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Zoro International Ministries (ZIM) was formed in 2010 by world-renowned musician Zoro to teach Biblically based achievement skills, nurture purpose and offer inspiration to vulnerable young adults.
ZIM's vision is to help young adults throughout the world understand their unique God-given gifts and fulfill their divine assignments on earth.
ZIM's mission is to develop in young adults (age18 to 29) a rock-solid, Christ-centered foundation by giving them tools and support, guiding them to become their nation's next generation of leaders.
"The Living Your Destiny program has been an inspiration to me. As I began my college career, I had no idea what I wanted to do. I had a lot of ideas about what I was interested in, but I didn't have a clear direction. The program helped to focus those interests and send me in one direction instead of looking at many. Living Your Destiny is an awesome program for college students and young adults searching for their purpose in life." - Zack "Zoro's powerful and genuine ministry spoke to me as I made the recent transition into life as a college graduate. During the study, I was reminded that God made me for a unique purpose and that I could not only fulfill the expectations God has for me but exceed them for His Glory. Thank you, Zoro, for being open to God's voice and allowing me to take part in this ministry!" - Mike "I have a calling for music ministry but struggled with the question 'Where do I go from here?' Zoro challenged us to explore our talents, experiences, and lives in order to understand the unique callings God has placed in each of our lives. By the end of the program, I felt so much more equipped for the long journey God has prepared for me!" - Katie "The Living Your Destiny program has been a tremendous encouragement in my life. Zoro has put so much time and energy, diligence and Biblical research into making sure this program is applicable for the younger generation. I encourage all young adults to connect with this program." - Ryan "Living Your Destiny goes far beyond your ordinary fellowship group. We all have dreams and passions, and Zoro's ministry provides answers to questions about achieving those dreams. This program is vigorously inspirational, passionately God-centered and unbelievably practical."- Joe "The Living Your Destiny program has been foundational in my growth as a servant of Christ. Through the steps of the program, I better understand my unique role in using the gifts God has given me. Living Your Destiny has prepared me for whatever may lay ahead, and the principles are ones I plan to share with others. Their value is immeasurable and a blessing. - Eric "The curriculum made us think hard and dig deeper in our hearts to explore what certain scripture verses mean and how they relate to our lives. The take-home curriculum kept me focused on the subject long after our Sunday program. I now have a glimpse of living my "destiny," and I definitely want to learn more."- Brendan "The Living Your Destiny program is a course that not only motivates me but also encourages me to strive for a much stronger relationship with God. The knowledge shared in Living Your Destiny led me to a road with endless possibilities, knowing that anything is possible with strong faith and diligence."- Zach
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It May be the Audible Alarm of an Overlooked Sleep Problem
Heavy snoring ... pauses in breathing, then gasps for air. Sound familiar? As many as 18 million Americans (including many commercial truck and motorcoach drivers) experience these symptoms while sleeping—signs of a serious, potentially life-threatening disorder called sleep apnea. Yet many people are completely unaware they have this problem.
Unless your spouse has complained about your loud snoring or told you that you stop breathing for several seconds at a time while you sleep, you may recognize only one other symptom of sleep apnea: excessive daytime sleepiness. People with sleep apnea often find they are so tired during the day that they can't concentrate or stay alert for extended periods of time. They are frequently fighting the urge to fall asleep at work, in front of the television, or behind the wheel of a motor vehicle.
Are You At Risk for Sleep Apnea?
Sleep apnea occurs in all age groups and both sexes, but there are certain factors that put you at higher risk:
For the want of breath…
There are two types of sleep apnea: central and obstructive. Central sleep apnea, which is less common, occurs when the brain fails to send the appropriate signals to the muscles responsible for initiating breathing. Obstructive sleep apnea is far more widespread, affecting nearly 2 percent of women and 4 percent of men. This disorder, named for the Greek word apnea, meaning "want of breath," occurs when air cannot flow into or out of the nose or mouth, although the sleeper continues to try to breathe.
It is estimated that as many as 18 million Americans have sleep apnea and commercial truck and motorcoach drivers might be at higher risk of having this disorder. A study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania and sponsored by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) and the American Transportation Research Institute of the American Trucking Associations found that almost one-third (28 percent) of commercial truck drivers had some degree of sleep apnea.1 The study found that the risk of having sleep apnea depended on two major factors, age and degree of obesity, with prevalence increasing with both.
In some people, apnea results when the throat muscles and tongue relax during sleep and partially block the airway opening. People who are overweight may have an excess amount of tissue narrowing their airway, blocking the flow of air into or out of their nose or mouth. Someone whose airway is narrowed during sleep will not be aware of it, but will snore heavily and experience periods of no breathing, then will gasp for air, frequently waking from deep sleep to light sleep as these "apneic events" occur. In a given night, a person with the disorder may experience 20–60 or more apneic events per hour—which means his or her sleep is disturbed more than 200 times a night, every night!
Frequent interruptions of deep, restorative sleep leads to excessive daytime sleepiness, which is generally the first complaint sleep apnea patients have. However, left untreated, sleep apnea can lead to other medical problems including irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke. Studies show that untreated sleep apnea increases a person's risk for a motor vehicle crash by up to seven times.
How do you know if you have sleep apnea?
If you snore, it doesn't necessarily mean you have sleep apnea, though loud snoring is a common symptom. So are pauses in breathing during sleep and excessive daytime sleepiness. When your doctor is aware of your symptoms, he or she will probably refer you to a sleep specialist for further evaluation and diagnosis. The sleep specialist will discuss your symptoms and sleep habits, then may have you stay overnight at an accredited sleep clinic or center, where tests are conducted while you sleep.
There are a variety of ways to treat the problem.
Behavioral therapy, in some cases, may be all that is needed to relieve sleep apnea. People who are overweight often find that shedding pounds offers relief, opening the airway for improved airflow. Studies have shown that even a 10 percent reduction in weight can cut the number of apneic events for most patients. For some people with mild sleep apnea, apneic events only occur when they sleep on their backs. Using pillows and other methods to keep them from turning over onto their backs in their sleep may help the symptoms. And avoiding the use of alcohol and tobacco—both of which are likely to make the airway collapse during sleep and prolong apneic periods—may offer much needed relief.
The most common and effective medical treatment for sleep apnea is nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). With this therapy, the patient sleeps with a small, lightweight mask over the nose, or with padded prongs inserted just into the nostrils. A specifically prescribed amount of air blows through the mask or prongs from an air blower, forcing air through the nasal passages. The constant, continuous air pressure is adjusted so that it is just enough to prevent the throat from collapsing during sleep. Use of CPAP has been shown to be highly effective in treating sleep apnea; however, if a patient stops using this therapy or uses it improperly, the apneic episodes and symptoms will return.
Did You Know?
The average annual medical cost for someone with undiagnosed sleep apnea is estimated to be $2,720, compared with $1,384 for someone without sleep-disordered breathing. Overall, untreated sleep apnea is estimated to cost $3.4 billion in additional medical costs in the U.S.
— from "The medical cost of undiagnosed sleep apnea" Kapur et al., Sleep, 1999;22(6):749–55.
For some people with mild sleep apnea, or for those who snore but do not have sleep apnea, dental appliances that reposition the lower jaw have been helpful in treating symptoms.
Surgical procedures are sometimes used to increase the size of the airway. Some of the more common procedures include the removal of adenoids and tonsils (especially in children), nasal polyps or other growths, or other tissue in the airway and correction of structural deformities.
1. Pack AI, Dinges DF, & Maislin G. (2002). A study of prevalence of sleep apnea among commercial truck drivers. Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (Publication No. DOT-RT-02-030). Washington DC: U.S. Department of Transportation, FMCSA.
The materials contained on this page were developed under a contract with the National Sleep Foundation (NSF) and are being disseminated by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) in the interest of information exchange. The FMCSA assumes no liability of the contents or use thereof.
The materials contained on this page do not establish FMCSA policies or regulations, nor do they imply an endorsement or partiality by FMCSA of any product, the NSF, or the conclusions and/or recommendations contained in the materials. Trademarks or manufacturers' names may appear herein only because they are considered essential to the object of the materials.

subset: commoncrawl


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Cancellation Policy: For last minute cancellations there will be a 10% cancellation Fee. Clients are requested to give 24 hrs. notice or vouchers will be automatically cancelled. Clients are advised children under 10 years old are not permitted in the Salon Treatment areas due to health and safety reasons. ELBA Policies regarding male clients booking a salon treatment, it is common practice to inform the salon by booking in the name of the client who requiring the treatment. This is due to, not all therapist is able to perform treatments for male client. With clients correct information this would enable ELBA salon to have a correct therapist in place.
Restrictions: Cannot be used in conjunction with any other offer. Subject to availability. No cash alternative. No change given.
Good to know: If you select your date and time for the service at time of booking, your appointment is confirmed and there is nothing more you need to do. Please print out your confirmation email and take it with you to your appointment as proof of purchase.
Minimum age: 18
Applicable days: Monday, Wednesday, Saturday
ELBA Salon located in the heart of East London offers a full range of Beauty treatments from Facials, Non-Surgical Face Lift, CACI Eye Treatments, Eyelash and Eyebrows Tinting, Semi-Permanent Makeup, Holistic Spa Body Treatment, Body massage, Body wraps,Nail Extensions, Waxing, IPL Laser Hair removal and Skin Rejuvenation treatments. We are currently offering a 30% discount on All Beauty Treatments for a limited period.
Mon | 12:30pm | - | 7:00pm |
Tue | - Closed - | ||
Wed | 12:30pm | - | 7:00pm |
Thur - Fri | - Closed - | ||
Sat | 10:30am | - | 5:00pm |
Sun | - Closed - |


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Are you having a Tennis Party Theme? Now easily add a photo to make your invitation even more custom. Our Tennis Theme custom photo invitations can be used for a save the date, an invitation or an announcement. Tennis is a popular theme for member guest events, Bar and Bat Mitzvahs and birthday parties for a tennis fan. Personalized invitations can be customized with a choice of 12 font styles and 24 ink colors in 4 easy steps and adding your favorite guest of honors Photo, Class picture or a Logo. Choose from 4" x 6" or 5" x 7" and come with matching envelopes.
All personalized invitations are printed on high quality card stock. There is a 10 invitation minimum and then additional cards can be order in increments of 2.
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Practical mod_perl / | ||||
Privacy Policy |
This site doesn't collect any information from its visitors, other than the usual browser access logs, which are recycled on the constant basis. No information about your visits to this site is made available to any 3rd parties.
Other projects to check out: meta-religion.com is for those interested in Religious, Spiritual and Esoteric Phenomena. i-want-a-better.com is a community of people discussing what they would like to be improved in their lives and things they use and interact with. You may also want to find a healer in your area or read articles on variety of topics.


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Year: | So. |
Hometown: | Oceanside, Calif. |
High School: | Oceanside HS |
Position: | Throws |
AS A FRESHMAN: Competed in eleven outdoor events for the Titans during the 2013 track and field season…nine of his events were in the men's hammer throw with a team best 162-00 at the Big West Challenge on Apr. 12, placing sixth…Martinez also had the third best hammer throw of 159-08, placing 19th at the Ben Brown Invitational on Mar. 8-9…in the men's shot put, he threw 39-05.00, placing 11th at the Big West Challenge on Apr. 12.


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A team of Googlers and then guest judges -- such as Katy Perry, "Phineas and Ferb" creator and executive producer Jeff "Swampy" Marsh, and recording artist Jordin Sparks -- will help choose the top doodles. On May 2, Google will give the final vote to the public, and one winner from each grade group will be chosen.
Huntington Museum of Art, 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. Tuesday, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Wednesday through Saturday, noon to 5 p.m. Sunday, 2033 McCoy Road, Huntington; 304-529-2701 or www.hmoa.org. Admission $5 per person or $18 for a family of four or more. Admission is free on Tuesdays and to museum members.
Youth symphony season set
OAK HILL, W.Va. -- The spring season of the New River Youth Symphony and Chorus will begin Monday at Oak Hill High School.
The Beginner Chorus, under the direction of Kathie Kiser, serves 5- to 10-year-olds. This group helps children to focus, understand rhythms and match pitch. Kiser and her team use sign language, puppets and games to develop the children's ability to enjoy and understand how to sing together as a group.
The Youth Chorus, under the direction of Judith Arnold, provides the students with exposure to classical, folk and popular pieces. Arnold teaches the techniques necessary to use their voices effectively as individuals and as a group.
William Bailey, Youth Symphony director, provides an opportunity for young instrumentalists in Southern West Virginia to interpret and perform classical/symphonic music. Openings are available for musicians ages 8 to 24 in strings, woodwinds, brass and concert percussion.
Visit www.newrivermusic.org for details on auditions and rehearsals, or call Agnes Casto, general manager, 304-574-3567.
At the Smithsonian
WASHINGTON -- Planning a trip to Washington, D.C., for spring break? Here are a few of the exhibitions open this spring at the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
"The Art of Video Games," March 16 to Sept. 30, explores the 40-year evolution of video games as an artistic medium. Eighty games will be represented through still images and video footage; five will be available on kiosks where visitors can play brief excerpts.
"African American Art: Harlem Renaissance, Civil Rights Era, and Beyond," April 27 to Sept. 3, presents a selection of paintings, sculpture, prints and photographs by 43 black artists who explored the black American experience from the Harlem Renaissance through the civil-rights era and the decades beyond. More than half of the 100 featured works are being exhibited and circulated by the museum for the first time.
"Annie Leibovitz: Pilgrimage," through May 20, charts a new direction for the photographer. Unlike her staged and carefully lit portraits, these photographs were taken simply because Leibovitz was moved by the subject. Included are photographs of homes of iconic figures as well as places such as Niagara Falls, Walden Pond, Old Faithful and the Yosemite Valley.
At the Renwick Gallery, visit "Something of Splendor: Decorative Arts from the White House," through May 6.
The Smithsonian American Art Museum, Eighth and F Streets NW., Washington, D.C. Daily 11:30 a.m. to 7 p.m. The Renwick Gallery, a branch museum, is located on Pennsylvania Avenue at 17th Street NW. Call 202-633-1000 or visit www.AmericanArt.si.edu. All programs and tours are free.
Congressional art winners
CHARLESTON, W.Va. -- Six young artists have been selected as winners in the annual Congressional Art Competition, which is on display in the Balcony Gallery of the Culture Center through April 1. The exhibition is sponsored in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Education and the Arts.
Three first-place winners received a $100 gift certificate from Dick Blick Art Materials, and their work will represent West Virginia in the national competition. Three second-place winners received $50 gift certificates from Dick Blick Art Materials.
All winners were chosen by Vernon Howell, an art teacher at Barboursville High School for 30 years.
The Congressional Art exhibition consists of 34 pieces by 28 students, grades 9 through 12, from 11 West Virginia counties. Artworks in the annual exhibition were selected from a statewide competition.
Congressional Award winners:
Shawna Clayton, "A Winter's Walk," Liberty High School, grade 12, Harrison County
Joey Dawson, "Smelling Fresh," Ravenswood High School, grade 12, Jackson County
Stephen Santonia, "Strange Tides," Sherman High School, grade 12, Boone County
Second-place winners:
James Crim, "Poised for Lift-Off," Liberty High School, grade 9, Harrison County
Amelia Long, "Untitled," North Marion High School, grade 12, Marion County
Blake Stephens, "Let the Mouse Hunt Begin," Parkersburg High School, grade 12, Wood County
To have your announcement included in Arts Notes, email sara.bu...@wvgazette.com or send it to Arts Notes, The Charleston Gazette, 1001 Virginia St. E., Charleston, WV 25301. Artwork can be submitted electronically or by mail. Deadline for inclusion in the Sunday Gazette-Mail is the Tuesday before Sunday publication.


text: The legacy of the past meets the future in the Jordan Fragmented Elephant Short. Embossed Dri-FIT® fabric wicks sweat away to keep you dry and comfortable. Reflective piping with reflective embroidered Jumpman design trademark adds visibilityin low-light conditions. Elastic waist with interior drawcord provides a snug, adjustable fit. 100% polyester. Imported. |


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When: October 19, 2013 1:00: PM - 8:00 PM
Where: Lookout Mountain Nature Center
This all-ages, family-friendly, non-scary Halloween festival will feature guided hikes, Halloween crafts, games, storytellers, special exhibits, and live animals from Nature's Educators. Guided hikes will leave every 10 minutes. Registration is required for those interested in joining a guided hike. Drop-in participation is welcome for all other ongoing activities. All ages.
Suggested donation: $10/family, $5/individual.
Register online or by calling 720-497-7600.


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By Mr. Straus of Mattapoisett, a petition (accompanied by bill, House, No. 1634) of William M. Straus relative to the use of a radio frequency scanning devices or reencoders to obtain personal identification information for the purpose of committing fraud. The Judiciary.
Sponsors: | |
Status: | Referred to Joint Committee on the Judiciary |


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June 25, 2008
Hearing on "Laptop Searches and Other Violations of Privacy Faced by Americans Returning from Overseas Travel"
June 25, 2008
9:00 A.M. Dirksen Senate Office Building, Room 226
Testimony of LARRY CUNNINGHAM
Chairman Feingold, Senator Brownback, and Members of the Subcommittee on the Constitution:
Thank you for inviting me to testify about about this important topic. My name is Larry Cunningham. I am, until next Monday, an Assistant District Attorney in the Appeals Bureau of the Bronx County District Attorney's Office in New York City.1 Beginning next Tuesday, I will be a professor at St. John's University School of Law in Queens, New York, where I will be teaching legal writing. My experience with the topic of border searches stems from my research into this area while I was a law professor in Texas. I subsequently published an article analyzing the law of border searches in the Quinnipiac Law Review, volume 26, page 1. I have also taught the law of search and seizure as both a full-time and adjunct law professor.
Before directly addressing the topic that is the subject of today's hearing, I would like to make four observations. First, I understand the term "laptop search" to mean an investigation into the electronic contents of a laptop computer--the files and information that are contained in the computer's hard drive or its memory. By this, I understand to exclude from its definition the physical search of the compartments of the laptop itself. In other words, outside the scope of today's discussion would be the search for narcotics or other contraband secreted in, say, a CD or DVD drive. Today's hearing, as I understand it, concerns the permissibility of a government agent's search of the electronic information contained in a laptop computer at the border.
Second, the relevant question is not whether a person feels that his privacy has been intruded upon when a customs agent searches his laptop. All government searches will, by definition, involve some intrusion into a person's subjective expectation of privacy. Otherwise, they would not be considered "searches" for purposes of the Fourth Amendment. In Katz v. United States,2 the Supreme Court held that whether there is a "search" at all, for Fourth Amendment purposes, depends on an affirmative answer to the threshold question: Has there been a breach of the reasonable expectation of privacy?
Third, the Constitution's text does not prohibit the government from conducting searches that intrude into people's privacy. What the text of the Fourth Amendment does prohibit is the conducting of unreasonable searches or seizures. Conversely, then, the Fourth Amendment permits reasonable searches and seizures. Through over two hundred years of case law, the Supreme Court has tried to define the boundaries between "reasonable" and "unreasonable" searches and seizures.
Fourth, then, we know that the extent of the privacy intrusion is only the beginning step of a constitutional or policy inquiry into a particular search or seizure practice. The discussion must then consider the reasonableness, or unreasonableness, of the practice. The Supreme Court has said that reasonableness, in turn, requires a balancing between the relevant government interests, on the one hand, and the privacy interests at stake, on the other.
With these preliminary considerations and observations in mind, I will now turn to the question of laptop searches at the border. I will do so by discussing, first, the background of border searches in order to provide historical context for the topic. Second, I will address the current state of the law dealing with border searches, in general, and laptops, in particular. Third, I will analyze the relevant policy considerations to determine whether some oversight or legislative action is necessary. Fourth, I will offer some modest proposals for legislative action or administrative regulation.
I. The Historical Background of Border Searches
In assessing "reasonableness," the modern Supreme Court starts with the general proposition that, ordinarily, searches and seizures must be preceded by a warrant and a judicially-determined finding of probable cause, "subject only to a few specifically established and well-delineated exceptions."3 Among those exceptions is the "border search exception," which permits the search of persons or property crossing the international border without a warrant or probable cause.
The Supreme Court did not officially and directly recognize this exception until 1977. Prior to that, it had hinted--through dicta in several cases--that such an exception existed. In Boyd v. United States, a civil forfeiture case from 1886, the Supreme Court had to decide whether customs agents lawfully seized several plates of glass, alleged to have been illegally imported by the claimant. At issue was the seizure of the goods, not the search that led to them. The Supreme Court upheld the seizure under the Fourth Amendment, noting that the seizure of contraband had been authorized at common law, by English statute, and by the First Congress-- the same body that went on to propose the Fourth Amendment to the states several months later. This latter, historical argument is significant because the same statute that authorized the seizure of contraband also authorized the warrantless search of ships and vessels for goods subject to duty. Therefore, an extension of the Boyd Court's reasoning would support the border search exception. If that Court upheld one aspect of the statute (the provision permitting seizure) then it stands to reason that the rest of the statute (authorizing warrantless searches) was also constitutional.
The Supreme Court also alluded to a border search exception in Carroll v. United States, the case that recognized the car search exception, which permits the warrantless search of an automobile, provided the police have probable cause to believe that evidence or contraband is contained in the vehicle. In Carroll, Chief Justice Taft cited Boyd for the proposition that there is a fundamental difference between a search of a person's home and the search of goods that are in the "course of transportation."4 When contraband goods are in transit, "it is not practicable to secure a warrant, because the vehicle can be quickly moved out of the locality or jurisdiction in which the warrant must be sought."5 Having established that the warrant requirement did not apply to car searches, the Court next addressed under what circumstances such stops could occur. The Court rejected a rule that would authorize the stop of every car on a road in the hope that contraband might be uncovered.6 Such blanket and suspicionless searches violated the Constitution, Taft held.7 The Court made a point of drawing a distinction to border searches, however. The Court noted:
Travelers may be so stopped in crossing an international boundary because of national self-protection reasonably requiring one entering the country to identify himself as entitled to come in, and his belongings as effects which may be lawfully brought in.8
While dicta, this passage was strong support for the belief that, at least in 1925 when Carroll was decided, the suspicionless and warrantless searches of persons at the border were considered reasonable.
The Supreme Court continued alluding to a border search exception in dicta in two obscenity cases in the early 1970s. In United States v. Thirty-Seven (37) Photographs,9 the claimant returned to the United States from a trip to Europe with several pictures from the Kama Sutra, which he intended to sell. Customs officials seized the photographs under a statute prohibiting the importation of obscene materials. The Supreme Court construed the statute to require a prompt determination, by a judge, of whether the seized items were in fact obscene. The Court rejected a First Amendment challenge to the statute, holding that Congress had the power to prohibit the importation of goods, even if the possession and viewing of the items within the privacy of one's home, could not subject the claimant to prosecution. The Court reasoned that a port of entry is markedly different from the private sanctum of a person's home. The Court stated:
[A] port of entry is not a traveler's home. His right to be let alone neither prevents the search of his luggage nor the seizure of unprotected, but illegal, materials when his possession of them is discovered during such a search. Customs officers characteristically inspect luggage and their power to do so is not questioned in this case; it is an old practice and is intimately associated with excluding illegal articles from the country.10
The Court concluded that Congress may constitutionally prohibit the importation of obscene
In United States v. 12,200-Ft. Reels of Super 8mm. Film,12 the Supreme Court applied the holding of Thirty-Seven Photographs to an end-user who had imported pornographic films for his private use. The Court, as in Thirty-Seven Photographs, relied on its conception of the international border as being constitutionally different from the interior of the country. The Court wrote:
Import restrictions and searches of persons or packages at the national borders rest on different considerations and different rules of constitutional law from domestic regulations.13
The Court noted that the text of the Constitution14 gives broad power to Congress to regulate international commerce. "Historically such broad powers have been necessary to prevent smuggling and to prevent prohibited articles from entry."15
In Almeida-Sanchez v. United States,16 the Court came closest to addressing the constitutionality of border searches. The defendant was stopped by a "roving patrol" of the United States Border Patrol. He was stopped on a state highway in California, traveling on an east-west highway that was 25 air miles north of the Mexican border.17 Citing Boyd and Carroll, the Court in dicta upheld routine border searches. The Court wrote:
It is undoubtedly within the power of the Federal Government to exclude aliens from the country. ... It is also without doubt that this power can be effectuated by routine inspections and searches of individuals or conveyances seeking to cross our borders.18
The Court also opined that a routine border search would also be permissible at the "functional equivalent" of the border, such as fixed checkpoints in the interior of the country or at airports where an international flight makes its first stop in the country.19 However, the Court declined to extend this principle to the roving patrol at issue in the case. Describing the search as "of a wholly different sort," the Court held that suspicionless searches in the interior of the country were unconstitutional, citing Carroll.20
The Supreme Court directly confronted the issue of the constitutionality of warrantless and suspicionless border searches in United States v. Ramsey.21 The defendants were convicted of, among other things, the illegal importation of heroin. The defendants ran a heroin-by-mail enterprise in which they sent heroin from Thailand through the international mail to co¬conspirators in the United States, who would then distribute the drugs domestically. A customs inspector, on-duty at the sorting facility of the New York Post Office, noticed that there were several bulky envelopes that had been mailed from Thailand. He felt the envelopes and concluded that they contained something other than letters. He opened them and found heroin. Writing for a 5-4 majority, then-Justice Rehnquist upheld the search. The Court first put to bed the question of whether border searches, in general, are constitutional without a warrant or suspicion:
That searches made at the border, pursuant to the long-standing right of the sovereign to protect itself by stopping and examining persons and property crossing into this country, are reasonable simply by virtue of the fact that they occur at the border, should, by now, require no extended demonstration.22
In support, the Court looked principally to history. The Court re-adopted Boyd's historical argument. The Congress that proposed the Bill of Rights had, only a few months earlier, enacted a customs statute that permitted the warrantless search of "any ship or vessel, in which [customs officers had] reason to suspect any goods, wares or merchandise subject to duty [were] concealed."23 In contrast, the search of homes, stores, and other buildings required a warrant.24 The Court cited Carroll, Thirty-Seven Photographs, 12,200-Ft. Reels of Film, and Almeida-Sanchez for the proposition that there was a consistent and long history of support for the border search exception.
The Court also viewed the border as having a talismanic significance. The Court wrote: Border searches, then, from before the adoption of the Fourth Amendment, have been considered to be "reasonable" by the single fact that the person or item in question has entered into our country from outside.25
This passage suggests that the Court viewed the border as having a special significance under Fourth Amendment, not unlike the car, home, or school. While the Court has repeated Katz's warning that the Fourth Amendment protects "people, not places,"26 one cannot help but read Ramsey as holding that the border is an area in which special Fourth Amendment rules apply.
Later, the Court talked about the border search exception as being grounded in a "right" of the government to control the entry of persons and objects into the country.27 The Court did not expand upon its rationale, except to note later in the opinion that "the 'border search' exception is not based on the doctrine of 'exigent circumstances' at all."28
The question for the Court was whether the search fell within or without the general exception. The defendant conceded, at oral argument, that Customs could open an envelope hand-carried by a passenger walking across the border. The question, then, was whether the mode of an object's entry should make a difference. The Court concluded that the "critical fact" was the border crossing, not the manner in which it was made.29 The Court also rejected the defendant's First Amendment arguments. Here, the Court relied on a diminished expectation of privacy at the border: "There are limited justifiable expectations of privacy for incoming material crossing United States borders."30 Specifically, the defendant was unable to demonstrate why a letter that is mailed should possess a greater expectation of privacy than a letter that is hand-carried across the border.
II. The Law In light of Ramsey, the present state of the law is this: Persons and property entering the United States from abroad are subject to warrantless and suspicionless search. Routine searches at the border are justified, under the Constitution, for the following reasons:
?historically, customs and border officials have had broad latitude to conduct suspicionless and warrantless searches at the border or its functional equivalent;
?the sovereign has an inherent right to control who and what crosses its borders;
?searches are necessary to protect the interior from contraband and disease; and
?there is a diminished expectation of privacy at the border.
The border search exception comes with an important caveat, however. A suspicionless and warrantless search is permitted only for so-called "routine" searches, such as opening a piece of mail or patting down a person crossing the border. "Non-routine" border searches require something more, the Supreme Court held in United States v. Montoya de Hernandez.31
Rosa Elvira Montoya de Hernandez arrived at Los Angeles International Airport on a flight from Bogota, Colombia. A customs inspectors grew suspicious because she had made a number of recent trips to Miami and Los Angeles, had no friends in the United States, did not have hotel reservations, had $5,000 in cash but no billfold, could not recall how she purchased the plane ticket, and had a suspicious story about coming to the United States to buy supplies for her husband's store. A female inspector was summoned to pat-down the defendant. The pat-down revealed that the defendant's abdomen felt firm and full. The inspectors accused the defendant of being an "alimentary canal smuggler"--one who swallows balloons or condoms filled with drugs, crosses the border, and then excretes the packages and delivers them to an awaiting drug dealer. The inspectors asked the defendant for permission to x-ray her, which the defendant agreed to. The defendant stated she was pregnant, so the inspectors said they would give her a pregnancy test. The defendant withdrew consent after she learned that the inspectors would handcuff her on the ride to the hospital. The inspectors then offered her a choice: submit to an x-ray, wait in the customs area until she produced a monitored bowel movement, or return to Colombia. The defendant chose the last option, but the inspectors were unable to arrange a direct flight to Bogota. The defendant was placed in an empty office with a wastebasket. She was informed that if she had to go to the bathroom, she would have to use the wastebasket. The defendant was confined in the room for approximately 16 hours, most of the time spent curled up on a chair. She refused all offers of food and drink. After 16 hours, customs sought and obtained a court order authorizing a pregnancy test, x-ray, and rectal exam. The defendant was taken to a hospital where a physician performed a rectal exam. The doctor removed a balloon with drugs. Over the next several days, the defendant excreted 88 balloons containing 528 grams of cocaine.
At issue was the 16-hour detention and seizure of the defendant. The defendant claimed that this was an unreasonable seizure and hence the subsequent search was invalid. Writing for the majority, then-Justice Rehnquist noted first the context of the seizure:
Here the seizure of respondent took place at the international border. Since the founding of our Republic, Congress has granted the Executive plenary authority to conduct routine searches and seizures at the border, without probable cause or a warrant, in order to regulate the collection of duties and to prevent the introduction of contraband into this country. ... This Court has long recognized Congress' power to police entrants at the border.32
Congress has a legitimate concern about the "integrity of the border," a concern only heightened by what Rehnquist called the "veritable national crisis in law enforcement caused by smuggling of illicit narcotics ... and in particular by the increasing utilization of alimentary canal smuggling."33 Because the government's interests in protecting the border are so strong, the "Fourth Amendment's balance of reasonableness is qualitatively different at the international border than in the interior."34 In contrast, the defendant's expectation of privacy was less at the border because she had requested to be admitted to the country and had subjected herself to the laws of the United States.35 The Court concluded that the balancing of the interests of the government and the individual "is ... struck much more favorable to the Government at the border."36
But the Court noted that Ramsey concerned itself with a routine border search, and that the Court had never decided what was required for a non-routine search or seizure at the border.37 The Court rejected the Ninth Circuit's test, which would have permitted the detention of an entrant only upon "clear indication" of alimentary canal smuggling.38 The Court looked instead to the familiar Fourth Amendment standard of "reasonable suspicion:"
We hold that the detention of a traveler at the border, beyond the scope of a routine customs search and inspection, is justified at its inception if customs agents, considering all the facts surrounding the traveler and her trip, reasonably suspect that the traveler is smuggling contraband in her alimentary canal.39
The Court upheld the detention of Montoya de Hernandez because the inspectors had reasonable suspicion that the defendant had drugs in her alimentary canal. The inspectors had more than a hunch. The circumstances of the defendant's entry into the country were suspicious, and the defendant did not help her case with her implausible story. This justified the inspectors' initial detention of the defendant. The continued detention (for over 16 hours) was justified because of the unique nature of alimentary canal smuggling. It is difficult to confirm whether a person is an alimentary canal smuggler because of the nature of the biological processes involved. Unlike brief Terry-like encounters,40 this type of drug smuggling cannot be detected in a matter of moments. The inspectors reasonably expected that Montoya de Hernandez's detention would be brief because she had not gone to the bathroom in quite some time. The detention lasted so long because the defendant chose to "resist the call of nature."41 "[Montoya de Hernandez] alone was responsible for much of the duration and discomfort of the seizure."42
Justice Brennan dissented, arguing that the customs officials needed both probable cause and a warrant in order to detain the defendant for so long. He drew a distinction between the 16¬hour detention at issue in Montoya de Hernandez and the limited inconveniences, such as questioning, patdowns, and searches of luggage, that occur in routine border search cases:
These [routine] measures, which involve relatively limited invasions of privacy and which typically are conducted on all incoming travelers, do not violate the Fourth Amendment given the interests of "national self protection reasonably requiring one entering the country to identify himself as entitled to come in, and his belongings as effects which may be lawfully brought in."43
Justice Brennan distinguished the detention of the defendant. First, the purpose was for criminal investigation, not protection of the sovereign.44 If the government was truly concerned about preventing the entry of drugs into the interior, customs could have done a more thorough job at securing the defendant's passage out of the country.45 Second, a person's diminished expectation of privacy at the border is not nil. Justice Brennan wrote:
I do not imagine that decent and law-abiding international travelers have yet reached the point where they "expect" to be thrown into locked rooms and ordered to excrete into wastebaskets, held incommunicado until they cooperate, or led away in handcuffs to the nearest hospital for exposure to various medical procedures-- all on nothing more than the "reasonable" suspicions of low-ranking enforcement agents.46
He noted that extended and intrusive detentions have typically fallen within the traditional Fourth Amendment requirements of probable cause and a warrant.47
The "non-routine" border search cases, like Montoya de Hernandez, have involved searches of the "alimentary canal"--the digestive track of a person. On one occasion, however, the Supreme Court had the opportunity to decide to what extent, if any, a search of property can be considered "non-routine." In United States v. Flores-Montano,48 the defendant was stopped as he drove into a fixed checkpoint at the United States-Mexico border. After a brief inspection, Customs agents decided to remove the car's gas tank because they suspected that it contained drugs. Indeed, after a mechanic detached the gas tank--a process that took 15 to 25 minutes-- agents found 37 kilograms of marijuana bricks. On appeal, the government specifically conceded that the customs officials did not have reasonable suspicion to conduct the search, even though the facts of the case indicated that they did. A customs officer at the primary checkpoint had tapped on the gas tank and thought that it sounded "solid." The government elected not to argue that the officials had reasonable suspicion; it did so in order to challenge an earlier Ninth Circuit decision49 that held that reasonable suspicion was required to remove a gas tank from a car at the border.
Writing for a unanimous Court, Chief Justice Rehnquist held that the removal of the gas tank was constitutional, notwithstanding the absence of any degree of suspicion. The Court declined to find that this was a "non-routine" border search. "The Government's interest in preventing the entry of unwanted persons and effects is at its zenith at the international border."50 "Time and again," the Court said, it had upheld searches at the border because the sovereign has a longstanding and "inherent" right to protect itself at the border.51 The Court also noted the long history of both legislative and judicial approval for such searches. In rejecting the defendant's arguments that the search unreasonably violated his right to privacy, the Court recognized that the "expectation of privacy is less at the border than it is in the interior."52 The Court found no evidence in the record that the temporary removal of the gas tank caused long-term damage to the vehicle. The Court left for another day whether a "different result" would be required if a search of property resulted in damage or was conducted in a particularly offensive manner.53
In the context of laptop searches, the question is this: Are they "routine: searches, which require no suspicion and may be done at random, or are they "non-routine," like the search and seizure in Montoya de Hernandez, which require, at a minimum, reasonable suspicion? The cases to have addressed this question have held that they fall under the former category. In United States v. Ickes,54 the Fourth Circuit affirmed a defendant's conviction for transporting child pornography. The defendant was stopped as he crossed the Canadian-U.S. border. A search of his van found a computer and 75 disks containing child pornography, including a video of the defendant fondling the genitals of two young children. The Fourth Circuit began its analysis by poignantly noting, "However the Constitution limits the government's ability to search a person's vehicle generally, our law is clear that searches at the border are a different matter altogether."55 The court rejected the defendant's argument that the search was conducted in violation of 19 U.S.C. § 1581(a). This statute had historically been construed in an "expansive manner."56 In rejecting the defendant's constitutional challenge, the Fourth Circuit applied the holding in Ramsey and found the search of the computer disks to have been lawful. It declined to carve out an exception for "expressive material."57 "Particularly in today's world, national security interests may require uncovering terrorist communications, which are inherently 'expressive.'"58 The court discounted the defendant's argument that, under the government's argument, any person on an international flight could have his or her laptop computer's hard drive exhaustively searched. The unanimous court found this idea "far-fetched" because Customs agents do not have the time or resources to search the contents of every computer that crosses the border.59 "As a practical matter," the Court stated, "computer searches are most likely to occur where--as here--the traveler's conduct or the presence of other items in his possession suggest the need to search further."60
Two cases from the Ninth Circuit followed Ickes and directly involved laptop computers. In both cases--United States v. Romm61 and United States v. Arnold62--the defendants were stopped at international airports after arriving from foreign countries and had their laptop computers searched. In both cases, Customs agents found child pornography on the laptops' hard drives and the Ninth Circuit upheld the searches as constitutional. In Romm, however, the court declined to address the defendant's argument that the search of the laptop was "too intrusive" to qualify as a "routine" border search because he had raised this issue for the first time in his reply brief to the appellate court.63 (Likewise, in United States v. Irving,64 the Second Circuit rejected a challenge to the search of floppy disks at the border, finding that the search was based on reasonable suspicion. Therefore, that court did not have the opportunity to address whether the search was routine or non-routine.)
In Arnold, however, the Ninth Circuit squarely addressed whether the search of a laptop at the border is routine or non-routine. In reversing the district court's order suppressing the fruits of the search, the Ninth Circuit concluded that the search was routine and the government was not required to establish that its agents had reasonable suspicion. The court rejected the district court's use of a "sliding intrusiveness scale to determine when reasonable suspicion is needed to search property at the border"65 because of the Supreme Court's disapproval, in Flores-Montano, of "[c]omplex balancing tests" to determine what is a routine search.66 The defendant attempted to distinguish this portion of Flores-Montano by noting that it was in the context of vehicle searches. The Ninth Circuit, however, recognized that, "The Supreme Court's analysis determining what protection to give a vehicle was not based on the unique characteristics of vehicles with respect to other property, but was based on the fact that a vehicle, as a piece of property, simply does not implicate the same 'dignity and privacy' concerns as 'highly intrusive searches of the person.'"67 Finally, the court found that neither of the two possible exceptions left open by Flores-Montano was applicable. The defendant's laptop was not damaged and there was nothing to indicate that Customs searched the laptop in a "particularly offensive manner."68 A petition for rehearing en banc is presently pending before the Ninth
III. Resolution of the Competing Policy Interests
I submit that the laptop border search cases have correctly applied the law. Ramsey established a necessarily broad rule for searches at the international border. The nation has an inherent right to protect itself and to interdict the importation of harmful items. The ability to conduct suspicionless searches is a vital tool to prevent narcotics, weapons, drug money, untaxed imports, child pornography, and disease-carrying plants and animals from entering the country. At the same time, persons have a diminished expectation of privacy at the border. Travelers in the modern age--particularly those who travel internationally--know and expect that they will be subject to search without cause at multiple points in their journeys.
The courts have correctly rejected attempts to analogize laptop searches to the type of search and seizure conducted in Montoya de Hernandez. Defendants have argued that the situations are similar because of the highly private information contained on some laptop computers. This argument is unavailing. The search and seizure in Montoya de Hernandez was considered "non-routine" not just because it was an intrusion into the defendant's privacy. The Court's decision was also based on the fact that there was a unique "interest[] in human dignity" that was at stake.70 A laptop computer--no matter the quantity or nature of the information contained within it--simply does not implicate the same degree of privacy concerns involved with a person's "alimentary canal."
Nevertheless, the Constitution, and the courts' interpretation of its text, only sets a minimum standard for civil rights and liberties. Of course, Congress and the Executive have the authority to set laws and policies that exceed these constitutional protections, if doing so would provide greater protection for privacy and individual rights. It is this broader question that I will now address. The appropriate inquiry, in the context of policy-making, should involve a careful balancing of the competing interests at stake: the government's interests in conducting suspicionless searches versus the privacy interests of those crossing the border.
Opponents71 of border searches of laptops point to the personal and private information, such as Internet browsing history, e-mails, and financial records, that are contained on some laptops. There is a correspondingly high expectation of privacy, they argue, that warrants a requirement of reasonable suspicion.
There is no doubt that many people keep personal information on their laptop computers. But the same can be said for the traveler who keeps his checkbook, notes for an upcoming novel, medications, photographs, sketches for a new invention, political literature, love letters, and personal diary in his briefcase. No one doubts that each of these items can be seen and examined by Customs officials at the border without a requirement of reasonable suspicion.
So the question becomes whether a laptop is, by its very nature, sufficiently different that it warrants a categorical exception to the general rule. Stated another way, should the "high-tech" traveler receive special treatment because he carries his private information electronically, rather than in a more traditional form? Certainly more information can be kept on a computer than can be stored in a briefcase. The international traveler, however, can control how much of this information can be seen by the government. Files that are not necessary for a specific trip can be kept at home or at one's business. Opponents would likely counter that even "deleted" files can be retrieved by government technicians. This is true. However, this argument assumes that the government has the time and manpower to do so in every case. As a practical matter, the government would more likely reserve those resources for cases in which its agents already had some suspicion that the laptops contained something illegal, as the Fourth Circuit recognized in Ickes.72
In addition, there is an even less of a reasonable expectation of privacy at the international border because of the nature of international travel. Countries, including the United States, randomly search travelers at both entry and exit.73 So a person who travels from, say, China to the United States, will be subject to, at a minimum, two searches: upon exiting China and upon entering the United States. Likewise, a person who travels in the opposite direction will face a search upon departure from the United States, by American authorities, and again before being permitted to enter China, by Chinese customs officers. I submit that many countries conduct much more aggressive searches than the United States. The international traveler should expect, then, that he will encounter several searches of his person or property and that some will be more invasive than others. Therefore, even if the United States adopted a rule requiring reasonable suspicion for searches of laptops, international travelers would still face a diminished expectation of privacy because their computers could still be randomly searched by the foreign country that they were visiting or leaving.
All of these privacy considerations must then be balanced against the government's legitimate interests in conducting suspicionless searches of laptops and other electronic devices. The reported cases on this subject involved individuals attempting to bring child pornography into the country. Congress itself has recognized the dangers associated with such imagery by providing for steep penalties for its importation, distribution, and possession. Additionally, there is the potentiality for terrorists and international criminal organizations to use laptops as a means of secreting files, plans, and messages into the country for distribution to cells and allies within the interior of the country. Presently, the threat of random, suspicionless searches may be deterring such means of communication. Given the possibility of surveillance of phones and the Internet, "old fashioned" smuggling across the border, by storing files on a laptop, might prove a safer and more attractive alternative for such communication provided the persons doing so could be assured that the computer would not be subject to the possibility of random and suspicionless search.
There is an additional problem with creating a special exception for laptops at the border: defining its scope. Should reasonable suspicion be required for searches of flash drives and other storage media? What about Blackberry and other PDA devices? Why not extend protection to equally private containers of information, such as the films and videos that were at issue in the early civil forfeiture cases? This highlights the problem of deviating from a categorical rule in this area. We have a privacy interest in nearly everything we own or bring across the border--no person wants the government "snooping" through his laptop any more than his briefcase, checkbook, medications, clothing, books, Blackberry, or digital media. It would be difficult to avoid having the exception swallow the rule.
I have confined my analysis to the question of laptop searches. Seizures of such devices are another matter altogether. The border exception justifies the search, not the seizure, of items that cross the border. In order to seize an item, the government must have probable cause that the item is, or contains, contraband. If a Customs officer finds child pornography on a laptop, for example, he or she would be justified in seizing the computer since it contains contraband and persons do not have a right to retain contraband. I am aware of no authority that would permit the government, without probable cause to believe it contains contraband, to keep a person's laptop or to copy the contents of its files.
IV. Some Modest Proposals
During oral argument in Flores-Montano, it came to light that Customs keeps a record of all border searches that its agents conduct and the reasons, if any, for each particular search.74 If this is the still the case, the records should provide Congress with enough information to determine whether laptop searches are being conducted in a abusive or racially discriminatory manner.75 Given the highly sensitive nature of such records, such review should be kept under seal, in the same manner that, for example, information about the number of air marshals is kept out of the public record.76 If such records are no longer being kept, it might be advisable for the
practice to be restarted.
The Executive Branch can take administrative and rule-making steps, in addition to record-keeping, to ensure that privacy intrusions are kept to a minimum. For example, at the traveler's request, an examination of a computer should occur away from public view. Only officers who have received appropriate training should be allowed to conduct searches, in order to minimize the possibility of irreparable damage to, or erasure of, files and the hardware itself. A rule requiring searches to be conducted in the presence of a supervisor would also be prudent.
Any search at the border will be viewed, by the person being searched, as a "violation of privacy." The Constitution recognizes, however, that such "violations" are nevertheless permissible if they are "reasonable" in the broader context of the legitimate government interests at stake. The government's interest in protecting the nation is at its zenith at the international border. At the same time, a person's legitimate expectation of privacy is at its lowest. To create a special exception for laptop computers at the border would set a curious precedent, since there are innumerable other types of property in which a similarly strong argument about privacy could be made. At the same time, such an exception would open a vulnerability in our border by providing criminals and terrorists with a means to smuggle child pornography or other dangerous and illegal computer files into the country.
I thank the subcommittee again for the invitation to testify here today. I would be glad to answer any questions. I can be reached via phone at (212) 920-4623 or via e-mail at email@example.com.
1 I am speaking today in my individual capacity; my views do not necessarily reflect those of the District Attorney.
4 Id. at 151, 153.
5 Id. at 153.
6 Id. at 154. 7 Id.
7 Id. at 154
8 Id. at 153-54.
10 Id. at 376 (emphasis added).
11 Id.
13 Id. at 125.
14 U.S. CONST. art. I, § 8, cl. 3.
15 12,200-Ft. Reels of Super 8mm. Film, 413 U.S. at 125.
16 Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266 (1973).
17 Id. at 267-69. 18 Id.
19 Id. at 272-73.
20 Id. at 274-75.
22 Id. at 616.
23 Id. (quoting 1 Stat. 29, § 24).
24 Id.
25 Id. at 619 (emphasis added).
26 Katz, 389 U.S. at 349.
27 Ramsey, 431 U.S. at 620. ("The border-search exception is grounded in the recognized right of the sovereign to control, subject to substantive limitations imposed by the Constitution, who and what may enter the country.").
28 Id.
29 Id. at 620.
30 Id. at 623 n.17.
32 Id. at 537.
33 Id. at 538.
34 Id
35 Id. at 539 (citing Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132 [1925] and 19 U.S.C. § 482).
36 Id. at 540.
37 Id.
38 Id. at 540-41.
39 Id. at 541. 40 Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968).
41 Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. at 543.
42 Id.
43 Id. at 551 (quoting Carroll, 267 U.S. at 154)
44 Id. at 564.
45 Id. 46 Id. at 560
47 Id. at 552-58.
49 See United States v. Molina-Tarazon, 279 F.3d 709 (9th Cir. 2002).
50 Flores-Montano, 541 U.S. at 152-53
51 Id.
52 Id. at 154.
53 Id. at 155-56.
54 393 F.3d 501 (4th Cir. 2005).
55 Id. at 503
56 Id. at 505.
57 Id. at 506.
59 Id. at 507.
60 Id.
61 455 F.3d 990 (9th Cir. 2006)
62 523 F.3d 941 (9th Cir. 2008).
63 Romm, 455 F.3d at 997.
64 432 F.3d 401 (2d Cir. 2005).
65 Arnold, 523 F.3d at 945.
66 Id. at 946.
67 Id. (quoting Flores-Montano, 541 U.S. at 152).
68 Id. at 946-47.
69 Arnold was cited favorably in a recent district court decision. See United States v. Bunty, 2008 WL 2371211 (E.D. Pa. June 10, 2008) (Kauffman, J.) ("Although the Supreme Court has not addressed specifically the search of computer equipment at the border, other federal courts have agreed that such searches do not require reasonable suspicion.").
70 Montoya de Hernandez, 473 U.S. at 540 n.3.
71 See, e.g., Brief for Amici Curiae Association of Corporate Travel Executives and Electronic Frontier Foundation in Support of Appellee's Petition for Rehearing En Banc, United States v. Michael Timothy Arnold, No. 06-50581 (9th Cir.); Jeanne Meserve, Suit: Airport searches of laptops, other devices intrusive, http://www.cnn.com/ 2008/TRAVEL/02/11/laptop.searches/index.html (accessed June 21, 2008).
72 "As a practical matter, computer searches are most likely to occur where--as here--the traveler's conduct or the presence of other items in his possession suggest the need to search further."
73 Exit searches were the subject of my law review article, The Border Search Exception for Exports: A Global Conceptualization, 26 Quinnipiac L. Rev. 1 (2007). Exit searches are justified for myriad reasons, including the need to ensure that appropriate duties and taxes have been paid, that travelers are not smuggling high technology, and that unreported currency, which is the lifeblood of the international drug trade, is not leaving the country.
74 Flores-Montano, 541 U.S. at 156 (Breyer, J., concurring).
75 Id. ("This administrative process should help minimize concerns that gas tank searches might be undertaken in an abusive manner.")
76 See


text:
Summary Details
Query: |
Grammatical Complexity, Part I
Author: | Kaius Sinnemäki | |
Submitter Email: | click here to access email | |
Linguistic LingField(s): |
Phonology Syntax Typology |
Summary: |
Regarding the query http://linguist.emich.edu/issues/15/15-3317.html and
I recently posted a query on grammatical complexity on
LINGUIST-list and
FUNKNET in order to find any relevant research already being conducted
on the subject.
First, I would like to thank everyone who responded (Apologies for any
possible omission. In addition to these, there were other requests to
pass on the summary.):
Daniel L. Everett
Jan Rijkhoff
Tom Giv?n
David A. Havas
Miriam Meyerhoff
Doug Whalen
Sheri Wells Jensen
Gertraud Fenk-Oczlon
Patrick Juola
Heres the summary of the comments and references I received.
Dan Everett suggested his recently submitted paper Cultural Constraints
on Grammar in Piraha, which is available on his website.
Jan Rijkhoff suggested Wouter Kusters recent dissertation and the
latest issue of Linguistic Typology (8-3, 2004), both very relevant.
(Kusters, Wouter. 2003. Linguistic complexity. Utrecht: LOT, Leiden.)
Tom Givon noted that all languages have roughly-equivalent expressive
powers but that some languages are typologically less likely to employ
embedded clauses. He suggested several chapters of his Syntax vol. II
(2001, Benjamins) for further reading on serial verbs, complementation,
clause union, relative clauses and chaining.
Doug Whalen forwarded the query on phonological complexity that he
summarized on LINGUIST in February 2004
(http://linguistlist.org/issues/15/15-430.html). Hes also working on
how brain activation might correlate with complexity.
Shari Wells Jensen offered her dissertation on cross linguistic speech
errors, which suggest equal complexity from functional point of view:
LL Issue: | 15.3529 | |
Date Posted: | 19-Dec-2004 | |
Original Query: | Read original query | |
Back |
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Automated detection and response to attacks
One of the biggest problems with security is the amount of setup effort and continuous maintenance it often requires. OSSEC provides a degree of assurance and active protection with a minimal setup cost and little maintenance. OSSEC is lacking in a few features I would really love to see (like telling me what changed within a file as opposed to just telling me that the file has changed) and lacks some ease of use features (like mass configuration and change management), but weighed against the simplicity of setup and management I think it's still worth it.
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Read full article as PDF:
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Nuevahola (CD / MP3) 2009 Cherry Red Records. A compilation album of new, old and unreleased songs. Some Spanish loveliness... Mejor is a top summer jam. / BBC6 Lauren Laverne 4/5 stars **** The sunny weather manages to bring out a surprise summer soundtrack. A compilation of his best bits and some new stuff, with help from Teenage Fanclub's Norman Blake and a couple of BMX Bandits, so you can sense where his music's going. There's a chilled-out cover of the Stones' Paint It Black too. / Sunday Express BUY CD: BUY MP3:
Mejor - SINGLE (MP3) 2009 Cherry Red Records An advance for the album Nuevahola featuring Federico Aubele & Natalia Clavier. Some Spanish loveliness... Mejor is a top summer jam. / BBC6 Lauren Laverne Our Favorite Downloads of 2009! Cineplexx has incredible talent and we instantly understood this when we heard his latest single, "Mejor." It's easy-going, sometimes even nostalgic– but in a good way! / Remezcla BY Nathalie Gonzalez BUY (ONLY DIGITAL):
Picnic (CD / MP3) 2008 Cherry Red Records (re-issue) / Portia Records (US & CA) / Molecula Records (MX) / Universal Rec. (Philippines) Picnic has lovely contributions from Duglas T. Stewart (BMX Bandits), Norman Blake (Teenage Fanclub), Jad Fair (Half Japanese), Federico Aubele, Sebastian Kramer, Leumann, Earzumba & friends. "Like dreamy landscapes sung in Spanish, Litmanovich's melodies evoke all kinds of emotions" - XLR8 4 stars, AMG Album Pick - All Music Guide "Picnic may very well go down as one of the most uniquely engaging releases of the year" ObscureSound BUY MP3 BUY Digipack CD (Portia Records, USA edition with 2 bonus tracks) Molécula Records (Mexico) digipack edition + 2 bonus tracks here Europe via Elefant Records (Spain) here (READ MORE...)
Restar (CD + FREE DOWNLOAD) 2006 Testing Ground (Spain) Music that is not connected to any concrete genre or style, but still it has elements of some of them, like ambient, idm or even a special kind of, let's name it, 'lucid dreaming techno music'. A fusion of more musical styles or approaches might bring in more diversity in the tracks on the album, but maybe that's how the next album will sound. (BR, VITAL WEEKLY)
Pequeños Accidentes Domésticos (miniCD / MP3) 2003 Cherry Red Records (re-issue) / ZigZag Records (SP/AR) Afincado en bcn hace un par de años, Sebastian Litmanovich paso por Buenos Aires este verano para presentar su ultimo disco como Cineplexx, el hermoso "pequeños accidentes domésticos". Un sencillo album que contiene 8 canciones, entre las que se desataca la contagiosa "Tarde", que abre el disco con aroma a imposible hit estival./ ROLLING STONE (ARG) BUY MP3: (Cherry Red Records/IODA | Digital Worldwide Distribution)
Capacidad máxima:1 persona (LP 12") 2003 Cherry Red Records (re-issue) / Ruga & K Industria (Spain) BUY MP3: (Cherry Red Records/IODA | Digital Worldwide Distribution) BUY DIRECT LIMITED EDITION LP @ CINEPLEXX'S E-STORE: Get your limited edition 12" Vinyl (Ruga Records, 2003) Signed here: http://cineplexx.bigcartel.com (READ MORE...)
Electrocardiograma (CD / MP3) 2002 Produced with Daniel Melero Cherry Red Records (re-issue) / Everlastin Records (Spain) / Krovha (Argentina) The raw muscle of human emotion meets the cold circuitry of modern anatomical medicine, courtesy of Argentina´s Sebastian Litmanovich, whose songs come packaged with a disembodied red heart on its cover and a sequence of electrical pulses on the accompanying insert cards. Subdued meditative compositions, delicately strummed on an acoustic guitar, are enhanced by a melancholic universe of electronic effects. Slide guitar echo and chime deep into the darkness, while korgs drift in and out of the crepuscular mix. Sounds to accompany the slow death of feelings once fondly remembered. THE WIRE, january 2002 #215, Ken Hollings BUY MP3: (Cherry Red Records/IODA | Digital Worldwide Distribution)
Posología (CD / MP3) 1999 Cherry Red Records (re-issue) / Caipirinha Music (USA) Somewhere between delight and horror lies Cineplexx, the new project from up-and-coming Argentine electronic musician Sebastian Litmanovich. On one level, the music on Posologia is the stuff of dreams -- ghostly, breathy Spanish vocals that could have been recorded in a hollow cave weave around sluggish rhythms, woeful, nearly subliminal keyboard/guitar melodies and an almost transparent array of intelligently arranged samples. But slowly, the nightmare rolls in, as a disturbing, off-kilter wash of ambient noise echoes throughout each piece, enveloping, consuming, and blurring the distinctions between post-rock, jazz and techno textures. The end results are at once soothing and unsettling, but it's that bizarre juxtaposition of causes and effects that makes Posologia such a unique and darkly alluring piece of work./ CMJ BUY MP3: (Cherry Red Records/IODA | Digital Worldwide Distribution) BUY The Digipack CD here: Walmart (US) | Amazon (US) | Juno (UK)
Comprimido (Tape, Out of Stock) 1997 Krovha (AR)


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Grilled Corn in the Style of Oaxaca
Oaxaca is a region of Mexico where they have learned to take an already delicious summer vegetable and make it taste even
better. Slather the cobs with a rich sour cream and mayonnaise mixture, season with spicy chili powder and salty Parmesan
cheese, and then throw them on the grill. Finish off the corn with a squeeze of lime juice for a unique union of Mexican flavors.
Recipe: Grilled Corn in the Style of Oaxaca


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Collins Dictionary is soliciting help from the general public to keep up with the latest lingo online (and offline).
"For Collins Online Dictionary, it was essential that we keep our ear close to the ground listening out for new words emerging from pop culture, science and technology," said Alex Brown, Head of Digital, in a press release.
Through www.collinsdictionary.com people are being invited to submit popular words for consideration. Participants have already created a list of over 100 new words, including creeping (think Jersey Shore) Teabowing and many more.
All language evolve, English often faster than others. But are we doing the english language a disservice? What do you think? Should "Beer Goggles" be included? A dictionary is there to explain existing words so what's the harm? Do you have suggestions for words to add to the Collins Dictionary?
I kinda like frunge myself.
1. Frunge
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Bullingdon Club
The Bullingdon Club is an exclusive society at Oxford University, noted for its grand banquets and boisterous rituals, such as 'trashing' of restaurants and college rooms.[1]
Founded perhaps as early as 1780, the Bullingdon was originally a sporting club, dedicated to cricket and horse-racing, although dinners gradually became its principal activity. Membership of the club is expensive, with tailor-made uniforms, regular gourmet hospitality and a tradition of on-the-spot payment for damage.[2] Its ostentatious display of wealth attracts much controversy, since many ex-members have moved up to high political posts. The university extends no official recognition to the club, and many local restaurants refuse to host its events. But it remains a popular topic with the public, as shown by its regular featuring in fiction and drama, sometimes under its own name, and sometimes easily recognisable under another.
The Bullingdon Club was founded over 200 years ago. Petre Mais claims it was founded in 1780 and was limited to 30 men,[3] and by 1875 it was considered "an old Oxford institution, with many good traditions".[4] Originally it was a hunting and cricket club, and Thomas Assheton Smith II is recorded as having batted for the Bullingdon against the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1796.[5] In 1805 cricket at Oxford University "was confined to the old Bullingdon Club, which was expensive and exclusive".[6] This foundational sporting purpose is attested to in the Club's symbol.
The Wisden Cricketer reports that the Bullingdon is "ostensibly one of the two original Oxford University cricket teams but it actually used cricket merely as a respectable front for the mischievous, destructive or self-indulgent tendencies of its members".[7] By the late 19th century, the present emphasis on dining within the Club began to emerge. However, Walter Long attests that in 1875 "Bullingdon Club [cricket] matches were also of frequent occurrence, and many a good game was played there with visiting clubs. The Bullingdon Club dinners were the occasion of a great display of exuberant spirits, accompanied by a considerable consumption of the good things of life, which often made the drive back to Oxford an experience of exceptional nature".[4] A report of 1876 relates that "cricket there was secondary to the dinners, and the men were chiefly of an expensive class".[8] The New York Times told its readers in 1913 that "The Bullingdon represents the acme of exclusiveness at Oxford; it is the club of the sons of nobility, the sons of great wealth; its membership represents the 'young bloods' of the university".[9]
Today, the Bullingdon is still primarily a dining club, although a vestige of the Club's sporting links survives in its support of an annual point to point race. The Club President, known as the General, presents the winner's cup, and the Club members meet at the race for a champagne breakfast. The Club also meets for an annual Club dinner. Guests may be invited to either of these events. There may also be smaller dinners during the year to mark the initiation of new members. In early 2013, it was rumoured that an initiation ritual also involved burning a fifty-pound banknote in front of a tramp, although the Oxford Student and the Daily Mail both later reported that this 'was not substantiated by fact', with the former printing a public apology for printing the rumour on the front page of the newspaper.[10] The club often books private dining rooms under an assumed name, as most restaurateurs are wary of the Club's reputation for causing considerable drunken damage during the course of dinner.
A photograph of former Bullingdon Club members wearing their club uniforms, including Prime Minister David Cameron and Mayor of London Boris Johnson was revealed in 2007.[11]
A number of episodes over many decades have become anecdotal evidence of the Club's behaviour. Infamously, on 12 May 1894[12][13] and again on 20 February 1927,[14] after dinner, Bullingdon members smashed almost all the glass of the lights and 468 windows in Peckwater Quad of Christ Church, along with the blinds and doors of the building. As a result, the Club was banned from meeting within 15 miles of Oxford.[2]
While still Prince of Wales, Edward VIII had a certain amount of difficulty in getting his parents' permission to join the Bullingdon on account of the Club's reputation. He eventually obtained it only on the understanding that he never join in what was then known as a "Bullingdon blind", a euphemistic phrase for an evening of drink and song. On hearing of his eventual attendance at one such evening, Queen Mary sent him a telegram requesting that he remove his name from the Club.[9][15]
Andrew Gimson, biographer of Boris Johnson, reported about the club in the 1980s: "I don't think an evening would have ended without a restaurant being trashed and being paid for in full, very often in cash. [...] A night in the cells would be regarded as being par for a Buller man and so would debagging anyone who really attracted the irritation of the Buller men."[16]
Dinners in recent years, being relatively low key, have not attracted press attention, though in 2005, following damage to a 15th-century pub in Oxfordshire during a dinner, four members of the party were arrested; the incident was widely reported.[17] A further dinner was reported in 2010 after damage to a country house.[18][19]
In the last few years, the Bullingdon has been mentioned in the debates of the House of Commons in order to draw attention to excessive behaviour across the British class spectrum,[20] and to embarrass those increasingly prominent Conservative Party politicians who are former members of the Bullingdon. These most notably include David Cameron (UK Prime Minister), George Osborne (UK Chancellor of the Exchequer) and Boris Johnson (Mayor of London).[21][22] Hansard records eight references to the Bullingdon between 2001 and 2008.[23] Johnson has since tried to distance himself from the club, calling it "a truly shameful vignette of almost superhuman undergraduate arrogance, toffishness and twittishness."[24]
The Club's colours are sky blue and ivory. Members dress for their annual Club dinner in specially made traditional tailcoats in dark navy blue, with a matching velvet collar, offset with ivory silk lapel revers, brass monogrammed buttons, a mustard waistcoat, and a sky blue bow tie. There is also a Club tie, which is sky blue striped with ivory. These are all provided by the Oxford branch of court tailors Ede and Ravenscroft. In 2007 the full uniform cost around £3,500.[25] Traditionally when they played cricket, members "were identified by a ribbon of blue and white on their straw hats, and by stripes of the same colours down their flannel trousers".[26]
Relationship with the University[edit]
The Bullingdon is not currently registered with the University of Oxford,[27] but members are drawn from among the members of the University. On several occasions in the past, when the club was registered, the University proctors have suspended it on account of the rowdiness of members' activities,[4] including suspensions in 1927 and 1956.[28] John Betjeman wrote in 1938 that "quite often the Club is suspended for some years after each meeting".[29] While under suspension, the club has been known to meet in relative secrecy.
The club was active in Oxford in 2008/9, although not currently registered with the University, and the retiring proctors' oration recited an incident which, not being on University premises, was outside their jurisdiction: "some students had taken habitually to the drunken braying of 'We are the Bullingdon' at 3 a.m. from a house not far from the Phoenix Cinema. But the transcript of what they called the wife of the neighbour who went to ask them to be quiet was written in language that is not usually printed".[30] The members therefore received an Anti-Social Behaviour Contract from the Thames Valley Police, threatening the more common ASBO. The proctor concluded in March 2009: "So I am pleased to say that, except perhaps at the highest level of national politics, the Bullingdon Club this year has been quiescent."
In fiction[edit]
The Bullingdon is satirised as the Bollinger Club (Bollinger being a notable brand of champagne) in Evelyn Waugh's novel Decline and Fall (1928), where it has a pivotal role in the plot: the mild-mannered hero is blamed for the Bollinger Club's destructive rampage through his college and is sent down. Tom Driberg claimed that the description of the Bollinger Club was a "mild account of the night of any Bullingdon Club dinner in Christ Church. Such a profusion of glass I never saw until the height of the Blitz. On such nights, any undergraduate who was believed to have 'artistic' talents was an automatic target."[31]
Waugh mentions the Bullingdon by name[32] in Brideshead Revisited. In talking to Charles Ryder, Anthony Blanche relates that the Bullingdon attempted to "put him in Mercury" in Tom Quad one evening, Mercury being a large fountain in the centre of the Quad. Blanche describes the members in their tails as looking "like a lot of most disorderly footmen", and goes on to say: "Do you know, I went round to call on Sebastian next day? I thought the tale of my evening's adventures might amuse him." This could indicate that Sebastian was not a member of the Bullingdon, although in the 1981 TV adaptation, Lord Sebastian Flyte vomits through the window of Charles Ryder's college room while wearing the famous Bullingdon tails.[33] The 2008 film adaptation of Brideshead Revisited likewise clothes Flyte in the Club tails during this scene, as his fellow revellers chant "Buller, Buller, Buller!" behind him.
A fictional Oxford club based on the Bullingdon and its members forms the basis of Posh, by Laura Wade, a play staged in April 2010 at the Royal Court Theatre, London. Membership of the club while a student is shown as giving admission to a secret and corrupt network of influence in British politics later in life.[34]
The TV series Trinity, set in a "Trinity College" in a fictional English city, featured an elite "Dandelion Club" whose members wore yellow waistcoats like those of the Bullingdon Club, and behaved in a similar manner.
In February 2012 Colman's, the company whose mustard is used by the club for its initiation rites, launched a TV advert in the UK featuring a comic minotaur character who is dressed in the Bullingdon Club uniform of teal blue long-tailed frock coat and mustard yellow waistcoat; and whose voice, mannerisms and blonde haircut all parody those of former club member and London Mayor Boris Johnson.[35][36]
David Cameron's and Boris Johnson's period in the Bullingdon Club was examined in the UK Channel 4 docu-drama When Boris Met Dave, broadcast on 7 October 2009 on More 4.[37] An Observer Magazine article in October 2011 reviewed George Osborne's membership of the club.[38]
Notable members[edit]
Members of the Club have included:
- Edward VII[14]
- Edward VIII[14]
- Frederick IX of Denmark[14]
- Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany[39]
- Prince Paul of Yugoslavia[40]
- Rama VI, King of Siam[41]
- Michael Ancram[42]
- Timothy Beaumont, Baron Beaumont of Whitley[43]
- Gottfried von Bismarck[44]
- David Dimbleby[45]
- David Bowes-Lyon[14]
- David Cameron, UK Prime Minister[46]
- Raymond Carr[28]
- Henry Chaplin, 1st Viscount Chaplin[47]
- Lord Randolph Churchill[48]
- Alan Clark, MP[49]
- George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston[14]
- David Faber, head master of Summer Fields School[50]
- Peter Fleming[51]
- George Gibbs, 1st Baron Wraxall[52]
- Jason Gissing[14]
- William Grenfell, 1st Baron Desborough[14]
- Darius Guppy[53]
- Peter Holmes à Court[1]
- Nick Hurd, MP[54]
- Boris Johnson, Mayor of London[49]
- Jo Johnson, MP[55]
- Sir Frederick Johnstone, 8th Baronet[47]
- Sir Ludovic Kennedy[56]
- Walter Long, 1st Viscount Long[4]
- Harry Mount[1]
- Serge Obolensky[57]
- George Osborne, Chancellor of the Exchequer[49]
- Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford[58]
- John Profumo[37]
- John Rankin Rathbone, MP[28]
- Cecil Rhodes[13]
- Sebastian Roberts[59]
- Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery[60]
- Nathaniel Philip Rothschild[1]
- John Scott, 9th Duke of Buccleuch[61]
- Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 8th Duke of Buccleuch[62]
- Radosław Sikorski, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland[63]
- Thomas Assheton Smith II[5]
- Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer[64]
- Alexander Thynn, 7th Marquess of Bath[28]
- Felix Yussupov[65]
- ^ a b c d Patrick Foster (28 January 2006). "How young Cameron wined and dined with the right sort". The Times (London). Retrieved 2007-12-04. "[Cameron] has previously admitted to being a member of the Bullingdon Club, notorious for the drunken vandalism of its predominantly aristocratic members."
- ^ a b The Oxford Student (12 January 2005). "Smashing job chaps: Exclusive inside look at Bullingdon club".
- ^ Stuart Petre Brodie Mais, The Story of Oxford, 1951; p. 70
- ^ a b c d Walter Long (1923). "Memories". Retrieved 2008-05-08.
- ^ a b Aubery Noakes, Sportsmen in a Landscape, 1971; p.61
- ^ G.V. Cox (1870). "Recollections of Oxford". Retrieved 2008-05-13.
- ^ Mark Davies The Wisden Cricketer May 2010, "Drinking and Politics"
- ^ James Pycroft in London Society, v.30, 1876 (James Hogg, Florence Marrayat ed.); p. 197
- ^ a b New York Times (1 June 1913). "Bullingdon Club Too Lively For Prince of Wales" (PDF). The New York Times.
- ^ "Daily Mirror". Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ Gardham, Duncan (14 February 2007). "Cameron as leader of the Slightly Silly Party". The Daily Telegraph (London).
- ^ New York Times (13 May 1894). "Condensed Cablegrams" (PDF). The New York Times.
- ^ a b Trevor Henry Aston (1984). The History of the University of Oxford.
- ^ a b c d e f g h J. G. Sinclair (2007). Portrait of Oxford.
- ^ New York Times (28 May 1913). "Wales in Trouble Over Club Supper" (PDF). The New York Times.
- ^ BBC news (2 March 2007). "Cameron student photo is banned". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-12-31.
- ^ The Oxford Student (13 January 2005). "Bullingdon brawl ringleader is Princess Diana's nephew".
- ^ The Daily Mirror (25 June 2010). "Boozed up Bullingdon toffs all go plumb crazy".
- ^ The Daily Telegraph (24 June 2010). "George Osborne's age of austerity starts with a bang for the Bullingdon Club". London.
- ^ House of Commons Hansard Debates for 15 Oct 2001, (pt 31). "Football (Disorder) (Amendment) Bill".
- ^ House of Commons Hansard Debates for 18 Feb 2008 (pt 1). "Pensions".
- ^ House of Commons Hansard Debates for 25 Feb 2008 (pt 3). "Topical Questions".
- ^ Houses of Parliament. "Advanced Search". Retrieved 2008-05-09.
- ^ "Boris Johnson 'would like to be PM'". BBC News. 19 March 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
- ^ Peter Hitchens (2007). "David Cameron: Toff at the Top". Retrieved 2008-05-01.
- ^ Michael MacDonagh, The English king: a study of the monarchy and the royal family, 1929; p. 94
- ^ Oxford University Gazette - Supplement (2) to No. 4876, p. 880; "Oration by the demitting Proctors and Assessor". Retrieved 2009-11-05. "...the Bullingdon Club turns out not to be a registered University society." 25 March 2009
- ^ a b c d 7th Marquess of Bath (1999). "Career and activities: settling into my undergraduate identity". Retrieved 2007-12-04. "…at the start of the Trinity term I was elected into the Bullingdon…"
- ^ John Betjeman, An Oxford University Chest, 1938; p. 30
- ^ Supplement (2) to University of Oxford Gazette No. 4876 dated Wednesday 25 March 2009
- ^ Carpenter, Humphrey. The Brideshead Generation: Evelyn Waugh and his Friends, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989.
- ^ Evelyn Waugh. Brideshead Revisited, "Et in Arcadia ego": Chapter Two; Chapman and Hall, 1945.
- ^ YouTube - Brideshead Revisited - Lord Sebastian is sick at youtube.com
- ^ The Daily Telegraph (16 April 2010). "Posh: Royal Court, review". London.
- ^ "Colman's Introduce John Bull". Lbbonline.com. 2012-02-17. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
- ^ "Colman's Season+Shake Chicken Tikka Masala advert - Colman's Bull". YouTube. 2012-02-13. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
- ^ a b John Dower and Jaho Lee Our Boys from the Bullingdon: The early years of David Cameron and Boris Johnson The Daily Mail, 26 September 2009.
- ^ Elizabeth Day (1 October 2011). "George Osborne: from the Bullingdon club to the heart of government". The Observer: Observer Magazine. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
- ^ Charlotte Zeepvat, Prince Leopold: the untold story of Queen Victoria's youngest son, 1998; p. 101
- ^ Neil Balfour and Sally Mackay, Paul of Yugoslavia: Britain's maligned friend, 1980; p. 28
- ^ Rong Syamananda, A history of Thailand, 1986; p. 146
- ^ "1966 Club Photo". Imageshack.us. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
- ^ Obituary: "The Rev Lord Beaumont of Whitley". The Guardian. 11 April 2008.
- ^ "Count Gottfried von Bismarck Obituary". Daily Telegraph (London). 5 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
- ^ Robinson, James. "David Dimbleby: Ringmaster of our democracy". The Observer (18 October 2009). Retrieved 5 May 2012.
- ^ Plunkett, John (6 May 2010). "Daily Mirror launches class war on David Cameron with Bullingdon photo". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
- ^ a b Virginia Cowles (1956). "Gay Monarch: The Life and Pleasures of Edward VII".
- ^ Frank Harris, My Life and Loves, 1922-27; p. 483
- ^ a b c Associated Newspapers Limited (13 February 2007). "Cameron's cronies in the Bullingdon class of '87". Daily Mail (London). Retrieved 2007-12-04.
- ^ "Dafydd Jones". Dafjones.thirdlight.com. 1984-06-27. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
- ^ David Cannadine (2004). In Churchill's Shadow: Confronting the Past in Modern Britain.
- ^ James Miller, Fertile Fortune: The Story of Tyntesfield, 2006; p. 142
- ^ Richard Alleyne (4 December 2004). "Oxford hellraisers politely trash a pub". London: Daily Telegraph.
- ^ "Dafydd Jones". Dafjones.thirdlight.com. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
- ^ Glen Owen (2012-07-15). "George Osborne: Chancellor with his high society Bullingdon Club at Oxford, Year Two - when things were looking up... | Mail Online". Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-09-13.
- ^ The Guardian (19 October 2009). "Ludovic Kennedy, veteran presenter and campaigner, dies at 89". London.
- ^ Serge Obolensky, One man in his time: the memoirs of Serge Obolensky, 1958; p. 110
- ^ The Independent. "The Earl of Longford", 6 August 2001.
- ^ Daily Mail. "Drunk in charge of a gun...", 15 November 2008.
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oBs22N9l61kC&lpg=PA55&ots=3D-47iMPLl&dq=rosebery%20bullingdon%20club&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q=bullingdon&f=false
- ^ Obituary, The Independent, 6 September 2007
- ^ Serge Obolensky, One man in his time: the memoirs of Serge Obolensky, 1958; p. 86
- ^ Boyes, Roger (22 March 2010). "World Agenda: Is Radoslaw Sikorski the new face of Polish politics?". London: The Times. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
- ^ Wheeler, Brian (4 May 2008). "The Boris Johnson Story". BBC News. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
- ^ New York Times (14 January 1917). "Prince Yusupoff Defended in Rasputin Case" (PDF). The New York Times.
External links[edit]
- "Young, rich and drunk", The Guardian, Barney Ronay, 9 May 2008.
- "Just not cricket?", "Oxford Times", Mark Davies, 20 August 2009.