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History of New England
This article presents the History of New England, the oldest clearly defined region of the United States. While New England was originally inhabited by Indigenous peoples, English Pilgrims and especially Puritans, fleeing religious persecution in England, arrived in the 1620-1660 era. They dominated the region; their religion was later called Congregationalism. They and their descendants are called Yankees. Farming, fishing and lumbering prospered, as did seafaring and merchandising. The region was the scene of the first Industrial Revolution in the United States, with many textile mills and machine shops operating by 1830.
New England (and Virginia) led the way to the American Revolution. The region became a stronghold of the conservative Federalist Party and opposed the War of 1812 with Great Britain. By the 1840s it was the center of the American anti-slavery movement, and was the leading force in American literature and higher education.
- 1 Indigenous people
- 2 Colonial era
- 2.1 Early European settlement (1607–1620)
- 2.2 Plymouth (1620–1643)
- 2.3 Massachusetts Puritans
- 2.4 Other New England colonies
- 2.5 Early colonial wars
- 2.6 The Dominion of New England (1686–1689)
- 2.7 Later colonial wars
- 2.8 Government of the colonies
- 2.9 Regional character
- 2.10 Population and demographics
- 2.11 Economics
- 2.12 Education
- 3 1770-1900
- 4 Modern history (1900 to current)
- 5 Famous leaders
- 6 Notes
- 7 Bibliography
Indigenous people[edit]
New England has long been inhabited by Algonquian-speaking native peoples, including the Abenaki, the Penobscot, the Pequot, e Wampanoag, and many others. During the 15th and 16th centuries, Europeans such as Giovanni da Verrazzano, Jacques Cartier and John Cabot (known as Giovanni Caboto before being based in England) charted the New England coast. They referred to the region as Norumbega, named for a fabulous native city that was supposed to exist there.
The earliest known inhabitants of New England were Native Americans who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages.[1] Some of the more prominent tribes include the Abenaki, the Penobscot, the Pequot, the Mohegans, the Pocumtuck, and the Wampanoag.[1] Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine.[2] Their principal town was Norridgewock, in present-day Maine.[3] The Penobscot were settled along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket; the Pocumtucks, Western Massachusetts. The Connecticut region was inhabited by the Mohegan and Pequot tribes prior to European colonization. The Connecticut River Valley, which includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, linked different indigenous communities in cultural, linguistic, and political ways.[1]
According to archaeological evidence, the indigenous people of the warmer parts of Southern New England had started agricultural endeavors over a thousand years ago. They grew corn, tobacco, kidney beans, squash, and Jerusalem artichoke. Trade with the Algonquian peoples of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where the growing season was shorter, likely provided for a robust economy.[1]
As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders, exploring the New World, began to trade metal, glass, and cloth for local beaver pelts.[1][4] The traders and sailors brought previously unknown European diseases, especially smallpox, measles, malaria, and yellow fever, which quickly spread along trade routes and killed a majority of the Indians in the region by the 1630s.[5]
Colonial era[edit]
Early European settlement (1607–1620)[edit]
On 1606-04-10, King James I of England issued two charters, one each for the Virginia Companies, of London and Plymouth, respectively.[6][7] Due to a duplication of territory (between Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound), the two companies were required to maintain a separation of 100 miles (160 km), even where the two charters overlapped.[8][9][10] The London Company was authorized to make settlements from North Carolina to New York (31 to 41 degrees North Latitude), provided there was no conflict with the Plymouth Company's charter. The purpose of both was to claim land for England and trade.
- Under the charters, the territory allocated was defined as follows:
- Virginia Company of London: All land, including islands within 100 miles (160 km) from the coast and implying a westward limit of 100 miles (160 km), between 34 Degrees (Cape Fear, North Carolina) and 41 Degrees (Long Island Sound, New York) north latitude.[6][7]
- Virginia Company of Plymouth: All land, including islands within 100 miles (160 km) from the coast and implying a westward limit of 100 miles (160 km), between 38 Degrees (Chesapeake Bay, Virginia) and 45 Degrees (Border between Canada and Maine) north latitude.[6][7] Its charter included land extending as far as present-day northern Maine.
For more details on this topic, see Popham Colony.
These were privately funded proprietary ventures, and the purpose of each was to claim land for England, trade, and return a profit. The Virginia Company of London successfully established the Jamestown Colony in Virginia in 1607. The region was named "New England" by Captain John Smith, who explored its shores in 1614, in his account of two voyages there, published as A Description of New England.
Plymouth (1620–1643)[edit]
The name "New England" was officially sanctioned on November 3, 1620, when the charter of the Virginia Company of Plymouth was replaced by a royal charter for the Plymouth Council for New England, a joint stock company established to colonize and govern the region. In December 1620, a permanent settlement known as the Plymouth Colony was established at present-day Plymouth, Massachusetts by the Pilgrims, English religious separatists arriving via Holland. They arrived aboard a ship named the Mayflower and held a feast of gratitude which became part of the American tradition of Thanksgiving. Plymouth, with a small population and limited size, was absorbed by Massachusetts in 1691.
In 1638, a "violent" earthquake was felt throughout New England, centered in the St. Lawrence Velley. This was the first recorded seismic event noted in New England.[11]
Even during the early stages of English colonization, relations with the indigenous peoples of New England began to sour.[1] Preliminary trade with Europeans had already significantly reduced and weakened native populations via disease and epidemic. The fur supply was soon exhausted, forcing hunters to travel farther into the territories of neighboring tribes, such as the Mohawk and the Haudenosaunee (known to European settlers as the Iroquois) of Eastern New York.[1] As demand for local goods, like beaver pelts, by English companies rose, so did tensions between existing indigenous communities. Permanent English settlement, through which colonists seized or claimed land and began to apply Puritan laws to native peoples, exacerbated the situation.[1]
Massachusetts Puritans[edit]
The Massachusetts Bay Colony, which would come to dominate the area, was established in 1628 with its major city of Boston established in 1630.
The Puritans, a much larger group than the Pilgrims, established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 with 400 settlers. They sought to reform the Church of England by creating a new, pure church in the New World. By 1640, 20,000 had arrived; many died soon after arrival, but the others found a healthy climate and an ample food supply. See Migration to New England (1620–1640).
The Puritans created a deeply religious, socially tight-knit, and politically innovative culture that still influences the modern United States.[12] They hoped this new land would serve as a "redeemer nation". They fled England and in America attempted to create a "nation of saints" or a "City upon a Hill": an intensely religious, thoroughly righteous community designed to be an example for all of Europe.
By 1723, Puritan cultural and religious influence had declined substantially in Boston. One of Ben Franklin's first printed works decried frivolity among Harvard students.[13]
Other New England colonies[edit]
Roger Williams, who preached religious toleration, separation of Church and State, and a complete break with the Church of England, was banished from Massachusetts for his theological heresies and led a group south to found Providence in 1636. It merged with other settlements to form Rhode Island Colony. This region became a haven for Baptists, Quakers, and other refugees from the Puritan community, such as Anne Hutchinson who had been banished during the Antinomian Controversy.[14]
On March 3, 1636, the Connecticut Colony was granted a charter and established its own government. The nearby New Haven Colony was absorbed by Connecticut.
Vermont was then unsettled, and the territories of New Hampshire and Maine were then governed by Massachusetts.
Early colonial wars[edit]
Relationships between colonists and Native Americans alternated between peace and armed skirmishes, the bloodiest of which was the Pequot War in 1643, which resulted in the Mystic massacre. Six years later, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut joined together in a loose compact called the New England Confederation (officially "The United Colonies of New England"). The confederation was designed largely to coordinate mutual defense, but was never effective and soon collapsed.
In 1675, King Philip's War pitted the colonists and their native American allies against a widespread native American uprising, resulting in massacres and killings on both sides. The colonists won in the south decisively, however, they were forced to sign peace treaties in the North in present-day New Hampshire and Maine.
The Dominion of New England (1686–1689)[edit]
In 1686, King James II, concerned about the increasingly independent ways of the colonies, in particular their self-governing Charters, open flouting of the Navigation Acts and their increasing military power decreed the Dominion of New England, an administrative union comprising all the New England colonies. Two years later, the provinces of New York (New Amsterdam) and the New Jersey, which had been confiscated by force from the Dutch, were added. The union, imposed from the outside, and removing nearly all their popularly elected leaders, was highly unpopular among the colonists. In 1687, when the Connecticut Colony refused to follow a decision of the dominion governor Edmund Andros to turn over their charter, he sent an armed contingent to seize the colony's charter. According to popular legend, the colonists hid the charter inside the Charter Oak tree. Andros' efforts to loot the colonies, replace their leaders and to unify the colonial defenses under his control met little success and the dominion ceased after only three years. After the very popular removal of King James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1689, Andros was arrested and sent back to England by the colonists during the 1689 Boston revolt.[15]
Later colonial wars[edit]
From 1688 to 1763, there were six colonial wars that took place primarily between New England and New France (see the French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy and New France was allied with the Wabanaki Confederacy. After the New England Conquest of Acadia in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was laid claim to by the British, but both present-day New Brunswick and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France. During the final French and Indian War, New England deported the Acadians from Nova Scotia and replaced them with New England Planters. After the British won the war in 1763, the Connecticut River Valley was opened up for settlement into western New Hampshire and what is today Vermont.
Government of the colonies[edit]
After the Glorious Revolution in 1689 the charters of most of the colonies were significantly modified with the appointment of Royal Governors to nearly each colony. An uneasy tension existed between the Royal Governors, their officers and the elected governing bodies in the colonies. The governors wanted essentially unlimited arbitrary powers and the different layers of locally elected officials resisted as best they could. In most cases the local town governments continued operating as self-governing bodies as they had before the Royal Governors showed up and to the extent possible ignored the Royal Governors. This tension eventually led to the American Revolution when the states formed their own governments. The colonies were not formally united again until 1776 as newly formed states, when they declared themselves independent states in a larger (but not yet federalist) union called the United States.
Regional character[edit]
Aside from the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, or "New Scotland", New England is the only North American region to inherit the name of a kingdom in the British Isles. New England has largely preserved its regional character, especially in its historic sites. Its name is a reminder of the past, as many of the original English-Americans have migrated further west.
Population and demographics[edit]
The New England States were initially colonized by about 30,000 settlers between 1620 and 1640, a period now referred to as "The Great Migration". There was little additional immigration until the Irish influx of the 1840s and '50s in the wake of the potato famine.
The regional economy grew rapidly in the 17th century, thanks to heavy immigration, high birth rates, low death rates, and an abundance of inexpensive farmland.[16] The population grew from 3000 in 1630 to 14,000 in 1640, 33,000 in 1660, 68,000 in 1680, and 91,000 in 1700. Between 1630 and 1643, about 20,000 Puritans arrived, settling mostly near Boston; after 1643 fewer than fifty immigrants a year arrived. The average size of a completed family 1660-1700 was 7.1 children; the birth rate was 49 babies per year per 1000 people, and the death rate was about 22 deaths per year per thousand people. About 27 percent of the population comprised men between 16 and 60 years old.[17]
The almost one million inhabitants in 1770, just before the Revolution were nearly all descended from the original settlers, whose 3 percent annual natural growth rate caused a doubling of population every 25 years. Their beliefs and ancestry were nearly all shared and made them into what was probably the largest more-or-less homogeneous group of settlers in America. Their high birth rate continued for at least a century more, making the descendants of these New Englanders well represented in nearly all states today. In the 18th century and the early 19th century, New England was still considered to be a very distinct region of the country, as it is today. During the War of 1812, there was a limited amount of talk of secession from the Union, as New England merchants, just getting back on their feet, opposed the war with their greatest trading partner — Great Britain.
After the American Revolutionary War, Connecticut and Massachusetts ceded tracts of land to the federal government that they had claimed in the Northwest Territory and the Western Reserve exceeding their modern day areas.
The New England colonies were settled largely by farmers, who became relatively self-sufficient. Later, aided by the Puritan work ethic, New England's economy began to focus on crafts and trade, in contrast to the Southern colonies, which had to import many goods from England.[18]
Economically, Puritan New England fulfilled the expectations of its founders. Unlike the cash crop-oriented plantations of the Chesapeake region, the Puritan economy was based on the efforts of self-supporting farmsteads who traded only for goods they could not produce themselves.[19] There was a generally higher economic standing and standard of living in New England than in the Chesapeake. Along with agriculture, fishing, and logging, New England became an important mercantile and shipbuilding center, serving as the hub for trading between the southern colonies and Europe.[20]
The region's economy grew steadily over the entire colonial era, despite the lack of a staple crop that could be exported. All the provinces, and many towns as well, tried to foster economic growth by subsidizing projects that improved the infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, inns and ferries. They gave bounties and subsidies or monopolies to sawmills, grist mills, iron mills pulling mills (which treated cloth), salt works and glassworks. Most important, colonial legislatures set up a legal system that was conducive to business enterprise by resolving disputes, enforcing contracts, and protecting property rights. Hard work and entrepreneurship characterized the region, as the Puritans and Yankees endorsed the "Protestant Ethic", which enjoined men to work hard as part of their divine calling.[21]
Focused on shipping as well as production, New England conducted a robust trade within the English domain in the mid-18th century. They exported to the Caribbean: pickled beef and pork, onions and potatoes from the Connecticut valley, codfish to feed their slaves, northern pine and oak staves from which the planters constructed containers to ship their sugar and molasses, Narragansett Pacers from Rhode Island, and "plugs" to run sugar mills.[22]
Benjamin Franklin in 1772, after examining the wretched hovels in Scotland surrounding the opulent mansions of the land owners, said that in New England every man is a property owner, "has a Vote in public Affairs, lives in a tidy, warm House, has plenty of good Food and Fuel, with whole clothes from Head to Foot, the Manufacture perhaps of his own family."[23]
The benefits of growth were widely distributed, with even farm laborers better off at the end of the colonial period. The growing population led to shortages of good farm land on which young families could establish themselves; one result was to delay marriage, and another was to move to new lands further west. In the towns and cities, there was strong entrepreneurship, and a steady increase in the specialization of labor. Wages for men went up steadily before 1775; new occupations were opening for women, including weaving, teaching, and tailoring. The region bordered New France, and in the numerous wars the British poured money in to purchase supplies, build roads and pay colonial soldiers. The coastal ports began to specialize in fishing, international trade and shipbuilding—and after 1780 in whaling. Combined with a growing urban markets for farm products, these factors allowed the economy to flourish despite the lack of technological innovation.[24]
New England has always had a commanding position in the history of American education. The first American schools in the thirteen colonies opened in the 17th century. Boston Latin School was founded in 1635 and is both the first public school and oldest existing school in the United States.[25] Cremin (1970) stresses that colonists tried at first to educate by the traditional English methods of family, church, community, and apprenticeship, with schools later becoming the key agent in "socialization". At first, the rudiments of literacy and arithmetic were taught inside the family, assuming the parents had those skills. Literacy rates seem to have been much higher in New England, and much lower in the South. By the mid-19th century, the role of the schools had expanded to such an extent that many of the educational tasks traditionally handled by parents became the responsibility of the schools.[26][27]
All the New England colonies required towns to set up schools, and many did so. In 1642 the Massachusetts Bay Colony made "proper" education compulsory; other New England colonies followed. Similar statutes were adopted in other colonies in the 1640s and 1650s. The schools were all male, with few facilities for girls.[28] In the 18th century, "common schools", appeared; students of all ages were under the control of one teacher in one room. Although they were publicly supplied at the local (town) level, they were not free, and instead were supported by tuition or "rate bills".
The larger towns in New England opened grammar schools, the forerunner of the modern high school.[29] The most famous was the Boston Latin School, which is still in operation as a public high school. Hopkins School in New Haven, Connecticut, was another. By the 1780s, most had been replaced by private academies. By the early 19th century New England operated a network of elite private high schools, now called "prep schools", typified by Phillips Andover Academy (1778), Phillips Exeter Academy (1781), and Deerfield Academy (1797). They became coeducational in the 1970s, and remain highly prestigious in the 21st century.[30][31]
Harvard College was founded by the colonial legislature in 1636, and named after an early benefactor. Most of the funding came from the colony, but the college early began to collect endowment. Harvard at first focused on training young men for the ministry, and one general support from the Puritan colonies. Yale College was founded in 1701, and in 1716 was relocated to New Haven, Connecticut. The conservative Puritan ministers of Connecticut had grown dissatisfied with the more liberal theology of Harvard, and wanted their own school to train orthodox ministers. Dartmouth College, chartered in 1769, grew out of school for Indians, and was moved to its present site in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1770. Brown University was founded by Baptists in 1764 as the College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.[32]
Tax-supported schooling for girls began as early as 1767 in New England. It was optional and some towns proved reluctant. Northampton, Massachusetts, for example, was a late adopter because it had many rich families who dominated the political and social structures and they did not want to pay taxes to aid poor families. Northampton assessed taxes on all households, rather than only on those with children, and used the funds to support a grammar school to prepare boys for college. Not until after 1800 did Northampton educate girls with public money. In contrast, the town of Sutton, Massachusetts, was diverse in terms of social leadership and religion at an early point in its history. Sutton paid for its schools by means of taxes on households with children only, thereby creating an active constituency in favor of universal education for both boys and girls.[33]
Historians point out that reading and writing were different skills in the colonial era. School taught both, but in places without schools reading was mainly taught to boys and also a few privileged girls. Men handled worldly affairs and needed to read and write. Girls only needed to read (especially religious materials). This educational disparity between reading and writing explains why the colonial women often could read, but could not write and could not sign their names—they used an "X".[34]
American Revolution[edit]
New England, especially Boston, was the center of revolutionary activity in the decade before 1775, with Massachusetts politicians Samuel Adams, John Adams, and John Hancock as leaders. New Englanders, like all Americans, were very proud of their political freedoms and local democracy, which they felt was increasingly threatened by the British imperial government. The main grievance was taxation, which colonists argued could only be imposed by their own legislatures, and not by the Parliament in London. Their political cry was, "No taxation without representation!" On December 16, 1773, when a ship was planning to land taxed tea in Boston, local activists calling themselves the Sons of Liberty, disguised themselves as Indians, raided the ship, and dumped all the tea into the harbor. This Boston Tea Party outraged British officials, and the King and Parliament decided to punish Massachusetts.
Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts in 1774 that brought stiff punishment. It closed the port of Boston, the economic lifeblood of the Commonwealth, and ended self-government, putting the people under military rule. The patriots set up a shadow government, which the British Army attacked on April 18, 1775 at Concord. On the 19th, in the Battles of Lexington and Concord, where the famous "shot heard 'round the world" was fired, British troops were forced back into the city by the local militias, under the control of the shadow government. The British army controlled only the city of Boston, and it was quickly brought under siege. The Continental Congress took control of the war, sending General George Washington to take charge. He forced the British to evacuate in March 1776. After that, the main warfare moved south, but the British made repeated raids along the coast, and seized part of Rhode Island and Maine for a while. On the whole, the patriots controlled 99 percent of the New England population.[35]
New England's Dark Day struck on May 19, 1780. While residents were apprehensive at the time, for lack of a clear cause for the darkness requiring candlelight in the middle of the day, it appears that forest fires, a fog, and cloud cover, all contributed.[36]
Early national period[edit]
After independence, New England ceased to be a meaningful political unit, but remained a defined historical and cultural region consisting of its now-sovereign constituent states. By 1784, all of the states in the region had introduced the gradual abolition of slavery, with Vermont and Massachusetts introducing total abolition in 1777 and 1783, respectively.[37] During the War of 1812, there was a limited amount of talk of secession from the Union, as New England merchants, just getting back on their feet, opposed the war with their greatest trading partner—Britain.[38] Delegates from all over New England met in Hartford in the winter of 1814-15. The gathering was called the Hartford Convention. The twenty-seven delegates met to discuss changes to the US Constitution that would protect the region from similar legislation and attempt to keep political power in the region.
In 1820, as part of the Missouri Compromise, the territory of Maine, formerly a part of Massachusetts, was admitted to the Union as a state. Today, New England is always defined as coextensive with the six states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.[39]
For the remainder of the antebellum period, New England remained distinct. In terms of politics, it often went against the grain of the rest of the country. Massachusetts and Connecticut were among the last refuges of the Federalist Party, and, when the Second Party System began in the 1830s, New England became the strongest bastion of the new Whig Party. The Whigs were usually dominant throughout New England, except in the more Democratic Maine and New Hampshire. Leading statesmen — including Daniel Webster — hailed from the region. New England was distinct in other ways. It was, as a whole, the most urbanized part of the country (the 1860 Census showed that 32 of the 100 largest cities in the country were in New England), as well as the most educated. Notable literary and intellectual figures produced by the United States in the Antebellum period were New Englanders, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, George Bancroft, William H. Prescott, and others.[40]
New England was an early center of the industrial revolution. In Beverly, Massachusetts the first cotton mill in America was founded in 1787, the Beverly Cotton Manufactory.[41] The Manufactory was also considered the largest cotton mill of its time. Technological developments and achievements from the Manufactory led to the development of other, more advanced cotton mills later, including Slater Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Several textile mills were already underway during the time. Towns like Lawrence, Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts, Woonsocket, Rhode Island, and Lewiston, Maine became famed as centers of the textile industry following models from Slater Mill and the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. The textile manufacturing in New England was growing rapidly, which caused a shortage of workers. Recruiters were hired by mill agents to bring young women and children from the countryside to work in the factories. Between 1830 and 1860, thousands of farm girls came from their rural homes in New England to work in the mills. Farmers' daughters left their homes to aid their families financially, save for marriage, and widen their horizons. They also left their homes due to population pressures to look for opportunities in expanding New England cities. Stagecoach and railroad services made it easier for the rapid flow of workers to travel from the country to the city. The majority of female workers came from rural farming towns in northern New England. As the textile industry grew, immigration grew as well. As the number of Irish workers in the mills increased, the number of young women working in the mills decreased. At first the mills employed young Yankee farm women; they then used Irish and French immigrants.[42]
As New England's urban, industrial economy transformed from the beginning of the early national period (~1790) to the middle of the nineteenth century, so too did its agricultural economy. At the beginning of this period, when the United States was just emerging from its colonial past, the agricultural landscape of New England was defined overwhelmingly by subsistence farming.[43] The primary crops produced were wheat, barley, rye, oats, turnips, parsnips, carrots, onions, cucumbers, beets, corn, beans, pumpkins, squashes, and melons.[44] Because there was not a sufficiently large New England-based home market for agricultural products due to the absence of a large nonagricultural population, New England farmers by and large had no incentive to commercialize their farms.[43] Thus, as farmers could not find very many markets nearby to sell to, they generally could not earn enough income with which to buy many new products for themselves. This not only meant that farmers would largely produce their own food, but also that they tended to produce their own furniture, clothing, and soap, among other household items.[43] Hence, according to historian Percy Bidwell, at the onset of the early national period, much of the New England agricultural economy was characterized by a "lack of exchange; lack of differentiation of employments or division of labor; the absence of progress in agricultural methods; a relatively low standard of living; emigration and social stagnation."[43] As Bidwell writes, the farming in New England at this time was "practically uniform" with many farmers distributing their land "in about the same proportions into pasturage, woodland, and tillage, and raised about the same crops and kept about the same kind and quantity of stock" as other farmers.[45] This situation would, however, be radically different by 1850, by which time a highly specialized agricultural economy producing a host of new and differentiated products had emerged. There were two factors that were primarily responsible for the revolutionary changes in the agricultural economy of New England during the period from 1790 to 1850: (1) The rise of the manufacturing industry in New England (industrialization), and (2) agricultural competition from the western states.[46]
During this period, the industrial jobs created in New England's towns and cities affected the agricultural economy profoundly by generating a rapidly growing nonagricultural, urbanizing population. The farmers finally had a nearby market to which they could sell their crops, and thus an opportunity to obtain incomes beyond what they produced for subsistence.[47] This new market enabled farmers to make their farms more productive.[47] There was a resultant move away from subsistence farming toward the production of specialized crops. The demands of the consumers of the crops, whether factories or individuals, now determined the kinds of crops that each farm cultivated. Potash, pearlash, charcoal, and fuel wood were among the agricultural products that were produced in greater quantities during this time.[48] The increasing specialization of agriculture even led to production of tobacco, a predominantly southern crop, from central Connecticut to northern Massachusetts, where natural conditions were amenable to its growth.[49] Many agricultural societies were formed to promote improved farming,[50] and they did so by dispensing information on new technological innovations such as the cast-iron plough, which rapidly replaced the wooden plough by the 1830s, as well as mowing machines and horse-rakes.[51] Another important result of the manufacturing boom in New England was the new abundance of cheap products that formerly had to be produced on the farm. For example, myriad new mills produced inexpensive textiles, and it now made more economic sense for many farm women to purchase these textiles rather than spin and weave them at home. Women consequently found new employment elsewhere, typically at the mills, many of which had a shortage of workers, and they began to earn cash incomes.[52]
The agricultural competition that emerged from the western states due to improvements in transportation (e.g., railroads and steamboats) also helped shape agriculture in New England. Competition from the western states was principally responsible for the decline in local pork production and cattle-fattening, as well as that in wheat production.[52] New England farmers now aimed to produce goods with which western farmers could not compete. Consequently, many New England farms came to specialize in "highly perishable and bulky produce," according to historian Darwin Kelsey. These crops included milk, butter, potatoes, and broomcorn.[53] Thus, both the rise of manufacturing during the industrial revolution and the rise of western competition generated substantial agricultural specialization.
The largely differentiated agricultural landscape of the New England of 1850[54] was distinct from the subsistence-dominated landscape that existed 40–60 years prior. This period of time, therefore, was not only noteworthy in terms of New England's industrial revolution, but also in terms of New England's agricultural revolution. MIT economic historian Peter Temin has pointed out that the "transformation of the New England economy in the middle fifty years of the nineteenth century was comparable in scope and intensity to the Asian 'miracles' of Korea and Taiwan in the half-century since World War II."[55] The extensive changes in agriculture that occurred were an important aspect of this economic process.
New England and areas settled from New England, like Upstate New York, Ohio's Western Reserve and the upper midwestern states of Michigan and Wisconsin, proved to be the center of the strongest abolitionist sentiment in the country. Abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips were New Englanders, and the region was home to anti-slavery politicians like John Quincy Adams, Charles Sumner, and John P. Hale. When the anti-slavery Republican Party was formed in the 1850s, all of New England, including areas that had previously been strongholds for both the Whig and the Democratic Parties, became strongly Republican, as it would remain until the early 20th century, when immigration turned the formerly solidly Republican states of Lower New England towards the Democrats.
The CSS Tallahassee disrupted shipping to New England in August 1864.[56]
There have been waves of immigration from Ireland, Quebec, Italy, Portugal, Asia, Latin America, Africa, other parts of the United States, and elsewhere.
New England and political thought[edit]
During the colonial period and the early years of the American republic, New England leaders like James Otis, John Adams, and Samuel Adams joined Patriots in Philadelphia and Virginia to define Republicanism, and lead the colonies to a war for independence against Great Britain. New England was a Federalist stronghold, and strongly opposed the War of 1812. After 1830 it became a Whig party, stronghold as exemplified by Daniel Webster in the Second Party System. At the time of the American Civil War, New England, the mid-Atlantic, and the Midwest, which had long since abolished slavery, united against the Confederate States of America, ending the practice in the United States. Henry David Thoreau, iconic New England writer and philosopher, made the case for civil disobedience and individualism.
French Canadian Immigration 1850-1901[edit]
French-Canadians had continued to farm as they always had. By the 1850s, soil nutrients were becoming exhausted. Their farming methods were outdated.[57] About this time the textile industry in New England experienced a boom. With living conditions so harsh, and work very hard to find even in the largest city, Montreal, emigration seemed the only option for many. As the first wave moved out in 1850's, word of mouth soon began to move larger crowds by the late 1870s. Mill owners hired these French immigrants to staff their mills more cheaply than American and Irish-born workers, who were themselves displaced.[58]
In early stages of immigration, the settlers chose northern Vermont and New Hampshire as their main destinations. However as the textile factories increased their hiring, the principle destination beginning in the late 1870s until the end of the last immigration wave in the early 1900s, was southern Massachusetts.[59] Though many of these later immigrants were looking for short term employment that would allow them to make enough money to go back home and settle comfortably, approximately half of the Canadian settlers remained permanently.[60] By 1900, 573,000 French Canadians had immigrated to New England.[61] These Canadians were the second biggest wave of immigration to hit New England after the Irish.[62]
With a constantly growing immigrant population, these new Franco-Americans were able to create communities colloquially called Little Canada by Americans. The Little Canada's were city ghettos.[61] One could hardly tell the difference between a French-Canadian village within the province of Quebec and one in Lowell, Massachusetts for example.[63] By the end of the last wave, the Little Canada's had French institutions like any other Quebec village; churches and clergy, schools, newspapers, societies and even their elite.
When the first wave of emigrants left Quebec, the local government did not pay much attention as the numbers were relatively small. However, when the emigration began to increase and the provincial economy was going through a depression, leaders of the province attempted to halt the emigration.[clarification needed] The church warned of hell being destined for those who decided to leave. Nevertheless, more than 200,000 left between 1879-1901.[64]
Modern history (1900 to current)[edit]
This section requires expansion. (March 2012) |
In the 1930s and 1940s there were winter "outing clubs" in a number of areas in New England which held dog sled races, ski jumping, and cross country competitions; sulky races on cleared streets, and dances.[65]
The 1938 New England hurricane hit the region (and Long Island) hard, killing about 700 people. The U.S. Weather Bureau was mistaken in its predicted path and there was little warning. Many thousands of houses and buildings were damaged or destroyed. Local relief efforts were feeble, so Federal agencies took charge, and in the process created the modern disaster relief system.[66] It blew down 15,000,000 acres (61,000 km2) of trees, one-third of the total forest at the time in New England. 3 billion board feet were salvaged. Many of the older trees in the region are about 75 years old, dating from after this storm.[67]
Famous leaders[edit]
Eight presidents of the United States have been born in New England, however only five are usually affiliated with the area. They are, in chronological order: John Adams (Massachusetts), John Quincy Adams (Massachusetts), Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), Chester A. Arthur (born in Vermont, affiliated with New York), Calvin Coolidge (born in Vermont, affiliated with Massachusetts), John F. Kennedy (Massachusetts), George H. W. Bush (born in Massachusetts, affiliated with Texas) and George W. Bush (born in Connecticut, affiliated with Texas).
Nine vice presidents of the United States have been born in New England, however, again only five are usually affiliated with the area. They are, in chronological order: John Adams, Elbridge Gerry (Massachusetts), Hannibal Hamlin (Maine), Henry Wilson (born in New Hampshire, affiliated with Massachusetts), Chester A. Arthur, Levi P. Morton (born in Vermont, affiliated with New York), Calvin Coolidge, Nelson Rockefeller (born in Maine, affiliated with New York), George H.W. Bush.
Eleven of the Speakers of the United States House of Representatives have been elected from New England. They are, in chronological order: Jonathan Trumbull, Jr. (2nd Speaker, Connecticut), Theodore Sedgwick (5th Speaker, Massachusetts), Joseph Bradley Varnum (7th Speaker, Massachusetts), Robert Charles Winthrop (22nd Speaker, Massachusetts), Nathaniel Prentice Banks (25th Speaker, Massachusetts), James G. Blaine (31st Speaker, Maine), Thomas Brackett Reed (36th and 38th, Maine), Frederick Gillett (42nd, Massachusetts), Joseph William Martin, Jr. (49th and 51st, Massachusetts), John William McCormack (53rd, Massachusetts) and Tip O'Neill (55th, Massachusetts).
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bain, Angela Goebel; Manring, Lynne; and Mathews, Barbara. Native Peoples in New England. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association.
- ^ "Abenaki History". abenakination.org. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Allen, William (1849). The History of Norridgewock. Norridgewock ME: Edward J. Peet. p. 10. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Wiseman, Fred M. "The Voice of the Dawn: An Autohistory of the Abenaki Nation". p. 70. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Alfred W. Crosby, "Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America," William and Mary Quarterly (1976), 33#2 pp. 289-299 in JSTOR
- ^ a b c Charles O. Paullin, Atlas of the Historical Geography of the United States.; Edited by John K. Wright (1932), Plate 42
- ^ a b c William F. Swindler, ed. Sources and Documents of United States Constitutions. (1979) Vol. 10; Pps. 17-23.
- ^ Paullin, Charles O.; Atlas of the Historical Geography of the United States; Edited by John K. Wright; New York, New York and Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington and American Geographical Society of New York, 1932:Plate 42. ; Excellent section on International and interstate boundary disputes.
- ^ Swindler, William F.., ed. Sources and Documents of United States Constitutions 10 Volumes; Dobbs Ferry, New York; Oceana Publications, 1973–1979; Vol. 10; pp. 17–23; The most complete and up-to-date compilation for the states.
- ^ Van Zandt, Franklin K.; Boundaries of the United States and the Several States; Geological Survey Professional Paper 909. Washington, D.C.; Government Printing Office; 1976. The standard compilation for its subject.; Page 92.
- ^ "Canada quake shakes Vt.". Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press. 24 June 2010. pp. 1A,4A.
- ^ Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer nation: the idea of America's millennial role (University of Chicago Press, 1980)
- ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1972). The Oxford History of the American People. New York City: Mentor. p. 204. ISBN 0-451-62600-1.
- ^ Benjamin Woods Labaree, Colonial Massachusetts: a history (1979)
- ^ Dominion of New England
- ^ Daniel Scott Smith, "The Demographic History of Colonial New England," Journal of Economic History, 32 (March 1972), 165-183 in JSTOR
- ^ Terry L. Anderson and Robert Paul Thomas, "White Population, Labor Force and Extensive Growth of the New England Economy in the Seventeenth Century, Journal of Economic History, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Sept 1973), pp. 634-667 at p 647, 651; they use stable population models. in JSTOR
- ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1972). The Oxford History of the American People. New York City: Mentor. p. 112. ISBN 0-451-62600-1.
- ^ Anne Mackin, Americans and their land: the house built on abundance (University of Michigan Press, 2006) p 29
- ^ James Ciment, ed. Colonial America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History, 2005.
- ^ Margaret Alan Newell, "The Birth of New England in the Atlantic Economy: From its Beginning to 1770, in Peter Temin, ed., Engines of Enterprise: An Economic History of New England (Harvard UP, 2000), pp. 11-68, esp. p. 41
- ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1972). The Oxford History of the American People. New York City: Mentor. pp. 199–200. ISBN 0-451-62600-1.
- ^ Quoted in Claude H. Van Tine, The Causes of the War of Independence (1922) p 318
- ^ Gloria L. Main and Jackson T. Main, "The Red Queen in New England?," William and Mary Quarterly, Jan 1999, Vol. 56 Issue 1, pp 121-50 in JSTOR
- ^ "History of Boston Latin School—oldest public school in America". BLS Web Site. Archived from the original on 2007-05-02. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
- ^ Lawrence Creminm American Education: The Colonial Experience, 1607-1783 (Harper & Row, 1970)
- ^ Maris A. Vinovskis, "Family and Schooling in Colonial and Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Family History," Jan 1987, Vol. 12 Issue 1-3, pp 19-37
- ^ "Schooling, Education, and Literacy, In Colonial America". faculty.mdc.edu. 2010-04-01.
- ^ Small, Walter H. "The New England Grammar School, 1635-1700." School Review 7 (September 1902): 513-31
- ^ James McLachlan, American boarding schools: A historical study (1970)
- ^ Arthur Powell, Lessons from Privilege: The American Prep School Tradition (Harvard UP, 1998)
- ^ John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education (2004) pp 1-40
- ^ Kathryn Kish Sklar, "The Schooling of Girls and Changing Community Values in Massachusetts Towns, 1750-1820," History of Education Quarterly 1993 33(4): 511-542
- ^ E. Jennifer Monaghan, "Literacy Instruction and Gender in Colonial New England," American Quarterly 1988 40(1): 18-41 in JSTOR
- ^ David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride (1994)
- ^ John Ross "Dark Day of 1780," American Heritage, Fall 2008.
- ^ [1]
- ^ James Schouler, History of the United States vol 1 (1891; copyright expired).
- ^ "New England". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2008-07-24.
- ^ Van Wyck Brooks, The flowering of New England, 1815-1865 (1941)
- ^ William R. Bagnall, The Textile Industries of the United States: Including Sketches and Notices of Cotton, Woolen, Silk, and Linen Manufacturers in the Colonial Period. (1893) Vol. I. Pg 97.
- ^ Thomas Dublin, "Lowell Millhands" in Transforming Women's Work (Cornell UP) pp 77-118.
- ^ a b c d Bidwell, p. 684.
- ^ Kelsey, p. 1.
- ^ Bidwell, p. 688.
- ^ Kelsey, p. 4.
- ^ a b Bidwell, p. 685.
- ^ Gates, p. 39-40.
- ^ Bidwell, p. 689.
- ^ Russell, p. vi.
- ^ Bidwell, p. 687.
- ^ a b Russell, p. 337.
- ^ Kelsey, p. 5.
- ^ Kelsey, p. 6.
- ^ Temin, p. 109.
- ^ [2]
- ^ Brault, Gerard J. The French-Canadian Heritage in New England. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986 pg 52
- ^ Brault, Gerard J. The French-Canadian Heritage in New England. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986 pg.54
- ^ Podea Saunders, Iris. Quebec to Little Canada: The Coming of the French Canadians to New England in the Nineteenth Century. The New England Quarterly 23 (1950): pg. 365
- ^ Brault, Gerard J. The French-Canadian Heritage in New England. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1986 pg.52
- ^ a b Roby, Yves. The Franco-Americans of New England: Dreams and Realities. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004 pg.42
- ^ Podea Saunders, Iris. Quebec to Little Canada: The Coming of the French Canadians to New England in the Nineteenth Century. The New England Quarterly 23 (1950) pg.369
- ^ Roby, Yves. The Franco-Americans of New England: Dreams and Realities. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004 pg.73
- ^ Roby, Yves. The Franco-Americans of New England: Dreams and Realities. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2004 pg.40-42
- ^ Barel, Gerry (April 2011). "Ski Jumping Article Brings Back Memories for a Reader". Vermont's Northland Journal 10 (1): 31.
- ^ Lourdes B. Aviles, Taken by Storm, 1938: A Social and Meteorological History of the Great New England Hurricane (2012)
- ^ Long, Stephen (September 7, 2011). "Remembering the hurricane of 1938". the Chronicle (Barton, Vermont). p. 3.
- Feintuch, Burt and David H. Watters, eds. Encyclopedia of New England (2005), comprehensive coverage by scholars; 1596pp
- Adams, James Truslow. The Founding of New England (1921) online edition; Revolutionary New England, 1691–1776 (1923); New England in the Republic, 1776–1850 (1926)
- Andrews, Charles M. The Fathers of New England: A Chronicle of the Puritan Commonwealths (1919), short survey. online edition
- Axtell, James, ed. The American People in Colonial New England (1973), new social history
- Black, John D. The rural economy of New England: a regional study (1950) online
- Brewer, Daniel Chauncey. Conquest of New England by the Immigrant (1926).
- Buell, Lawrence. New England Literary Culture: From Revolution through Renaissance. (Cambridge University Press, 1986), a literary history of New England. ISBN 0-521-37801-X
- Conforti, Joseph A. Imagining New England: Explorations of Regional Identity from the Pilgrims to the Mid-Twentieth Century (2001)
- Cumbler, John T. Reasonable Use: The People, the Environment, and the State, New England, 1790–1930 (2001), environmental history
- Karlsen, Carol F. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (1998)
- Lockridge, Kenneth A. A New England Town: The First Hundred Years: Dedham, Massachusetts, 1636–1736 (1985), new social history
- McPhetres, S. A. A political manual for the campaign of 1868, for use in the New England states, containing the population and latest election returns of every town (1868)
- Old Colony Trust Company, New England: Old and New, Cambridge : University Press, 1920
- McWilliams, John. New England's Crisis and Cultural Memory: Literature, Politics, History, Religion, 1620–1860. (Cambridge University Press, 2009) excerpt and text search
- Palfrey, John Gorham. History of New England (5 vol 1859–90), classic narrative to 1775; online
- Sletcher, Michael, ed. New England: The Greenwood Encyclopedia of American Regional Cultures (2004), articles on culture and society by experts
- Newell; Margaret Ellen. From Dependency to Independence: Economic Revolution in Colonial New England (Cornell UP, 1998) online edition
- Temin, Peter, ed. Engines of Enterprise: An Economic History of New England (Harvard UP, 2000) online edition
- Vaughan, Alden T. New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians 1620–1675 (1995)
- Weeden, William Babcock, "Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789" (2 vol. 1890), old but highly detailed and reliable
- Zimmerman, Joseph F. The New England Town Meeting: Democracy in Action (1999)
- Bidwell, Percy. "The Agricultural Revolution in New England. The American Historical Review, Vol. 26, No. 4. American Historical Association, July 1921. <http://people.brandeis.edu/~dkew/David/Bidwell-agriculture-1921.pdf>
- Gates, Paul. "Problems of Agricultural History 1790-1840." Kelsey, Darwin. Farming in the New Nation: Interpreting American Agriculture 1790-1840. Goleta, California: The Agricultural History Society, 1972.
- Kelsey, Darwin. "Agriculture in New England, 1790-1840." Old Sturbridge Village Research Paper. Old Sturbridge, Inc., January 1973.
- Russell, Howard. A Long, Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming in New England. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1976.
- Temin, Peter. "The Industrialization of New England, 1830-1880." Engines of Enterprise: An Economic History of New England. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2000.
Primary sources[edit]
- Dwight, Timothy. Travels Through New England and New York (circa 1800) 4 vol. (1969) Online at: vol 1; vol 2; vol 3; vol 4


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Photo: Mauricio Alejo When John and I met in 1998, I was a student and he, a well-established businessman 12 years my senior. I was sitting on the patio of one of the restaurants John owned, and he bought me a drink. Right away I was drawn to his confidence and charm. But as we built a life together, my sense of self slipped away so gradually, I barely noticed. John handled everything financial while I raised our son, cared for our home, and wrote on the side. If a little old-fashioned, the arrangement felt cooperative, like teamwork. Over time, though, the imbalance of power deepened until it eventually tore us apart.
Only then was I aware of how dependent I'd become: I was 38 and had never bought a car, negotiated a mortgage, or invested money. I'd barely paid a bill in a decade. The day John moved out, I curled up with my laptop and searched the Web for a psychology study on autonomy that I'd skimmed weeks before while reporting an article for the local paper. That study led me to another, and soon I was poring over the archives of journals, where I found a bit of hope: A growing body of research is revealing that independence is linked to happiness—and may even be its very foundation. The next day, I reached out to Diana Boer, PhD, a researcher in Bremen, Germany, who had analyzed data from 420,599 subjects and found that having choices and control over your life is a better predictor of well-being than having money. "Everyone has a unique definition of themselves,"Boer told me, "so it makes sense that every person needs to follow her own path to a full life." Sonja Lyubomirsky, PhD, author of The How of Happiness agrees. She pointed to research that showed that lack of autonomy leads to greater stress and even poor health. Singlehood was suddenly looking up. Then the furnace broke down and the sliding door derailed. In winter. In Canada. I found out that friends had hosted a get-together and, to avoid choosing between me and John, hadn't invited either of us. Thanks to an error I made with online banking, I neglected to pay the cable bill, the gas bill, and the car insurance. When my cat ran away, I was convinced he'd given up on me. But something Boer had said stuck in my mind: The way to independence is with little moves. I liked the notion that I could start small, so one morning, I woke up from a rare good night's sleep and decided to throw a dinner party. It was fabulous—like old times, but without any gibes from John about how messy I am when I cook. I was starting to see that independence is more basic than I'd ever imagined. As Boer had put it, "independence means cultivating faith in yourself at a fundamental level." To that end, here are three baby steps she suggests for creating a more autonomous life. Next: Resist the urge to explain yourself From the April 2012 issue of O, The Oprah Magazine
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Spokesman: Obama not backing down
Wednesday - 10/2/2013, 4:44pm  ET
WASHINGTON (AP) -- His spokesman says President Barack Obama isn't backing down from his refusal to negotiate changes in the health care law in return for reopening the government.
Obama has called Democratic and Republican congressional leaders to the White House later today. Spokesman Jay Carney says he'll be impressing upon them the consequences of the shutdown, but won't be offering what Carney calls "concessions to Republicans in exchange for not tanking the economy."
House Speaker John Boehner's (BAY'-nurz) office had suggested the meeting was a sign that Obama is ready to yield. A spokesman for the speaker said Obama realized that "his refusal to negotiate is indefensible."
Also attending the meeting will be Senate GOP leader Mitch McConnell, and the Democratic leaders of the Senate and House, Harry Reid and Nancy Pelosi.
Reid today offered a new round of budget talks to House Republicans if they allow the government to reopen. But a spokesman for Boehner said he rejected the offer.
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191-a-09-(Jay Carney, White House press secretary, at news conference)-"the first time"-White House press secretary Jay Carney says the president believes there's nothing to talk about until the House agrees to reopen the government and raise the debt ceiling. (2 Oct 2013)
< 192-a-15-(Jay Carney, White House press secretary, at news conference)-"open the government"-White House press secretary Jay Carney says President Obama is making no demands of Republicans beyond that they meet their basic responsibilities. (2 Oct 2013) < GRAPHICSBANK: Sign posted outside Valley Forge National Historical Park stating that park is closed due to federal government shutdown, Pennsylvania, graphic element on gray (2 Oct 2013) GRAPHICSBANK: Barack Obama, as US President, Washington DC, graphic element on gray (2 Oct 2013) GRAPHICSBANK: Harry Reid, as Senate Majority Leader and Senator of Nevada, Washington DC, graphic element on gray (2 Oct 2013) APPHOTO DCSW101: Despite signs stating that the national parks are closed, people visit the World War II Memorial in Washington, Wednesday, Oct. 2, 2013. Most of the visitors were WWII veterans who came to Washington on an honor flight to visit the memorial. It was an act of civil disobedience that marked the fact some barriers nor a government shutdown would keep a group of World War II veterans from visiting the monument erected in their honor. The Lincoln Memorial is in the background. (AP Photo/Susan Walsh) (2 Oct 2013) < APPHOTO DCEV201: House Majority Leader Rep. Eric Cantor of Va., gestures during a news conference about the ongoing budget battle, Wednesday, Oct. 2, 2013, on Capitol Hill in Washington. From left are, Rep. Cathy McMorris Rodgers, R-Wash., Rep. James Lankford, R-Okla., Cantor, Rep. Rep. Steven Palazzo, R-Miss., and Rep. Mike Kelly, R-Pa. President Barack Obama summoned congressional leaders to the White House on the second day of a partial government shutdown that has furloughed hundreds of thousands of workers and closed military cemeteries as far away as France. Republican and Democratic leaders agreed to meet Wednesday afternoon but showed no signs of yielding.(AP Photo/ Evan Vucci) (2 Oct 2013) <
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Cast A Spell Perfume
By Lulu Guinness for Women
Cast A Spell Perfume by Lulu Guinness, Created by the whimsical british accesory designer, this woody/oriental fragrance for women evokes the magic of popular fairy tales such as cinderella and sleeping beauty . This scented potion explores both the wicked and the glorious; glittering notes of dark berries, frosted blackberry pulp, mulberry, red currant, iced lavender, lilac petals, davana blossom blend with darker notes , black velvet fig, amber, bourbon, white patchouli . A magical journey ... Read More
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About Lulu Guinness
History and background of Lulu Guinness. Lulu Guinness handbags are currently sold to some of the most exclusive stores in the world. Lulu also has three successful retail stores—one in London and two in the US. In 1999, she opened her first store on Ellis Street just off Sloane Street. In September 2001, Lulu opened her first US store in the heart of the West Village in New York City. Read more about Lulu Guinness
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- Daily use (4)
- Evening (3)
- Reviewer Profile:
- Adventurous style (4), Classic style (4), Natural style (4)
- Fragrance Type:
- Oriental/spicy (7), Powdery (5), Woody/earthy (5), Citrus/fruity (3)
Most Liked Positive Review
Absolutley Wonderful!!!
"Cast a Spell" is one of those fragrances that falls under the 'you really love it' or 'you really dislike it" category. When I first came across this frag...Read complete review
"Cast a Spell" is one of those fragrances that falls under the 'you really love it' or 'you really dislike it" category. When I first came across this fragrance in 2006, I was underwhelmed and completely turned off. I thought it smelled rancid and awkward. I kept testing the fragrance in stores and over time I eventually began to enjoy it. Four years later I ordered it on a whim (and because of the dirt cheap price tag) and now I am in love with it.
I recommend this fragrance to those who adore the original Lolita Lempicka fragrance. Definitely a dark and sultry fragrance.
Most Liked Negative Review
A little bitter at first. Reminded me of Chamomile. Liked it more the longer it was on. Turned into a warm, woodsey scent. It does "cast a spell."
A little bitter at first. Reminded me of Chamomile. Liked it more the longer it was on. Turned into a warm, woodsey scent. It does "cast a spell."
Reviewed by 13 customers
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- Great Smell
- Not Overpowering
- Sensual
Best Uses
- Daily Use
Comments about Cast A Spell Perfume:
this perfume is really nice, sweet but not too sweet and also spicy which is one of my favorite fragrance types. I will wear it daily.
- Fragrance Type:
- Oriental/Spicy
- Great Smell
- Not Overpowering
- Sexy
Best Uses
- Anytime
- Special Occasions
Comments about Cast A Spell By Lulu Guinness:
The fragrance is just yummy--no better words.
- Fragrance Type:
- Citrus/Fruity, Oriental/Spicy, Powdery
- Clean & Fresh
- Draws Compliments
- Great Smell
- Great Value
- Long-Lasting
- Not Overpowering
Best Uses
- Anytime
- Daily Use
- Evening Use
- Special Occasions
Comments about Cast A Spell By Lulu Guinness:
I have used this fragrance for many years - will never change.
- Fragrance Type:
- Fresh/Aquatic
- Clean & Fresh
- Great Smell
- Sexy
Best Uses
- Anytime
- Daily Use
- Special Occasions
Comments about Cast A Spell Perfume:
Very close to Angel, will buy again for sure.
- Fragrance Type:
- Citrus/Fruity
- Clean & Fresh
- Great Smell
- Long-Lasting
Best Uses
- Anytime
Comments about Cast A Spell Perfume:
This is such a nice perfume. This perfume is soft with a slight sweetness to it. It is a very interesting scent and very feminine. Its a must have but I heard its a limited edition.
- Fragrance Type:
- Citrus/Fruity, Fresh/Aquatic, Oriental/Spicy, Powdery
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text:
Tragedy turns debate to look at commitals
Forced care eyed for the mentally ill
HARTFORD — The school massacre in Newtown has opened a debate over whether Connecticut should force some mentally ill people into outpatient treatment.
Forty-four other states have laws that authorize involuntary commitments and court-ordered treatment for individuals found to be suffering from mental illness.
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In the Know wrote on Jan 30, 2013 6:34 AM:
Here is a link to an article that I'm sure the Newtown Board of Education wants to ignore but should be addressed:
Don't be misled by the failure of the State Department of Education to investigate Newtown as no evidence of special education services being denied. Local Boards of Education and the State Department of Education have all too cozy relationships that result in these types of issues being swept under the rug.
I've tried to get access to the file at the State and here is the response that I got to my email to Anne Thompson on 1/18/13:
You have reached the Office of the Chief, Bureau of Special Education. I will be on a leave of absence from July 12, 2012, through September 30, 2012. This email will not be monitored. Therefore, please contact the main line of the Bureau of Special Education at 860-713-6910 to be direted to a consultant or ask for assistance from another office. You may also access the state website at www.sde.ct.gove/sde for further guidance . Thank you, Anne Louise Thompson
How much faith can the public put in a state agency that has a large role in how mental health services are delivered in the public school system if it can't even keep its avenues of communication open? "
conservative1 wrote on Jan 30, 2013 8:22 AM:
Liberals can never admit their ideas don't work. Banning guns doesn't work. "
blue star wrote on Jan 30, 2013 9:04 AM:
stopbushnow wrote on Jan 30, 2013 11:02 AM:
"He is socially inept. He does not know how to socially talk to people. He has no friends. He has not been invited to a birthÂday party since the second grade. He is alone. He does not go to the cafeteria. He does not do a lot, and I worry about him because he is very impulsive," Maksel said.
Maksel still worries about her oldest son getting the help that he need to learn the social skills that he lacks.
"It took something like this. Because I don't want another tragedy. Would I think he would do it? I don't think so. But who knows? He's 12 years old," she said. "But if I don't get him social skills to prepare himself for when he's 18, what am I going to do?"
Are we going to commit a 12 year old? Most mentally ill people wouldn't hurt a flea. Figuring out which ones might be Adam Lanza is akin to finding the fountain of youth.
Hopefully this woman knows to keep any guns away from the boy. What about the neighbors? Other family he may visit? "
conservative1 wrote on Jan 30, 2013 11:11 AM:
Tired wrote on Jan 30, 2013 12:08 PM:
Reality Check wrote on Jan 30, 2013 12:28 PM:
- Fundraiser to help family devastated by fire
- How to help
- Newtown mom fears for son, but not that he'll be a victim
- Post might outgrow state
- Tragedy turns debate to look at commitals
- Criss quits culture board
- Schools vie for visitors
- Hearing sought on man's request for guns' return
- Goshen zoners get station-store proposal
- Summer start to Wallace work


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Photos: 2009 Acura RL
The gadget-laden Acura RL has long been a favorite here at CNET Car Tech. As one of the first cars to offer a navigation system with real-time traffic data, and an active collision mitigation system, the current generation RL was ahead of the pack in terms of cabin and drivetrain technology. However, as we found in our recent review of the 2007 RL, the model has started to show its age. Acura is remedying that with the release of the 2009 RL. The 2009 RL comes with a new body style, a more powerful engine, and some more pioneering cabin … Read more


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Healthy Origins 100% Natural BioAstin Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced fom Haematococcus Pluvialis microalgae. Carotenoids are organic pigments that naturally occur in plants and other photosynthetic organisms. Thse organic pigments are responsible for giving many plants, fruits, and sea life their vibrant colors. There are over 600 known cartenoids which are broken down into 2 groups: Xanthophylis and Carotenes.
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Flying gets real with new MetalStrike joysticks
It's nothing new that game consoles' controllers provide feedback for in-game actions. PC gamers, however, have for a long time had to rely mostly on the static mouse and keyboard. And that would be very boring for simulation games, such as Microsoft's Flight Simulator X.
The situation's now changing with products like the new MetalStrike series joysticks that Genius announced Tuesday. The MetalStrike FF ($69.99) features a force feedback function, where the joystick vibrates when the user bumps, crashes, or shoots while playing air combat games that simulate real flight action. The MetalStrike Pro ($39.99) … Read more


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NEW YORK - MAY 19: Gayle King attends Bette Midler's New York Restoration Project's 8th Annual Spring Picnic at the New Leaf Restaurant & Bar on May 19, 2009 in New York City. (Photo by Brad Barket/Getty Images) *** Local Caption *** Gayle King
UPLOADED ON 2009-05-19 23:10:14 PHOTO BY Getty Images
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text:
Braves' bats fall flat against Cliff Lee
Thursday - 4/4/2013, 11:52pm  ET
Associated Press
ATLANTA (AP) -- Kris Medlen knew his spotless ride as a starting pitcher would not last forever.
Without enough bite on his fastball, Medlen felt like just another pitcher, not the guy who was named National League pitcher of the month in both August and September last season.
The Atlanta Braves lost for the first time in Medlen's last 24 starts as Cliff Lee held them to two singles in eight scoreless innings of a 2-0 loss to the Philadelphia Phillies on Thursday night.
"If you told me I was going to go five innings and give up two runs in the first inning, I'd have told you (that) you were crazy," Medlen said. "I think it ended up OK, but we lost the game, so it's a bad day."
Lee (1-0) didn't win his first game last year until July 4, but the former Cy Young Award winner outpitched Medlen (0-1) with temperatures in the low 40s and a light mist falling most of the game.
Philadelphia scored two runs in the second on Ben Revere's fielder's choice RBI and Chase Utley's sacrifice fly RBI.
After Lee watched Cole Hamels and Roy Halladay lose the first two games by a combined 16-7 score, the left-hander walked none and struck out eight in 106 pitches to give the Phillies' renowned threesome a big lift.
Lee was concerned about facing Atlanta's potent lineup.
"They seemed really aggressive and were swinging the bat pretty good the first couple of games," he said. "I just tried to allow them to see the fewest amount of pitches as possible and attack the zone in good locations."
Lee left for pinch-hitter Freddy Galvis in the ninth. Jonathan Papelbon earned his first save by striking out pinch-hitter Ramiro Pena, getting Andrelton Simmons to ground out and striking out Jason Heyward.
Medlen, who allowed six hits, two runs, four walks and struck out three in five innings, labored through the first three innings on 61 pitches.
Lee, who either lost or received no-decision in his first 13 starts last season, improved to 4-1 with 0.77 ERA -- a span of 47 innings in his last six starts against Braves.
Dan Uggla singled in the second and Justin Upton singled in the fourth off Lee, who did not allow a runner to get in scoring position.
"He's just consistent, man," Heyward said after going 0 for 4. "He's consistent. Whether it's on the plate or not, he's close enough to the dish and he's aggressive early and after that, he has a lot of weapons. Every time we've faced him, I've seen him like that."
Though Medlen finished the outing with respectable numbers, he hardly resembled the blossoming ace who went 9-0 with a 0.97 ERA in 12 starts last season.
In his final regular-season start last year, Medlen beat the New York Mets on Sept. 30 to surpass the mark of 22 straight starts set by Carl Hubbell for the New York Giants in 1936-37 and matched by Whitey Ford for the New York Yankees in 1950 and '53.
But against Philadelphia, Medlen issued a walk to load the bases once in the first and twice in the second. He escaped the jam in the first, but wasn't so fortunate the next two times.
Medlen escaped damage in the first before the Phillies took their first lead of the series in the second.
After Lee drew a walk to load the bases with no outs, Laynce Nix scored on Ben Revere's fielder's choice RBI grounder to make it 1-0. Jimmy Rollins walked to reload the bases before Utley's sacrifice fly RBI scored Erik Kratz for a 2-0 lead.
Braves manager Fredi Gonzalez thought Medlen competed hard despite not having his best stuff.
"His last two innings of work might have been the best two innings he's thrown since last year," Gonzalez said. "His delivery got better as the game went on. For him just to give up two runs, he did a nice job. Because very easily that game could have been out of hand right from the very beginning and he kept us in the ballgame."
Lee had 15 no-decisions in 30 starts last season, tied for most in the majors with Cincinnati's Mat Latos, but against Atlanta, he extended his major league mark to 18 straight starts of pitching at least six innings and walking either none or one.
Cory Gearrin and Jordan Walden pitched the sixth and seventh for Atlanta. Anthony Varvaro pitched the eighth and ninth.


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OTTAWA — Andrew Bennett admits some foreign governments don't necessarily like what he has to say.
Since being named Canada's first ambassador for religious freedom in March, Bennett has publicly criticized Egypt for failing to protect Coptic Christians, condemned Iran's treatment of Baha'is, and offered support to Muslims in Sri Lanka.
He has called for reconciliation between Christians and Muslims in the Central African Republic, launched projects in Nigeria, Indonesia and Kazakhstan, and tried to start a "frank and open" discussion on religious freedom with Turkish authorities.
Some of his actions and interventions have been more welcome abroad than others. For example, he describes Turkey's reaction to his overtures as "mixed."
"I think there's always going to be a sensitivity on the part of countries," Bennett says as he sits in his new office at Foreign Affairs headquarters. "'Well Canada, you're coming in here and suggesting that we do something different to what we're doing.'"
But Bennett says Canada shouldn't worry about "push back" because, as he says, "these are really principles that speak to a universal objective truth."
"So I think we need to be able to really feel confident."
The Conservative government's decision to establish an Office of Religious Freedom was first enunciated during the 2011 federal election campaign, at which point there were concerns about linking religion and Canadian foreign policy.
Bennett argues the advancement of religious freedom is part and parcel of the broader push to bolster human rights around the world, which is something Canada has always done — and will continue to do.
"People will often sort of ask me: Why religious freedom?" he says. "And I always point to that: It's part of Canada's defence of human rights.
"Religious freedom exists in concert with other rights and other freedoms, whether it's freedom of expression, freedom of association, legal and democratic rights, equality of men and women."
Then why not a human rights ambassador?
While Bennett says that's a question for the government, he argues Canada's experience as a multi-faith, multi-ethnic country combined a global trend towards increased religious persecution make the focus on religious freedom both relevant and timely.
"Seventy-five per cent of the world's population live under high or very high restrictions on religious freedom or in situations of high or very high social hostility against people of faith," he says, citing the Pew Research Center's research.
"And this has been increasing over the years. In 2011, it was only about 70 per cent. So we see a trend."
There have been fears the office will be used to advance a Christian agenda, or to bolster support for the government in key voter demographics, such as Coptic Christians in Toronto or Ismaili Muslims in Calgary.
There's no question where Bennett's focus has been in the nine months since arriving on job, at least in terms of public condemnations and criticisms as Syria, Pakistan, Egypt, Sri Lanka and Iran have all been raised numerous times.
Is the fact each has a Christian community under threat, or a large voter bloc in Canada, a coincidence?
Bennett, a Christian college dean and former public servant, says he has consulted most faith communities in Canada since taking up his post, "and a lot of them are fairly large diaspora communities from certain countries."
"And so certainly, when they meet with me, they're particularly concerned about their community."
Bennett, a Catholic, also argues Christians are being disproportionately affected by religious persecution, citing reports produced by the Washington, D.C.-based Pew Research Center that say about 200 million Christians around the world are living in or under threat of persecution.
"That's one in 10 Christians in the world," he says. "So I know for various churches and Christian denominations here in Canada, they're very concerned that Canada have a voice about the persecution of Christians."
Yet he also says he feels an obligation to "speak up and speak out on all the different communities that are facing persecution."
"We're guided by where we see particularly egregious violations of religious freedom taking place in the world, regardless of what community that's affecting," he says.
Bennett says he doesn't have the resources to work in every country, so his office is focusing on where the need is most acute, and where Canada has some strategic interest or influence.
Issuing public statements and critiques is also only one part of what his office is doing.
The Office of Religious Freedom comes with an annual budget of $5 million, including a $4-million Religious Freedom Fund for activities outside Canada.
Bennett says the money, some of which has already been committed to projects in Nigeria, Indonesia and Kazakhstan, offers an opportunity to make a difference both quietly, and in countries that want nothing to do with him.
"Kazakhstan is one of our countries of focus," he says. "And by focusing on Kazakhstan, we also hope to have some engagement in other Central Asian republics where Canada really doesn't have a great deal of engagement."
The fund isn't just for conferences and research on religious tolerance and interreligious dialogue, but is also to provide material support such as legal assistance, training and awareness campaigns for religious communities that are facing persecution or discrimination.
Bennett says a recent call for project proposals netted more than 100 submissions, with the winners to be announced in the new year.
"We're not interested in pure talking shops," he says. "We want concrete outcomes that lead to some sort of sustained engagement and actually move the goalposts a bit."
And for those countries that still don't want anything to do with him and his mission?
"There's certain countries, let's face it, it's going to be hard to engage with them," he says. "Whether we're speaking about Iran, or in some cases even with China. So we need to look at other means to advance freedom of religion in those countries."


text:
Adjunct Professor of Business Administration
PhD, Systems & Entrepreneurial Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2009MBA, Business, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2004MS, Mechanical Engineering (Electrical Engineering), Iowa State University, 2001BSE, Aerospace Engineering, University of Michigan, 1995
Business Development - Intellectual Property Strategy, Applied Research Associates, 2012Lecturer-College of Engineering, University of Illinois, 2010-2012Senior Engineer, Applied Research Associates, 2002-2010Intellectual Property Mining Specialist, Office of Technology Management - University of Illinois, 2005-2008Commercialization Analyst, Office of Technology Management - University of Illinois, 2003-2005Software Support Engineer-CAD Specialist, Engineering Animation, Inc., 1997-2001Product Test Engineer, The Hunter Fan Company, 1996-1997
Yassine, A., Bradley, J. 2013. A Knowledge-Driven, Network-Based Computational Framework for Product Development Systems. Journal of Computing and Information Science in EngineeringBradley, J. 2012. Corporate Entrepreneurship and Innovation. In Matthew Marvel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of New Venture Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Collins, S., Bradley, J., Yassine, A. 2010. Analyzing Product Development Task Networks to Examine Organizational Change. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management
List of Teachers Ranked as Excellent by Students, Center For Teaching Excellence, 2013
Reviewer, IEEE International Technology Management Conference, 2011
Product Development and Design (software, hardware, hybrids), Design Thinking, Intellectual Property Management Strategy, Systems Thinking, Social Networks Analysis, 3-D Printing, Computer-Aided Design, Creativity and InnovationMy research is focused on technology management and product development – how information is used and managed within a product development environment. I am interested in challenges at the interface of product development, technology management, intellectual property management, and corporate entrepreneurship. I seek to investigate and understand the impact of intellectual property management strategy on innovation, how organizations realize value through the strategic and tactical options embedded in their intellectual property rights (IPR's), how organizations make decisions to commercialize and monetize their intellectual property through products and services across markets and verticals, how the democratizing of innovation, low-cost 3D prototyping, and the "maker's movement" may impact technology management, intellectual property management, and product development.
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Streptococcal Infection and Respiratory Distress in Newborns
This study has been completed.
Information provided by:
National Institutes of Health Clinical Center (CC)
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First received: February 10, 2008
Last updated: February 19, 2014
Last verified: February 2014
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No Study Results Posted on ClinicalTrials.gov for this Study
Study Status: | This study has been completed. |
Estimated Study Completion Date: | No date given |
Estimated Primary Completion Date: | No date given |