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Economic history of France
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This is a history of the economy of France. For more information on historical, cultural, demographic and sociological developments in France, see the chronological era articles in the template to the right. For more information on specific political and governmental regimes in France, see the dynasty and regime articles.
Medieval France[edit]
The collapse of the Roman Empire devastated the French economy.[citation needed] Town life and trade declined and society became based on the self-sufficient manor. What limited international trade existed in the Merovingian age — primarily in goods such as silk, papyrus, and silver — was carried out by foreign merchants such as the Radanites.
Agricultural output began to increase in the Carolingian age as a result of the arrival of new crops, improvements in agricultural production, and good weather conditions. However, this did not lead to the revival of urban life; in fact, urban activity further declined in the Carolingian era as a result of civil war, Arab raids, and Viking invasions. (See also Pirenne thesis).
The High Middle Ages saw a continuation of the agricultural boom of the Carolingian age. In addition, urban life grew during this period; towns such as Paris expanded dramatically.
The 13 decades from 1335 to 1450 spawned a series of economic catastrophes, with bad harvests, famines, plagues and wars that overwhelmed four generations of Frenchmen. The population had expanded, making the food supply more precarious. The bubonic plague ("Black Death") hit Western Europe in 1347, killing a third of the population, and it was echoed by several smaller plagues at 15 year intervals. The French and English armies during the Hundred Years War marched back and forth across the land; they did not massacre civilians, but they drained the food supply, disrupted agriculture and trade, and left disease and famine in their wake. Royal authority weakened, as local nobles became strongmen fighting their neighbors for control of the local region. France's population plunged from 17 million, down to 12 million in 130 years. Finally, starting in the 1450s, a long cycle of recuperation began.[1]
Ancien Régime France[edit]
(Figures cited in the following section are given in livre tournois, the standard "money of account" used in the period. Comparisons with modern figures are extremely difficult; food items were comparatively cheap, but luxury goods and fabrics were very expensive. In the 15th century, an artisan could earn perhaps 30 livres a year; a great noble could have land revenues from 6000 to 30,000 livres or more.[2] A late seventeenth-century unskilled worker in Paris earned around 250 livres a year,[3] while a revenue of 4000 livres a year maintained a relatively successful writer in modest comfort.[4] At the end of the 18th century, a well-off family could earn 100,000 livres by year, although the most prestigious families could gain twice or three times that much, while, for provincial nobility, yearly earnings of 10,000 livres permitted a minimum of provincial luxury.)
The economy of Renaissance France was, for the first half-century, marked by a dynamic demographic growth and by developments in agriculture and industry. Until 1795, France was the most populated country in Europe and the third most populous country in the world, behind only China and India. With an estimated population of 17 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789, its population exceeded even Russia and was twice the size of Britain and Holland. In France, the Renaissance was marked by a massive increase in urban populations, although on the whole, France remained a profoundly rural country, with less than 10% of the population located in urban areas. Paris was one of the most populated cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 650,000 by the end of the 18th century.
Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider, woad (Fr. "pastel", a source of blue dye), and safron. The South grew artichokes, melons, romaine lettuce, eggplant, salsifys, celery, fennel, parsley, and alfalfa. After 1500 New World apepared wuch as beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers. Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation was made worse by repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s.
Industrial developments greatly affected printing (introduced in 1470 in Paris, 1473 in Lyon) and metallurgy. The introduction of the high-temperature forge in northeast France and an increase in mineral mining were important developments, although it was still necessary for France to import many metals, including (copper, bronze, tin, and lead). Mines and glasswork benefitted greatly from royal tax exemptions for period of about twenty years. Silk production (introduced in Tours in 1470 and in Lyon in 1536) enabled the French to join a thriving market, but French products remained of lesser quality than Italian silks. Wool production was widespread, as was the production of linen and of hemp (both major export products).
After Paris, Rouen was the second largest city in France (70,000 inhabitants in 1550), in large part because of its port. Marseille (French since 1481) was France's second major port: it benefited greatly from France's trading agreements signed in 1536 with Suleiman the Magnificent. To increase maritime activity, Francis I founded the spacial city of Le Havre in 1517. Other significant ports included Toulon, Saint Malo and La Rochelle.
Lyon was the center of France's banking and international trade markets. Market fairs occurred four times a year and facilitated the exportation of French goods, such as cloth and fabrics, and importation of Italian, German, Dutch, English goods. It also allowed the importation of exotic goods such as silks, alum, glass, wools, spices, dyes. Lyon also contained houses of most of Europe's banking families, including Fugger and Medici. Regional markets and trade routes linked Lyon, Paris and Rouen to the rest of the country. Under Francis I and Henry II, the relationships between French imports and the exports to England and to Spain were in France's favor. Trade was roughly balanced with the Netherlands, but France continually ran a large trade deficit with Italy due to the latter's silks and exotic goods. In subsequent decades, English, Dutch and Flemish maritime activity would create competition with French trade, which would eventually displace the major markets to the northwest, leading to the decline of Lyon.
Although France, being initially more interested in the Italian wars, arrived late to the exploration and colonization of the Americas, private initiative and piracy brought Bretons, Normans and Basques early to American waters. Starting in 1524, Francis I began to sponsor exploration of the New World. Significant explorers sailing under the French flag included Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier. Later, Henry II sponsored the explorations of Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon who established a largely Calvinist colony in Rio de Janeiro, 1555-1560. Later, René Goulaine de Laudonnière and Jean Ribault established a Protestant colony in Florida (1562–1565). (see French colonisation of the Americas).
By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation. Although many land-owning peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time. This led to reduced purchasing power and a decline in manufacturing. The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the livre as its money of account, in favor of the écu in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies.
Meanwhile, France's military ventures in Italy and (later) disastrous civil wars demanded huge sums of cash, which were raised with through the taille and other taxes. The taille, which was levied mainly on the peasantry, increased from 2.5 million livres in 1515 to 6 million after 1551, and by 1589 the taille had reached a record 21 million livres. Financial crises hit the royal household repeatedly, and so in 1523, Francis I established a government bond system in Paris, the "rentes sur l'Hôtel de Ville".
The French Wars of Religion were concurrent with crop failures and epidemics. The belligerents also practiced massive "torched earth" strategies to rob their enemies of foodstuffs. Brigands and leagues of self-defense flourished; transport of goods ceased; villagers fled to the woods and abandoned their lands; towns were set on fire. The south was particularly affected: Auvergne, Lyon, Burgundy, Languedoc—agricultural production in those areas fell roughly 40%. The great banking houses left Lyon: from 75 Italian houses in 1568, there remained only 21 in 1597.[5]
Rural society[edit]
In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and village laboureurs, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the Annales School paradigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.[6]
Seventeenth century[edit]
After 1597, France's economic situation improved and agricultural production was aided by milder weather. Henry IV, with his minister Maximilien de Béthune, duc de Sully, adopted monetary reforms. These included better coinage, a return to the livre tournois as an account money, reduction of the debt, which was 200 million livres in 1596, and a reduction of the tax burden on peasants. Henry IV attacked abuses, embarked on a comprehensive administrative reform, increased charges for official offices, the "paulette", repurchased of alienated royal lands, improved roads and the funded the construction of canals, and planted the seed of a state-supervised mercantile philosophy. Under Henry IV, agricultural reforms, largely started by Olivier de Serres were instituted. These agricultural and economic reforms, and mercantilism, would also be the policies of Louis XIII's minister Cardinal Richelieu. In an effort to counteract foreign imports and exploration, Richelieu sought alliances with Morocco and Persia, and encouraged exploration of New France, the Antilles, Sénégal, Gambia and Madagascar, though only the first two were immediate successes. These reforms would establish the groundwork for the Louis XIV's policies.
Louis XIV's glory was irrevocably linked to two great projects, military conquest and the building of Versailles—both of which required enormous sums of money. To finance these projects, Louis created several additional tax systems, including the "capitation" (begun in 1695) which taxed every person including nobles and the clergy, though exemption could be bought for a large one-time sum, and the "dixième" (1710–1717, restarted in 1733), which was a true tax on income and on property value and was meant to support the military.
Louis XIV's minister of finances, Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Colbert started a mercantile system which used protectionism and state-sponsored manufacturing to promote the production of luxury goods over the rest of the economy. The state established new industries (the royal tapestry works at Beauvais, French quarries for marble), took over established industries (the Gobelins tapestry works), protected inventors, invited workmen from foreign countries (Venetian glass and Flemish cloth manufacturing), and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain the character of French goods in foreign markets, Colbert had the quality and measure of each article fixed by law, and severely punished breaches of the regulations. This massive investment in (and preoccupation with) luxury goods and court life (fashion, decoration, cuisine, urban improvements, etc.), and the mediatization (through such gazettes as the Mercure galant) of these products, elevated France to a role of arbiter of European taste.[7]
Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods from province to province, Colbert did what he could to induce the provinces to equalize them. His régime improved roads and canals. To encourage companies like the important French East India Company (founded in 1664), Colbert granted special privileges to trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other places, for the importing of coffee, cotton, dyewoods, fur, pepper, and sugar, but none of these ventures proved successful. Colbert achieved a lasting legacy in his establishment of the French royal navy; he reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon, founded the port and arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools of Rochefort, Dieppe and Saint-Malo. He fortified, with some assistance from Vauban, many ports including those of Calais, Dunkirk, Brest and Le Havre.
Colbert's economic policies were a key element in Louis XIV's creation of a centralized and fortified state and in the promotion of government glory, including the constructithey had many economic failures: they were overly-restrictive on workers, they discouraged inventiveness, and had to be supported by unreasonably-high tariffs.
The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 created additional economic problems: of the more than 200,000 Huguenot refugees who fled France for Prussia, Switzerland, England, Ireland, United Provinces, Denmark, and eventually America, many were highly-educated skilled artisans and business-owners who took their skills, businesses, and occasionally even their Catholic workers, with them. Both the expansion of French as a European lingua franca in the 18th century, and the modernization of the Prussian army have been credited to the Huguenots.
The wars and the weather at the end of the century brought the economy to the brink: by 1715, the trade deficit had reached 1.1 trillion livres. To increase tax revenues, the taille was augmented, as too were the prices of official posts in the administration and judicial system. With the borders guarded due to war, international trade was severely hindered. The economic plight of the vast majority of the French population — predominantly simple farmers — was extremely precarious, and the Little Ice Age resulted in further crop failures. Unwilling to sell or transport their much-needed grain to the army, many peasants rebelled or attacked grain convoys, but they were repressed by the state. Meanwhile, wealthy families with stocks of grains survived relatively unscathed; in 1689 and again in 1709, in a gesture of solidarity with his suffering people, Louis XIV had his royal dinnerware and other objects of gold and silver melted down.
Eighteenth century[edit]
France experienced a slow economic and demographic recovery in the first decades following the death of Louis XIV, although monetary confidence was briefly eroded by the disastrous paper money "System" introduced by John Law from 1716-1720. In 1726, under Louis XV's minister Cardinal Fleury, a system of monetary stability was put in place, leading to a strict conversion rate between gold and silver, and set values for the coins in circulation in France.
Starting in the late 1730s and early 1740s, and continuing for the next 30 years, France's population and economy underwent an important expansion. Rising prices, particularly for agricultural products, were extremely profitable for large landholders. Artisans and tenant farmers also saw wage increases, but on the whole, they benefited less from the growing economy. Pivotal developments in agriculture, such as modern techniques of crop rotation, the use of fertilizers which were modelled on successes in Britain and Italy, began to be introduced in parts of France. It would, however, take generations for these reforms to spread throughout all of France. Farming of recent New World crops, including maize, potatoes continued to expand, and provided an important supplement to the diet.
The most dynamic industries of the period were mines, metallurgy and textiles (in particular printed fabrics, such as those made by Christophe-Philippe Oberkampf). The advancements in these areas were often due to foreigners. For example, it was John Kay's invention of the flying shuttle that revolutionized the textile industry, and it was James Watt's steam engine that changed industry as the French had known it. Capital remained difficult to raise for commercial ventures, however, and the state remained highly mercantilistic, protectionist, and interventionist in the domestic economy, often setting requirements for production quality and industrial standards, and limiting industries to certain cities.
The international commercial centers of the country were based in Lyon, Marseille, Nantes, and Bordeaux. Nantes and Bordeaux saw phenomenal growth due to an increase of trade with Spain and Portugal. Cadiz was the commercial hub for export of French printed fabrics to India), the Americas and the Antilles (coffee, sugar, tobacco, American cotton), and Africa (the slave trade), centered in Nantes.
In 1749, a new tax, modelled on the "dixième" and called the "vingtième" (or "one-twentieth"), was enacted to reduce the royal deficit. This tax continued throughout the ancien régime. It was based solely on revenues, requiring 5% of net earnings from land, property, commerce, industry and from official offices, and was meant to touch all citizens regardless of status. However, the clergy, the regions with "pays d'état" and the parlements protested; the clergy won exemption, the "pays d'état" won reduced rates, and the parlements halted new income statements, effectively making the "vingtième" a far less efficient tax than it was designed to be. The financial needs of the Seven Years' War led to a second (1756–1780), and then a third (1760–1763), "vingtième" being created. In 1754, the "vingtième" produced 11.7 million livres.
The later years of Louis XV's reign saw some economic setbacks. While the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763, led to an increase in the royal debt and the loss of nearly all of France's North American possessions, it was not until 1775 that the French economy began truly to enter a state of crisis. An extended reduction in agricultural prices over the previous twelve years, with dramatic crashes in 1777 and 1786, and further complicated by climatic events such as the disastrous winters of 1785-1789 contributed to the problem.
With the government deeply in debt, Louis XVI was forced to permit the radical reforms of Turgot and Malesherbes. However, the nobles' disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation 1776. Jacques Necker replaced them. Louis supported the American Revolution in 1778, but the Treaty of Paris (1783) yielded the French little, excepting an addition to the country's enormous debt. The government was forced to increase taxes, including the "vingtième." Necker had resigned in 1781, to be replaced temporarily by Calonne and Brienne, but he was restored to power in 1788.
In these last decades of the century, French industries continued to develop. Mechanization was introduced, factories were created, and monopolies became more common. However, this growth was complicated by competition from England in the textiles and cotton industries. On the other hand, French commercial ventures continued to expand, both domestically and internationally. The American War of Independence had led to a reduction of trade (cotton and slaves), but by the 1780s American trade was stronger than before. Similarly, the Antilles represented the major source for European sugar and coffee, and it was a huge importer of slaves through Nantes. Paris became France's center of international banking and stock trades, in these last decades (like Amsterdam and London), and the Caisse d'Escompte was founded in 1776. Paper money was re-introduced, denominated in livres; these were issued until 1793.
The agricultural and climatic problems of the 1770s and 1780s led to an important increase in poverty: in some cities in the north, historians have estimated the poor as reaching upwards of 20% of the urban population. Displacement and criminality, mainly theft, also increased, and the growth of groups of mendicants and bandits became a problem. Although nobles, bourgeois, and wealthy landholders saw their revenues affected by the depression, the hardest-hit in this period were the working class and the peasants. While their tax burden to the state had generally decreased in this period, feudal and seigneurial dues had increased.
Modern France (to 1914)[edit]
French economic history since its late-18th century Revolution was tied to three major events and trends: the Napoleonic Era, the competition with Britain and its other neighbors in regards to 'industrialisation', and the 'total wars' of the late-19th and early 20th centuries. The post-war period, since 1950, saw significant new departures in both economic development and the policies designed to affect it.
French Revolution[edit]
The French Revolution abolished many of the constraints on the economy that had emerged during the old regime. It abolished the guild system as a worthless remnant of feudalism.[8] It also abolished the highly inefficient system of tax farming, whereby private individuals would collect taxes for a hefty fee. The government seized the foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education. The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation's charitable and school systems were massively disrupted.[9]
The economy did poorly in 1790-96 as industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared. The government decided not to repudiate the old debts. Instead it issued more and more paper money (called "assignat") that supposedly were grounded seized lands. The result was escalating inflation. The government imposed price controls and persecuted speculators and traders in the black market. People increasingly refused to pay taxes as the annual government deficit increased from 10% of gross national product in 1789 to 64% in 1793. By 1795, after the bad harvest of 1794 and the removal of price controls, inflation had reached a level of 3500%. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but the replacements also fueled inflation. The inflation was finally ended by Napoleon in 1803 with the franc as the new currency.[10]
Agriculture was transformed by the Revolution. It abolished tithes owed to local churches as well as feudal dues owed to local landlords. The result hurt the tenants, who paid both higher rents and higher taxes.[11] It nationalized all church lands, as well as lands belonging to royalist enemies who went into exile. It planned to use these seized lands to finance the government by issuing assignats. With the breakup of large estates controlled by the Church and the nobility and worked by hired hands, rural France became permanently a land of small independent farms. The rural proletariat and nobility both gave way to the commercial farmer.[12] Cobban says the revolution "bequeathed to the nation "a ruling class of landowners."[13] In the cities entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way. However the British blockade severely damaged overseas trade. Overall the Revolution did not greatly change the French business system, and probably helped freeze in place the horizons of the small business owner. The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large scale industry was less common than in other industrializing nations.[14]
Napoleonic era 1800-1814[edit]
Napoleon after 1799 paid for his expensive wars by multiple means, starting with the modernization of the rickety financial system.[15] He conscripted soldiers at low wages, raised taxes, placed large-scale loans, sold lands formerly owned by the Catholic Church, sold Louisiana to the United States, plundered conquered areas and seized food supplies, and levied requisitions on countries he controlled, such as Italy.[16]
The constant "war-footing" of the Napoleonic Era, 1795–1815, stimulated production at the cost of investment and growth. Production of armaments and other military supplies, fortifications, and the general channeling of the society toward the establishment and maintenance of massed armies, temporarily increased economic activity after several years of revolution. The rampant inflation of the Revolutionary era was halted by not printing the new currency quite as fast. The maritime Continental Blockade, implemented by Napoleon's opponents and very effectively enforced by the Royal Navy, gradually cut into any economic arena in which the French economy was not self-sufficient. 1815 saw the final defeat of the French forces and the collapse of its war footing.
Re-establishing the economy on a peacetime basis, after a quarter-century of nearly-continuous turmoil and warfare, proved difficult. Some industry and industrial technique developed for the wars was carried over, converted to peacetime purposes. France in 1815 largely still was a land of peasantry, however. Urbanization of the largest cities was well under way, and Paris was a leading world capital already. Smaller French towns and the country's many small villages, however, were impoverished and industrially-backward.
The 19th century development of road and rail systems, and other social infrastructure, was greatly aided by the grandes écoles, inherited from the prior era: graduates of these high-standards schools became the engineers and policy-makers of French industrialization.
Industrial development in France was rapid during the 19th century. Around the great cities, and in the north and in other areas which had natural resources readily available, large industries formed. Capital was available through banking services largely located, since the Revolution, in Paris. The large French population of the time supplied an available workforce.
Education was made a high priority of successive French governments. Various educational reforms, implemented from the central government at Paris and applied nationally, were designed to raise the general level of the children of French rural and small-town families to a high national level. At the same time, education spread new and often radical ideas, fueling repeated resistance to and even revolt against the deplorable living conditions of many workers in the new industries and factory towns.
By the middle of the 19th century, France had joined the industrial era. By the end of the 19th century, France, comparatively, had lost competitiveness with its war-footing neighbor Germany, and with its trade-based chief rival across the English Channel, Great Britain.
In France, railways became a national medium for the modernization of backward regions, and a leading advocate of this approach was the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine. One writer hoped that railways might improve the lot of "populations two or three centuries behind their fellows" and eliminate 'the savage instincts born of isolation and misery."[17] Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from Paris (plus lines that cut east to west in the south). This design was intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency. After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions, subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances, and even minute technical details. The central government department of Ponts et Chaussées (bridges and roads, or the Highways Department) brought in British engineers and workers, handled much of the construction work, provided engineering expertise and planning, land acquisition, and construction of permanent infrastructure such as the track bed, bridges and tunnels. It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the German border, which was considered necessary for the national defense.[18]
Private operating companies provided management, hired labor, laid the tracks, and built and operated stations. They purchased and maintained the rolling stock—6,000 locomotives were in operation in 1880, which averaged 51,600 passengers a year or 21,200 tons of freight. Much of the equipment was imported from Britain and therefore did not stimulate machinery makers. Although starting the whole system at once was politically expedient, it delayed completion, and forced even more reliance on temporary experts brought in from Britain. Financing was also a problem. The solution was a narrow base of funding through the Rothschilds and the closed circles of the Bourse in Paris, so France did not develop the same kind of national stock exchange that flourished in London and New York. The system did help modernize the parts of rural France it reached, but it did not help create local industrial centers.[19] Critics such as Émile Zola complained that it never overcame the corruption of the political system, but rather contributed to it.[20]
The railways helped the industrial revolution in France by facilitating a national market for raw materials, wines, cheeses, and imported manufactured products. Yet the goals set by the French for their railway system were moralistic, political, and military rather than economic. As a result, the freight trains were shorter and less heavily loaded than those in such rapidly industrializing nations such as Britain, Belgium or Germany. Other infrastructure needs in rural France, such as better roads and canals, were neglected because of the expense of the railways, so it seems likely that there were net negative effects in areas not served by the trains.[21]
Total War[edit]
In 1870 the relative decline in industrial strength, compared to Bismarck's Germany, proved decisive in the Franco-Prussian War. The total defeat of France, in this conflict, was less a demonstration of French weakness than it was of German militarism and industrial strength. This contrasted with France's occupation of Germany during the Napoleonic wars. A huge sum had to be paid to Germany to end the war which provided the latter with even more capital.
By 1914, however, German armament and general industrialization had out-distanced not only France but all of its neighbors. Just before 1914, France was producing about one-sixth as much coal as Germany, and a quarter as much steel.[22]
Modernization of the peasants[edit]
France was a rural nation with the peasant farmer the typical citizen. In his seminal book Peasants Into Frenchmen (1976), historian Eugen Weber traced the modernization of French villages and argued that rural France went from backward and isolated to modern and possessing a sense of French nationhood during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[23] He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and universal military conscription. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of French nationhood was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. The book was widely praised, but was criticized by some[24] who argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.
Consumerism and the city department store[edit]
Aristide Boucicaut founded Le Bon Marché in Paris in 1838, and by 1852 it offered a wide variety of goods in "departments" inside one building.".[25] Goods were sold at fixed prices, with guarantees that allowed exchanges and refunds.[26]
The French gloried in the national prestige brought by the great Parisian stores.[27] The great writer Émile Zola (1840-1902) set his novel Au Bonheur des Dames (1882–83) in the typical department store. Zola represented it as a symbol of the new technology that was both improving society and devouring it. The novel describes merchandising, management techniques, marketing, and consumerism.[28]
The Grands Magasins Dufayel was a huge department store with inexpensive prices built in 1890 in the northern part of Paris, where it reached a very large new customer base in the working class. In a neighborhood with few public spaces, it provided a consumer version of the public square. It educated workers to approach shopping as an exciting social activity not just a routine exercise in obtaining necessities, just as the bourgeoisie did at the famous department stores in the central city. Like the bourgeois stores, it helped transform consumption from a business transaction into a direct relationship between consumer and sought-after goods. Its advertisements promised the opportunity to participate in the newest, most fashionable consumerism at reasonable cost. The latest technology was featured, such as cinemas and exhibits of inventions like X-ray machines (that could be used to fit shoes) and the gramophone.[29]
Increasingly after 1870 the stores' work force became feminized, opening up prestigious job opportunities for young women. Despite the low pay and long hours they enjoyed the exciting complex interactions with the newest and most fashionable merchandise and upscale customers.[30]
Modern France (since 1914)[edit]
First World War[edit]
The economy was hurt by the German seizure of major industrial areas in the northeast. While the occupied area in 1913 contained only 14% of France's industrial workers, it produced 58% of the steel, and 40% of the coal.[31] Considerable relief came with the influx of American food, money and raw materials in 1917.[32]
On the other hand the economy was helped by American loans which were used to purchase foods and manufactured goods that allowed a decent standard of living. The arrival of over a million American soldiers in 1918 brought heavy spending for food and construction materials. Labor shortages were in part alleviated by the use of volunteer workers from the colonies.
Vichy France, 1940-44[edit]
Conditions in Vichy France under German occupation were very harsh, because the Germans stripped France of millions of workers (as prisoners of war and "voluntary" workers), and as well stripped much of the food supply, while demanding heavy cash payments. It was a period of severe economic hardship under a totalitarian government.
Vichy rhetoric exalted the skilled laborer and small businessman. In practice, however, the needs of artisans for raw materials was neglected in favor of large businesses.[33] The General Committee for the Organization of Commerce (CGOC) was a national program to modernize and professionalize small business.[34]
In 1940 the government took direct control of all production, which was synchronized with the demands of the Germans. It replaced free trade unions with compulsory state unions that dictated labor policy without regard to the voice or needs of the workers. The centralized, bureaucratic control of the French economy was not a success, as German demands grew heavier and more unrealistic, passive resistance and inefficiencies multiplied, and Allied bombers hit the rail yards; however, Vichy made the first comprehensive long-range plans for the French economy. The government had never before attempted a comprehensive overview. De Gaulle's Provisional Government in 1944-45, quietly used the Vichy plans as a base for its own reconstruction program. The Monnet Plan of 1946 was closely based on Vichy plans.[35] Thus both teams of wartime and early postwar planners repudiated prewar laissez-faire practices and embraced the cause of drastic economic overhaul and a planned economy.[36]
Forced labor[edit]
Nazi Germany kept nearly 2 million French Army POWs as forced laborers throughout the war. They added compulsory (and volunteer) workers from occupied nations, especially in metal factories. The shortage of volunteers led the Vichy government to pass a law in September 1942 that effectively deported workers to Germany, where, they constituted 15% of the labor force by August 1944. The largest number worked in the giant Krupp steel works in Essen. Low pay, long hours, frequent bombings, and crowded air raid shelters added to the unpleasantness of poor housing, inadequate heating, limited food, and poor medical care, all compounded by harsh Nazi discipline. They finally returned home in the summer of 1945.[37] The forced labour draft encouraged the French Resistance and undermined the Vichy government.[38]
Food shortages[edit]
Civilians suffered shortages of all varieties of consumer goods.[39] The rationing system was stringent but badly mismanaged, leading to produced malnourishment, black markets, and hostility to state management of the food supply. The Germans seized about 20% of the French food production, which caused severe disruption to the household economy of the French people.[40] French farm production fell in half because of lack of fuel, fertilizer and workers; even so the Germans seized half the meat, 20 percent of the produce, and 2 percent of the champagne.[41] Supply problems quickly affected French stores which lacked most items. The government answered by rationing, but German officials set the policies and hunger prevailed, especially affecting youth in urban areas. The queues lengthened in front of shops. Some people—including German soldiers—benefited from the black market, where food was sold without tickets at very high prices. Farmers especially diverted meat to the black market, which meant that much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation. Direct buying from farmers in the countryside and barter against cigarettes became common. These activities were strictly forbidden, however, and thus carried out at the risk of confiscation and fines. Food shortages were most acute in the large cities. In the more remote country villages, however, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival. The official ration provided starvation level diets of 1300 or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases.[42]
The great hardships of wartime, and of the immediate post-war period, were succeeded by a period of steady economic development, in France, now often fondly recalled there as The Thirty Glorious Years (Les Trente Glorieuses). Alternating policies of "interventionist" and "free market" ideas enabled the French to build a society in which both industrial and technological advances could be made but also worker security and privileges established and protected. In the year 1946 France signed a treaty with US that waved off a large part of its debt. It was known as The Blum-Byrnes agreement (in French accord Blum-Byrnes) which was a French-American agreement, signed May 28, 1946 by the Secretary of State James F. Byrnes and representatives of the French government Léon Blum and Jean Monnet. This agreement erased part of the French debt to the United States after the Second World War (2 billion dollars).
By the end of the 20th century, France once again was among the leading economic powers of the world, although by the year 2000 there already was some fraying around the edges: people in France and elsewhere were asking whether France alone, without becoming even more an integral part of a pan-European economy, would have sufficient market presence to maintain its position, and that worker security and those privileges, in an increasingly "Globalized" and "transnational" economic world. Also, since the 1990s, France has seen very slow economic growth, while its competitors, United Kingdom and Germany, have seen better economic growth.
The reconstruction and the Welfare State[edit]
The reconstruction began at the end of the war, in 1945, and confidence in the future brought back. With the baby boom (which had started as soon as 1942) the natality rate surged rapidly. It took several years to fix the damages caused by the war – battles and bombing had destroyed several cities, factories, bridges, railway infrastructures.[43] 1,200,000 buildings were destroyed or damaged.[44]
In 1945, the provisional government of the French Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle and made up of communists, socialists and gaullists, nationalized key economic sectors (energy, air transport, savings banks, assurances) and big companies (Renault...), creation of Social Security and of works councils.[43] A welfare is set up. Economic planiofication is set up with the Commissariat général du Plan in 1946, led by Jean Monnet; the first « Plan de modernisation et d'équipement », for the 1947-1952 period, focused on basic economic activities (energy, steel, cement, transports, agriculture equipment) ; the second Plan (1954–1957) had broader aims : housing construction, urban development, scientific research, manufacturing industries.[43][45]
The debts left over from the First World War, whose payment had been suspended since 1931, was renegotiated in the Blum-Byrnes agreement of 1946. The U.S. forgave all $2.8 billion in debt, and gave France a new loan of $650 million. In return French negotiator Jean Monnet set out the French five-year plan for recovery and development. American films were now allowed in French cinemas three weeks per month.[46]
Monnet Plan[edit]
To aid the rebuilding of the French economy, the value of stolen resources were recovered from defeated Germany under the Monnet Plan. As part of this policy, German factories were disassembled and moved to France, and the coal-rich industrial Saar Protectorate was occupied by France, as had been done post-World War I, in the Territory of the Saar Basin. Thus in the 1947–1956 period, France benefited from the resources and production of the Saar, and continued to extract coal from the Warndt coal deposit until 1981. The Saarland reunited with Germany in 1957, and resolution of its situation led to the formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, precursor to the European Union, which played a significant role in Europe and France's economy in the later post-war period.
Les Trente Glorieuses[edit]
Between 1947 and 1973, France went through a booming period (5% per year in average) dubbed by Jean Fourastié Trente Glorieuses, title of a book published in 1979. The economic growth is mainly due to productivity gains and to an increase in the number of working hours. Indeed, the working population was growing very slowly, the baby boom being offset by the extension of the time dedicated to studies. Productivity gains came from the catching up with the United States. In 1950, the average income in France was 55% of an American and reached 80% in 1973. Among the major nations, only Japan and Spain had faster growth in this era than France.
Insisting that the period was not that of an economic miracle, but a mere catching up following an economic lag, French historian Jacques Marseille noted that if the economy had constantly grown at the same rate as that of the « Belle Époque », the wealth would have been the same at the beginning of the 1970s as that actually reached after the Trente glorieuses.[47]
Marshall Plan[edit]
The United States helped revive the French economy with the Marshall Plan whereby it gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment. France agreed to reduce trade barriers and modernize its management system. The total of all American grants and credits to France, 1946–53, came to $4.9 billion.[48]
The economic crisis[edit]
Whereas the term "crisis" is often used by people to refer to the period following the 1973 oil crisis, history does not confirm this belief. Facts show that the average income in France, after having been steady for a long time, increased elevenfold between 1700 and 1975, which constitutes a 0.9% growth rate per year, a rate which has been outdone almost every year since 1975.
If the economic growth has been less strong since 1973 than in previous years, the period remains one of the most prosperous in this History for France. By the early Eighties, for instance, wages in France were on or slightly above the EEC average.[49] Jacques Marseille noted that the growth of in the standard of living has been as significant between 1973 and 2003 as in the period of the Trente glorieuses, in absolute numbers, but below that period in relative numbers.
Often considered as a decisive event, the oil crisis in 1973 did not suddenly slow down the growth of the Trente glorieuses, for it had already begun decreasing since the end of the 1960s. The impact of the crisis on the cost of energy, and so on the cost of production, was, however, a contributing factor.
For information on France's current economy, see Economy of France.
This section requires expansion. (June 2008) |
- ^ Roger Price, A Concise History of France (1993) pp 41-46
- ^ Kendall, Paul Murray. Louis XI: The Universal Spider (New York : Norton, 1971) ISBN 0-393-05380-6, p. 12.
- ^ DeJean, Joan. The Essence of Style: How the French Invented Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafés, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour (New York: Free Press, 2005) ISBN 0-7432-6413-4, ISBN 0-473-26413-7, p. 15.
- ^ Viala, Alain, Naissance de l'écrivain (Paris: Eds. de Minuit, 1985) ISBN 2-7073-1025-5, p.113, Collection: Le sens commun.
- ^ Jouanna, Arlette and Jacqueline Boucher, Dominique Biloghi, Guy Thiec. Histoire et dictionnaire des Guerres de religion. (Paris: Laffont, 1998) ISBN 2-221-07425-4, pp. 421-422, Collection: Bouquins.
- ^ James B. Collins, "Geographic and Social Mobility in Early-Modern France." Journal of Social History 1991 24(3): 563–577. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: Ebsco. For the Annales interpretation see Pierre Goubert, The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century (1986) excerpt and text search
- ^ Dejean, cit. supra.
- ^ Liana Vardi, "The abolition of the guilds during the French Revolution," French Historical Studies (1988) 15#4 pp. 704-717 in JSTOR
- ^ R.R. Palmer, "How Five Centuries of Educational Philanthropy Disappeared in the French Revolution," History of Education Quarterly (1986) 26#2 pp. 181-197 in JSTOR
- ^ Elise S. Brezis and Francois H. Crouzet, "The role of assignats during the French Revolution: An evil or a rescuer?" Journal of European economic history (1995) 24#1 pp 7-40, online.
- ^ D. M. G. Sutherland, "Peasants, Lords, and Leviathan: Winners and Losers from the Abolition of French Feudalism, 1780-1820," Journal of Economic History (2002) 62#1 pp. 1-24 in JSTOR
- ^ Crane Brinton, A decade of revolution, 1789-1799 (1934) pp 277-78
- ^ Alfred Cobban, The social interpretation of the French Revolution (1964) p 89
- ^ Alfred Cobban, The social interpretation of the French Revolution (1964) pp 68-80
- ^ George Lefebvre, Napoleon From 18 Brumaire to Tilsit 1799-1807 (1970)
- ^ Michael Broers et al. (2012). The Napoleonic Empire and the New European Political Culture. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 209–12.
- ^ Quoted in Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: the modernization of rural France, 1870-1914 (1976) p. 4
- ^ Patrick O'Brien, Railways and the economic development of Western Europe, 1830-1914 (1983) ch 2
- ^ Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: the modernization of rural France, 1870-1914 (1976) pp. 201-10
- ^ Richard H. Zakarian, Zola's "Germinal": a critical study of its primary sources (1972) p. 122
- ^ Frank Dobbin, Forging Industrial Policy: The United States, Britain, and France in the Railway Age (1997) pp 95-105, 153-57
- ^ Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict (1987) ch 5
- ^ Joseph A. Amato, "Eugen Weber's France" Journal of Social History, Volume 25, 1992 pp 879–882.
- ^ Ted W. Margadant, "French Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century: A Review Essay," Agricultural History, Summer 1979, Vol. 53 Issue 3, pp 644–651
- ^ Jan Whitaker (2011). The World of Department Stores. New York: Vendome Press. p. 22.
- ^ Michael B. Miller, Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920 (1981)
- ^ Heidrun Homburg, "Warenhausunternehmen und ihre Gründer in Frankreich und Deutschland Oder: Eine Diskrete Elite und Mancherlei Mythen," ['Department store firms and their founders in France and Germany, or: a discreet elite and various myths']. Jahrbuch fuer Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1992), Issue 1, pp 183-219.
- ^ Frans C. Amelinckx, "The Creation of Consumer Society in Zola's Ladies' Paradise," Proceedings of the Western Society for French History (1995), Vol. 22, pp 17-21.
- ^ Brian Wemp, "Social Space, Technology, and Consumer Culture at the Grands Magasins Dufayel," Historical Reflections (2011) 37#1 pp 1-17.
- ^ Theresa M. McBride, "A Woman's World: Department Stores and the Evolution of Women's Employment, 1870–1920," French Historical Studies (1978) 10#4 pp664-83 in JSTOR
- ^ Gerd Hardach, The First World War: 1914-1918 (1977) pp 87-88
- ^ Pierre-Cyrille Hautcoeur, "Was the Great War a watershed? The economics of World War I in France," in Broadberry and Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War I (2005) ch 6
- ^ Steven M. Zdatny, "The Corporatist Word and the Modernist Deed: Artisans and Political Economy in Vichy France," European History Quarterly, (1986) 16#2 pp 155-179
- ^ Joseph Jones, "Vichy France and Postwar Economic Modernization: The Case of the Shopkeepers," French Historical Studies, (1982) 12#4 pp 541-63 in JSTOR
- ^ Douglas Brinkley, et al. Jean Monnet: The Path to European Unity (1992) p 87
- ^ Frances M. B. Lynch, France and the international economy: from Vichy to the Treaty of Rome (1997) p. 185
- ^ Françoise Berger, "L'exploitation de la Main-d'oeuvre Française dans l'industrie Siderurgique Allemande pendant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale," [The Exploitation of French Labor in the German Iron and Steel Industry During World War II], Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine" (2003) 50#3 pp 148-181
- ^ Simon Kitson, "The Marseille Police and the German Forced Labour Draft (1943-1944)," French History (2009) 23#2 pp 241-260
- ^ Hanna Diamond, Women and the Second World War in France, 1939-1948: Choices and Constraints (1999)
- ^ E. M. Collingham , The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (2011)
- ^ Kenneth Mouré, "Food Rationing and the Black Market in France (1940–1944)," French History (2010) 24#2 pp 272-3
- ^ Mouré, "Food Rationing and the Black Market in France (1940–1944)" pp 262-282,
- ^ a b c site France-Diplomatie
- ^ Jean-Charles Asselain, Histoire économique de la France du XVIIIe siècle à nos jours, p. 108
- ^ J.-C. Asselain, Histoire économique de la France du XVIIIe siècle à nos jours p. 112
- ^ Irwin M. Wall (1991). The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945-1954. Cambridge U.P. p. 55.
- ^ Jacques Marseille, « Le miracle des « trente glorieuses » ? », Enjeux, Les Échos, janvier 2006
- ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1954 (1955) table 1075 p 899 online edition file 1954-08.pdf
- ^ Time Life Books, Library of Nations: France, Fifth European English language printing 1989
Further reading[edit]
- Price, Roger. A Concise History of France (1993)
- Beech, George T. Rural Society in Medieval France (1964)
- Bloch, Marc. Feudal society (Société féodale) (1961) ISBN 0-415-03917-7
- Bois, G. The Crisis of Feudalism: Economy and Society in Eastern Normandy, c. 1300- 1500 (1984)
- Bouchard, Constance Brittain. Holy entrepreneurs : Cistercians, knights, and economic exchange in twelfth-century Burgundy (Ithaca, N.Y. : Cornell University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-8014-2527-1.
- Evergates, Theodore. Feudal Society in Medieval France: Documents from the County of Champagne (1993) online edition
- Farmer, Sharon A.. Surviving poverty in medieval Paris : gender, ideology, and the daily lives of the poor (Ithaca, N.Y. : Cornell University Press, 2002) ISBN 0-8014-3836-5.
- Kibler, William W. et al. Medieval France: An Encyclopedia (1995) excerpt and text search
- Nicholas, D. M. Town and Countryside: Social, Economic, and Political Tensions in Fourteenth-Century Flanders (Bruges, 1971)
- Pirenne, Henri. Economic and social history of medieval Europe (New York : Harcourt, Brace & World, [1966]).
Early Modern[edit]
- Braudel, Fernand. Civilization and capitalism, 15th-18th century (Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme) (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1992) ISBN 0-520-08114-5 (v. 1), ISBN 0-520-08115-3 (v. 2), ISBN 0-520-08116-1 (v. 3).
- Braudel, Fernand. The wheels of commerce (Jeux de l'Echange) translation from the French by Siân Reynolds (London : Fontana Press, 1985) ISBN 0-00-686078-8.
- Gwynne, Lewis. France, 1715-1804: power and the people (Pearson/Longman, 2005) ISBN 0-582-23925-7.
- Harris, Robert D., "French Finances and the American War, 1777-1783," Journal of Modern History (1976) 48#2 pp. 233–58 in JSTOR
- Heller, Henry. Labour, science and technology in France, 1500-1620 (Cambridge University Press, 1996) ISBN 0-521-55031-9.
- Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a traditional society : the French countryside, 1450-1815 (Princeton University Press, 1996) ISBN 0-691-02983-0.
- Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The peasants of Languedoc (Paysans de Languedoc) (University of Illinois Press, 1974) ISBN 0-252-00411-6.
- Riley, James C. "French Finances, 1727-1768," Journal of Modern History (1987) 59#2 pp. 209–243 in JSTOR
- Schaeper, T.J. The Economy of France in the Second Half of the Reign of Louis XIV (Montreal, 1980).
- White, Eugene. "France and the Failure to Modernize Macroeconomic Institutions," in Transferring wealth and power from the Old to the New World: Monetary and fiscal institutions in the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries (2001) pp 59–99.
- White, Eugene Nelson. "Was there a solution to the Ancien Régime's financial dilemma," Journal of Economic History (1989) 49#3 pp 545–568. in JSTOR
French Revolution and Napoleon[edit]
- Bordo, Michael D., and Eugene N. White, "A Tale of Two Currencies: British and French Finance during the Napoleonic Wars," Journal of Economic History (1991) 51#2 pp 303–16 in JSTOR
- Bosher, John F. French Finances, 1770-1795: From Business to Bureaucracy (1970)
- Harris, Seymour E. The Assignats (1930)
- Heywood, Colin. The Development of the French Economy 1750-1914 (1995) excerpt and text search
- Price, Roger. An economic history of modern France, 1730-1914 (London: Macmillan, 1981) ISBN 0-333-30545-0, ISBN 0-333-29321-5 ; revised edition of The economic modernisation of France, 1730-1880 (1975)
- Rudé, George E. "Prices, Wages and Popular Movements in Paris during the French Revolution," Economic History Review (1954) 6#3 pp. 246–267 in JSTOR
- Sargent, Thomas J. and François R. Velde. "Macroeconomic Features of the French Revolution," Journal of Political Economy (1995) 103#3 pp. 474–518 in JSTOR
- Sutherland, D. M. G. "Peasants, Lords, and Leviathan: Winners and Losers from the Abolition of French Feudalism, 1780-1820," Journal of Economic History (2002) 62#1 pp. 1–24 in JSTOR
- Velde, Francois R., and Weir, David R. "The Financial Market and Government Debt Policy in France, 1746-1793," Journal of Economic History (1992) 52#1 pp 1–39. in JSTOR
- White, Eugene N. "Free Banking during the French Revolution," Explorations in Economic History (1990) 27#2 pp 251–76.
- White, Eugene Nelson. "The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance, 1770-1815," Journal of Economic History, (1995) 55#2 pp. 227–255 in JSTOR
- Boltho, Andrea. "Economic Policy in France and Italy since the War: Different Stances, Different Outcomes?," Journal of Economic Issues 35#3 (2001) pp 713+ online
- Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe: Volume 2, 1870 to the Present (2010) excerpt and text search
- Cameron, R. C. Banking in the Early Stages of Industrialization (1967).
- Cameron, Rondo and Charles E. Freedeman. French Economic Growth: A Radical Revision," Social Science History (1983) 7#1 pp. 3-30 in JSTOR
- Caron, Francois. An Economic History of Modern France (1979), since 1815 excerpt and text search; full text online
- Clapham, John H. The Economic Development of France and Germany: 1815-1914 (1936).
- Clough, S.P. France: A History of National Economics (1970)
- Fohlen, Claude. "France, 1920-1970," in C. M. Cipolla, ed. The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One (1976) pp 72-127
- Lebovics, Herman. Bringing the Empire back home: France in the global age (Duke University Press, 2004) ISBN 0-8223-3260-4.
- Hancké, Bob. Large firms and institutional change: industrial renewal and economic restructuring in France (Oxford University Press, 2002)
- Heywood, Colin. The Development of the French Economy 1750-1914 (1995) excerpt and text search
- Johnson, H. Clark. Gold, France, and the Great Depression, 1919-1932 (Yale University Press, c1997) ISBN 0-300-06986-3.
- Kindelberger, C. P. Economic Growth in France and Britain, 1851-1950 (Harvard University Press, 1964)
- Landes, David S. "French Entrepreneurship and Industrial Growth in the Nineteenth Century,"Journal of Economic History (1949) 9#1 pp. 45-61 in JSTOR
- Lynch, Frances M. B. "Finance and Welfare: The Impact of Two World Wars on Domestic Policy in France," Historical Journal, June 2006, Vol. 49 Issue 2, pp 625–633
- Price, Roger. An economic history of modern France, 1730-1914 (London: Macmillan, 1981) ISBN 0-333-30545-0, ISBN 0-333-29321-5 ; revised edition of The economic modernisation of France, 1730-1880 (1975)
- Sicsic, P., and C. Wyplosz. "France: 1945-92." in Economic Growth in Europe since 1945, edited by N. Crafts and G. Toniolo. (Cambridge University Press, 1996)
- Smith, Michael. The Emergence of Modern Business Enterprise in France 1800-1930 (2007)
- Szostak, Rick. The role of transportation in the Industrial Revolution : a comparison of England and France (McGill-Queen's University Press, c1991) ISBN 0-7735-0840-6.
- Vail, Mark I. Recasting Welfare Capitalism: Economic Adjustment in Contemporary France and Germany (2010)


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February 15, 2002: 4:14 p.m. ET
If you want the best loan, make sure your score is the best it can be.
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Debt overload: 5 red flags
Oct. 8, 2001
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NEW YORK (CNN/Money) - You may be out of school, but that doesn't mean you're free from report cards. In fact, if you want to buy a house, a car or any other big-ticket item, a lender will look up your "grade" as soon as you come knocking. That grade is your credit score.
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Following are five things you can do to boost your creditworthiness, plus more information on obtaining your personal score.
5 steps to better credit
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Book Description:The Fourth Edition of The Longman Anthology of British Literature continues its tradition of presenting works in the historical context in which they were written. This fresh approach includes writers from the British Isles, underrepresented female authors, "Perspectives" sectionsthatshed light on the period as a whole and link with immediately surrounding works to help illuminate a theme, "And Its Time" clusters that illuminate a specific cultural moment or a debate to which an author is responding, and "Responses" in which later authors respond to one or more texts from earlier works. New to Volume 1A is the inclusion of new Penguin Classics translations of Beowulf by Michael Alexander and Sir Gawain and theGreen Knight by Brian Stone and the major classic work The Táin.
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Somebody asked me for this, so here it goes:
Somebody asked me for this, so here it goes:
It wasn't me that asked - but thanks
Jools Holland: "Knock Knock!"
Morrissey: "I'm not in!"
Jools: "Oh, come on."
Morrissey: "I refuse to open the door."
Certainly it's an amazing interview. Is that the edited one?
I love your signature.. did you do it?
Thanks for sharing!
Thanks Flax, this one has eluded me for years, along with the Candle promo..


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MANKATO — Jennifer Nibbe received the sentence that was expected Monday for killing her husband, James Nibbe, at their home south of Lake Crystal, but it became clear after the hearing that families and friends supporting both the victim and his killer don't believe Jennifer Nibbe's trip to prison will be the end of a tragic situation.
His family isn't happy with the sentence, which was set in a June plea deal that dismissed a first-degree murder charge and the possibility of a life sentence. James Nibbe's sister and brothers also said they have been considering taking civil court action to recover their brother's belongings, including clothing and a funeral book, from Jennifer Nibbe's father, Dan Gilman.
Gilman and Jennifer Nibbe's attorney, Rich Hillesheim, said there is more to the story behind James Nibbe's death. Hillesheim said he was prepared to tell a jury that his client was the victim of physical and sexual abuse. He also said a trial would have revealed "fairly uncomplimentary things about James Nibbe" that would explain Jennifer Nibbe's transition from someone with no criminal background to a convicted murderer. Those things included an autopsy report showing he tested positive for the HIV virus.
"My heart goes out to the Nibbe family, but they have an idealistic view of who he was," Hillesheim said after Monday's hearing.
Almost every seat in the courtroom, including those in the jury box, were filled when District Court Judge Bradley Walker sentenced Jennifer Nibbe to 25 years in prison. With good time and credit for the 700 days she has already served in prison, Nibbe, 35, could be placed on supervised release in 15 years. Walker also ordered Nibbe to use her prison earnings to pay the $11,418 owed to Mankato Mortuary for the funeral she planned for her husband.
During victim impact statements, James Nibbe's mother, Karen, said one of her worst memories comes from when she watched Jennifer Nibbe kiss her son's cold lips at that funeral. Leslie Nibbe-Johnson, James Nibbe's sister, said the entire family felt manipulated by Jennifer Nibbe's actions after the murder and before her arrest several days later. She said her former sister-in-law never cried at the funeral.
"The only tears that you have shed so far have been in court . . . for yourself," Nibbe-Johnson said. "You're not sorry that you took Jim's life, you're only sorry that you told investigators that he was a wonderful person that didn't deserve what you did to him."
Dennis Nibbe said, because of a 12-year age difference, James Nibbe was almost like a son to him. He said he helped teach his brother how to golf, hunt and fish. The two of them spent hours together doing those things before James Nibbe was murdered.
"You're getting a slap," Dennis Nibbe said as he looked across the courtroom at the woman who loaded a shotgun, pointed it at his sleeping brother's head and pulled the trigger.
"Fifteen years is a slap in our face. It says 'Justice Center' on the front of this building, but what you are getting today is not justice. It's an agreement between lawyers."
The tension between the family and friends of James and Jennifer Nibbe became obvious at least twice at the Justice Center. Walker scolded a member of James Nibbe's family after he started yelling while Hillesheim said what he found out about James Nibbe didn't "match" what his family said about him. There was another brief vocal confrontation outside the courtroom after the hearing between James Nibbe's former employer and someone who was there to support Jennifer Nibbe.
Jennifer Nibbe didn't apologize or ask for forgiveness when she was given an opportunity to speak before sentencing.
"I understand the Nibbe family not forgiving me," she said. "I understand that. I understand the pain that I have caused. And I loved my husband. I have protected my husband.
"I'm not here to damage his reputation or integrity. But I don't care how close you are to somebody, you don't know what goes on behind closed doors."
During a prepared statement after the hearing, Nibbe-Johnson said the defense's abuse allegations are "absurd." She pointed out there was evidence Jennifer Nibbe was having an affair with another man and used her cell phone to send nude photos of herself to him.
She also said the family was ready to go to trial, even if it meant more of those allegations would become public. The decision to offer a plea deal for second-degree murder without premeditation, even though there was a recording of Jennifer Nibbe confessing to the murder, was made by Pat McDermott, assistant Blue Earth County attorney, she said.
"In the first 10 months of her incarceration, in the countless interviews by investigators with herself, her friends and her family members, there was never any mention of abuse of any kind," Nibbe-Johnson said. "She, herself, has never ever said that there was abuse; it has all been manufactured accusations by her defense attorney."
Walker's voice was calm as he sentenced Nibbe, saying "lives have been shattered" for both families. After McDermott said he had been told media outlets have offered money for Jennifer Nibbe's story, Walker also issued an order that will keep Nibbe from benefiting financially as a result of her husband's death.
"Our justice system works the best it can," he said. "Based on the information I have, this is an appropriate sentence."
Nibbe-Johnson said there is "something beautiful" that has resulted from the tragic death of her brother. James Nibbe's name will live on through Good Thunder's Nib Fest in July and the James M. Nibbe Memorial Golf Tournament in St. James on the anniversary of his death in August. Both events fund the James Nibbe Outstanding Character Award scholarship that is provided annually to a student at Lake Crystal Wellcome Memorial High School.


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Some information is missing or invalid below.
These Levi's denim leggings will start your weekend off right. Contoured fit through the seat, thigh and leg opening makes these women's leggings the perfect pair. In dark blue wash.
Product Features
- Stretchy denim construction
- 5-pocket
Fit & Sizing
- 30-in. inseam
- Midrise sits above the hip
- Zipper fly
Fabric & Care
- Cotton/polyester/spandex
- Machine wash
- Imported


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Contact: Jo Knight, 202.552.2070
Washington, DC - 07/31/2009 - Rebecca Goldburg, director of Marine Science at the Pew Environment Group, issued the following statement today in response to a paper published in the journal Science. The paper's lead authors, Dr. Ray Hilborn and Dr. Boris Worm, who have held differing views about the status of global ocean fisheries in the past, collaborated on the research for this study. They were joined by 19 co-authors."A large and diverse group of leading fisheries scientists and ecologists have concluded that the common benchmark now used to determine the amount of ocean fish to catch is not a viable approach for managing our oceans. The study disproves the notion that we can push catch targets to their limits and still maintain healthy ocean ecosystems. Fishing targets must be more conservative than they have been in the past. "Two scientists who once held opposing views about the state of ocean fisheries now agree about the significance of global fisheries declines and the solutions needed to reverse these trends. If fishery managers worldwide heed these important scientific findings, then we have an extraordinary opportunity to restore ocean fisheries."


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Crikey! Spend $100 or over and get a FREE "Return to Nim's Island" DVD, signed by Bindi Irwin!
Use Promo Code MAR14NIMDVD at Checkout. Limited signed DVD stock available!
Forrest the plush 30cm Giraffe is part of the Australia Zoo exclusive range of plush characters based on our very own Australia Zoo animals. Forrest stands upright ready for action and is dressed in a khaki shorts and khaki shirt.
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The Pirate Bay is relocating to North Korea?
It appears the bittorrent tracker is up to some of its old hijinks -- saying that it moved from its home in Europe to cozy up with supreme leader Kim Jong-un.
Even though North Korea is known to have extremely limited Internet service, the Web-based bittorrent tracker The Pirate Bay announced today that it relocated to this closed-off and highly censored country.
"The Pirate Bay has been hunted in many countries around the world. Not for illegal activities but being persecuted for beliefs of freedom of information. Today, a new chapter is written in the history of the movement, as well as the history of the internets," The Pirate Bay wrote in a blog post. "Today we can reveal that we have been invited by the leader of the republic of Korea, to fight our battles from their network."
It appears that the announcement is a hoax and a commentary on how the Western world is cracking down on file sharing and piracy. However, it's a highly technical prank. To those using the service, it would seem that the site's IP address is located in Pyongyang, North Korea.
However, according to a German programmer, the service is actually using some sort of IP spoofing. This spoofing makes it seem like the links are coming out of North Korea when they are really being hosted by a site from somewhere in Europe.
Late last month, The Pirate Bay announced that it was shifting its operational duties from Sweden to Norway and Spain. Previously, the Swedish Pirate Party was providing it with the bandwidth it needed to operate its site. However, the Rights Alliance, an organization backed by the biggest music and movie companies, threatened to sue the Swedish Pirate Party over its support.
Related stories
"We have been fighting for a free world, and our opponents are mostly huge corporations from the United States of America, a place where freedom and freedom of speech is said to be held high," The Pirate Bay said in the blog post today. "And to our help comes a government famous in our part of the world for locking people up for their thoughts and forbidding access to information."


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Garmin Edge 810 cycling GPS
• Preloaded with Basemap for GPS navigation
• 2.6 inch customisable colour touchscreen
• Connected features including live tracking and weather
• Comes with Quarter Turn bike mount
• Virtual partner training programme
• Auto Lap and Auto pause timer
• Pace, time and distance alerts
• 180 hour ride history storage
• Up to 17 hours battery life• Plan, review and share rides with Garmin Connect
The touchscreen Edge 810 is designed for the cyclist who wants it all, navigation and advanced training capabilities in 1 device. It offers connected features through your smartphone, including live tracking, social media sharing and weather. The 810 is compatible with optional detailed street or Ordnance Survey maps, so it can guide your ride for touring, commuting or extended activities where you might need on board maps and navigation. Because it's GPS-enabled, Edge 810 provides accurate data and navigation capabilities, anywhere in the world. In addition to the mapping capabilities, Edge 810 records your distance, speed metrics, ascent/descent, grade and more.
Preloaded with Garmin European Cycle Maps. On or off road bike navigation. 2.6 inch customisable colour touch screen. IPX7 water resistant. Auto lap and auto pause timer. Route planner and round trip routing. Cycle specific POI. Up to 17 hours battery life. 180 hour ride history storage. Plan, review and share rides with Garmin Connect.
Garmin Edge Touring cycling GPS
• Preloaded with Garmin European Cycle Maps
• On or Off road bike navigation
• 2.6 inch customisable colour touchscreen
• IPX7 water resistant
• Auto Lap and Auto pause timer
• Route planner and round trip routing
• Cycle specific POIs
• Up to 17 hours battery life
• 180 hour ride history storage
• Plan, review and share rides with Garmin Connect
Edge Touring works like the GPS navigator you use in your car, only with maps and features specifically designed for cycling. Whether you have a specific destination in mind, or just a distance you want to ride, European bike-specific maps preloaded in the Edge Touring make it easy to get from point A to point B (and beyond) and back again. Simply enter an address or search for points of interest and Edge Touring will give you turn-by-turn directions to your destination(s). You can choose between cycling, tour cycling and mountain biking modes to calculate the most appropriate route for the type of cycling you do, taking you on paved roads, unpaved roads or on paths and trails. -
Garmin Forerunner 10 - GPS Running Watch
From £1.24 per week
- Price
- £124.00
- In Stock
- Delivery
7 reviewsGarmin is excited to announce the Forerunner 10. This stylish GPS running watch tracks your distance, pace and calories. It's our lightest, most comfortable watch yet and is available in sporty green and black with red accents. It's so easy to use, you can start your run by pressing one button. Forerunner 10 has a virtual pacer feature that compares your current running pace to your target. The watch also identifies your personal records to keep you motivated. When your runs done, upload to Garmin Connect to see your run on the Map, get more detail on each mile and share it with friends for free. Every mile matters and now there's a simpler way to capture each one. See it in action at Garmin.com/forerunner.
Key Features:
- High sensitivity GPS receiver
- Records position, speed/pace, distance and calories
- Easy-to-use button operated
- Identifies personal records
- Virtual pacer, compares current pace to target
- Run/walk feature
- Auto lap
- Auto Pause
- Water resistant up to 50m
- Automatic time zone
- Built in rechargeable lithium-ion battery:
- up to 5 hours battery life in training mode
- up to 5 weeks in power save mode
- Weight; Green and White = 1.3oz (36 g)
- Weight; Black and Red = 1.5oz (43 g).
Everlast Womens Pro Style Training Gloves 12 oz
From £1.35 per week
- Price
- £27.00
- In Stock
- Delivery
- Next day delivery available
2 reviewsThe Everlast Pro Style Training Glove 12oz features premium synthetic leather. This along with excellent glove construction gives long lasting durability and functionality. -
Nike Mercurial Lite Slip In Shin Pads
From £0.75 per week
- Was
- Was £22.00
- Now
- Now £15.00
- Save £7.00
- Low stock, selling fast
- Delivery
0 review.
Colour: Green. Wipe clean only. -
Everlast Mens Pro Style Training Boxing Gloves 14 oz
From £1.35 per week
- Price
- £27.00
- In Stock
- Delivery
2 reviewsEverlast Mens Pro Style Training Boxing Gloves 14 oz
With premium synthetic leather along with excellent glove construction, the Everlast Men's Pro Style Training Glove provides long lasting durability and functionality.
Get fighting fit from the comfort of your own home with this Force 1 Complete Boxing Set.
It comes with everything you need to practice your jabs, kicks and punches. The 2ft punch bag can be hung up using either the wall bracket or the ceiling hook so that it's the perfect height for training. With a tough design and wipe down material it will take all of the punches and poundings you can throw at it.
This set includes a pair of standard boxing gloves, along with a pair of wraps to keep them secure while you workout. There's also a set of focus pads that are ideal for sparring with a partner, with them moving around so you can master a wide variety of boxing moves.
The set comes with a skipping rope that's ideal for improving you overall fitness and training you to be light on your toes.
With all the kit required to start your boxing training, with the Force 1 Complete Boxing set you can certainly learn how to throw a punch.
Useful info:
- 2ft punch bag
- Wall bracket
- Optional ceiling hook
- Includes mitts and wraps
- Includes pair of focus pads
- Includes skipping rope
- Force 1 Complete Boxing Set
This Wychwood Solace bedchair is a comfortable way to ensure you can wait for that perfect catch in complete comfort.
The large size of this bed chair and cushioned, custom fit mattress ensures a great sleep too, whether it's camping outdoors or as an extra bed during a sleepover.
The solace bedchair is lightweight and easy to fold away, so it's easy to take along on a fishing trip for a great nights sleep or to relax in while waiting for the fish to bite.
Useful info:
- Cushioned comforter
- Three-leg steel frame
- Tailored mattress
- Fold away design
- Wychwood Solace bedchair
Everlast Evergel Hand Wraps
From £0.45 per week
- Was
- Was £19.00
- Now
- Now £9.00
- Save £10.00
- In Stock
- Delivery
6 reviewsThe Everlast Evergel Hand Wraps contain a new state of the art gel material that dissipates impact energy and protects knuckles during training, The full wrist strap provides superior support and allows for a custom fit. Great for martial art or boxing training.
The Minoura Live Ride 540 is a new powerful and smooth Live Training compatible trainer that'll help you get your performances on the road up to the highest levels yet.
- Super Smooth and quiet mag unit
- Live Training compatible
- 7 levels of remote resistance
- Stable H frame with independent folding legs
- Quick release mechanism
- 460W resistance at 25mph
- 1.3kg flywheel
- Includes FREE Sufferfest download training DVD.
Wychwood Solace Reclining Comfort Chair
From £0.97 per week
- Price
- £74.00
- In Stock
- Delivery
5 reviewsFour adjustable legs with swivel mud feet large sized seating area, padded back and seat mattress, unique 5 stage reclining process, super strong frame, folds flat for easy transport.
The Shimano Beastmaster 7000 XTA is an ultra powerful big pit reel suitable for carp fishing and surf casting. Featuring Shimano's unique Baitrunner II spool, vari-speed line lay and Arc spool technology. 4.6.1 gear ration provides plenty of winding power for playing big fish. Matt black for an understated appearance.


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Chomonix Golf Club
- 700 Aqua Lane, Lino Lakes, MN 55014 | Get Directions
- Phone: 651-482-8484
- Phone: 763-767-2827 xSKI
- Visit Website
Add to my trip
Error. Submission of this item to your trip planner may have timed out. Please try again or check your trip planner to make sure it has been added.
Year-RoundOther Date Information
- Additional Date Information: Golf Dawn-dusk. X-ski- REMAINDER
Attraction Attributes
- Accessible to Disabled
- Can Accommodate Groups of 45 or more


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read reviews [1]
Serves four as a side dish.
The combination of sweet carrots, shallots, and tangy tomato is an intriguing one. Orange zest adds a lovely aroma.
Heat the oven to 350°F. Halve the carrots lengthwise and cut them into 2-inch long pieces. Heat the butter and olive oil in a medium (9-inch) Dutch oven over medium heat. When the oil is hot and the butter has melted, add the sliced shallots and cook, stirring occasionally, until softened and slightly browned, about 5 min. Remove the shallots from the pot with a slotted spoon and set them aside. Add the carrots and salt. Cook, stirring occasionally, until the carrots are lightly browned, about 12 min. Add the tomatoes and their juices, along with the garlic, orange zest, bouquet garni, and cayenne. Stir in the shallots and 1/4 cup water. Cover the pot, put it in the oven, and let cook until very tender, 20 to 25 min. Discard the orange zest and bouquet garni. Arrange the vegetables on a platter, sprinkle with the parsley, and serve.
This recipe appears in Side Dish, a special Fine Cooking publication of over 100 recipes. From the quickest vegetable sautés to hearty make-ahead gratins, you'll find the perfect accompaniment for every meal.
nutrition information (per serving): Calories (kcal): 200; Fat (g): 11; Fat Calories (kcal): 100; Saturated Fat (g): 4; Protein (g): 3; Monounsaturated Fat (g): 6; Carbohydrates (g): 24; Polyunsaturated Fat (g): 1; Sodium (mg): 750; Cholesterol (mg): 10; Fiber (g): 4;
Photo: Scott Phillips
by aislinn, 1/17/2010Very tasty recipe and worth the work. I would have rated this as 5 stars but it is rather time consuming for a side recipe. My whole family ate all their carrots. Will make again.


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Name | Updated | Category | Author | Stage | |
Name | Updated | Category | Author | Stage | |
Broker_LFD |
Dec 08, 2011 | Inactive | |||
Displays the status dialog from an LDB instead of the minimap icon. Also, thanks to Antiarc, display a nice tooltip showing how long a role can expect to wait for a group, also shows a text based status for each roll for your proposed group. | |||||
BuffEnough [Deprecated for MOP] |
Dec 12, 2011 | Inactive | |||
Addon Support Statement Hello everyone. I'm no longer actively playing World of Warcraft (and haven't for many months). I'm looking for someone to take over maintenance of my addons. If you're interested, and have at least one released addon, send me a message at [email protected] Addon Description BuffEnough is a personal buff monitor that answers the simple question 'Am I buff enough?' If you're like me, when a raid leader does a ready check, you go through a mental checklist as you... | |||||
Broker_Factions |
Jan 03, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Summary Broker Factions is an LDB data source that provides an easy way to monitor your reputation with the various factions. History This addon was originally written by Tristanian, using FactionsFu (Elkano) and the older Titan Factions (Phanx) as inspiration. When he stopped playing, I inquired and eventually took over the codebase from him. Many thanks for his contributions to this addon. My first version uses significant portions of his code with many of my own additions to align it to my... | |||||
Broker_Extractor |
Jan 04, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Summary An LDB data source to help farming for ore and herbs. Its primary purpose is to display (in the tooltip) a listing of all herbs and ores, and the most common zones that those materials are found in (the numbers represent node counts). It also places milling data in the tooltip for herbs, and prospecting data in the tooltip for ore. Usage Configuration options are reached by right-clicking on the LDB display. Notes Other things planned for the future, like tracking your milling and... | |||||
Broker_HealerCD |
Jan 07, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Broker_HealerCD shows the raid and tank cooldowns for all healers in your current raid and allows you to customize a healer cooldown rotation. Also displays when cooldowns are used (including tank CD's) and informs healers of when to use their cooldowns in the current rotation via whispers or raid chat. Broker Click options Click - spam cooldown order to selected channel Shift-Click - toggle combat output of cooldowns/rotation Right-Click - options Tooltip Click options Click - move healer... | |||||
BetterBlizzOptions |
Jan 08, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Makes the Blizzard options frame movable and resizable | |||||
Baggins_AnywhereBags |
Jan 15, 2012 | Inactive | |||
View any characters bank and bags from anywhere, including guild banks. Stores items in Baggins submenu "Anywhere Bags." Contents are also searchable via "/bab search thingymabob" or "/bab searchd thingymajig" (the latter for more detail about where it is). | |||||
BurnIt |
Jan 24, 2012 | Inactive | |||
BurnIt BurnIt tracks all information a Fire Mage needs to know. There are many addons designed for mages, but all are too generic or too specific: combustion helper tracks ignite/dots and living bombs but dont provide any other features, scorchio or mage nuggets cannot track ignite/pyroblast dots. I didn't want to use 3 or 4 addons to play Fire (all of them tracking the combatlog, operation that is very cpu expensive). BurnIt tracks: Critical mass/shadow mastery, living bombs, all dots that a... | |||||
BananaDKP |
Feb 08, 2012 | Inactive | |||
DKP system for all guilds in the Banana Republic. | |||||
Baldrick |
Apr 09, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Baldrick adds a button to your interface which automatically picks the best daily quest item to use based on all the information it can gather (location, status of the quest, etc). Usage :) Quest Quirks To tell Baldrick you want to cook for Super Hot Stew, you need to target a dead Abyssal Flamebringer. To tell Baldrick you want to free some murlocks for Disrupt the Greengill Coast, you need to target a live Greengill Slave. Handy Outfitter Scripts A handy script for Outfitter to... | |||||
BreueSK |
May 06, 2012 | Alpha | |||
Suicide Kings looting system. | |||||
Broker_Professions |
Aug 28, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Profession launcher objects for any Broker display | |||||
Bartender4-ThereIsNoCost |
Aug 29, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Update for 5.0.4/MoP: as far as I can tell, there are no longer any of these types of glyphs, so you shouldn't need this addon. I have uploaded a MoP version to correct breakage with abilities using the new "charges" mechanic, but barring unforeseen changes, you should be able to disable/delete this addon without noticing. This is an adaptation of ThereIsNoCost (TINC) to work with Bartender4. TINC hides the reagent/count number on action buttons if you are using a glyph that removes the need... | |||||
Broker_WindowedMode |
Aug 29, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Description A simple LDB display for Windowed Mode vs. Full Screen, with toggling either by click or keybind. You don't need LDB to use this. The keybind feature works on its own, in Blizzard's keybind interface, with or without LDB. Known Issues Some users experience instability after toggling Windowed Mode many times. This is due to WoW, drivers, or both, not the mod. If you experience this, the mod is still useful; you just have to be sparing and only toggle when it's important.... | |||||
Bartender4_Dualspec |
Aug 30, 2012 | Inactive | |||
Deprecated Please use Dualspec Profiles instead switches Bartender4-profiles when changing spec. Options are in the Blizzard Addon-option-pane (Menu->Interface->Addons->Bartender4_Dualspec) Note: This addon does not change button-bindings (this is done by the default-UI). It just switches settings that are influenced by Bartender4 (e.g. Position/Size of Bars) | |||||
Broker_uClock |
Sep 06, 2012 | Release | |||
Broker uClock is the spiritual successor to my old FuBar uClock, which itself was a re-write of FuBar ClockFu, re-written from the ground up using Ace-3.0 and LibDataBroker-1.1. Features: - It can show realm time, local time, or UTC time in it's data feed (or all three!). - It shows today's date aswell as realm time, local time and UTC time in the tooltip. - It toggles the in-game Time Manager (stop watch, alarm clock etc) if clicked. - It toggles GroupCalender (if installed) or the in-game... | |||||
Baggins_LibFilter |
Sep 13, 2012 | Release | |||
This is just the pieces of LibFilter-1.0 that are useful for baggins. It includes all the item and bag slot filters as well as the baggins adaptor. You do not need to have LibFilter-1.0 installed to use this addon. Note: Older (non-libfilter) plugins will prevent the filters from this addon from being made available to Baggins in the case of a conflict. Filters EquipSlot - Matches items based on the slot in goes into on the character sheet. EquipmentSets - Matches items based on 3.1's new... | |||||
Baggins_Professions |
Sep 13, 2012 | Release | |||
Matches items based on the professions you know or don't know. Supports matching for recipes, materials, crafted items, tools or gathered items. The is a subset of LibFilter-1.0 that offers the same features as my older Baggins_Professions plugin. You do not need this addon if you have either Baggins_LibFilter or LibFilter-1.0 installed. | |||||
Broker_AllXP |
Sep 14, 2012 | Release | |||
Summary An LDB data source that displays XP information about all your toons in tooltip. Each column can be excluded or included via the configuration. Usage Configuration options are reached by clicking on the LDB display. Translation help Please use the new wowace localization system if you'd like to help out. Also, create a ticket so that I can give you credit in the addon. You can find documentation for the localization system here:... | |||||
Broker_HitCrit |
Sep 14, 2012 | Release | |||
Summary An LDB data source that tracks your top hits and crits for all of the abilities you use. Both heals and attacks are tracked, if desired. Yes, the icon is cheese. Who doesn't like cheese? Usage Configuration options are reached by right-clicking on the LDB display. Entries can be reported into the chatframe by left-clicking on them in the tooltip. Data can be removed by Alt-Left-clicking on entries in the tooltip. If you click on a category (eg, "Damage" or "Healing"), it will remove... |