30 to 60 minutes.[42] Only 30% of mating attempts end in copulation, suggesting that females have methods to avoid unwanted matings.[43] Differences in female ability to resist mating affect pairing patterns.[44] A spermatophore is transferred from the male to the female. Along with sperm, the spermatophore is thought to provide the female with energy resources to aid her in carrying out reproduction and remigration. The overwinter population returns only as far north as they need to go to find the early milkweed growth; in the case of the eastern butterflies, that is commonly southern Texas. The life cycle of a monarch includes a change of form called complete metamorphosis. The monarch goes through four radically different stages:
- The eggs are laid by the females during spring and summer breeding months onto the leaves of milkweed plants.[45]
- The eggs hatch (after four days), revealing worm-like larvae, the caterpillars. The caterpillars consume their egg cases, then feed on milkweed, and sequester substances called cardenolides, a type of cardiac glycoside. During the caterpillar stage, monarchs store energy in the form of fat and nutrients to carry them through the nonfeeding pupal stage. The caterpillar stage lasts around two weeks.
- In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on a twig or leaf, and hangs from this pad by its last pair of prolegs. It hangs upside down in the shape of a 'J', and then molts, leaving itself encased in an articulated green exoskeleton. At this point, hormonal changes occur, leading to the development of a butterfly (metamorphosis). The chrysalis darkens (the exoskeleton becomes transparent) a day before it emerges, and its orange and black wings can be seen.
- The mature butterfly emerges after about two pupal weeks, and hangs from the split chrysalis for several hours until its wings are dry (often in the morning). Meanwhile, fluids are pumped into the crinkled wings until they become full and stiff. Some of this orangey fluid (called meconium) drips from the wings. Finally (usually in the afternoon), the monarch spreads its wings, quivers them to be sure they are stiff, and then flies away to feed on a variety of flowers, including milkweed flowers, red clover, and goldenrod.
Monarchs can live two to eight weeks in a garden having their host Asclepias plants and sufficient flowers for nectar. This is especially true if the flower garden happens to be surrounded by native forests that lack flowers.[citation needed]
Sexual selection[edit]
Mate pairing in Danaus plexippus does not depend on parasitism levels, but is affected by size, fluctuating asymmetry, and wing condition of females. Size affected mating occurs early in the mating season, where smaller females mate with smaller males and larger females mate with larger males. However, by the end of the mating season, larger females contain less spermatophores than smaller females. Mating females are more asymmetric than non-mating females, and forewing asymmetry plays a role in determining mate pairing. Studies suggest that large and symmetrical females are more attractive to males, but they are better at resisting male mating attempts. Larger males tend to mate with larger females because they are more likely to overcome the resistance of larger females. In addition, studies suggest that damaged wings decrease mating in females.[44] Studies have failed to reveal correlations between male size or wing condition with male mating success. Successful males,however, mate on a greater proportion of days and are also more likely to be successful, ending in copulation. In addition, both females and males mate multiply.[43] Spermatophore nutrients after mating are digested and used in female tissue. Because female Lepidoptera benefit from spermatophore-derived nutrients, there is a high frequency of multiple mating among female monarchs. In addition, females allowed to mate several times therefore laid more eggs than females who only mate once.[46]
Sperm competition[edit]
Male monarchs produce spermatophores, a sperm sac embedded in a gelatinous body, from accessory gland secretions.[47] Since male monarchs are highly polyandrous and females store sperm, there is need for sperm competition, selecting for males that gain sperm precedence. The spermatophore size of males increases with increasing time between matings, and larger spermatophores delay female re-mating. Therefore, by waiting to re-mate, males increase their sexual competitiveness, ultimately increasing the number of ova fertilized by their sperm.[46]
In addition, the production of large spermatophores could also benefit the females because spermatophore constituents may be used by females to affect the amount of offspring produced or the quality of offspring produced. By increasing female reproductive success, male reproductive success also increases. Studies have shown that the contents of Lepidopteran spermatophores are incorporated into the eggs and somatic tissue of females. Therefore, an increase in spermatophore size also increases the fecundity of female monarchs.[46] Sperm from males that produce larger spermatophores could also fertilize more female's eggs without increasing her lifetime reproductive success.[48]
Sperm precedence patterns were also observed, where second-male sperm precedence was more common than first or no-male sperm precedence. The advantage of second-male sperm suggests that the incoming sperm pushes back previously existing sperm, resulting in different layers of sperm from different males. However, second-male sperm precedence is rarely complete, suggesting that the sperm from the first male remains in the fertilization set, acting as a barrier to block sperm from other males.[48]
Pictorial lifecycle[edit]
Monarch butterfly laying eggs on Asclepias curassavica 'Silky Gold'
Monarch eggs on milkweed
An early instar monarch caterpillar
Monarch butterfly in Santa Barbara California
Adult monarch butterfly feeding on a Zinnia
Host plants[edit]
The host plants used by the monarch caterpillar include:
- Asclepias amplexicaulis – clasping milkweed
- Asclepias asperula – antelope horns
- Asclepias californica – California milkweed
- Asclepias cordifolia – heart-leaf milkweed
- Asclepias curassavica – scarlet milkweed
- Asclepias curtissii – Curtiss' milkweed
- Asclepias eriocarpa – woollypod milkweed
- Asclepias erosa – desert milkweed
- Asclepias exaltata – poke milkweed
- Asclepias fascicularis – narrow-leaf milkweed
- Asclepias humistrata – sandhill milkweed
- Asclepias incarnata – swamp milkweed
- Asclepias linaria – pine-needle milkweed
- Asclepias meadii – Mead's milkweed
- Asclepias nivea – Caribbean milkweed
- Asclepias purpurascens – purple milkweed
- Asclepias speciosa – showy milkweed
- Asclepias subulata – rush milkweed
- Asclepias subverticillata – horsetail milkweed
- Asclepias syriaca – common milkweed
- Asclepias tuberosa – butterfly weed
- Asclepias verticillata – whorled milkweed
- Calotropis gigantea – crown flower
- Calotropis procera – apple of Sodom
- Cynanchum laeva – sand vine
- Sarcostemma clausa – white vine[26][27]
- Gomphocarpus physocarpus (syn Asclepias physocarpa) – balloon milkweed
- Gomphocarpus fruticosus (syn Asclepias fruticosa) – swan plant
- Cynanchum acutum (native plant)
Defense against predators[edit]
In both caterpillar and butterfly form, monarchs use a bright display of contrasting colors to warn potential predators of its undesirable taste and poisonous characteristics. This aposematic behavior is common among many insects, amphibians, and mammals alike. Additionally, monarchs are physically similar to the viceroy butterfly, exhibiting a classic case of mimicry.
Monarchs are foul-tasting and poisonous due to the presence of cardenolide aglycones in their bodies, which the caterpillars ingest as they feed on milkweed.[41] By ingesting a large amount of plants in the genus Asclepias, primarily milkweed, monarch caterpillars are able to sequester cardiac glycosides, or more specifically cardenolides, which are steroids that act in heart-arresting ways similar to digitalis.[49] It has been found that monarchs are able to sequester cardenolides most effectively from plants of intermediate cardenolide content rather than those of high or low content.[50]
Additional studies have shown that different species of milkweed have differing effects on growth, virulence, and transmission of parasites.[51] One specific species (Asclepias curassavica) appears to reduce the proportion of monarchs infected by parasites. There are two possible explanations for the positive role of A. curassavica on the monarch caterpillar. The first is that A. curassavica promotes overall monarch health to boost the monarch's immune system. A second theory is that A. curassavica has a direct negative effect on the parasites.[51]
After the caterpillar becomes a butterfly, the toxin shift to different parts of the body. Since many birds attack the wings of the butterfly, having three times the cardiac glycosides in the wings leaves predators with a very foul taste, and may prevent them from ever ingesting the body of the butterfly.[49] In order to combat predators that remove the wings only to ingest the abdomen, monarchs keep the most potent cardiac glycosides in their abdomens.[52]
Monarch toxins are pharmacologically similar to digitalis and produce extremely similar results in experimental settings.[49] In the wild, the toxins cause many birds to experience intense discomfort and vomiting. Many birds find monarchs unappetizing and quickly begin recognizing their distinct colors and avoiding them as food sources.
Monarchs share the defense of noxious taste with the similar-appearing viceroy butterfly in what is perhaps one of the most well-known examples of mimicry. Though long purported to be an example of Batesian mimicry, the viceroy is actually reportedly more unpalatable than the monarch, making this a case of Müllerian mimicry.[53]
Relationship with humans[edit]
The monarch is the state insect of Alabama,[54] Idaho,[55] Illinois,[56] Minnesota,[57] Texas,[58]Vermont,[59] and West Virginia.[60] It was nominated in 1990 as the national insect of the United States of America.[61] but the legislation did not pass.[62]
Monarchs can be attracted by cultivating a butterfly garden with specific milkweed species and nectar plants. Efforts are underway to establish these Monarch Waystations.[63] Monarchs are raised as a hobby and for educational purposes.[64][65] Butterfly farmers raise Monarchs and ship them to individuals and organizations to be released at a wedding or funeral, for example.[66] The release of captive bred Monarchs remains controverial.[67][68]
Sanctuaries and reserves have been created at over-wintering locations in Mexico and California. These sites can generate significant tourism revenue. [69]
Some organizations, such as the Cape May Bird Observatory, have monarch identification tagging programs. Plastic stickers are placed on the wing of the insect with identification information. Tracking information is used to study their migration patterns, including how far and where they fly.[70]
Although monarchs feed on milkweed, variations in the quantity of cardiac glycosides exist between species, individuals, and even parts of the host plant. The levels of toxins in adult monarchs reflect the levels in their host plants. This means some monarchs are not foul-tasting, but are Batesian or automimics. Some species of predators have learned to measure the toxins by taste and reject butterflies with high cardiac glycosides contents, eating only the ones with low contents.
Monarchs also contain cardiac glycosides in their bodies from the Asclepias plants the caterpillars eat. Overwintering monarchs in Mexico are often preyed upon by Black-headed Grosbeaks, which are immune to that toxin. Other birds, such as orioles and jays, have learned to eat only the thoracic muscles and abdominal contents because these contain less poison than the rest of the body.[27] Some mice are also able to withstand large doses of the poison. Over time, overwintering adults become less poisonous, thus making them more vulnerable to predators. In Mexico, about 14% of the overwintering monarchs are eaten by birds and mice.[39]
In the butterfly, the cardiac glycosides are concentrated in the abdomen and wings. Some species of predators differentiate these parts and consume only the most palatable ones.[71] Bird predators include brown thrashers, grackles, robins, cardinals, sparrows, scrub jays and pinyon jays.[71]
In North America, eggs and first instar larvae of the monarch are eaten by larvae and adults of the introduced Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis).[72]
Another predator of the monarchs is the Chinese mantid (Tenodera sinensis). Chinese mantids have been shown to have adapted to handle monarch caterpillars to reduce poisonous effects. Chinese mantids are capable of identifying monarch larvae and approach them in a different manner than other caterpillars.[73] Upon encountering a monarch caterpillar, Chinese mantis will chew open the integument to let the gut fall out. Once the gut is removed, they will proceed to consume the rest of the body. This is effective as monarch caterpillars have much higher levels of cardenolide content in their guts than in the rest of their bodies. By practicing this method of ingestion, Chinese mantids are able to avoid the gut which contains high levels of milkweed particles. This practice has also been documented in some other predators as well.
Several birds have also adapted various methods that allow them to ingest monarchs without experiencing the ill effects associated with the cardiac glycosides. The oriole is able to eat the monarch through an exaptation of its feeding behavior that gives it the ability to identify cardenolides by taste and reject them.[74] The grosbeak, on the other hand, has adapted the ability an insensitivity to secondary plant poisons which allows it to ingest monarchs without vomiting. As a result, orioles and grosbeaks will periodically have high levels of cardenolides in their bodies, and they will be forced to go on periods of reduced monarch consumption. This cycle of predation effectively reduces the potential predation of monarchs by 50 percent and indicates that monarch aposematism has a legitimate purpose.[74]
On Oahu, a white morph of the monarch has emerged. This is because of the introduction, in 1965 and 1966, of two bulbul species, Pycnonotus cafer and Pycnonotus jocosus. They are now the most common insectivore birds, and probably the only ones preying on insects as large as the monarch. Monarchs in Hawaii are known to have low cardiac glycoside levels, but the birds may also be tolerant of the chemical. The two species hunt the larvae and some pupae from the branches and undersides of leaves in milkweed bushes. The bulbuls also eat resting and ovipositing adults, but rarely flying ones. Because of its colour, the white morph has a higher survival rate than the orange one. This is either because of apostatic selection (i.e. the birds have learned the orange monarchs can be eaten), because of camouflage (the white morph matches the white pubescence of milkweed or the patches of light shining through foliage), or because the white morph does not fit the bird's search image of a typical monarch, so is thus avoided.[75]
Parasites include the tachinid flies Sturmia convergens[76] and Lesperia archippivora. Lesperia-parasitized larvae complete their moult and suspend, but die before pupation. At that time, one white maggot comes out of the larvae, suspended by a silken thread. The maggot then forms a brown pupa on the ground.[77]
The bacterium Micrococcus flacidifex danai also infects the larvae and causes "black death". As usual, just before pupation, the larvae migrate to a horizontal surface. They die a few hours later, attached only by one pair of prolegs, with the thorax and abdomen hanging limp. The body turns black shortly after. The bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no invasive powers, but causes secondary infections in weakened insects. It is a common cause of death in laboratory-reared insects.[77]
The protozoan Ophryocystis elektroscirrha is another parasite of the monarch. It infects the subcutaneous tissues and propagates by spores formed during the pupal stage. The spores are found over all of the body of infected butterflies, with the greatest number on the abdomen. These spores are passed, from female to caterpillar, when spores rub off during egg-laying, and are then ingested by caterpillars. Severely infected individuals are weak, unable to expand their wings, or unable to eclose, and have shortened lifespans, but probably occur at low frequencies in nature. This is not the case in laboratory or commercial rearing, where after a few generations, all individuals can be infected.[78]
Confusion of host plants[edit]
The black swallow-wort is problematic for monarchs in North America. Monarchs lay their eggs on these relatives of native milkweeds because they produce stimuli similar to milkweed. Once the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are poisoned by the toxicity of this invasive plant from Europe.
Habitat destruction[edit]
Recent deforestation of the monarch's overwintering grounds has led to a drastic reduction in the butterfly's population. Efforts to classify it as a protected species and to restore its habitat are under way. Monarch butterflies that once covered 50 acres of fir tree forest during their summer layover in central Mexico now occupy fewer than 3 acres, according to the latest census. Mexico's National Commission of Natural Protected Areas said that populations have crashed in the two decades and are down 59 percent from December 2011 levels, when the insects filled 7 acres of fir trees in central Mexico. Changes in agricultural land use diminish the area of milkweed. Drought and fluctuations in temperature are partly to blame for the decline of the monarchs.[79]
Population decline and genetically modified crops[edit]
Herbicide tolerant genetically modified crops (GMCs), specifically corn and soybeans, now enable Midwestern farmers to use herbicides that have killed millions of acres of milkweed that used to grow between the rows of food crops. Destruction of the milkweed eliminates the monarchs' main food source. Chip Taylor, director of the conservation group Monarch Watch at the University of Kansas, said the Midwest milkweed habitat "is virtually gone" with 120–150 million acres lost.[79]
The monarch formed the subject of a controversial paper in Nature that suggested pollen from genetically modified maize could blow onto the butterfly's favored food plants, Asclepias spp. (milkweed), increasing larval mortality.[80]
The area of forest (released in hectares and converted to acres) occupied by monarch butterflies in Mexico, used as an indicator of the number of butterflies that arrive to that country each winter, reached its lowest level in two decades. According to a survey carried out during the 2012–2013 winter season by the WWF-Telcel Alliance, and Mexico's National Commission of Protected Areas (CONAP), the nine hibernating colonies occupy a total area of 2.94 acres of forest—representing a 59% decrease from the 2011–2012 survey of 7.14 acres.
The same survey in 2012-2013 showed the decline is continuing. There were only seven colonies occupying 0.67 hectares (1.66 acres), the third consecutive record low since record-keeping began in 1995-1996. It represents a 44% decrease from the previous year, a 76% decrease from 2011-2012 and a 92% decrease compared to the 1996-1997 count.
The latest decrease in monarch butterflies is likely due to a decrease in the milkweed plant (Asclepias)—a primary food for monarchs—from herbicide use in the butterfly's reproductive and feeding grounds in the US, as well as extreme climate variations during the fall and summer affecting butterfly reproduction. Climate change is serious, as is the destruction of common milkweed by the use of modern-day herbicides. These herbicides have effectively eliminated milkweed from almost all of the habitat monarchs used to use.[81] Common milkweed is an aggressive, hardy plant, but it can't fight extensive use of herbicides on genetically-modified crops with which it shares habitat. Varietals do exist, however, that can be successfully planted in gardens and other areas to help mitigate habitat loss in the wild.[82] A secure habitat of thriving milkweed can help, but climate change is still a concern.
"Extreme climate fluctuations in the U.S. and Canada affect the survival and reproduction of butterflies," Omar Vidal, director general of WWF-Mexico, said. "The monarch's lifecycle depends on the climatic conditions in the places where they develop. Eggs, larvae and pupae develop more quickly in milder conditions. Temperatures above 95°F can be lethal for larvae, and eggs dry out in hot, arid conditions, causing a drastic decrease in hatch rate."
A 273-million base pair draft sequence of the monarch butterfly genome was published in 2011, including a set of 16,866 protein-coding genes. Comparison to the sequence of the silk moth Bombyx mori reveals the Lepidoptera as a relatively fast-evolving order. The monarch genome provides a number of insights into the butterfly's migratory behaviour, including the molecular underpinnings of the circadian clock and juvenile hormone pathway, as well as a suite of microRNAs that are differentially expressed between summer and migratory monarchs.[85][86][87]
See also[edit]
- Lepidoptera migration
- List of butterflies of Great Britain
- Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve
- Peninsula Point Light, Michigan
- ^ Committee On Generic Nomenclature, Royal Entomological Society of London; Of Entomology, British Museum (Natural History) Dept (2007-05-23) [1934]. The Generic Names of British Insects. Royal Entomological Society of London Committee on Generic Nomenclature, Committee on Generic Nomenclature. British Museum (Natural History). Dept. of Entomology. p. 20. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
- ^ Scudder, Samuel H.; William M. Davis, Charles W. Woodworth, Leland O. Howard, Charles V. Riley, Samuel W. Williston (1989). The butterflies of the eastern United States and Canada with special reference to New England. The author. p. 721. ISBN 0-665-26322-8. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
- ^ a b "Wanderer Butterfly". Australian Museum: nature culture discover. Australian Museum, Sydney, Australia. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
- ^ a b "Regal the monarch butterfly". Critters of Calamvale Creek. Robert Doolan. 2007. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
- ^ "Wanderer Butterfly". Online Learning Resources. School of Biological Sciences, The University of Sydney. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
- ^ UK Butterflies – Monarch – Danaus plexippus from UK Butterflies
- ^ a b Garber, Steven D. (1998). The Urban Naturalist. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 76–79. ISBN 0-486-40399-8. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- ^ a b "Monarch, Danaus plexippus". Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ "Frederick Urquhart—A Short Biography". Urquhart Butterfly Garden. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Norah Urquhart a pioneer in monarch butterfly research". Inside Toronto. April 23, 2009. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ "Flight of the Butterflies". Reuben H. Fleet Science Center. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ Dockxx, Cristina (August 2012). "Differences in phenotypic traits and migratory strategies between eastern North American monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus (L.)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 106 (4): 717–736. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2012.01916.x.
- ^ Guppy, Crispin S.; Jon H. Shepard (2001) [2001-03-15]. Butterflies of British Columbia. UBC press. pp. 352–354. ISBN 0-7748-0809-8. Retrieved 2008-03-29.
- ^ Adams, Jean Ruth (1992). Insect Potpourri: Adventures in Entomology. CRC Press. pp. 28–29. ISBN 1-877743-09-7. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae (in Latin) 1. Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius. p. 471. OCLC 174638949. Retrieved 2012-06-05.
- ^ a b Smith, David A.; Gugs Lushai and John A. Allen (June 2005). "A classification of Danaus butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) based upon data from morphology and DNA" (PDF). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144 (2): 191–212. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2005.00169.x. Retrieved 2008-05-19.
- ^ Hay-Roe, Miriam M. et al. (2007), Pre- and postzygotic isolation and Haldane rule effects in reciprocal crosses of Danaus erippus and Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Danainae), supported by differentiation of cuticular hydrocarbons, establish their status as separate species, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 91: 445–453.
- ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturae ed. X: 467 (in BHL)
- ^ Linnaeus divided his large genus Papilio, containing all known butterfly species, into what we would now call subgenera. The Danai festivi formed one of the 'subgenera', containing colourful species, as opposed to the Danai candidi, containing species with bright white wings. Linnaeus wrote: "Danaorum Candidorum nomina a filiabus Danai Aegypti, Festivorum a filiis mutuatus sunt." (= The names of the Danai candidi have been derived from the daughters of Danaus, those of the Danai festivi from the sons of Aegyptus).
- ^ Robert Michael Pyle suggested Danaus is a masculinised version of Danaë (Greek Δανάη), Danaus's great-great-granddaughter, to whom Zeus came as a shower of gold, which seemed to him a more appropriate source for the name of this butterfly (Pyle, Robert Michael (2001). Chasing Monarchs: Migrating with the Butterflies of Passage. Houghton Mifflin Books. pp. 148–149. ISBN 0-618-12743-7. Retrieved 2013-03-20.). He masculinized the genus name because it had to agree in gender with the species name. If the species-group name is not a noun in apposition, Pyle could have been right and the genus name and specific epithet have to agree in gender, but in that case it is the specific epithet and not the genus name, that is to be altered. In the case of Danaus plexippus, however, the specific epithet is a noun in apposition, formed from a personal name in the nominative case, which should not be altered (see ICZN art. 31.1 and art. 32.3). If, instead of Danaus, Danaë had been intended, the name would simply have been Danae plexippus. Moreover, in Systema Naturae, there is a very strong connection of the names with Danaus, and not a single one with Danaë.
- ^ a b c Braby, Michael F. (2000). Butterflies of Australia: Their Identification, Biology and Distribution. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 597–599. ISBN 0-643-06591-1. Retrieved 2008-05-26.
- ^ The White Monarch, Lawrence Gibbs and Orley R. Taylor, Department of Entomology, University of Kansas, June 1998
- ^ Darby, Gene (1958). What is a Butterfly. Chicago: Benefic Press. p. 10.
- ^ Oberhauser, Karen S.; Michelle J. Solensky (2004). The Monarch Butterfly: Biology and Conservation. Cornell University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-8014-4188-9. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
- ^ "Monarch Life Cycle". Biology. Monarch Watch. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
- ^ a b David L. Wagner (2005). Caterpillars of Eastern North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. ISBN 0-691-12144-3
- ^ a b c d James A. Scott (1986). The Butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. ISBN 0-8047-2013-4
- ^ Gerald McCormack (7-12-2005). "Cook Islands' Largest Butterfly - the Monarch". Cook Islands Biodiversity.
- ^ Chill turns monarchs north; Cold weather flips butterflies' migratory path March 23, 2013; Vol.183 #6 Science News
- ^ Pyle, Robert Michael, "National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies", p712-713, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, ISBN 0-394-51914-0
- ^ Richard Fox - Co-Author Multi-generational long-distance migration of insects: studying the painted lady butterfly in the Western Palaearctic; Ecography; Volume 36, Issue 4, pages 474–486, April 2013
- ^ Gugliotta, Guy (2003): Butterflies Guided By Body Clocks, Sun Scientists Shine Light on Monarchs' Pilgrimage. Washington Post, May 23, 2003, page A03. Retrieved 2006-JAN-07.
- ^ Merlin, C; Gegear, RJ; Reppert, SM. (2009). "Antennal circadian clocks coordinate sun compass orientation in migratory monarch butterflies". Science 325 (5948): 1700–1704. doi:10.1126/science.1176221. PMC 2754321. PMID 19779201.
- ^ Kyriacou, CP. (2009). "Unraveling Traveling". Science 325 (5948): 1629–1630. doi:10.1126/science.1178935. PMID 19779177.
- ^ Robert J. Gegear, Lauren E. Foley, Amy Casselman & Steven M. Reppert (2010). "Animal cryptochromes mediate magnetoreception by an unconventional photochemical mechanism" (PDF). Nature 463 (7282): 804–807. doi:10.1038/nature08719. PMC 2820607. PMID 20098414.
- ^ "Monarch butterflies make use of a chemical magnetic compass". Sciencedaily.com. 2010-01-27. doi:10.1038/nature08719. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
- ^ Davis, A.K (2009). "Wing color of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) in eastern North America across life stages: migrants are 'redder' than breeding and overwintering stages". Psyche 2009: 1–5. doi:10.1155/2009/705780. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
- ^ Emory University (2012, May 31). '/releases/2012/05/120531112607.htm|Mystery of monarch butterfly migration takes new turn'. ScienceDaily. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
- ^ a b Rick Cech and Guy Tudor (2005). Butterflies of the East Coast. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. ISBN 0-691-09055-6
- ^ a b c David C. Iftner, John A. Shuey, and John C. Calhoun (1992). Butterflies and Skippers of Ohio. College of Biological Sciences and The Ohio State University. ISBN 0-86727-107-8
- ^ a b "ADW: Danaus plexippus: Information". Retrieved 2008-08-27.
- ^ Emmel. Thomas C., "Florida's Fabulous Butterflies", p 44, World Publications, 1997, ISBN 0-911977-15-5
- ^ a b Solensky,M. J. and K. S. Oberhauser. 2004. Behavioral and genetic components of male mating success in monarchbutterflies. Pp. 61-68. In: Oberhauser, K.S. and M.J. Solensky, eds. The MonarchButterfly: Biology and Conservation. Cornell University Press. Ithaca NY.
- ^ a b Frey, D., K.L.H. Leong, E. Peffer,R.K. Smidt, K.S. Oberhauser. 1998. Mating patterns of overwintering monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus (L.)) inCalifornia. J. Lepid. Soc. 52: 84-97
- ^ "Monarch Butterfly Life Cycle and Migration". National Geographic Education. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
- ^ a b c Oberhauser, K.S. 1989. Effects of spermatophores on male and female monarch butterfly reproductive success. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 25:237-246.
- ^ Karen S. Oberhauser, Male monarch butterfly spermatophore mass and mating strategies, Animal Behaviour,Volume 36, Issue 5, September–October 1988, Pages 1384-1388, ISSN0003-3472, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(88)80208-2. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347288802082)
- ^ a b Solensky,M. J., and K. S. Oberhauser. "Sperm Precedence in Monarch Butterflies (Danaus Plexippus)." BehavioralEcology 20.2 (2009): 328-34. Print.
- ^ a b c Parsons, J.A. (1965). "A Digitallis-like Toxin in the Monarch Butterfly Danaus Plexippus L". J. Physiol (178): 290–304.
- ^ Malcolm, S.B.; L.P. Brower (1989). "Evolutionary and ecological implications of cardenolide sequestration in the monarch butterfly". Experientia 45 (3): 284–295. doi:10.1007/BF01951814.
- ^ a b de Rood, J.C. (2011). "Virulence evolution in response to anti-infection resistance: toxic food plants can select for virulent parasites of monarch butterflies". Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4: 712–722.
- ^ Glazier, Lincoln; Susan Glazier (1975). "Localization of Heart Poisons in the Monarch Butterfly". Science 188 (4183): 19–25. Bibcode:1975Sci...188...19B. doi:10.1126/science.188.4183.19. PMID 17760150.
- ^ Ritland, D.; L. P. Brower (1991). "The viceroy butterfly is not a Batesian mimic". Nature 350 (6318): 497–498. doi:10.1038/350497a0. Retrieved 2008-02-23. "Viceroys are as unpalatable as monarchs, and significantly more unpalatable than queens from representative Florida populations."
- ^ "Official Alabama Insect". Alabama Emblems, Symbols and Honors. Alabama Department of Archives & History. 2001-07-12. Retrieved 2007-03-19.
- ^ "Idaho Symbols, Insect: Monarch Butterfly". Idaho State Symbols, Emblems, and Mascots. SHG resources, state handbook & guide. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "State Symbol: Illinois Official Insect — Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus)". [Illinois] State Symbols. Illinois State Museum. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "Minnesota State Symbols" (PDF). Minnesota House of Representatives. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "Texas State Symbols". The Texas State Library and Archives. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "(Vermont) State Butterfly". Vermont Department of Libraries. Archived from the original on 2008-05-18. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "West Virginia Statistical Information, General State Information" (PDF). Official West Virginia Web Portal. Archived from the original on 2008-04-11. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (1990-06-01). "Choosing a National Bug". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions on Entomology". Entomological Society of America. Retrieved 2008-03-26.
- ^ "Monarch Watch Waystation Program". Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ "Monarch Watch". Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ "Monarch Watch". The Kansas Biological Survey, Univ of Kansas. 2008-05-27. Retrieved 2008-05-27.
- ^ [http:// http://butterflybreeders.org/ "International Butterfly Breeders Association"]. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ [http:// http://www.learnaboutbutterflies.com/Code%20of%20Practice.htm "Code Of Practice"]. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ "What The Experts Say". Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ "Saving Butterflies: Insect Ecologist Spearheads Creation of Oases for Endangered Butterflies". ScienceDaily. 2005-01-01. Retrieved 2008-05-27.
- ^ "Monarch Monitoring Project". Cap May Bird Observatory. 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
- ^ a b Barbosa, Pedro; Deborah Kay Letourneau (1988). "5". Novel Aspects of Insect-plant Interactions. Wiley-Interscience. pp. 29–31. ISBN 0-471-83276-6. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
- ^ Koch, R. L.; W. D. Hutchison, R. C. Venette and G. E. Heimpel (October 2003). "Susceptibility of immature monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae), to predation by Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)". Biological Control 28 (2): 265–270. doi:10.1016/S1049-9644(03)00102-6. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- ^ Rafter, Jamie; Anurag Agruwal, Evan Preisser (2013). "Chinese mantids gut toxic monarch caterpillars: avoidance of prey defense?". Ecological Entomology (38): 78–82.
- ^ a b Brower, Lincoln (1988). "Avian Predation on the Monarch Butterfly and Its Implications for Mimicry Theory". American Society of Naturalists 131: S4–S6. doi:10.1086/284763.
- ^ Stimson, John; Mark Berman (1990). "Predator induced colour polymorphism in Danaus plexippus L. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in Hawaii". Heredity 65 (3): 401–406. doi:10.1038/hdy.1990.110. Lay summary.
- ^ Clarke, A.R.; M.P. Zalucki (2001). "Taeniogonalos raymenti Carmean & Kimsey (Hymenoptera: Trigonalidae) reared as a hyperparasite of Sturmia convergens (Weidemann) (Diptera: Tachinidae), a primary parasite of Danaus plexippus (L.) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)". Pan-Pacific Entomologist 77 (?): 68–70.
- ^ a b Brewer, Jo; Gerard M. Thomas (1966). "Causes of death encountered during rearing of Danaus plexippus (Danaidae)" (PDF). Journal of the Lepidopterist's Society 20 (4): 235–238. Retrieved 2008-04-13. Lay summary.
- ^ Leong, K. L. H.; M. A. Yoshimura, H. K. Kaya and H. Williams (1997). "Instar Susceptibility of the Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) to the Neogregarine Parasite, Ophryocystis elektroscirrha". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 69 (1): 79–83. doi:10.1006/jipa.1996.4634. PMID 9028932. Lay summary.
- ^ a b Wines, Michael, Monarch Migration Plunges to Lowest Level in Decades March 13, 2013 NYT
- ^ John E. Losey, Linda S. Rayor & Maureen E. Carter (1999). "Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae" (PDF). Nature 399 (6713): 214. doi:10.1038/20338. PMID 10353241.
- ^ "Yale Environment 360".
- ^ "Habitat For Arthropods".
- ^ WWF, http://worldwildlife.org/stories/monarch-butterfly-survey-indicates-lowest-numbers-in-20-years, March 14, 2013
- ^ WWF, http://worldwildlife.org/stories/monarch-population-hits-lowest-point-in-more-than-20-years, January 29, 2014
- ^ Zhan S, Merlin C, Boore JL, Reppert SM (November 2011). "The Monarch Butterfly Genome Yields Insights into Long-Distance Migration". Cell 147 (5): 1171–85. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.09.052. PMC 3225893. PMID 22118469.
- ^ Stensmyr MC, Hansson BS (November 2011). "A Genome Befitting a Monarch". Cell 147 (5): 970–2. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.11.009. PMID 22118454.
- ^ Johnson, Carolyn Y. (23 November 2011). "Monarch butterfly genome sequenced". The Boston Globe (Boston, MA). Retrieved 9 January 2012.


text:
Swiffer Dusters Kit -- 1 Kit
Very Useful and Quick
I am far more likely to use a microfiber rag to dust, or my vacuum when cleaning, staying away from gimmicky products.....BUT this thing is GREAT! It makes for a more efficient process, gets around and behind things with ease, and holds a whole bunch of dust! My step-mom gave me my first one, and I'm hooked! I'd like to be able to purchase the REFILLS on Vitacost, not just the kit, since that's the idea of having something with refills, but I can get those at the drugstore, too.
Great on electronics - doesn't scratch. Just shake out frequently so the bunnies don't gather.
November 23, 2012
1-1 of 1


text:
'sport suv'... a bit redundant, I think.
why learn from your own mistakes, when you could learn from the mistakes of others?
"The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is comprehensible" -Albert Ein
uhhhh u missed one
Chevrolet Code 130R Concept
"The Chevrolet Code 130R Concept is one we can support: This fun rear wheel drive machine is priced around $20,000. The awkwardly named Code 130R borrows heavily from the BMW 1 Series M stylistically, but would do it at half the price.
Rumors are already swirling that this concept is an early indication of what to expect from the next-generation Camaro, though considering the concept packs a GM's excellent turbocharged 1.4-liter I4, we doubt the new Camaro will be equipped quite like this."
from Popular Mechanics
ford fusion! fusion is right first thing I thought of was wow a new Nissan GTR, wait Mustang. Wait Lancer Evo!
nice original design! nope!
Bugster? really? its a porche... wait. well... yeah. its own by porche.. so yeah. its a porche with a different name. lame. ugly as $$$$ too. I hate the beatle just like every other self respecting car lover out there. it need to DIE already.
the new NSX. $$$$ yes! been hearing about this one for a while. glad they finnaly brought all their ideas to table and finnaly made a concept car.
caddalic. needs to die as well. keep the escalade. but thats it. I would never be caught dead in one. but they look nice I guess. this new cadi looks 20 years old already.
lincon is still around..
god. I love america! I do. but I wish american car companies would just go ahead and die. why do people still buy them. out of 100 cars. 3 or 4 are decent looking and have good specs. The ONLY reason I dont really want to see the US auto industry die is becuase of the jobs and income it brings to the USA. but really... there may be a few US cars I would buy now, but I there are 25 jp and eu cars I would rather buy.


text:
PROGRAMS Guide
Throughout the year Girl Scouts offer innovative program activities, events, and camps for girls of all ages and interests.
Also check out programs you can schedule any time. Instructions for our online registration system |
| RSS Feed
Brownie Super Team Day (Plymouth) 1PM
Can your Brownie Troop work as a Super Team? Can you communicate, figure out a solution, and solve the challenge? Practice working together and listening to ideas in this program that leads up to working on the challenge course as Juniors.


text:
Dipping Into the Future: Can +POOL Show the Way to the Future of Funding Architecture?
Last week, +POOL, that brilliant, crazy, possibly over-designed, possibly perfectly designed project that places a floating, self-filtering pool in the East River announced it was going to try and raise $1 million in the next six months to make its aquatic dreams come true. It is a prospect, which makes The Observer giddy with child-like joy. Swimming in the river, in river water no less.
That youthful excitement is infectious, especially when talking to Dong-Ping Wong, one +POOL's founders. "It's a simple idea that didn't really come from anywhere," he explained in an interview. "As for 'Why the idea?' It was a combination of a few things, a hot and sweaty summer looking at the water, taking the train over the water, and riding my bike over the water but never really seeing it at all. I'm from San Diego, we use and view water very differently than we do from here." Read More


text:
ANDOVER — Town Meetings will be busy this year, and the deadlines are approaching for residents looking for a spot on the warrants.
A Special Town Meeting will be held Feb. 11, 2013 to vote on raising additional funds for the Bancroft Elementary School construction project. The money is needed because of budget shortfalls
The town will also hold its Annual Town Meeting beginning Monday, April 29 at 7 p.m. The meeting could pave the way for a variety of large and small projects, including replacements for the Ballardvale Fire Station and Town Yard, according to Town Manager Reginald "Buzz" Stapczynski.
It could also consider zoning changes for the existing Town Yard on Lewis Street. A possible zoning change for an elderly housing district in northwest Andover is also on tap, according to Charles Kendrick, co-chair of the Franciscan Housing Overlay District Task Force.
Two articles could also propose minor changes to the Cormier Youth Center construction project. While it hasn't been determined which meeting they'll come forward on, Stapczynski said the project's construction timeline could put them on the Special Town Meeting warrant.
Residents can get on both the special and annual Town Meeting warrants by putting a petition together and submitting it with registered Andover voter signatures, according to Town Clerk Larry Murphy.
To bring an article to Special Town Meeting, a resident must gather 100 signatures and file it with the clerk's office before Friday, Jan. 11 at 4:30 p.m., when the warrant closes, according to Murphy.
Only 10 signatures are needed to get on the Annual Town Meeting warrant. Necessary paperwork must be filed before the warrant closes on Friday, Jan. 18 at 4:30 p.m., Murphy said.
There are currently two private warrant articles gathering signatures, both targeting Annual Town Meeting. The first article aims to build a 4,050 sidewalk along Highland Road for $635,000, Murphy said.
The other article seeks to raise $60,000 for a water level gauging system on the Shawsheen River at Balmoral Street, by Shawsheen Square, according to Murphy.
Anybody else hoping to put an idea to the voters only has a few weeks left to act, and Murphy said they should touch base with him soon.
"We encourage them to come in and talk about the process, but the papers are available on the town website," Murphy said.
Voters at this year's annual town meeting will hear from a number of town boards and departments seeking residential approval for their plans.
Two requests for proposals are currently running for private land owners who are looking to sell their land to the town for either a new Ballardvale Fire Station or Town Yard.
For both of those RFPs, any favorable offers could come before Town Meeting voters, according to Stapczynski.
"We'd have to see how that process goes," Stapczynski said. "There's a remote possibility there could be a warrant article for the acquisition of a site. Remote as it is, we're in the process."
A separate Annual Town Meeting article is expected to test the waters for changing the existing Town Yard's zoning on Lewis Street to a form of residential, commercial or mixed use zoning.
A variety of other projects that make up Stapczynski's capital improvement plan will also appear before the town.
The total value of all the projects is around $10.5 million, and they include work at area schools, land acquisitions and more. Each project will require some form of debt to pay for them.
While each project will get its own discussion, the real focus is, "where are the town's priorities? And how much debt is acceptable?" Stapczynski said. "That's really going to be the debate."
For more Andover news, follow @DustinLucaET on Twitter. For story-related inquiries, email email@example.com.


text:
NJ state senators call on Congress to end TSA's new screening procedures Fox News host Shepard Smith on Monday reflected the frustration some travelers have been feeling about the TSA's intrusive new airport screening procedures. During a Studio B segment, Smith declared he would launch a lawsuit against any TSA…
By Katie Halper
Read MoreBy Gary Younge, The Guardian
Read MoreRaw Story is a progressive news site that focuses on stories often ignored in the mainstream media. While giving coverage to the big stories of the day, we also bring our readers' attention to policy, politics, legal and human rights stories that get ignored in an infotainment culture driven solely by pageviews.
Founded in 2004, Raw Story reaches 9 million unique readers per month and serves more than 30 million pageviews.
Copyright © 2004-2013 Raw Story Media, Inc. All rights reserved.


text:
"I ordered these for my husband and I just before our wedding to use for our thank you cards. We both agreed on this design and absolutely loved. We loved it so much we went back and ordered 100 more. I highly recommend them to anyone needed labels. I'm considering ordering them for friends as gifts."
"I love these labels! The color quality, font and design are lovely. I got the product quickly and will definitely tell my friends about this site. I plan on being a Tiny Prints customer for life."
"I've only recently started to use Tiny Prints and I just love their products! I ordered this and Chenille Address Labels for my daughters to use in sending their Thank You cards. Entering in the information and personalizing the text was incredibly easy. My daughters were thrilled with it and it made them WANT to write Thank You cards!"
"Wish we had not chosen green for any of the text. Can not read it. Also lettering was very small on the labels. We might just have checked off the wrong boxes"
"This is my second order from TinyPrints and I couldn't be happier. I love the personalization options. The quality is great and the shipping is FAST. I will be back!"


text:
Book Description:In three paperback volumes, the Grene and Lattimore editions offer a selection of the most important and characteristic plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides from the nine-volume anthology of The Complete Greek Tragedies. Over the years these authoritative, critically acclaimed editions have been the preferred choice of more than three million readers for personal libraries and individual study as well as for classroom use.
Tags: Literature & Fiction, Drama, Greek & Roman,
Book List () | College Textbooks
Content Copyright © 1999-2014 Terms and Conditions of Use, Security and Privacy Policy | Resources: 1 2 3 | Site Map


text:
Wisconsin households are eligible to receive commodities at participating food pantries if the total gross income for the household does not exceed 185 percent of the federal poverty level. Eligibility is based on current income status and self-declared eligibility for participation. There are no income eligibility criteria for persons who voluntarily seek meals at soup kitchens or homeless shelters.
Household Size
TEFAP Home | Eligibility and Income Guidelines | Food Safety
Background Information | Forms | Reports and Guides | Links
Last Revised: February 27, 2014