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This file contains only Chapter 3 of the document: Butadiene Production. Most synthetic chemicals (such as butadiene) are produced from petroleum-related feedstocks (mainly crude oil and natural gas). Since these feedstocks typically constitute about two-thirds of the cost of production of these chemicals (Research Triangle Institute, 1984), petroleum prices have a significant effect on market prices of synthetic organic chemicals.


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Biomes are regions in a Minecraft world with varying geographical features, flora, heights, temperatures, humidity ratings, and sky and foliage colors. Introduced in the Halloween Update, biomes separate every generated world into different environments, paralleling the real world; examples of biomes include the forest, jungle, desert and ice plains.
In the Anvil file format, biomes are stored directly in the world data. This differs from the previous Region file format format, where biomes were dynamically calculated from the seed.
The term biome is analogous to its scientific usage: on Earth, a biome is climatically and geographically defined by distinctive communities of plants, animals and soil organisms supported by similar climatic conditions. They are often referred to as ecosystems.[1][2]
Biomes have a temperature value that determines if it snows, rains, or does not have either. The required values are: <0.15 for snow, 0.15 - 0.95 for rain, or >1.0 for none. These values can be used to determine the heights that snow generates in different biomes. For example, Extreme Hills generate snow at y=95, due to highland climate, as the base value is 0.2, and Savannas do not experience rain or snow due to their heat.
Biomes are split into 5 categories based on their temperature: snow-covered, cold, medium, dry/warm, and neutral. They were separated to prevent biomes with huge temperature differences being placed side-by-side (such as Cold Taiga next to a Desert).
Contents |
[edit] Biome types
There are 61 distinct biomes. Biomes can be distinguished by the grass and leaf colors in the biome, along with the types of blocks present (e.g. types of trees or other plants like cacti, sand coverage in deserts). Biomes are pseudo-randomly generated using the map seed.
Biomes are separated into 5 categories. The snow-covered biomes are marked in blue, cold in green, medium/lush in orange and dry/warm in red. The biomes which are not labeled are either neutral or unknown.
[edit] Snowy biomes
In these biomes, it snows at any height. The foliage and grass is bluish-green.
Biome ID | Name and Features | Description | Images | ||
Frozen River
Temperature: ≤ 0.15 |
This variant of the river only spawns in ice plains biomes. The surface layer of water is frozen. |
Ice Plains
Temperature: ≤ 0.15 |
A relatively rare but expansive, flat biome with a huge amount of snow. It does not rain in this biome — it snows instead. Lakes and rivers are frozen over. Hills tend to be more mountainous. Sugar canes will spawn in this biome, but tend to become uprooted when chunks load as the water sources freeze to ice. There are very few natural oak trees in this biome. Spruce trees may also generate. Due to the biome's size, snow cover, and scarcity of wood, initial survival becomes difficult in comparison to other biomes. Spikes of packed ice can now be found in the related, rarer, Ice Plains Spikes biome. |
Ice Plains Spikes
Temperature: ≤ 0.15 |
A relatively rare variation of the Ice Plains biome that features Snow Blocks and large spikes of Packed Ice. Usually the spikes are several blocks tall, but some long, thin spikes can reach y=120 from normal ground level (Y=64). Scattered frozen lakes consisting of packed ice generate. |
Cold Beach
Temperature: ≤ 0.15 |
A beach with snowy weather conditions. |
Cold Taiga
Temperature: ≤ 0.15 |
A snowy variation of the Taiga biome with fern and large fern. Before 13w36a, all Taigas were snow-covered but without fern and large fern.
Cold Taiga M
Temperature: ≤ 0.15 Spruce Trees, Snow, Ferns, Wolves, |
Large, mountainous version of the snowy taiga. |
[edit] Cold biomes
In these biomes, it begins to snow over a certain height, but before the 256 blocks height. Otherwise, it rains. The foliage and grass is bluish-green.
Biome ID | Name and Features | Description | Images |
Extreme Hills
Temperature: 0.2 |
A highly mountainous biome (with some mountains reaching y=130) with dull green-blue grass and a few scattered oak and spruce trees. Cliffs, peaks, valleys, waterfalls, overhangs, floating islands, and many other structures exist, offering outstanding views. Snowfall may also occur at certain heights. This is a highland climate if above y95. More underground cave systems are present here than in any other biome. Falling is a significant risk, as there are many ledges and sudden drops large enough to cause severe fall damage or even death. Extreme hills are the only biomes where emerald ores and silverfish can be found naturally. |
Extreme Hills M
Temperature: 0.2 |
Variant of the regular Extreme Hills biome that features higher mountain peaks, most of which reach into the clouds. Mountains are composed mainly of gravel and a little bit of dirt and grass, with a small population of Spruce Trees and sparse Oak Trees. |
Temperature: 0.25 |
A biome densely filled with spruce trees, fern and large fern. Wolves tend to spawn here fairly commonly. | |
Taiga M
Temperature: 0.25 |
Mountainous version of the snowless taiga biome. |
Sky (The End)
End Stone, Endermen, Obsidian, Ender Crystals, The Ender Dragon |
Main article: The End
This biome is used to generate the End. Large amounts of endermen spawn in this biome. This is the only biome that the Ender Dragon naturally spawns in. Most of the End's structure is provided by the dimension rather than the biome. It does not rain nor snow in this biome. If the biome is used for a superflat world, the sky will be dark gray, an Ender Dragon will spawn at 0,0 coordinates in the Overworld, and only Endermen will spawn (at night), but the world structure will be as specified in the superflat custom options, with no obsidian towers nor Ender Crystals, unless you add the string "decoration" to the superflat preset. |
Mega Taiga
Temperature: 0.3 Spruce Trees, Podzol, Ferns, Wolves, Moss Stone, Mushrooms, Dirt |
Mega Taiga is an uncommon biome composed of spruce trees, much like the standard Taiga biome. However, some trees are 2×2 thick and very tall, not unlike large Jungle trees. Moss stone boulders appear frequently, brown mushrooms are common and a dirt-type block called Podzol can be found in this biome. There are also patches of dirt that don't grow grass. Wolves may also spawn here, as they do in normal Taiga biomes. | |
Mega Spruce Taiga
Temperature: 0.25 Spruce Trees, Podzol, Ferns, Grass, Moss Stone, Mushrooms, Dirt |
A variation of the Mega Taiga. In this biome there is a much higher density of smaller Spruce Trees. Also, the tall trees look like large Spruce Trees instead of the short-topped trees in the regular Mega Taiga biome. |
Extreme Hills+
Temperature: 0.2 |
Extreme Hills+ is a variant of the regular extreme hills biome, adding a moderate amount of spruce trees and scattered oak trees. |
Extreme Hills+ M
Temperature: 0.2 |
Variant of the Extreme Hills+ biome where huge gravel mountains appear with sparse oak and spruce trees and small patches of grass. |
Stone Beach
Temperature: 0.2 |
This stone-covered biome often appears adjacent to mountains and the ocean. Depending on the height of the nearby land, it can generate medium slopes or huge cliffs. Because of a tweet of Jeb, this biome was previously referred to as cliff biome.[3] |
[edit] Medium/Lush biomes
In these biomes, it begins snowing over the 256 blocks height limit. Otherwise, it rains. The foliage and grass is lush green, except swamp, roofed forest, and jungle biomes, which have dark and bright colored grass.
Biome ID | Name and Features | Description | Images | ||
Temperature: 0.8 |
A relatively flat biome with rolling hills and much grass, and some occasional double-height tallgrass but with few trees. Gullies, water holes, and NPC villages are common. Cave openings and water or lava springs are easily identifiable due to its unobstructed terrain. Passive mobs spawn often in plains biomes, and it is also one of two biomes where horses spawn naturally, the other biome being savanna.
Sunflower Plains
Temperature: 0.8 |
This biome is a variation of the Plains biome, where Sunflowers naturally spawn in abundance. Also, because it is a variation of the Plains biome, Horses can spawn in this biome. |
Temperature: 0.7 |
A biome with a lot of trees, occasional hills, and a fair amount of tall grass. Oak and birch trees grow in this biome. Mushrooms, grass, poppies, and dandelions can occasionally be found. Forests can occasionally be generated in the center of plains biomes. This is one of the best biomes to start out in, due to the abundance of wood. The frequency of trees makes it dangerous to navigate at night, due to obscured vision, and ease of mobs to spawn. Forest biomes are also one of the smallest biomes. |
Flower Forest
Temperature: 0.7 |
A variant of the forest biome that has fewer trees and huge amounts of various flowers. There are certain flowers that are exclusive only to the flower forest. |
Temperature: 0.8 Witch Huts, Oak Trees, Grass, Vines, Lily Pads, Clay, Mushrooms, Slimes, |
A biome characterized by a mix of flat, dry areas around the sea level and shallow pools of water with floating lily pads. Clay, sand, and dirt are commonly found at the bottom of these pools. The colors of the water, grass, leaves, and vines are much darker than in other biomes. Trees are often covered with vines and can be found growing out from the water, and mushrooms and sugar canes are very abundant. Witch huts spawn exclusively in swamps, and slimes will also spawn naturally at night, most commonly on full moons, making this an especially dangerous biome at night.
Swampland M
Temperature: 0.8 |
Features a slightly hillier swampland with greener grass. |
Temperature: 0.5 |
A biome that consists of water blocks that form in an elongated, curving shape similar to a real river. Rivers cut through terrain or separate the main biomes. They attempt to join up with ocean on the other side, but will sometimes loop around to the same area of ocean. Rarely, they can have no connection to the ocean and form a circle. They have no current. Rivers are also a reliable source of clay. These biomes are good for fishing.
Mushroom Island
Temperature: 0.9 Mushrooms, Huge Mushrooms, Mycelium, Mooshrooms, No Hostile Mobs |
This rare biome consists of a mixture of flat landscape and steep hills and has mycelium instead of grass as its surface. However, if you do place down grass, it is a very bright green color, not unlike that of the jungle. Mushroom islands are always adjacent to an ocean and are often found isolated from other biomes. It is the one of two biomes where huge mushrooms can spawn naturally, and where mushrooms can grow in full sunlight.
No mobs other than mooshrooms spawn naturally in this biome, including the usual night-time hostile mobs. This also applies to caves, abandoned mine shafts, and other structures underground, meaning exploring underground is relatively safe. However, monster spawners will still spawn mobs, and the player will still be able to breed animals and spawn mobs using items. Trees can be grown from saplings in this biome, as well as other dirt or grass-based plants, as long as they are not directly adjacent to mycelium, which will take over the dirt square from the plant and uproot it. Mycelium cannot be tilled directly, but it can be dug away and replaced as dirt, then immediately tilled. Once created, farmland can resist takeover by mycelium.
Mushroom Island Shore
Temperature: 0.9 Mushrooms, Huge Mushrooms, Mycelium, Mooshrooms, No Hostile Mobs |
Mushroom shores represent the flat shore area of the mushroom biome. |
Temperature: 0.8 |
Generated on the shores of oceans, beaches are composed of sand. Beaches penetrate the landscape, removing the original blocks and placing in sand blocks. Some beaches generate with gravel instead of sand. These are also useful for fishing. For the history of beaches, see the Beach page.
Temperature: 0.95 Jungle Trees, Jungle Temples, Ferns, Flowers, Vines, Ocelots, Cocoa Pods, Melons |
A very dense, but rather uncommon tropical biome. It features large jungle trees that can reach up to 31 blocks tall with 2×2 thick trunks. Oak trees are also common. The landscape is lush green and quite hilly, with many small lakes of water often nestled into deep valleys, sometimes above sea level. Leaves cover much of the forest floor—these "bush trees" have single-blocks of jungle wood for trunks, surrounded by oak leaves. When inside a jungle, the sky will become noticeably lighter. This is the only biome containing jungle trees. Vines are found alongside most blocks and may be found close to the surface in caves. Ocelots, jungle temples, and cocoa plants spawn exclusively in this biome. Melons can spawn here, making Jungle biomes the only place where Melons naturally spawn. Melons spawn in small patches, similar to pumpkins. |
Jungle M
Temperature: 0.95 Jungle Trees, Jungle Temples, Ferns, Flowers, Vines, Ocelots, Cocoa Pods, Melons |
Much more mountainous version of the normal Jungle, with foliage so thick that the ground is barely visible. A very resource-demanding biome. Due to the hilly nature of the terrain in this biome, and the height of the tall jungle trees, trees frequently reach into and go above the clouds. |
Jungle Edge
Temperature: 0.95 |
Only spawns at the border of a jungle biome and any other biome. It's like a jungle but with fewer trees and bushes. Additionally, huge jungle trees will not spawn there. |
Jungle Edge M
Temperature: 0.95 |
A much more mountainous form of Jungle Edge found bordering Jungle M biomes and other biomes. Very few to no tall trees. |
Birch Forest
Temperature: 0.6 |
A forest made solely out of birch trees. |
Birch Forest M
Temperature: 0.6 |
A variation of the birch forest biome which features taller birch trees than usual. |
Birch Forest Hills M
Temperature: 0.6 |
Variation of the Birch Forest Hills biome, featuring very large mountains and tall Birch Trees. |
Roofed Forest
Temperature: 0.7 |
This biome, also known as Black Forest, is composed of Dark Oak Trees, a mostly closed roof of leaves, and occasional large mushrooms. Its trees are very close to each other and it has such a dense foliage that some of the forest will be dark enough for hostile mobs to spawn, even during the day. | |||
Roofed Forest M
Temperature: 0.7 |
Mountainous version of the Roofed Forest biome, with steep cliffs lining the edge. |
[edit] Dry/Warm biomes
In these biomes, it does not rain nor snow at all. The foliage and grass is yellow-brown, except mesa biomes, which have brown grass.
Biome ID | Name and Features | Description | Images |
Temperature: 2.0 Sand, Cacti, Dead Bushes, Sandstone, Sugar Cane, Desert wells, Desert Temple, NPC Villages |
A barren biome consisting mostly of sand, large dunes, dead bushes, and cacti. Sandstone is commonly found underneath the sand. It never rains in this biome. No passive mobs spawn naturally in deserts. Sugar cane can be found if the desert is next to an ocean or river biome. The lack of visual obstruction makes mobs highly visible at night. Desert villages, desert wells and desert temples are found exclusively in this biome. |
Desert M
Temperature: 2.0 |
Unlike in normal deserts, patches of water can be found in desert M. |
Hell (The Nether)
Magma Cubes, Netherrack, Glowstone, Soul Sand, Nether Brick, Gravel, Nether Quartz, Ghasts, Blazes, Skeletons, Zombie Pigmen, Nether Fortress, Wither Skeletons |
Main article: The Nether
This is the biome used to generate the Nether. Most of the terrain is composed entirely of expansive terrain of netherrack at all altitudes, though also spawns Nether quartz. Unlike other biomes it is enclosed by bedrock at layers 128 and 1. Lava oceans cover this biome at layer 31, while lava springs flow down from the bedrock ceiling (and occasionally from walls), making lava streams and lakes very common. Besides generating more often, lava also flows further and faster than it does in the Overworld. It is the only biome where Ghasts, Blazes, Wither Skeletons, Magma Cubes, and Zombie Pigmen naturally spawn. Glowstone is also found beneath netherrack ceilings and outcrops, while gravel and soul sand appear in layers and outcrops. Many of the creatures and resources of the Nether can only appear in Nether fortresses. |
Temperature: ≥ 1.0 |
A relatively flat and dry biome with a dry grass color and scattered Acacia Trees. Villages can generate in this biome, and it is one of only two biomes (the other being plains) where horses spawn naturally. Rain never falls in this biome, similar to the desert. |
Savanna M
Temperature: ≥ 1.0 |
Variant of the Savanna biome. Dirt paths and giant mountains are prevalent in this biome. However, this biome is unique in that its mountains can generate past the clouds, and even to the world height limit, without using the AMPLIFIED world type. |
Temperature: ≥ 1.0 Dead Bush, Hardened Clay, 6 colors of Stained Clay, Red Sand, Cacti |
Mesa is a rare biome made of hardened clay, stained clay, and dead bushes - similar to a desert. Red Sand will also generate here instead of regular sand, with occasional cacti. Its composition is useful when other sources of clay are scarce. However, finding mesa biomes can be difficult due to their rarity. | |
Mesa (Bryce)
Temperature: ≥ 1.0 Sand, Cactus, Dead Bush, Hardened Clay, 6 colors of Stained Clay |
Mesa (Bryce) is a variant of the mesa biome, featuring a low desert-like ground area with tall, thin, spire-shaped columns of hardened clay, similar to the structures in the real Bryce Canyon. |
36, 38, 39
Temperature: Same as their respective base biomes. |
Like the hills biomes, but flattened at the top. Added for Savannas and Mesas. (Mesa Plateau F is a variant of the Mesa Plateau, adding a few layers of dirt/grass and a forest of small trees with brown leaves) |
164, 166, 167
Plateau M
Temperature: Same as their respective base biomes. |
Similar variant of the Plateau biomes. Features slightly flatter terrain or steeper cliffs than the normal Plateau biomes. Savanna Plateau M generally exceeds cloud height, sometimes above y=200, and even sometimes almost bordering world height limit. |
[edit] Neutral biomes
Biome ID | Name and Features | Description | Images |
0 | Ocean
Temperature: 0.5 |
A large, open biome made entirely of water, with underwater relief on the sea floor, such as small mountains and plains, usually including gravel. Oceans typically extend under 3,000 blocks in any direction. Small islands with infrequent vegetation can be found in oceans. Passive mobs are unable to spawn on these islands, but hostiles can. Cavern entrances can be found infrequently at the bottom of the ocean. In the Console version, they surround the edges of the map. |
Deep Ocean
Temperature: 0.5 |
A variation of the Ocean biome. In Deep Ocean biomes, the ocean can exceed 30 blocks in depth, making it twice as deep as the normal ocean. In contrast to default oceans, the ground is mainly covered with gravel. |
13, 17, 18, 19, 22, 28, 31, 33, 156, 161
Temperature: Same as their respective base biomes. |
Hills are generated within Forest, Taiga, Desert, Jungle, and Ice Plains biomes (as well as their variants) and are referred in the F3 menu as "ForestHills", "TaigaHills", etc. Forest hills seem to be generated more rarely than the other hills in their respective main biome. Ice Mountains are usually taller, with height comparable to Extreme Hills biomes. |
[edit] Pocket Edition Exclusive
[edit] Upcoming
Name and Features | Description | Images |
Far Biome | A Pocket Edition exclusive biome found on the world's edge. | No Available Pictures |
[edit] Biome IDs
Each type of biome has its own biome number, shown in the following table. These biome numbers are used when creating a customized superflat world. Biome variations seem to have a number of 128 + <original biome number>.
Number | Biome | Variation | Variation Name |
0 | Ocean | N/A | N/A |
1 | Plains | 129 | Sunflower Plains |
2 | Desert | 130 | Desert M |
3 | Extreme Hills | 131 | Extreme Hills M |
4 | Forest | 132 | Flower Forest |
5 | Taiga | 133 | Taiga M |
6 | Swampland | 134 | Swampland M |
7 | River | N/A | N/A |
8 | Hell | N/A | N/A |
9 | Sky | N/A | N/A |
10 | FrozenOcean | N/A | N/A |
11 | FrozenRiver | N/A | N/A |
12 | Ice Plains | 140 | Ice Plains Spikes |
13 | Ice Mountains | N/A | N/A |
14 | MushroomIsland | N/A | N/A |
15 | MushroomIslandShore | N/A | N/A |
16 | Beach | N/A | N/A |
17 | DesertHills | N/A | N/A |
18 | ForestHills | N/A | N/A |
19 | TaigaHills | N/A | N/A |
20 | Extreme Hills Edge | N/A | N/A |
21 | Jungle | 149 | Jungle M |
22 | JungleHills | N/A | N/A |
23 | JungleEdge | 151 | JungleEdge M |
24 | Deep Ocean | N/A | N/A |
25 | Stone Beach | N/A | N/A |
26 | Cold Beach | N/A | N/A |
27 | Birch Forest | 155 | Birch Forest M |
28 | Birch Forest Hills | 156 | Birch Forest Hills M |
29 | Roofed Forest | 157 | Roofed Forest M |
30 | Cold Taiga | 158 | Cold Taiga M |
31 | Cold Taiga Hills | N/A | N/A |
32 | Mega Taiga | 160 | Mega Spruce Taiga |
33 | Mega Taiga Hills | 161 | Mega Spruce Taiga Hills |
34 | Extreme Hills+ | 162 | Extreme Hills+ M |
35 | Savanna | 163 | Savanna M |
36 | Savanna Plateau | 164 | Savanna Plateau M |
37 | Mesa | 165 | Mesa (Bryce) |
38 | Mesa Plateau F | 166 | Mesa Plateau F M |
39 | Mesa Plateau | 167 | Mesa Plateau M |
[edit] History
Alpha | ||
1.2 | Added biomes; they were rain forest, seasonal forest, forest, shrubland, taiga, tundra, savanna, sky, plains, swampland, desert, and frozen desert . | |
Beta | ||
1.8 | Biomes got an overhaul, removing some biomes, such as the tundra and the taiga, and others replaced with nine fractal-based biomes that were a mix of the previous biomes and new biomes. | |
Official release | ||
1.0 | Re-added tundra (as ice plains) and added Mushroom Islands. | |
1.1 | Re-added snow in taigas, added hills and beaches. | |
1.2.1 | Added Jungle biome. | |
1.3.1 | Hills in forests and deserts are taller. | |
1.6.1 | 13w17a | Water lakes no longer spawn in deserts. |
1.7.2 | 13w36a | Mesa, Mega Taiga, Roofed Forest, Birch Forest, Savanna, Extreme Hills+, Deep Ocean and snowless Taiga biomes were added as well as variations for many of the biomes. Biomes were also separated by temperature, and snowing was added to Extreme Hills. |
Upcoming Pocket Edition | ||
0.9.0 | Adding the Far Biome, plus many of the PC 1.7 biomes. |
[edit] Biome history
Notch, when he was the lead developer of Minecraft, wanted to add biomes, but he couldn't for a long time. He says the intersection points looked terrible and so, biomes weren't added in the Seecret Updates.[citation needed]
Prior to the Halloween Update, every world had only a single theme, either grassy or snowy.
[edit] Anvil file format
The Anvil file format allows for biomes to be stored in the world data. In contrast, the Region file format relies on the seed to dynamically calculate biome placement. This would cause biome placement in older worlds to change when the biome generation code was changed. With the current Anvil format, the biome data is stored along with the rest of the world data, meaning it will not change after the world is generated and can be edited by third-party map-editing tools. Furthermore, "edge" biomes allow for biomes to continue extend beyond the edge chunks of an old world. This allows for smooth transitions in world generation after the generation code changes in an update.
[edit] Issues
Issues relating to "Biome" are maintained on the issue tracker. Report issues there.
[edit] Gallery
Jeb tweeted an image of the Mega Taiga, unofficially dubbed the Redwood Forest. The name was changed following 1.7's release. [4]
[edit] References
- ↑
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, "Biome", accessed 20 April 2012
- ↑
Dictionary.com Unabridged, "biome", accessed 20 April 2012
- ↑
- ↑

subset: commoncrawl


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George Zimmerman looks down as he stands next to his defense co-counsel, Don West, Lorna Truett,and Mark O'Mara, as he is found not guilty, at his trial at the Seminole Circuit Court, in Sanford on Saturday. A juror known only as B37 told CNN's Anderson Cooper that some jurors wanted to find Zimmerman guilty of something, but there was just no place to go based on the law. / AP
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MIAMI � As they began deliberating in George Zimmerman�s murder trial, three of the six jurors wanted to acquit him while the other three wanted to convict him of either murder or manslaughter, one of the jurors said.
The six-woman jury ultimately voted to acquit Zimmerman in the fatal shooting of 17-year-old Trayvon Martin.
Zimmerman was charged with second-degree murder in last year�s shooting but the jury also was allowed to consider manslaughter.
The woman, known as Juror B37, told CNN�s Anderson Cooper on Monday that when the jury began deliberations Friday, they took an initial vote. Three jurors� including B37 � were in favor of acquittal, two supported manslaughter and one backed second-degree murder. She said the jury started going through all the evidence, listening to tapes multiple times.
�That�s why it took us so long,� said B37, who said she planned to write a book about the trial but later had a change of heart.
When they started looking at the law, the person who initially wanted second-degree murder changed her vote to manslaughter, the juror said. Then they asked for clarification from the judge and went over it again and again. B37 said some jurors wanted to find Zimmerman guilty of something, but there was just no place to go based on the law.
B37 said jurors cried when they gave their final vote to the bailiff.
�I want people to know that we put everything into everything to get this verdict,� said the juror, whose face was blacked out during the televised interview but who appeared to become choked up.
The interview came two days after the jury acquitted Zimmerman, a former neighborhood watch volunteer, of second-degree murder in the shooting death of Martin in a gated community in Sanford, Fla. Martin was black, and Zimmerman identifies himself as Hispanic. Zimmerman was not arrested for 44 days, and the delay in charging him led to protests from those who believed race was a factor in the handling of the case.
While prosecutors accused Zimmerman of profiling Martin, Zimmerman maintained he acted in self-defense.
Juror B37, the only juror to speak publicly about the case so far, said Monday that the actions of Zimmerman and Martin both led to the teenager�s fatal shooting, but that Zimmerman didn�t actually break the law.
While Zimmerman made some poor decisions leading up to the shooting, including leaving his car when police told him not to, Martin wasn�t innocent either, the juror said.
�I think both were responsible for the situation they had gotten themselves into,� said the juror. �I think they both could have walked away.�
The juror said Sanford Police Detective Chris Serino made a big impression on her, because he would have been accustomed to dealing with murders and similar cases. He would have known how to spot a liar, and yet he testified that he believed Zimmerman, the juror said.
Legal analysts agreed that Serino�s testimony was a blow to the state�s case. The Sanford police were criticized last year for not arresting Zimmerman, and Gov. Rick Scott later appointed a special prosecutor, who brought charges against the neighborhood watch volunteer.
The juror said she didn�t think Martin�s race was the reason Zimmerman followed him on a dark, rainy night. She said she also believed Martin threw the first punch and that Zimmerman, whom she referred to as �George,� had a right to defend himself.
�I have no doubt George feared for his life in the situation he was in at the time,� the juror said.
The juror said she was not impressed by the testimony of Rachel Jeantel, who was talking with Martin by cellphone moments before he was fatally shot by Zimmerman.
�I didn�t think it was very credible, but I felt very sorry for her,� the juror said. �She didn�t want to be there.�
The juror also commented on defense attorney Don West�s knock-knock joke about knowing who Zimmerman was during opening statements.
�The joke was horrible. Nobody got it,� she said.
Juror B37 outlined to CNN the process she and the other five jurors went through in their deliberations. She said they spent the first day electing a foreman and getting organized. She said the jury instructions weren�t immediately clear and the evidence was in no order whatsoever.
She said it was a difficult process.
�We thought about it for hours and cried over it afterwards,� she said. �I don�t think any of us could ever do anything like that ever again.�
Martin Literary Management announced Monday that it was representing B37 and her husband, who is an attorney. The names of the jurors have not been released, but during jury selection it was disclosed that B37 works in an unspecified management position and has two adult children.
But agency head Sharlene Martin released a statement late Monday saying she was no longer representing the juror and that the juror had dropped the book idea. It included a statement that she said was crafted in conjunction with agency in which the juror explained that being sequestered had kept her shielded �from the depth of pain that exists among the general public over every aspect of the case.� The juror said that the book was meant to show that our justice system �can get so complicated that it creates a conflict with our �spirit� of justice.�
The Associated Press was unable to reach the juror.
In a separate interview, Jeantel was asked by CNN�s Piers Morgan whether she thought race was a factor in Zimmerman�s decision to follow Martin prior to their fight.
�It was racial,� she said. �Let�s be honest. Racial. If he were white, if Trayvon was white and he had a hoodie on, what would happen?�
She noted that the altercation happened in the early evening, when many people are out walking their dogs or doing other things.
Morgan played back a recording of the juror�s comments to CNN about Jeantel�s education level and speech, and the witness said it made her sad and angry. Jeantel, who is black, said she also had a feeling that the jury would return a not-guilty verdict.
�They�re white,� she said of the jury at one point. �Well, one Hispanic. But she�s stuck in the middle. I had a feeling it was going to be a �not guilty.��
While the court did not release the racial makeup of the jury, the panel appeared to reporters covering jury selection to be made up of five white women and a sixth who may be Hispanic.


text: During Roger Waters's epic The Wall show at Verizon Center last night, a children's chorus came out to sing during "Another Brick in the Wall." Well, those kids were from West Baltimore, and they're in the BSO's OrchKids music program. It must have been quite a blast, going from Lockerman-Bundy Elementary to being onstage in one of the biggest rock spectacles of all-time. "It was insane," says OrchKids director Dan Trahey. "The kids killed it!"


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Nominations are in for the 2014 MTV Movie Awards
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January 29th, 2013
Dear Adam,
Whataya want for your birthday?
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Never Close Our Eyes
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School of Graduate & Professional Studies - Dean
Hello Graduate and Professional Studies Students, Prospective Students, and Friends,
Welcome to the School of Graduate and Professional Studies.
As Dean of the School of Graduate and Professional Studies, I am delighted to welcome you to the School's web site. We hope that our site will provide the information you are seeking. If you should not find what you are seeking or if our information does not answer your questions, please feel free to contact me directly.
The School of Graduate and Professional Studies (SGPS) offers master's degrees in Transformative Leadership (MSTL) and Integrated Environmental Science (MSIES), and offers bachelor's degrees in Business Administration (ABAD), Criminal Justice, Education, Psychology, and Sociology. In addition the SGPS programs offer an undergraduate certificate program in Gerontology (12 credits), a graduate certificate program in Organizational Leadership (12 credits), an undergraduate minor in Organizational Leadership (19 credits), an undergraduate minor in Environmental Justice (18 credits – see IES Department), and two areas of emphasis within the MSTL program in Environmental Science (12 credits) and Environmental Justice (12 credits). For non-degree status students and B-CU graduating seniors, we offer a range of graduate elective courses.
The faculty is highly attuned to meeting the needs of diverse students, to providing individualized attention, and to ensuring that each student experiences a quality educational experience that will enhance career and life. Instruction is on-line, face to face, and can be tailored in its delivery to meet the needs of students individually and in group. School programs and courses are grounded in practice and application, so that learning is useful for students' present and future career pursuits. In addition, the curriculum and activities are well conceived, rigorous, and challenging, offering students the opportunity for a transformative educational experience that will, we believe, help them enjoy fuller, more meaningful lives and contribute more powerfully to their organizations and to society.
Charles Kidd, Ed.D.
Dean, School of Graduate and Professional Studies


text:
AP IMPACT: An insider attack: Trust cost 2 lives
WASHINGTON (AP) — It was a sneak attack, but not by the enemy they feared.
U.S. Army Capts. Joshua Lawrence and Drew Russell were inside a small command post on an Afghan army base, wrapping up a long day of coordinating the safe arrival of nearly 100 Afghan religious and tribal leaders for a peace conference at a nearby palace.
Darkness had fallen.
Some of their fellow soldiers had retired for the evening. Two stood guard.
All seemed well.
But as several soldiers sprawled on nearby cots, playing cards, the calm collapsed catastrophically at 9:27 p.m.
An exploding grenade shattered the stillness, followed in seconds by bursts of gunfire. Before any of the Americans could raise a hand to defend themselves, Lawrence was dead from a bullet to the head, and Russell was dying, shot three times in the back.
They were not killed by the Taliban, as the U.S.-led military coalition indicated the day after the Oct. 8, 2011, assault. Lawrence, 29, of Nashville, Tenn., and Russell, 25, of Scotts, Mich., were killed in what U.S. investigators later called a "calculated and coordinated" attack by Afghan soldiers entrusted to work alongside their U.S. partners.
This is the first published account of the attack and is based on internal Army records and interviews in the U.S. and Afghanistan.
For Russell's family, the anguish is still fresh. His father, Jim, said the loss was even harder to accept after learning from the Army's investigation report early this year that it was a supposed ally, not the Taliban, who killed his son.


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Featuring irresistibly fun graphics and super-soft fabrics that little ones adore, colorful creations by Abentiny have little explorers covered in style. A Turkish brand that prides itself on making quality basics that boast some seriously whimsical details, they've gone the extra mile to bring their delightful kid's apparel to an international audience.
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Register to update information, save favorites, post photos, news stories and comments. A LucyMe.com login allows you to edit our four websites.
Patton is a 1970 American biographical war film about U.S. General George S. Patton during World War II. It stars George C. Scott, Karl Malden, Michael Bates and Karl Michael Vogler. It was directed by Franklin J. Schaffner from a script by Francis Ford Coppola and Edmund H. North, who based their screenplay on the biography Patton: Ordeal and Triumph by Ladislas Farago and Omar Bradley's memoir A Soldier's Story. The film was shot in 65mm Dimension 150 by cinematographer Fred J. Koenekamp and has a music score by Jerry Goldsmith.


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RFE: Conference Listings
This service is joint project of RFE and EconBiz.
- Tilburg University FSW - Dept. Economic & Social Psychology [ESP]
Dates: | August 26-26, 2005 |
Description: | 4th Tilburg Symposium on Psychology and Economics: "Decision Making: Interdependent and Individual approaches". |
Location: | Tilburg, Netherlands |
Subject: | The symposium aims to bring together Economists, Psychologist and other researchers who work on Behavioral Decision making, either in individual or interdependent settings. The symposium will be held at Tilburg University and will consist of two keynotes and a number of parallel sessions with presentations of about 20-30 minutes. Via these symposia we want to establish contact and discussion between researchers of the different fields. The previous three symposia were very successful in this. The symposiums main theme is "Decision Making: Interdependent and Individual approaches". We aim for contributions from the fields of the Dynamics of Bargaining, Social Decision Making, Group and/or Team Decision Making, Social Dilemmas, Experimental Games, Fairness and Justice, Rational Choice, the influence of emotions and related subjects. [gemäß den Informationen des Anbieters - according to site editor's information] |
JEL Code: | D |


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Five generations of this Bremerton family got together recently for a photo. From left, they are great-grandmother Judy Beatty, 70, and great-great grandmother Shirley Kinsman, 88, both from Bremerton; baby Tristan, 2 months old, and mother Laura Lowdermilk, 26, both from Louisville, Kentucky; and grandmother Wendy Wesser, 47, from Wasilla, Alaska.
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Missouri higher education officials plan conference
Officials of Missouri colleges and universities will gather next week for a day-long conference on issues including finances and academic quality.
The state Coordinating Board for Higher Educations is sponsoring the June 7 meeting in Columbia. It's expected to draw about 100 top administrators and members of governing boards, along with leaders of national organizations.
Coordinating Board chairwoman Kathy Swan says colleges and universities in Missouri face a common set of problems, including reduced funding and growing enrollments. Swan says the schools can learn from each other and from the national organizations.
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Some pics of my trip to Kilimajaro, Rongia route, great weather, great company and would highly recommend this trekk.
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Updates from our trip to Kilimanjaro plus photos from our training prior to departure. Enjoy!!!
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Namenda didn't help my father at all. He complained with his back hurting,dizziness had hallucations,blood pressure was high, couldn't eat,hepatic liver. I wouldn't recommed this drug at all.
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I have dementia associated with PD. Namenda in conjunction with Arecept has significantly improved my mental function. Cognitive skills tests were much better. I do notice a decrease in mental function when I am at the end of the dose, or very tired. However, I am still very satisfied. Before Namenda, I had difficulty functioning at all. I hope it continues to work. I have been on it for 4
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SOURCE Seiko
MELBOURNE, Australia, Jan. 10, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- Today on the eve of the Australian Open in Melbourne, Seiko launches its new partnership with Novak Djokovic. Shinji Hattori, President of Seiko Watch Corporation, is proud to announce the agreement in person and to present to Novak a Seiko Astron GPS Solar watch as a symbol of this global three year partnership.
For broadcast quality footage and high-res images, please visit the Multimedia News Release:
"We are delighted that Novak selected Seiko and we are honoured and proud to be his partner for the next three years. We admire Novak as a player, of course, but we also admire him as a person who has a rich range of interests and a very varied lifestyle. We cannot help Novak win tennis matches, but we can help him manage time in every other aspect of his life." - Shinji Hattori, President of Seiko Watch Corporation.
Novak's 2014 watch collection highlights another aspect of the partnership that is important for both Novak and Seiko. Both share a passion for the preservation of our environment and Novak's choice of watch reflects this. Seiko Astron uses just the power of light, the Sportura chronograph is powered by a mercury free battery that Seiko makes itself and the Divers and Premier watches are powered by Seiko's unique 'no battery change' technology.
Seiko also announced today its support for The Novak Djokovic Foundation, a charity established by Novak that works with disadvantaged children. Seiko is pleased to support the Foundation and its activities financially, but the most important way in which Seiko can make a difference is by helping Novak to promote the Foundation around the world. To do so, the company has created an accessibly priced watch collection for young people that will carry the Foundation name and message.
These watches are to be sold under the Lorus brand name and will be available in watch specialist retail stores in markets worldwide from September, 2014 onwards.
Visit http://www.seikowatches.com
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Spec.-Ops. Better BDU Belt 1.75" Nylon
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The Spec.-Ops. Better BDU Belt is the solution to problems encountered with the current issue BDU pants belt. The military issue belt is flimsy, has a noisy, hard-to-adjust buckle and sets off most metal detection systems.
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Technical Information:
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Louis XI of France
Louis XI the Prudent | |
Louis XI wearing his Order of Saint Michael | |
Reign | 22 July 1461 − 30 August 1483 |
Coronation | 15 August 1461, Reims |
Predecessor | Charles VII |
Successor | Charles VIII |
Spouse | Margaret of Scotland Charlotte of Savoy |
Issue | |
Anne, Duchess of Bourbon Joan, Duchess of Berry Charles VIII |
Father | Charles VII |
Mother | Marie of Anjou |
Born | Bourges, Berry, France |
3 July 1423
Died | 30 August 1483 Château de Plessis-lez-Tours, France |
(aged 60)
Burial | Notre-Dame de Cléry Basilica, Cléry-Saint-André, near Orléans |
Religion | Roman Catholicism |
Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called the Prudent (French: le Prudent), was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII.
A devious and disobedient Dauphin of France, Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the Praguerie (1440). The king forgave his rebellious vassals, including his son Louis, to whom he entrusted the management of the Dauphiné.
Louis' ceaseless intrigues, however, led his father to banish him from court. From the Dauphiné, he led his own political establishment and married Charlotte of Savoy, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy, against the will of his father. Charles VII sent an army to compel his son to his will, but Louis fled to Burgundy, where he was hosted by Philip the Good, the Duke of Burgundy, Charles' greatest enemy.
When Charles VII died in 1461, Louis left the Burgundian court to take possession of his kingdom. His taste for intrigue and his intense diplomatic activity earned him the nicknames the Cunning (Middle French: le rusé) and the Universal Spider (Middle French: l'universelle aragne), as his enemies accused him of spinning webs of plots and conspiracies.
In 1472, the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, took up arms against his rival Louis, who was able to isolate the Duke from his English allies by signing the Treaty of Picquigny (1475) with Edward IV of England. The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years' War. With the death of Charles the Bold at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy died out. Louis took advantage of the situation to seize numerous Burgundian territories, including Burgundy proper and Picardy.
Without direct foreign threats, Louis was able to eliminate his rebellious vassals, expand royal power, and strengthen the economic development of his country. He died in 1483 and was succeeded by his son Charles VIII.
Early life[edit]
Louis was born in Bourges on July 3, 1423 the son of King Charles VII of France.[1] At a time when the English held northern France, Louis' father, Charles VII, was restricted to the centre and south of the country. At the time, the city of Paris was located in the part of continental Europe controlled by the English. This was a situation that abused French pride and caused a longstanding series of wars called the "Second Hundred Years War" (1337-1453) [2] (The "First" Hundred Years War is defined as that series of wars between the French and the English which started at the beginning of the reign of King Louis VI in about 1108 and ended during the with the reign of Louis IX [1226-1270].) The Second Hundred Years War was aimed at driving the English from the continent of Europe. Indeed, Louis was the grandson of the strong-willed Yolande of Aragon, the princess who was the moving spirit in the royal family to drive the English out of France. At that time, France was suffering a low point in the war against the English. Indeed, just a few days after Louis' christening at the Cathedral of St. Étienne on July 4, 1423, the French army had suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the English at Cravant.[3] Shortly after this defeat, a combined Anglo-Burgundian army would be threatening Bourges itself.
During the reign of Louis' grandfather, Charles VI (1380-1422), the Duchy of Burgundy was very much connected with the French throne. However, the absence of any real concentrated power in a central government, all the duchies of France tended to act independently. Indeed, during the reign of King Charles VI, Duke Phillip II (The Bold) was reigning as Duke of Burgundy. Phillip was an uncle of King Charles VI and Phillip was actually serving on a council of regents for King Charles. The Dukes of Anjou, Berry and Bourbon,[4] all uncles of Charles VI, also served on this council of regents. Therefore, all effective power over King Charles VI actually lay with this made up of dukes. Accordingly, the real power in France lay with these independent duchies.
In its position of independence from the French throne, Burgundy had grown in size and power. By the reign of Louis' father, Charles VII, Phillip III, the Good (1419-1467) was reigning as Duke of Burgundy and the Duchy had expanded its borders to include all the territory in France from the North Sea in the north to the Jura Mountains in the south and from the Somme River in the west to the Moselle River in the east.[5] The duchy had also grown in political power. During the Second Hundred Years War, the Burgundians actually allied themselves with England against the French crown. Indeed the Burgundians were responsible during that war for the capture of and burning at the stake of Joan of Arc on May 31, 1431.[6]
In 1429, young Louis found himself in the presence of Joan of Arc at Loches. Joan was fresh from her first victory over the English at the Battle of Orléans.[7] Joan's victories on the field of battle proved to be the turning point for the French in the Hundred Years War. Joan led troops in other victories at won other victories at the Battle of Jargeau and the Battle of Patay.[8] Although, Joan was unable to liberate Paris during her lifetime, Paris was liberated from English rule after her death and Louis and his father Charles VII were able to ride in triumph into the city on November 12, 1437.[9] Nevertheless, Louis grew up aware of the continuing weakness of the French nation and he despised his father for this weakness. He regarded his father, Charles VII, as a weakling.
On 24 June 1436 Louis met Margaret of Scotland, daughter of James I of Scotland, the bride his father had chosen for diplomatic reasons.[10] There are no direct accounts from Louis or his young bride of their first impressions of each other, and it is mere speculation to say whether or not they actually had negative feelings for each other. Several historians think that Louis had a predetermined attitude to hate his wife. But it is universally agreed that Louis entered the ceremony and the marriage itself dutifully, as evidenced by his formal embrace of Margaret upon their first meeting.
Louis's marriage with Margaret resulted from the nature of medieval royal diplomacy and the precarious position of the French monarchy at the time. The wedding ceremony — very plain by the standards of the time — took place in the afternoon of 25 June 1436 in the chapel of the castle of Tours and was presided over by the Archbishop of Reims.[11] The 13-year-old Louis clearly looked more mature than his eleven-year old bride, who was said to resemble a beautiful "doll", and was treated as such by her in-laws.[11] Charles wore "grey riding pants" and "did not even bother to remove his spurs".[11] The Scottish guests were quickly hustled out after the wedding reception, as the French royal court was quite impoverished at this time. They simply could not afford an extravagant ceremony or to host their Scottish guests for any longer than they did. The Scots, however, saw this behaviour as an insult to their small, but proud, country.[12]
Following the ceremony, "doctors advised against consummation" because of the relative immaturity of the bride and bridegroom. Margaret continued her studies and Louis went on tour with Charles to loyal areas of the kingdom. Even at this time, Charles was taken aback by the intelligence and temper of his son. During this tour, Louis was named Dauphin by Charles, as was traditional for the eldest son of the king.[12] The beautiful and cultured Margaret was popular at the court of France, but her marriage to Louis was not a happy one, in part because of his strained relations with her father-in-law, who was very attached to her. She died childless at the age of 20 in 1445.
In 1440, Louis, aged 17, took part in an uprising known as the Praguerie, which sought to neutralize Charles and install Louis as Regent. The uprising failed and Louis was forced to submit to the King, who chose to forgive him.[13] In this revolt, Louis came under the influence of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon,[14] whose troops were in no condition to mount such a serious threat to royal authority. Louis was forced to retreat to Paris, but was "by no means trounced."[15] In fact, before his final defeat, "[Louis's]...military strength, combined with antipathy of the masses for great lords, won him the support of the citizens of Paris."[15] This was a great learning experience for Louis. James Cleugh notes:
"Like other strong-minded boys, he had found at last he could not carry all before him by mere bluster. Neither as prince nor as king did he ever forget his lesson. He never acted on pure impulse, without reflection, though to his life's end he was constantly tempted to take such a risk."[11]
Louis continued soldiering. In 1444 he led an army of "écorcheurs" against the Swiss at the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs and was impressed by the latter's military might. He still quarreled with his father, however, and his objectionable scheming, which included disrespectful behavior directed against his father's beloved mistress Agnès Sorel,[16] caused him to be ordered out of court on 27 September 1446 and sent to his own province of Dauphiné. He lived mainly in Grenoble, in the tour de la Trésorerie.[17] Despite frequent summons by the king, the two would never meet again. In Dauphiné, Louis ruled as king in all but name,[18] continuing his intrigues against his father. On 14 February 1451, Louis, 27, who had been widowed for six years, made a strategic marriage to the eight-year-old Charlotte of Savoy, without Charles' consent.[19] This marriage was to have long range effects on the foreign policy of France. It was truly the beginning of French involvement in the affairs of the Italian peninsula.
Finally, in August 1456, Charles sent an army to Dauphiné. Louis fled to Burgundy, where he was granted refuge by Duke Philip the Good and settled in the castle of Genappe.[20] King Charles was furious when Philip refused to hand over Louis and warned the duke that he was "giving shelter to a fox who will eat his chickens".
Succession as King[edit]
In 1461, Louis learned that his father was dying. He thus hurried to Reims to be crowned in case his brother, Charles, Duke of Berry, tried to do the same. Louis XI became King of France on July 25, 1461.[21]
Louis pursued many of the same goals that his father had, such as limiting the powers of the dukes and barons of France, with consistently greater success. Louis instituted tax reforms to make the tax system more efficient.[22] He suppressed many of his former co-conspirators, who had thought him their friend. He appointed to government service many men of no rank, but who had shown promising talent. He particularly favored the associates of the great French merchant, Jacques Coeur.[23] He allowed enterprising nobles to engage in trade without losing their privileges of nobility.[24] He eliminated offices within the government bureaucracy and increased the demand on other offices within the government in order to promote efficiency in government.[25] Louis spent a large part of his kingship on the road.[26] Travelling from town to town in his kingdom, Louis would surprise local officials, investigate local governments, establish fairs and promote trade regulations.[27] Perhaps, Louis XI's most significant contribution to the organization of the modern state of France, was his development of the system of royal postal roads. In this system relays at instant service to the king operated on all the high roads of France. It was this network of communications which spread all across France that led to King Louis XI's nickname of the "Universal Spider."[28]
As king, he became extremely prudent fiscally, whereas he had previously been lavish and extravagant. He wore rough and simple clothes and mixed with ordinary people and merchants. A candid account of some of Louis's activities is recorded by the courtier, Philippe de Commines, in his memoirs of the period. It was his habit to surround himself with valuable advisers of humble origins, such as Commines. Others include Olivier Le Daim, Louis Tristan L'Hermite, and Jean Balue. Louis burned to speed up everything, transform everything and build his new world.[23] For all the changes that Louis XI made to the government of France, he has the reputation of a leading "civil reformer" in French History[29] and Louis' reforms were in favor of the interests of the rising trading and mercantile classes which would later become the bourgeoisie classes of France.
Louis XI also involved himself in the affairs of the Church in France. In October of 1461, Louis abolished the Pragmatic Sanction which his father had instituted in 1438 to establish a French (Gallican) Church free of Rome.[30]
Feud with Charles the Bold[edit]
Philip III (The Good) (1419-1467) was reigning as Duke of Burgundy at the time that Louis XI came to the throne of France. Phillip was keen to start a Crusade to the Holy Lands. However, he needed funds to organize the Crusade. Louis XI gave him 400,000 gold crowns for the Crusade in exchange for a number of territories, including Picardy and Amiens.[31] However, Philip's son, the future Charles I, Duke of Burgundy, but currently the Count of Charolais, was angry about this transaction, feeling that he was being deprived of his inheritance. He joined a rebellion called the League of the Public Weal, led by Louis's brother, the Duke of Berry who was also named Charles.[32] Although the rebels were largely unsuccessful in battle, Louis had no better luck. Louis XI fought an indecisive battle against the rebels at Montlhéry[33] and, thus, was forced to grant an unfavourable peace as a matter of political expediency.[34]
Upon becoming Duke of Burgundy in 1467, Charles I (The Bold) seriously considered declaring an independent kingdom of his own. However, progress toward a strong centralized government had already advanced to the point, thanks, in part, to the continuous efforts of Louis XI, that Burgundy could no longer act as independently as the Duchy had done in the past. The Duchy now faced many problems with his territories, especially with the people of Liège, who conducted the Liège Wars against the Duke of Burgundy. In the Liège Wars, Louis XI, at first, allied himself with the people of Leige.
In 1468, Louis and Charles met at Péronne, but in the course of negotiations they learned that the Liègois had again risen up and killed the Burgundian governor.[35] Charles was furious. Philippe de Commines, at that time in the service of the duke of Burgundy, had to calm him down with the help of the duke's other advisors for fear that he might hit the king. Louis was forced into a humiliating treaty. He gave up many of the lands he had acquired and Louis XI turned on his erstwhile allies in Liege and swore to help Charles put down the uprising in Liege. Louis XI, then, witnessed the siege of Liège, in which hundreds were massacred.[36]
But once out of Charles's reach, Louis declared the treaty invalid and set about building up his forces. His aim was to destroy Burgundy once and for all and end a feud that had lasted over three generations, since the murder of Louis, Duke of Orléans, in 1407. War broke out in 1472. Duke Charles laid siege to Beauvais and other towns. However, these sieges proved unsuccessful and the siege was finally lifted on July 22, 1472.[37] and he finally sued for peace. Philippe de Commines was welcomed into the service of King Louis.
In 1469, Louis founded the Order of St. Michael, probably in imitation of the prestigious Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece, founded by Charles' father Philip the Good, just as King John II of France had founded the now defunct Order of the Star in imitation of the Order of the Garter of King Edward III of England. In both cases, a French king appears to have been motivated to found an order of chivalry to increase the prestige of the French royal court by the example of his chief political adversary.
Dealings with England[edit]
Coin of Louis XI, struck ca. 1470 | |
Obverse: Medieval image of Louis XI | Reverse: Fleurs-de-lis |
At the same time that France and Burgundy were fighting each other, England was going through its own civil conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. Louis had an interest in this war, since the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, was allied with the Yorkists who opposed King Henry VI. When the Earl of Warwick fell out with Edward IV, who had helped Edward attain the throne, Louis granted Warwick refuge in France. Through Louis' diplomacy, Warwick then formed an alliance with his bitter enemy, Margaret of Anjou, in order to restore her husband Henry VI to the throne. The plan worked and Edward was forced into exile, but he later returned and Warwick was killed at the Battle of Barnet in 1471.[38] King Henry was murdered soon afterwards.[39]
Now the undisputed master of England, Edward invaded France in 1475,[40] but Louis was able to negotiate the Treaty of Picquigny, by which the English army left France in return for a large sum of money. The English renounced their claim to French lands such as Normandy and the Hundred Years' War could be said to be finally over. Louis bragged that although his father had driven the English out by force of arms, he had driven them out by force of pâté, venison, and good wine.
Settling with Charles the Bold[edit]
Just as his father had done, Louis spent most of his reign dealing with the Duke of Burgundy,[41] and for this he employed the Swiss,[42] whose military might was renowned and which he had admired himself at the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs.
War broke out between Charles and the Swiss, when the Duke of Burgundy invaded Switzerland.[43] The invasion of Switzerland proved to be a mistake for the Duke of Burgundy. On March 2, 1476, the Swiss attacked and defeated the Burgundians at Grandson in Switzerland.[44] On 5 January 1477, the Duke was killed at the Battle of Nancy, which ended the Burgundian Wars.[45]
Louis thus succeeded in destroying his sworn enemy. Other lords who still favored the feudal system gave in to his authority. Others, like Jacques d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours, were executed. The lands belonging to the Duchy of Burgundy, as constituted by Louis' great-great-grandfather John II for the benefit of his son Philip the Bold, reverted to the crown of France.
The Italian Question[edit]
As noted above, the marriage on February 14, 1451 between Louis (while still Dauphin of France) and the eight year-old Charlotte of Savoy was the true beginning of French involvement in the affairs of Italy. The Italian peninsula was a tightly compacted and politically competitive space dominated by five powers--Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papacy, and the Kingdom of Naples.[46] Besides these five regional powers, there were about a dozen small states in Italy which were constantly changing policies and shifting alliances between and towards the various regional powers. The city/state of Genoa and the rising state of Savoy which centered on the city of Turin were examples of these lesser powers in northern Italy. Even the League General of Italy, the combination of the five major of Italy, that had been born out of the Peace of Lodi of 1454, was constantly undergoing internal realignments.[47]
Both Louis XI and his father, Charles VII had been too busy with their struggles with Burgundy to pay much attention to smoldering affairs in Italy. Additionally, Louis had his attention drawn away from Italy by foreign affairs problems with England and his struggle with Maximilian of Austria. However, the death of Charles I, Duke of Burgundy in 1476[48] which conclusively and finally settled the issue of Burgundy's position under the French throne and the Treaty of Picquigny of 1475 which led to a peaceful resolution and division of the "Burgundian inheritance" between Louis XI and the Archduke of Austria[49] and, further, the August, 1475 Treaty with King Edward, the Yorkish king of England, finally allowed Louis XI to turn his attention to Italy.
Viewed from Italy, the death of Charles I, Duke of Burgundy in 1476 and the resultant downfall of Burgundy as an independent threat to the French throne was a thunder clap signalling vast changes in their various relationships with the Kingdom of France. Despite his connection by marriage to the royal house of Savoy, Louis XI had continuously courted a strong relationship with the Francesco I Sforza Duke of Milan, who was a traditional enemy of Savoy. As evidence of this growing close relationship between Milan and the King of France, Sforza, the Duke of Milan sent his own son, Galeazzo Maria Sforza at the head of five thousand (5,000) foot and horse soldiers to aid Louis XI in his war against the League of Public Weal in 1465.[50] Recently, differences had arisen between France and Milan, that had cause Milan to seek ways of separating itself from dependence on the French. However, with the downfall of Burgundy in 1476, France was seen in a new light by Milan. Milan now hurriedly scuttered back into its alliance with Louis XI.[51] Likewise, France's old enemy, King Ferrante I of Naples was now actually seeking for a marriage between the Kingdom of Naples and France.[52] Louis XI also opened new friendly relations with the Papal States, forgetting the past devotion of the Pope for the Duke of Burgundy.[53] In January of 1478, Louis XI also signed a favorable treaty with the Republic of Venice.
This then was the very beginning of the involvement of France in the affairs of Italy. French involvement would be carried to new levels by Louis XI son, Charles VIII in 1493, when in answer to an appeal for help from Ludovico Sforza, younger son of Francesco Sforza. In answer to this appeal, Charles VIII would lead an invasion of Italy that would become a real watershed and a significant turning point in Italian political history.[54]
Louis XI died in August 1483 and was interred in the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Cléry [55] in Cléry-Saint-André in the Arrondissement of Orléans. His wife Charlotte died a few months later and is interred with him. Louis XI was succeeded by his son, Charles VIII, who was thirteen. His eldest daughter Anne of France became Regent.
Louis developed his kingdom by encouraging trade fairs and the building and maintenance of roads. Louis XI pursued the organization of the kingdom of France with the assistance of bourgeois officials.[56] In some respects, Louis XI perfected the framework of the modern French Government which was to last until the French Revolution.[57] Thus, Louis XI is one of the first modern kings of France who helped take it out of the Middle Ages.
Louis XI was very superstitious[citation needed] and surrounded himself with astrologers. Interested in science, he once pardoned a man sentenced to death on condition that he serve as a guinea pig for a gallstone operation.
Through war, cunning, and sheer guile, Louis XI overcame France's feudal lords, and at the time of his death in the Château de Plessis-lez-Tours, he had united France and laid the foundations of a strong monarchy. He was, however, a secretive, reclusive man, and few mourned his death.
Despite Louis XI's political acumen and overall policy of Realpolitik, Niccolò Machiavelli actually criticized Louis harshly in Chapter 13 of the The Prince, calling him shortsighted and imprudent for abolishing his own infantry in favor of Swiss mercenaries.
In popular culture[edit]
- Louis XI is a central character in Sir Walter Scott's 1823 novel Quentin Durward, where he is presented as an utter villain, who fatally undermined "the knightly code of chivalry", "ridiculed and abandoned the self-denying principles in which the young knight was instructed" and "did his utmost to corrupt our ideas of honour at the very source".
- In the opinion of Scott, inspired by the 19th-century Romanticism, Louis XI's being "purely selfish" and concerned solely with "his ambition, covetousness and desire of selfish enjoyment" merited his being considered "almost an incarnation of the devil himself", comparable to Goethe's Mephistopheles. Coincidentally, Sir Henry Irving had long-running stage successes playing both Louis XI and Mephistopheles.
- Conversely, Balzac gives a plausible and somewhat favourable picture of the king in his story "Master Cornelius".
- Louis XI appears as a character in several film versions of the stage melodrama If I Were King, a fictitious play about real-life poet François Villon.
- He is an important character in Victor Hugo's classic novel The Hunchback of Notre Dame as well as in most of its film adaptations.
- He appears in the operetta The Vagabond King, which is based on If I Were King.
- Among the actors who have played him onscreen are Robert Morley, Basil Rathbone, Conrad Veidt, Harry Davenport, Walter Hampden, and O. P. Heggie.
- In addition, Louis XI is a minor character in the play Henry VI, Part III, by William Shakespeare, where he is stylised as Lewis; he is depicted as, after choosing to support the Yorkist faction, switching allegiance to the Lancastrians, led by Margaret, following Edward IV's refusal to marry a French noblewoman.
- A character called the Spider King in Christopher Stasheff's 1994 novel The Witch Doctor goes by different names in different worlds, one of which being Louis XI.[58]
Children with Charlotte of Savoy[edit]
Louis's marriage with Charlotte of Savoy was not consummated until she was fourteen. Their children included:
- Louis (18 October 1458 – 1460)
- Joachim (15 July 1459 – 29 November 1459)
- Louise (born and died in 1460)
- Anne (3 April 1461 − 14 November 1522), who became Duchess of Bourbon.
- Joan (23 April 1464 – 4 February 1505), who became Queen of France.
- Louis (born and died on 4 December in 1466)
- Charles VIII of France (30 June 1470 – 8 April 1498)
- Francis, Duke of Berry (3 September 1472 – July[59] or November[60] 1473)
Ancestors of Louis XI of France | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc., 1971) p. 33.
- ^ See Note 3 in France: A Modern History by Albert Guérard (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1959) p. 552.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 34.
- ^ Albert Guérard, France: a Modern History, p. 105.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 84.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 42.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: the Universal Spider, p. 34.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 42.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p, 46.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 1971), 43.
- ^ a b c d Cleugh,James. Chant Royal The Life of King Louis XI of France (1423–1483). Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1970.[page needed]
- ^ a b Tyrell, Joseph M. Louis XI. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980.[page needed]
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 50.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis Xi: The Universal Spider, p. 48.
- ^ a b Le Roy Ladurie,Emmanuel. The Royal French State 1460–1610. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1987.[page needed]
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, pp. 65-67.
- ^ Moreau, Gilles-Marie. Le Saint-Denis des Dauphins : histoire de la collégiale Saint-André de Grenoble. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2010.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 69.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 75.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 86.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 107.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI, the Universal Spider, p. 116.
- ^ a b Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 116.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: he Universal Spider, p. 116.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendal, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 116.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 115.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 118.
- ^ Albert Geurard, France: A Modern History, p. 116.
- ^ Robert Famighetti, et al., The World Almanac and Book of Facts: 1994 (Mahwah, New Jersey: Funk and Wagnalls Corp., 1993) p. 526.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 117.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 121.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 142.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, pp. 158-168.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 169.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 214.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, pp. 222-223.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: the Universal Spider, p. 250.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 241.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 241.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 276.
- ^ Albert Guérard, France: A Modern History, p. 116".
- ^ Albert Guérard, France: A Modern History, p. 117.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 298.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 300.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 314.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 333.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 334.
- ^ Albert Guérard, France: A Modern History, pp. 117-118.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 323.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 147.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 334.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI: The Universal Spider, p. 334.
- ^ Paul Murray Kendall, Louis XI, The Universal Spider, p. 334.
- ^ Robert S. Hoyt and Stanley Chodorow, Europe in the Middle Ages (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc., 1976) p. 619.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ Albert Guérard, France: A Modern History p. 116.
- ^ Albert Guérard, France: A Modern History, p. 116.
- ^ "The Witch Doctor : Home". Christopher.stasheff.com. Retrieved 2013-11-10.
- ^ Cawley, Charles (August 2012), France Capetian Kings, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, retrieved August 2012,[better source needed]
- ^ Roglo.eu
Louis XI of France
Cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty
Born: 3 July 1423 Died: 30 August 1483 |
Regnal titles | ||
Preceded by Charles VII |
King of France 1461-1483 |
Succeeded by Charles VIII |
Dauphin of Viennois 1423–1461 |
Annexation by France |


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Demon's Souls - complete package
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- King Allant the XII, the last king of Boletaria, searched tirelessly to expand his might. The Nexus, a great ice shrine nestled in the mountains, bestowed the power of the souls onto him, bringing prosperity to his kingdom. Still unsated, he returned again to the Nexus, where he foolishly awakened the Old One from its eternal slumber. This long forgotten ... Read more
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