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SOURCE Randstad
NEW YORK, Jan. 8, 2014 /PRNewswire/ -- In tandem with broader economic indicators, the Randstad US Employee Confidence Index, which tracks U.S. workers' perspectives around jobs and the economy each month, rose 0.7 points to 55.2 in December 2013. The Randstad Employment Tracker was conducted online by Harris Interactive between December 3 and 5 on behalf of Randstad and included 1,104 employed U.S. adults ages 18 and older.
The Randstad Employee Confidence Index findings aligned with The Conference Board's December consumer confidence index -- which climbed to 78.1 from 72 in November. Similarly, both reports show greater optimism in the labor market, economy and job availability.
"Despite the dip during the government shutdown, 2013 has proven to be very positive regarding confidence expressed by U.S. employees and overall job creation in the final few months of the year," said Jim Link, Chief HR Officer, Randstad North America. "For the second year in a row, the Randstad US Employee Confidence Index has consistently registered over 50 points -- our official indicator signifying an overall positive sentiment. As we head into 2014, we predict continued job growth as forecasts remain positive in several key sectors, including energy, healthcare, technology and manufacturing."
Randstad, the second largest staffing and HR services firm in the world, has been tracking workforce trends and publishing the U.S. Employee Confidence Index since 2004.
Employee Confidence Index | ||||||||||
Employee |
Macro |
Personal |
Transition |
Security | ||||||
Confidence |
Confidence |
Confidence |
Index |
Index | |||||
Dec-13 |
55.2 |
43.7 |
66.7 |
36 |
70 | |||||
Nov-13 |
54.5 |
41.2 |
67.8 |
34 |
69 | |||||
Oct-13 |
51.5 |
34.8 |
68.3 |
37 |
71 | |||||
Sep-13 |
55.7 |
44.7 |
66.7 |
36 |
76 | |||||
Aug-13 |
58 |
47.3 |
68.7 |
32 |
74 | |||||
Jul-13 |
56.3 |
44.3 |
68.3 |
36 |
72 | |||||
Jun-13 |
56.8 |
46.5 |
67.1 |
36 |
72 | |||||
May-13 |
54.8 |
42.6 |
67.1 |
37 |
69 | |||||
Apr-13 |
57 |
46.8 |
67.2 |
35 |
69 | |||||
Mar-13 |
53.9 |
40.1 |
67.8 |
33 |
73 | |||||
Feb-13 |
53.5 |
42.9 |
64.1 |
37 |
72 | |||||
Jan-13 |
52.1 |
38.3 |
65.8 |
33 |
72 |
About Randstad US
Randstad US is a wholly owned subsidiary of Randstad Holding nv, a $22.0 billion global provider of HR services. As the third largest staffing organization in the U.S., Randstad holds top positions in permanent placement, office and administrative, IT and accounting and finance. From professional services, commercial staffing, recruitment process outsourcing, to managed services and more, Randstad delivers a comprehensive range of temporary, temporary-to-hire, permanent placement and outsourced placement services. With its 5,660 employment experts, Randstad puts an average of nearly 100,000 people to work in the U.S. each week, through its network of more than 900 branches and client-dedicated locations.
Learn more at www.randstad.com and access Randstad's panoramic US thought leadership knowledge center through its Workforce360 site that offers valuable insight into the latest economic indicators and HR trends shaping the world of work.
This 2013 Randstad Employment Tracker was conducted online within the United States by Harris Interactive on behalf of Randstad between December 3-5, 2013 among a U.S. sample of 1,104 employed adults, aged 18 years and older. Results were weighted as needed for age, sex, race/ethnicity, income, education, and region. Propensity score weighting was also used to adjust for respondents' propensity to be online.
All sample surveys and polls, whether or not they use probability sampling, are subject to multiple sources of error which are most often not possible to quantify or estimate, including sampling error, coverage error, error associated with nonresponse, error associated with question wording and response options, and post-survey weighting and adjustments. Therefore, Harris Interactive avoids the words "margin of error" as they are misleading. All that can be calculated are different possible sampling errors with different probabilities for pure, unweighted, random samples with 100% response rates. These are only theoretical because no published polls come close to this ideal.
Respondents for this survey were selected from among those who have agreed to participate in Harris Interactive surveys. The data have been weighted to reflect the composition of the U.S. adult population. Because the sample is based on those who agreed to be invited to participate in the Harris Interactive online research panel, no estimates of theoretical sampling error can be calculated.
About Harris Interactive
Harris Interactive is one of the world's leading market research firms, leveraging research, technology, and business acumen to transform relevant insight into actionable foresight. Known widely for the Harris Poll® and for pioneering innovative research methodologies, Harris offers proprietary solutions in the areas of market and customer insight, corporate brand and reputation strategy, and marketing, advertising, public relations and communications research. Harris possesses expertise in a wide range of industries including health care, technology, public affairs, energy, telecommunications, financial services, insurance, media, retail, restaurant, and consumer package goods. Additionally, Harris has a portfolio of multi-client offerings that complement our custom solutions while maximizing our client's research investment. Serving clients in more than 196 countries and territories through our North American and European offices, Harris specializes in delivering research solutions that help us -- and our clients -- stay ahead of what's next. For more information, please visit www.harrisinteractive.com.
©2012 PR Newswire. All Rights Reserved.


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'80s hard rock queen Lita Ford revealed during an interview with Frankie DiVita, radio personality for 96.7 KCAL Rocks, that she is presently going through a "really ugly divorce" from her husband of 16 years, ex-NITRO vocalist Jim Gillette. According to Lita, the ordeal has inspired the lyrical themes covered on her forthcoming studio album, "The Healing", which she hopes to release sometime this spring.
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EconlibThe LibraryOther Sites |
Front Page Titles (by Subject) NOTE IV: JUDGE-MADE LAW - Lectures on the Relation between Law and Pubic Opinion during the 19th Century (2nd ed. 1919)
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NOTE IV: JUDGE-MADE LAW - Albert Venn Dicey, Lectures on the Relation between Law and Pubic Opinion during the 19th Century (2nd ed. 1919) [1905]Edition used:Lectures on the Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth Century (London: Macmillan, 1919). 2nd edition.
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NOTE IVJUDGE-MADE LAW[See pp. 361-363, ante; Pollock, Essays in Jurisprudence and Ethics, p. 237, and First Book of Jurisprudence (2nd ed.), Pt. ii. c. vi.] A.Origin of Judge-made LawThe existence of judge-made law,—that is, of laws or rules created by the Courts of a country in the course of deciding definite cases,—arises from the general acceptance in such country of two ideas. The one is that a judge or a Court—the two expressions may be here treated as equivalent—when deciding any case must act, not as an arbitrator, but strictly as a judge; or that it is a judge's business to determine not what may be fair as between A and X in a given case, but what, according to some definite principle of law, are the respective rights of A and X. Hence it follows that every Court in deciding a case must tacitly, or expressly, apply to it some definite principle which is often indeed so clearly known that no special mention need be made of it, but which may be difficult to discover; and when this is so the Court must lay down the rule which guides its decision. The other idea is that a Court or a judge must follow precedents, by which expression is really meant that a Court having once decided a particular case on a given principle (such e.g. as that an employer is liable to make compensation for damage arising from the negligence of his servants in the course of their employment) must decide all really similar cases in accordance with the same principle, or, to put the same thing in other words, that a Court is bound, as the expression goes, by its own judgments. One may add that from this very respect for precedents it logically follows that when the judgments of an inferior Court are on a matter of law set aside (i.e. are either reversed or overruled) by a superior Court, the inferior Court must henceforth follow the judgment of, i.e. the principle laid down by the superior Court, and that a final Court of Appeal, such as is in England the House of Lords, is bound by its own judgments, i.e. must apply the principle laid down by itself for the decision of a particular case to all similar cases, until and unless the principle itself is declared to be no longer law by the Legislature, i.e. in England by an Act of Parliament. Now these two ideas,—namely, that Courts must act as judges, not as arbitrators, and that the duty of a Court is to follow precedents,—though to a limited extent admitted in all civilised countries, have obtained more complete acceptance in England than in any continental, and perhaps in any other existing, State. For English Courts, and it may be said the English Legislature, have now for a length of time accepted not only these two fundamental ideas, but all the consequences that follow from them; and the best way to understand the nature of these fundamental ideas, and the way in which they actually produce judicial legislation, is to examine one or two examples of the steps by which English Courts have even in recent times created rules which, as they really have the force of law and are made by the Courts, may rightly be termed judge-made law. Not many years have passed since A brought an action against X and Y, directors of a company, for damage caused to him by a fraudulent misrepresentation published by them in a prospectus of the company. The statement published was false. X and Y, however, thought the statement to be true, but their belief in its truth was due to their own gross negligence in omitting to examine whether it was true or not. The following question of principle then called for decision: Could gross negligence be treated as equivalent to fraud? The uncertainty of the law may be seen in the disagreement of eminent judges. A judge of the Chancery Division held that negligence was not the same thing as fraud—that carelessness, in other words, was not mendacity (Peek v. Derry (1887), 37 Ch. D. 541). The Court of Appeal reversed his decision, and held that gross negligence was under the circumstances equivalent to fraud (ibid. at p. 563). But the House of Lords reversed the judgment of the Court of Appeal, and held with the Court of first instance that carelessness is not the same thing as deceit (Derry v. Peek (1889), 14 App. Cas. 337). And this principle, which the House of Lords could not itself depart from, became in 1889 part of the law of England, and was loyally and fully accepted by the very judges of the Court of Appeal who had held a different view of the law. It is, further, at this very moment a rule of English law, except in so far as it has been modified, as regards directors of companies, by the Directors' Liability Act, 1890, 53 & 54 Vict. c. 64. This case is worth careful study. We here see every step in the formation of judge-made law. That X and Y had acted with blamable carelessness was clear; but a judge had nothing to do with this point: his duty was to determine whether on principle their negligence rendered them guilty of fraud. As a matter of fact, we must say that, where good judges differed, the question of principle was doubtful. The Court of first instance laid down one law, the Court of Appeal another, and the House of Lords, agreeing with the Court of first instance, at last established a rule to which every Court, including the House of Lords itself, was bound to adhere, i.e. which became the law of the land, and this law was finally modified by the only power which can change every law—namely, the Imperial Parliament. Just about fifty years ago the Court of Queen's Bench decided what was then assuredly a doubtful point, that where X induced N to break N's contract with A, the latter had a right to recover damages from X (Lumley v. Gye (1853), 2 E. & B. 216). The validity of this rule, and certainly its extent, remained open to doubt. Some twenty-eight years later it was affirmed and somewhat extended by Bowen v. Hall (1881), 6 Q.B.D. (C.A.) 333. It has of recent years been distinctly affirmed both by the Court of Appeal (Temperton v. Russell [1893], 1 Q.B. (C.A.), 715), and by the House of Lords (Quinn v. Leathem [1901], A.C. 495). Fifty years ago, again, it was doubtful whether, if X had entered into a contract with A, and before the time for performing the contract had arrived, informed A that he would not perform it, A had a right then and there to sue X for breach of contract (Hochster v. Delatour (1853), 2 E. & B. 678). Eminent judges were here again in some doubt. The law was in truth uncertain. But later decisions (Frost v. Knight (1872), L.R. 7 Ex. 111 (Ex. Ch.); Mersey Steel & Iron Co. v. Naylor (1884), 9 App. Cas. 434) have affirmed the principle of Hochester v. Delatour; the Courts or the judges have then in reality made it a law. It would be difficult to find a better instance of judge-made law than the rule laid down by the House of Lords itself, that the House is bound by its own decisions (London Street Tramways Co. v. London County Council [1898], A.C. 375; R. v. Millis (1844), 10 Cl. & F. 534; Beamish v. Beamish (1861), 9 H.L.C. 274). Some competent critics, indeed, have argued that this rule or law has only of recent years been firmly established. If this view be correct (which may be doubtful) it only makes the establishment of the rule with which we are dealing all the more striking as an example of legislative authority exerted by the final Court of Appeal. The rule, however, is in any case one towards which the decisions of the House of Lords and the dicta of eminent lawyers have pointed. It is in strict conformity with the respect for precedent which is the parent of judge-made law. It is in any case now part of the law of the land, and therefore forms an impressive instance of a law indirectly though surely enacted by the final Court of Appeal. These illustrations of such judicial law-making may suffice. It would be easy to multiply them; they sufficiently, however, prove the conclusion on which it is here necessary to insist—that the legislative action of the judges is the necessary consequence of ideas which underlie our whole judicial system. B.Amount of Judge-made LawIt is hard to give to any person not versed in English law an adequate notion of the extent to which our law is the creation of the Courts (see pp. 361-363, ante). As already stated, by far the greater part of the law of contract—one might almost say the whole of the law of torts, all the rules or doctrines of equity, several outlying branches of the law,—such, for example, as the principles embraced under the head of the conflict of laws,—either originally were, or still are, to be deduced from judicial decisions or, what is in reality the same thing, from the doctrines of writers such as Coke, whose dicta are accepted by the Courts as law. Statutes themselves, though manifestly the work of Parliament, often receive more than half their meaning from judicial decisions. And this holds good not only of ancient, but sometimes also of modern Acts of Parliament. It is at least a curious fact, that by an odd paradox our rules of procedure, which seem from their nature to belong naturally to the sphere of judicial legislation, derive their ultimate authority at the present day from the Judicature Acts. But here, as elsewhere, exceptio probat regulam. No doubt the authority of the Rules of Court is derived from the Judicature Acts, but Parliament has most wisely, under these Acts, given to the judges direct, though admittedly subordinate, legislative authority. The Rules of Court are framed by judges, though they require for their validity the tacit sanction of Parliament; and these Rules of Court are as truly laws as any part of the Judicature Acts under which they are made. They decide matters of great importance. If they deal only with procedure, it is absolutely impossible to handle procedure freely without immediately trenching upon substantive law. Where there is no remedy there is no right. To give a remedy is to confer a right. Thus the rules which determine the limits of the High Court's jurisdiction do in truth often determine how far any person has a remedy against, e.g. a breaker of a contract or a wrong-doer who is not in England—i.e. they in reality, though not in form, determine the effective rights of A against X, who is not in England, in respect of a contract broken or a wrong committed by X. It is a common notion with us, countenanced by the general expressions of French writers of authority, that judicial legislation is unknown to, and indeed cannot exist in countries such as France, where the law is reduced to the form of a Code (see Berthélemy, Droit Administratif, p. 12). But this idea, if accepted too absolutely, is misleading. True it is that in countries where precedent is of less weight than in England, where there are several independent Courts of Appeal, where there exists no one final Court of Appeal (in the sense in which we use that term), and where the Executive has a good deal to do with the interpretation of the law, the sphere of judicial legislation is less extensive than in England; but it is certainly not the case that in modern France, at any rate, you will find no judge-made law. Precedent (la jurisprudence) tells with French judges, and wherever precedent has weight there one will always find case-law, which, in the modern world, is almost necessarily judge-made law. We have already seen (see p. 472, ante) that the French combination law has been expounded and modified by the judges (see Pic, pp. 198-201) in much the same way as the combination law of England has been explained and modified by our Courts. Judicial decisions (la jurisprudence) have extended the property rights of a married woman under the Code (see Le Code Civil, 1804-1904; Livre du Centenaire, pp. 287-289). And generally, if we are to believe French authorities, reported judgments have in France told considerably upon the whole character of the Code (ibid. pp. 175-204). What is less obvious at first, but on investigation turns out even more certain, is that the whole of French droit administratif, which is gradually being transformed into a regular part of French law, is wholly or almost wholly based upon case law; it no more depends upon any law passed by the French Legislature than did equity in the time of Charles II. depend upon any Act of Parliament (see Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 7th ed., pp. 369, 370). C.Characteristics of Judge-made Law(1) Judge-made law is real law, though made under the form of, and often described, by judges no less than by jurists, as the mere interpretation of law. Whoever fairly considers how large are the masses of English law for which no other authority than judicial decisions or reported cases can be found, will easily acquiesce in the statement that law made by the judges is as truly law as are laws made by Parliament. In what sense, if at all, the function of the judges can be described as merely interpretation of the law is considered in a later part of this Note. (2) Judge-made law is subject to certain limitations. It cannot openly declare a new principle of law: it must always take the form of a deduction from some legal principle whereof the validity is admitted, or of the application or interpretation of some statutory enactment. It cannot override statute law. The Courts may, by a process of interpretation, indirectly limit or possibly extend the operation of a statute, but they cannot set a statute aside. Nor have they in England ever adopted the doctrine which exists, one is told, in Scotland, that a statute may become obsolete by disuse. It cannot from its very nature override any established principle of judge-made law. A superior Court may, of course, overrule any principle of law that derives its authority merely from the decisions of an inferior Court. Thus the House of Lords may, and occasionally has, set aside or treated as not being in reality law a rule which, though of considerable antiquity and long received as law, has not been confirmed by the sanction of the House itself; and the Court of Appeal is not bound to follow principles in favour of which nothing can be cited but judgments of the King's Bench Division or of the older Courts of which the King's Bench Division is the successor. But no Court—not even the House of Lords—will directly invalidate a rule sanctioned by that House. Even this statement must be taken subject to some slight limitation. The House will occasionally limit the operation of a well-established legal rule either by subtle distinctions or by "refusing to carry a rule further," as the expression goes. By this is really meant that the House, while recognising the validity of some well-recognised legal principle, and applying it to cases which indubitably fall within it, will not apply it to other cases which can be brought within it only by some process of logical argument. Nor is there anything in this course inconsistent with sound logic and good sense. It is a mere recognition of the undoubted fact that a sound principle may, even as expressed in authoritative judgments, cover cases to which it was never meant to apply, and which were not before the mind of the Court which enunciated the principle. When this is so, a Court of final appeal rightly gives effect to the real meaning rather than to the mere words of a rule of law. This, at any rate, is the way in which our Courts sometimes deal with rules resting upon judicial decisions. The freedom with which they interpret such rules is a virtue. What is to be regretted is that our Courts have felt themselves less at liberty, in modern times at least, with regard to the interpretation of statutes, and are apt to pay more attention to the words than to the spirit of an Act of Parliament. (3) The incapacity of the Courts to change a rule on which they themselves have conferred the character of law leads to the important result that the legislative powers of the Courts, unlike in this to the authority of Parliament, become gradually in particular spheres exhausted. Their capacity, for example, to carry out further reforms in regard to the property rights of women had early in the nineteenth century all but reached its final limit (see pp. 375-383, ante). Before 1870 it was exhausted. The field for innovation or reform was filled or blocked by rules which, whether created by statute or by judicial legislation, neither the Court of Chancery nor any other Court had the power to modify or change; and what happened in this particular instance must always happen whenever a given department of law has been made the subject of much legislation, whether parliamentary or judicial; the way towards change or reform has got blocked by laws which, under the English Constitution, can be changed or amended only by the sovereign authority of Parliament. From this fact it might be inferred that the sphere of judicial legislation must gradually become narrower and narrower, and judicial legislation itself come at last completely to an end. This conclusion contains this amount of truth, that no modern judges can mould the law anything like as freely as did their predecessors some centuries ago. No Lord Chief-Justice of to-day could occupy anything like the position of Coke, or carry out reforms such as were achieved or attempted by Lord Mansfield. There are whole departments of law which no longer afford a field for judicial legislation. But for all this the judicial authority of the Bench, though subject to restriction, is not likely to be reduced to nothing. The complexity of modern life, in the first place, produces new combinations of circumstances, which, in so far as they give rise to legal disputes, bring before our tribunals what are in reality new cases—that is, cases which must be determined either by applying to their solution some new principle, or, what more often happens, by the extension of some old principle which is found to be really applicable. The interpretation, in the second place, of statutes will always exercise the ingenuity of our judges. In either case there is room for the exercise of what is in truth judicial legislation. (4) Judge-made law is apt to be hypothetical law. A clear rule, supported by a judgment of the House of Lords, is in reality as much a law as any Act of Parliament, and this holds a fortiori true of a rule supported by many judgments both of the House of Lords and of other Courts. But there may well be rules established by the judgments, say, of the King's Bench, of the old Court of Exchequer Chamber, or of the present Court of Appeal, which have been generally acquiesced in, but have never been brought before the House of Lords. This was till quite recently—to recur to an illustration already used—the state of things with regard to the rule that A had a right of action against X, who induced N to break his contract with A. Till a year or two ago it depended for its authority wholly upon a judgment of the Queen's Bench, reinforced by a later decision of the Queen's Bench Division. Was it good law or not? Not the most learned of lawyers could give an absolutely conclusive reply; no one could in reality say more than that the rule in question was hypothetical law. And a good deal of such hypothetical law is, it should be observed, always in existence, and may continue to exist for a length of time. For many years it was a matter of real uncertainty whether the Divorce Court had jurisdiction to divorce persons permanently resident though not domiciled in England. A decision of the Court of Appeal showed that such jurisdiction might exist (Niboyet v. Niboyet (1878), 4 P.D. (C.A.) 1). But many of the best lawyers entertained grave doubts whether the decision of the Court of Appeal was good law. It was in truth hypothetical law. The doubts of critics have at last been justified. The decision of the Court of Appeal in Niboyet v. Niboyet has been virtually overruled, and we now know with something like certainty that domicil must be taken to be in England the basis of divorce jurisdiction. This tendency of judicial legislation to foster the existence of hypothetical law is its worst defect. The public, it may be suggested, would gain a good deal if a power were conferred upon the House of Lords of calling up for the House's decision (say on the motion of the Attorney-General, and, of course, at the public expense) cases determined by the Court of Appeal, and involving the determination of an important principle of law which had never come before the House of Lords. D.Objections to or Criticisms on the theory of Judge-made LawThe view of judge-made law here propounded is exposed to three different objections or criticisms. First objection.—There is no such thing, it is sometimes objected as judge-made law; Courts or judges are never the creators of law; they always act, as long at any rate as they discharge their proper duty, as interpreters of the law and not as legislators; the law which they interpret may be statute law, or it may be a rule of law created by custom, but in any case it exists and is known to the people of a given country before the judges undertake to interpret it. The validity, it is added, of this objection is proved by the fact that Courts invariably profess to explain a law which already exists and needs only explanation. Now, in replying to this objection, which may be put in various forms, it is well to make one or two admissions. If the critic means only that the very elastic term "interpretation" may be so extended as to cover everything which is done by an English judge when performing his judicial duty, it may be admitted that this is so. A mere dispute about the right use of a word which easily admits of almost indefinite extension is an idle piece of logomachy which it is wisdom to avoid. If, further, it be meant that in many cases a judge or a Court does act merely as an explainer of the law, this again may easily be conceded. Nor can it be disputed that the explanation of a rule may, especially where the rule is followed as a precedent, so easily glide into the extension or the laying down of the rule, or in effect into legislation, that the line which divides the one from the other can often not be distinctly drawn. And to these admissions may be added the further concession, that in modern times, when an immense number of fixed rules established either by Parliament or by the Courts are in existence, it rarely happens that a judge, consciously at any rate, does more than expound what one may well call established legal principles. But all these concessions do not get rid of the fact that a great deal of law has been, and a good deal still is from time to time, the result of, and in effect created by, the action of the Courts. The very rules which modern judges only interpret or explain can in many cases be drawn only from the judgments of their predecessors. A judge who applies to a particular case the principle that a promise made without any consideration, or in popular language a promise for which the promisor gets no advantage, is void, certainly may do no more than apply or interpret a well-known legal principle. But the principle itself does not originate in any statute. The long and intricate process by which it was thought out and established affords a singular instance of judicial legislation. When a judge applies the words of a statute to a particular case he may well do no more than follow a rule which he in no way creates, but, as the history of all our older statutes and of many of our modern statutes shows, judges who interpret statutes and whose interpretation become precedents in reality legislate. To say that all interpretation is legislation is, no doubt, to maintain a paradox. But this paradox comes nearer the truth than the contention that judicial law-making is always in reality interpretation. Nor does our objector gain anything by insisting that judge-made law often is what it assuredly is not always, the mere recognition or interpretation of custom. The same thing may be said of many statutes. The motives which induce either parliaments or judges to treat certain customs as laws do not invalidate the fact that when parliaments or judges give effect to a custom they legislate. Here again it is well to avoid arguments turning mainly upon the meaning of words. Whether and in what sense custom is to be considered the source of law, or whether it be or be not true that judge-made law or judicial legislation are expressions open to criticism, are questions which a reasonable man may well treat with some indifference. If an objector admits, what with regard to English law he can hardly dispute, that great portions of it are recorded only in and derive their authority from the judgments of the Courts, the objection that there is no such thing as judge-made law has received a substantial answer. Second objection.—Judges, it has sometimes been maintained, have undoubtedly in fact made law, but have accomplished their end by the fraudulent pretence that they were interpreting a law which, without any moral claim to do so, they were in fact creating. This contention, that laws are the result of judicial frauds is nearly akin to the delusion that religions are the growth of priestly imposture. Both of these notions are ideas belonging to an obsolete mode of thought. In neither case do they deserve careful confutation. The notion that judges pretended to expound the laws which they really made is based upon ignorance of the fact that fiction is not fraud, and that legal fictions are the natural product of certain social and intellectual conditions. Nor, be it added, has the progress of civilisation as yet enabled us to get rid entirely of something very like legal fictions, or at any rate of the tendency in some departments of law to confuse facts with fictions. This habit is still very traceable in the field of constitutional law. It is convenient—perhaps necessary—to consider the will of the majority as the will of the whole nation. But it is perfectly clear that this identification, whatever its convenience or its necessity, is a political fiction. What, again, are we to say about the powers ascribed by English constitutionalists to the King? In some instances, no doubt, the fiction is a mere figure of speech. Few, one trusts, are the men who seriously believe that the millions raised by taxes are granted to or spent by the King. Most persons probably know that the King himself takes no share in the administration of justice. But what part does he or can he take in the appointment of ministers, or in moulding the policy of the country? The wisest constitutionalist is the man who on such matters keeps a judicious silence. One may conjecture that those who minimise and those who "maximise" (if we may use a term invented, like minimise, by Bentham) the action of the Crown are in equal danger of error. Fiction and fact are here probably blended. The artificial ascription of almost unlimited power to the King is a means of concealing the fact that powers which are not unlimited are indefinite. Third objection.—The Courts, it is sometimes said and still more often thought, though they certainly do legislate, never ought to legislate at all. This is an idea constantly put forward by persons who, rightly or wrongly, object to some principle established by judicial decisions. Such critics urge not only that the rule which they condemn is a bad one, on which point they may perfectly well be in the right, but also that the rule, whether wise or unwise, whether right or wrong, ought never to have been laid down at all by the Courts, and this on the ground that it is the business of the Courts to decide cases and not to make laws. The answer to this line of criticism is that the person who pursues it has in no case a right to blame the judges. His argument may mean that the whole English judicial system, with its respect for precedent, is a bad one. So be it. But, even if this be so, English judges cannot be blamed for acting in accordance with a system which they are appointed to administer. Our objector's argument, on the other hand, may mean that, the English system being what it is, judges can, if they choose to do so, always avoid judicial legislation. But, if this be the critic's meaning, he distinctly ascribes to judges a liberty of choice which they do not in fact possess. To simplify the matter, let us confine our attention to the House of Lords. A case comes before the House which can only be decided by either affirming or denying the application or validity of some principle. But either affirmation or denial will equally establish a precedent, or in other words, a legally binding rule or law. How under this state of things can the House by any possibility avoid judicial legislation? Return to the case already noted of Derry v. Peek. The question to be determined was, whether gross negligence when unaccompanied by deceit could be treated as equivalent to fraud. There was much to be said in favour of an affirmative answer, and the Court of Appeal said it with great force. There was much also to be said in favour of a negative answer, and this, too, was said by Lord Herschell and other eminent lawyers with the greatest vigour. The House of Lords did, as a matter of fact, give a negative reply, and laid down the law that carelessness was a different thing from lying. It is not necessary to decide or to intimate which of two possible rules was the more logical. All that need here be contended is that the House was compelled to lay down one rule or the other, and that whichever rule was laid down would in effect become law. In this case, as in a thousand others, the House, though acting as a Court, was compelled to legislate; and what is true of the House of Lords applies in a measure to every Court throughout the land. A critic who objects to the rule, or in reality the law established by a judgment of the House of Lords may maintain that the House committed an error. He may maintain that the rule which the Lords established was not a logical deduction from the principles they intended to follow, or that the rule, though logical, was inexpedient, or, if he pleases, that the rule was both illogical and inexpedient. But if he has mastered the nature of judge-made law he will hardly commit himself to the contention that the House of Lords was to blame simply because its judgment established a fixed rule of law. This was a result over which the House had no control, and for which, therefore, it deserved neither praise nor blame. Printed by R. & R. Clark, Limited,Edinburgh. BY THE SAME AUTHOR INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE LAW OF THE CONSTITUTION Eighth Edition. 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. THE LAW MAGAZINE.—"The recognised standard work for those on the threshold of their study of Constitutional law." THE TIMES.—"A work that has become a legal classic." THE GLOBE.—"Professor Dicey's book is of permanent value to British students of their own constitution." THE JURIDICAL REVIEW.—"Professor Dicey's Study of the British Constitution has the distinction, rare among legal treatises, of taking rank not merely as an accurate technical manual, but as a literary work of eminence. It owes its exemption from the Index Expurgatorius of books which are no books—biblia a biblia—to which Lamb would relegate all scientific treatises, at once to the dignity and intrinsic interest of its subject and to the author's incomparable gift of clear and graceful exposition. It has won the appreciation not only of lawyers, but also of the wider circle which embraces all those who are interested in the study of the fundamental ideas underlying the public and political life of the nation." THE DAILY NEWS.—"The work holds the field as a standard production." THE WESTMINSTER GAZETTE.—"The work has very properly come to be regarded as an authority, and seems destined to take an abiding place in our legal literature. . . . But the treatise is more than a mere law-book. It is a genuine contribution to political science." LETTERS ON UNIONIST DELUSIONS Crown 8vo. 3s. LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd. A SELECTION OF WORKS ON POLITICSTHE AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH. By Viscount Bryce. New Edition. Completely revised. Two vols. 8vo. 25s. net. NOTES ON POLITICS AND HISTORY. By Viscount Morley. 8vo. 3s. net. THE GOVERNMENT OF ENGLAND. By Prof. A. Lawrence Lowell. New Edition, thoroughly revised. Two vols. 8vo. 21s. net. THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. By Sir Edward Creasy, M.A. Seventeenth Edition. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. net. ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT THROUGHOUT THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 8vo. 5s. net. MODERN EGYPT. By the Earl of Cromer. With Portrait and a Map. Two vols. 8vo. 24s. net. One vol. 8vo. 10s. net. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS OF BRITISH INDIA. By Joseph Chailley. Translated by Sir William Meyer. 8vo. 12s. 6d. net. INDIAN UNREST. By Sir Valentine Chirol. With an Introduction by Sir Alfred Lyall. 8vo. 5s. net. THE BROAD STONE OF EMPIRE. Problems of Crown Colony Administration. With Records of Personal Experience. By Sir Charles Bruce, G.C.M.G. With Maps and Portraits. Two vols. 8vo. 30s. net. FRANCE. By John Edward Courtenay Bodley. Extra Crown 8vo. 10s. net. LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd. |


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Decentralized Perimeter Surveillance Using a Team of UAVs Derek B. Kingston Randal W. Beard David W. Casbeer Timothy W. McLain Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602 This paper develops a distributed algorithm to maintain a current estimate of the state of the perimeter using a team of UAVs. Using notions of consensus, an algorithm will be developed and shown to distribute a UAV team uniformly around the perimeter. Nomenclature N Number of UAVs on team P Length of perimeter i Size of perimeter segment to be monitored by the ith UAV G Directed graph representing communication topology G Set of all possible simple interaction graphs I. Introduction This paper develops a decentralized multiple-UAV approach to perimeter surveillance. One important application of perimeter surveillance is tracking the movement of the perimeter of a forest fire.1, 2 In general, there are two basic perimeter topologies: circular (no specific endpoints) and linear (UAVs double-back at endpoints). Most of our work has been focused on circular perimeters, but any perimeter topologically close to a line or circle can easily be accommodated in the same framework. Perimeter surveillance is the process of gathering data at all points of the perimeter and transmitting that data to a base station for analysis. The state of the perimeter will be most accurate with respect to latency if UAVs are spread uniformly along the perimeter in both directions of travel.3 Of course, if some areas of the perimeter are more important than others, the spacing of the UAVs should not be uniform, but should be concentrated at the areas of interest. For our work, we assume that all points along the perimeter have the same value, and so, we aim to find a distributed algorithm that allows the UAVs to constantly stream gathered data back to the base station while at the same time maintaining uniform spacing. We also assume that data can only be transmitted when a UAV is near the base station or other UAVs. In this way, data gathered far from the base station must be taken by a UAV (or a chain of UAVs) back to the base station for transmission. A key challenge in implementing decentralized cooperation strategies is to form consensus among members of the team when communication links are intermittent or noisy and sensed information is inconsistent among team members. Recent work on consensus algorithms provide a means for convergence to consistent cooperation information among team members. In [4], sufficient conditions are given for consensus of the heading angles of a group of agents under undirected switching interaction topologies. In [5], average consensus problems are solved for a network of integrators using directed graphs. In [6], a set-valued Lyapunov approach is used to consider consensus problems with unidirectional time-dependent communication links. Using directed graphs, Refs. [7] and [8] show necessary and/or sufficient conditions for consensus of information under time-invariant and switching interaction topologies. We will use the notion of consensus to ensure that the team of UAVs tasked to monitor a perimeter will agree on the length of perimeter segment that each member will survey. In this paper we present a multiple UAV cooperative control solution to the perimeter surveillance problem. In Section III we introduce consensus algorithms as a way to guarantee the uniform spread of the team. Section IV Corresponding author: email@example.com 1 of 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics gives an algorithm with an embedded consensus method that overcomes the initial uncertainties in the system. The algorithm will be shown to overcome arbitrary initial conditions, and so, allows for such features as: the ability to systematically add and remove UAVs from the team (important for re-fueling) and the ability to supply perimeter state information along the entire perimeter length. II. Problem Statement Consider the task of designing a flight pattern for a team of UAVs to monitor phenomena along a perimeter or border. We desire information about all points along the perimeter to be transmitted to a central location for analysis. Due to limited communication range of the UAVs, transmission of gathered data can only occur when a UAV is close to the base station or other UAVs. We assume that, generally, UAVs are not in communication with any other member of the team or the base station, necessitating a distributed algorithm. A flight pattern where N=2 UAVs are traveling clockwise and N=2 are traveling counter-clockwise at constant velocity allows for data regarding the entire perimeter to be gathered and transmitted to a location on the perimeter. When the UAVs are spaced evenly along the perimeter in both directions and if UAVs update their copy of the perimeter state each time another team member is met, the state of the perimeter as seen at the base station is updated with the most current information.3 Note that UAVs could just as easily reverse direction after rendezvous with other team members and the data flow to the base station would remain the same. In this way, each team member would be responsible for monitoring a segment of the perimeter. When all of the segments are of equal length, the the ideal data flow conditions are achieved. We will develop a distributed algorithm that allows a team of UAVs to evenly spread itself around the perimeter. We will assume that UAVs fly at constant speed and can reverse direction instantaneously this simplifies the analysis and for large perimeters, is a good approximation. UAVs are assumed to either travel along the perimeter with constant velocity or loiter at a specific point on the perimeter. Example 1 2 (a) t = 0 3 4 1 2 (b) t = 2 1 2 3 4 (c) t = 4 3 1 2 4 (d) t = 5 1 2 3 4 (e) t = 6 3 4 1 2 (f) t = 8 3 4 1 2 (g) t = 10 3 4 1 2 (h) t = 12 3 4 1 2 (i) t = 14 Figure 1. Example scenario in which UAV spread is adjusted to evenly space the UAVs around the perimeter Figure 1 shows an example illustrating how a team of UAVs can adjust to spread out evenly along the perimeter of the fire. Two pairs of UAVs are launched with the first pair leading the second by two time units (Figures 1(a) and 1(b)). After four time units have passed, the first pair of UAVs meet (Figure 1(c)). Due to the distributed nature of the problem, neither is aware of the trailing pair of UAVs. For this reason, both UAVs determine to rendezvous again back at the base station. After the first pair rendezvous and double-back, the second pair meets the first pair at t = 5 (Figure 1(d)). By this time, UAVs 1 and 2 have traveled 1 8P and UAVs 3 and 4 have traveled 3 8P from their last rendezvous. Since the first pair has traveled the least, they will decide to loiter after traveling 1 4P from their next rendezvous. Both pairs leave the rendezvous location in the opposite direction in which they entered. At t = 6, the first pair meets again (Figure 1(e)). Since both have traveled equal distances from their previous rendezvous (with the other pair), then neither will loiter after the next rendezvous. However, due to the interruption by the other pair of UAVs, a distance of at most 1 4P will be traveled before beginning to loiter. At t = 8, the first pair begins loitering and the second pair meets at the base station (Figure 1(f)). UAV 3 and 4 have both traveled the same distance, so neither will loiter after the next rendezvous. Figure 1(g) shows the time when the two pairs of UAVs meet and have traveled equal distance. Thereafter, the UAVs are in the optimal configuration to mini- 2 of 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics mize overall latency and provide the fastest possible update rate. This pattern is maintained due to the fact that each UAV will travel exactly 1 4P between rendezvous and none will begin to loiter (Figures 1(h) and 1(i)). III. Consensus At the heart of distributed perimeter surveillance, UAVs must negotiate with others on the team as to how much of the perimeter each is responsible for monitoring. A consensus algorithm can be used to ensure that each UAV has an equal portion and that the entire perimeter is being monitored. Consensus methods give necessary conditions to ensure that as t ! 1, each member of the team approaches the same value of the information variable.9 For perimeter surveillance, the information variable is the length of the segment that each UAV should monitor. If the UAVs are truly spread uniformly along the perimeter, then each will have the same length of segment to monitor and the sum of those lengths will be the entire perimeter length. General consensus methods only ensure that the team will eventually agree they do not specify the value that will be agreed upon. For this reason, we give additional conditions, that when met, will guarantee not only consensus among team members, but also that the value of convergence will be P=N. The main result from [7, 8] for discrete-time consensus is the following theorem. Theorem III.1 Let G[k] 2 G be a switching interaction graph at time t = kT. Also let ij [k] 2 , where is a finite set of arbitrary positive numbers. The discrete update scheme i[k + 1] = P 1 n j=1 ij [k]Gij [k] Xn j=1 ij [k]Gij [k] j [k]; (1) achieves consensus asymptotically for all N agents if there exists an infinite sequence of uniformly bounded, nonoverlapping time intervals [kjT; (kj + lj)T), j = 1; 2; , starting at k1 = 0, with the property that each interval [(kj + lj)T; kj+1T) is uniformly bounded and the union of the graphs across each interval [(kj + lj)T; kj+1T) has a spanning tree. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Figure 2. Bi-directional ring communication topology for 8 agents. Theorem III.1 states that if a weighted averaging scheme is used (Equation (1)) and the union of all communication graphs has a spanning tree, then the information variable, , for each team member will eventually come into agreement, i.e. consensus will be reached. The flexibility of Theorem III.1 is in the condition that only the union of all communication graphs must have a spanning tree. This means that even if team members only communicate with one other member of the team, as long as the team communication graph (the union of all the single communication links) has a spanning tree, consensus will be achieved. Consider the communication topology where each team member communicates only with its two neighbors on the perimeter. Communication will likely occur with only one neighbor at a time, but the union of the communication graphs will be a complete bi-directional ring as shown in Figure 2. A bi-directional ring obviously has a spanning tree, and so by Theorem III.1 we conclude that team members will eventually come into consensus. To ensure that the team members come into consensus and that the value to which they converge is P=N, consider the following lemma. Lemma III.2 A team of agents will form consensus with the property that for each agent i, limt!1 i(t) = 1=N if the following are true: (1) all agents are equally weighted (i.e. ij = 1 for all i; j in Equation (1)), (2) P i0 = 1, (3) the union of all communication graphs has a spanning tree, and (4) all communication is bi-directional (i.e. if one agent updates its estimate of i then the corresponding agents who communicated with it also update their respective values of i). Proof: When (3) is satisfied, Theorem III.1 shows that the team will achieve consensus, i.e. limt!1 i(t) = c 8i. The combination of conditions (1) and (4) ensure that P i remains constant. This can be seen by noting that Equation (1) with ij = 1 will assign each team member in communication the precise average of all the values present during the communication event. Since by condition (2) the initial value of P i is 1, then the value of limt!1 i(t) must be 1=N for each agent i. 3 of 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics IV. A Distributed Perimeter Surveillance Algorithm Each UAV in the perimeter surveillance team begins operation without an estimate of perimeter length or number of UAVs on the team. The goal of the team is twofold: spread out uniformly and ensure the most rapid transmission of gathered data back to the base station. The perimeter will be monitored in the most efficient way if team members are spread uniformly in both directions of travel. Developing a distributed algorithm that causes the members of the UAV team to cover equal lengths of the perimeter is complicated by the initial locations of the UAVs. In addition, the algorithm must adjust the rendezvous locations between two neighboring UAVs without knowledge of the true perimeter length. A distributed algorithm has been developed to accomplish this objective. It operates under the assumption that pairs of UAVs are simultaneously launched in opposite directions from the base station. A. Algorithm A few definitions are needed before presenting the algorithm. Note that this algorithm is identical for each member of the team, so all variables defined are local to the vehicle running the algorithm. The variable c is the distance traveled since the last rendezvous and n is the corresponding value received during a communication event with a neighbor. This variable is updated by constantly integrating the distance traveled and is assumed to be updated for the algorithm. p is the previous distance traveled between rendezvous (i.e from the previous rendezvous to the last rendezvous). Let dir indicate the current direction of travel around the perimeter either clockwise or counter-clockwise. Each UAV holds two variables for adjusting rendezvous locations, Lcw and Lccw. Lcw is used to specify the distance from the last rendezvous the UAV should travel before it begins loitering if it is headed in a clockwise direction, similarly Lccw is the distance to begin loitering from the last rendezvous if the UAV is traveling in the counter-clockwise direction. To ensure rendezvous between UAVs, we let Ldir = 1so the UAV will not loiter, rather it will continue traveling until it rendezvous with its neighbor. Lastly is calculated for each rendezvous by averaging neighbors c. It is the distance that must be traveled after the next rendezvous. The algorithm is shown below. Algorithm 1: Distributed spread c is the distance traveled (constantly integrated outside the algorithm) Initialize (when UAV first arrives at perimeter) c = 0 distance traveled since last rendezvous p = 0 distance traveled between last two rendezvous To ensure a rendezvous we set distance to loiter to Lcw = 1; Lccw = 1 dir = the direction of launch for this UAV either cw or ccw while 1 do 1 if c Ldir then Wait here for next rendezvous) dir = 0 (no direction) 2 if rendezvous (i.e. my neighbor is within communication range) then 3 if (this is my first rendezvous) then p = c 4 Send c to neighbor 5 n =(the c received from neighbor) 6 if (dir = 0) then dir = opposite of neighbor s dir 7 Average the distance traveled since the UAV s last rendezvous = 1 2 ( c + n) 8 Determine who should loiter for this pair s next rendezvous if c < n (I traveled less) then Ldir = (I should loiter) else if c < n (I traveled more) then Ldir = 1 (neighbor will loiter) else ( c = n equal distance traveled) Ldir = 1 (neither will loiter) 9 Reverse dir (For example: if ccw make it cw) 10 Calculate distance to loiter for next rendezvous Ldir = Ldir + ( c p) 11 p = c, c = 0 4 of 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics The initialization of the algorithm occurs when the UAVs first reach the perimeter. At this time, the UAV defaults to continue until the next rendezvous and not loiter. This is done by setting the distance to loiter in both directions to infinity (Lcw = 1; Lccw = 1). In general operation, when two UAVs rendezvous, they communicate the distance they have traveled since the last rendezvous to their neighbor(step 4). If the distances traveled do not coincide, then the UAV that has traveled the the shorter length (smaller c) is required to adjust its distance to loiter so that when this pair meets again for their next rendezvous the UAV that traveled the shorter distance will be the one to wait at the designated location. This adjustment is given to the UAV that traveled the shorter distance because in most cases it will arrive at the designated location first. Notice that the actual distance to loiter for a given direction is calculated from the average of the distances traveled (step 7) and is set only after a rendezvous has occurred in the opposite direction (step 10). To explain why the distance to loiter must be set after the next rendezvous the following example is provided. Let the current and past rendezvous be called r0 and r 1 respectively. Also, label the next two rendezvous as r1 and r2. At r0 and r2 the same UAVs will meet. The distance to loiter, from r1 to r2 assumes that the rendezvous at r 1 and r1 occurred at the same location. However, this may not always be the case due to initial conditions. Therefore the term c p in step 10 adjusts the distance to loiter to account for this discrepancy. B. Analysis In this section we show that Algorithm 1 converges to a configuration where all of the UAVs are equally spaced around the perimeter. To do so, we will show that the conditions of Lemma III.2 are satisfied after enough time has passed and that the UAVs are able to adjust their actual monitored perimeter length to match the desired perimeter length given by the consensus algorithm. Theorem IV.1 Consider a fixed-length circular perimeter with length P. When UAVs are launched in pairs, with one UAV in each pair heading clockwise and the other, counter-clockwise, Algorithm 1 will ensure that as t ! 1the team of UAVs will be equally spaced around the perimeter. Proof: By the geometry of the perimeter, each UAV communicates only with its two neighbors, so a bi-directional ring communication topology is present, satisfying condition (3) of Lemma III.2. UAVs are assumed to be able to communicate without fault when near enough to each other. A rendezvous occurs when two UAVs are mathematically at the same place, therefore communication is assumed to always be bi-directional which satisfies condition (4). Observe that the two-agent form of Equation (1) is present in step 7 of Algorithm 1. In fact, there are two consensus algorithms embedded into Algorithm 1; one for the clockwise direction and the other for the counter-clockwise direction. The information variable for each instance of the consensus algorithms is Ldir. To satisfy condition (1) of Lemma III.2, observe that Ldir[k 1] = c + where = c p acts as a disturbance to the system and is a measure of how far out of sync the two directions are. Theorem III.1 has been shown to be ISS,10 so as time progresses, both directions approach the same value and the disturbance goes to zero. To invoke Lemma III.2, we also need to show that the sum of the monitored lengths equals the perimeter length at some time. Observe that Algorithm 1 only has memory of the previous and current rendezvous. An addition of a pair of UAVs to the system will cause the overall sum of the monitored lengths to exceed P, but since no two UAVs cover the same section of the perimeter, the effect of the addition will be nullified after each pair of UAVs has rendezvoused twice after the disturbance. Deletion of a pair of UAVs has similar effect, with UAVs adjusting to monitor the section left unmonitored by always ensuring that one of the pair from the previous rendezvous continues indefinitely until the next rendezvous (see step 8). As shown above, Algorithm 1 ensures that, after some time, all the conditions of Lemma III.2 are satisfied, at which point, the embedded consensus algorithm guarantees by Lemma III.2 that the UAVs will converge to a uniformly spread configuration. Since the effects of initial conditions die out as time progresses, pairs of UAVs may enter or exit the team for refueling without affecting the long term stability of the algorithm. V. Conclusions A distributed algorithm has been presented which modifies the configuration of a team of UAVs to match the ideal pattern for data transmission by uniformly spreading the UAVs along the perimeter. Convergence to a uniform distribution was guaranteed by application of consensus theory. 5 of 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Acknowledgments We would like to thank Scott Poll, Chad Frost, and Francis Enomoto at NASA Ames Research Center for initiating this research problem and pointing out related work in this area. This research was supported by NASA under STTR contract No. NNA04AA19C to Scientific Systems Company, Inc (SSCI) and Brigham Young University (BYU), and by AFOSR grants F49620-01-1-0091 and F49620-02-C-0094. References 1 White Paper on UAV Over-the-Horizon Disaster Management Demonstration Projects, Feb 2000, http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/UAVFiRE/whitepaper.html. 2Casbeer, D. W., Beard, R. W., McLain, T. W., Li, S.-M., and Mehra, R. K., Forest Fire Monitoring Using Multiple Small Unmanned Air Vehicles, Proc. of the American Control Conference, 2005, (to appear.). 3Casbeer, D. W., Kingston, D. B., Beard, R. W., McLain, T. W., Li, S.-M., and Mehra, R., Cooperative Forest Fire Surveillance Using a Team of Small Unmanned Air Vehicles, International Journal of System Sciences, (in review), Technical Report available at https://dspace.byu.edu/handle/1877/55. 4Jadbabaie, A., Lin, J., and Morse, A. S., Coordination of Groups of Mobile Autonomous Agents Using Nearest Neighbor Rules, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, Vol. 48, No. 6, June 2003, pp. 988 1001. 5Saber, R. O. and Murray, R. M., Agreement Problems in Networks with Directed Graphs and Switching Topology, Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Maui, Hawaii, December 2003, pp. 4126 4132. 6Moreau, L., Leaderless Coordination via Bidirectional and Unidirectional Time-dependent Communication, Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Maui, Hawaii, December 2003, pp. 3070 3075. 7Ren, W. and Beard, R.W., Consensus Seeking in Multi-agent Systems Under Dynamically Changing Interaction Topologies, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, (to appear). 8Ren, W., Beard, R. W., and McLain, T. W., Coordination Variables and Consensus Building in Multiple Vehicle Systems, Cooperative Control, edited by V. Kumar, N. Leonard, and A. S. Morse, Vol. 309 of Lecture Notes in Control and Information Systems, Springer-Verlag, 2004, pp. 171 188. 9McLain, T. W. and Beard, R. W., Coordination Variables, Coordination Functions, and Cooperative Timing Missions, AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 2004, (to appear). 10Kingston, D. B., Ren, W., and Beard, R. W., Consensus Algorithms are Input-to-State Stable, Proc. of the American Control Conference, 2005, (to appear.). 6 of 6 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
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In Fall 2009, Wellness coordinated with community partners in establishing an area-wide prescription drug disposal program. With assistance from Campus Security, IWU now has a secured drop-box located at the Security building, 110 E. Graham St., that helps keep prescription and over-the-counter medicines out of our water system and disposes of them safely and ecologically.
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We, the undersigned, oppose the diversion of any more water from the Tuolumne River. More than half of the Tuolumne is already diverted for agricultural and urban uses, resulting in a dramatic decline in Chinook salmon, steelhead trout and other sensitive species. With the future of the Sierra snowpack uncertain due to global warming, it is in our interest to minimize our dependence on the Tuolumne. We encourage the SFPUC and its wholesale customers to prioritize water conservation, efficiency and recycling.
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Article: |
Flawed Understanding of JDO Leads to FUD | |
Subject: | More that unites us than divides us | |
Date: | 2002-06-06 10:12:33 | |
From: | mcconchied | |
It appears to me that there is more that unites these two authors than divides them. Fundamentally they are both interested in better support for persistent objects.
Showing messages 1 through 1 of 1.
I agree that there is more that unites us than divides us
2002-06-06 10:42:06 Donald Bales | [View]
Possibly contrary to some reader's thoughts, I have no problem with JDO. It is a community agreed upon, technically fit, means of abstracting persistent storage of Java objects. Put simply, it's wonderful. By utilizing both object-relational technology and JDO we can indeed achieve the best of both worlds. JDO will need some additional functionality in order to fully support object-relational technology, but that will no doubt be addressed by the adept JCP team in a future release.


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"The findings by the Gallup Organization and Zogby International were met with varying degrees of disappointment and disbelief by black activists and intellectuals, who struggled with explanations."
Could it be that income and education are more related to racialist attitudes than race itself?
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Haitian households celebrate their country's Independence Day with bowls of this comforting soup. The national holiday falls on New Year's Day, when Haitians walk from house to house to pay friends and family the first visits of the New Year.
You can't go wrong with this creamy side dish (something between cornbread and a soufflé), studded with mild green chiles. It also serves well at brunch or with beans for a light supper. Feel free to add diced ham, a handful of shredded cheese or crumbled, cooked...
Coconut milk and garbanzo beans give this simple puréed carrot soup both body and unexpectedly rich flavor.
There will be looks of envy from the meat-eating crowd when you serve this colorful and delicious entrée of bell peppers stuffed with mushrooms, carrots, spinach, quinoa and cashews. For a beautiful presentation, choose a combination of green, red, orange and...
This classic and versatile recipe is a perfect once-a-week meal. Serve the tender chicken along with the root vegetables and flavorful broth. Any leftover broth can be used within a few days or frozen to make stews, soups or sauces.
In a version of your favorite ice cream truck treat, this simple chocolate sauce hardens to a crispy coating over frozen desserts.
Sautéed vegetables enhance your choice of russet or red potatoes in this casserole. Quickly prepare and pop in the oven to finish while getting the rest of your meal ready.
We love summer fruit and sometimes indulge in a bit of decadence in our preparation. Sweet dough topped with mascarpone cheese, fresh peaches and berries are finished with crème fraîche and fresh mint. This delicious treat is not your standard fruit bar.
Many varieties of pears and apples come into peak season in November. Enjoy the fruit flavors with the ginger coating on this turkey.
Robiola is a buttery Italian cheese with a rich mouthfeel and unique flavors from both cow and sheep's milks. You may never be tempted again by brie after tasting this cheese.
If you keep a few sheets of puff pastry in the freezer, assembling a tart like this is a snap. Sweet red peppers and salty olives complement the richness of the pastry. Feel free to use leftover grilled, poached or rotisserie chicken in this recipe. Serve with a...
This versatile sauce can be drizzled over raw or cooked vegetables, as well as grains.
This quick vegetarian pasta combines the pleasingly bitter taste of broccoli rabe with toasted garlic and bold sun-dried tomatoes.
If you love sesame, you will love these cookies, rich in flavor from sesame seeds and subtly sweet from a touch of maple syrup.
Roasted pumpkin seeds thicken this tomatillo-based mole sauce. Serve with a side of rice for soaking up the flavorful sauce. Shred any leftover chicken and serve in warm corn tortillas with sauce spooned on top.
Quinoa takes the place of traditional bulgur in this flavorful salad. It can stand alone as a vegetarian main dish, thanks to quinoa's protein content, or be served as a side dish or sandwich filling.


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Guide to Quitting Smoking
- What do I need to know about quitting?
- Why should I quit?
- When smokers quit — what are the benefits over time?
- Immediate rewards of quitting
- Cost
- Social acceptance
- Health of others
- Setting an example
- Help with the mental part of addiction
- Help with the physical part of addiction
- What are the types of nicotine replacement therapy?
- Prescription drugs
- Other methods of quitting
- A word about quitting success rates
- How to quit
- Some special concerns
- To learn more
- References
The prospect of better health is a major reason for quitting, but there are other reasons, too.
Smoking is expensive. It isn't hard to figure out how much you spend on smoking: multiply how much money you spend on tobacco every day by 365 (days per year). The amount may surprise you. Now multiply that by the number of years you have been using tobacco and that amount will probably shock you.
Multiply the cost per year by 10 (for the next 10 years) and ask yourself what you would rather do with that much money.
And this doesn't include other possible costs, such as higher costs for health and life insurance, and likely health care costs due to tobacco-related problems.
Last Medical Review: 10/04/2012
Last Revised: 09/09/2013


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During humanitarian disasters people affected by the unfolding tragedy need more than physical necessities. They also have an urgent need for information. In the aftermath of a crisis, from earthquakes, to armed conflicts, survival can depend on knowing the answers to essential questions. Should I stay with my family or go for help? Where is the nearest health facility? What is the extent of the damage? Where can I get clean water? What are the symptoms of cholera? Is it safe to go back home?
To strengthen its immediate response capacity in emergency situations, Internews' Humanitarian Information Project (HIP) has created a standing roster of humanitarian communication experts and media professionals.
In the event of a humanitarian disaster, this roster allows Internews to quickly assemble groundbreaking response teams that deliver professional, timely, reliable and well-targeted humanitarian communication solutions in the wake of humanitarian crises.
These teams will deploy within 24-36 hours of a disaster to identify and assist the local information ecosystem, support local media and help humanitarian responders understand, assess and address the information and communication needs of disaster affected communities.
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February 14, 2013
Just a note to let you know that Nala and Endora are doing great.
They are still a little shy but seem to be very happy with us.
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