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In 1619, Italian philosopher Lucilio Vanini was burned alive for suggesting that humans evolved from apes. Over two centuries later, popular society still reserved its sharpest contempt for evolutionists. Yet a literal interpretation of Genesis started to unravel long before Darwin published On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man. Europeans were deeply disturbed by the anatomical similarities they saw between themselves and apes, and they struggled to find logical explanations. Some even lumped the Khoi-San peoples (called the "Hottentots") of southern Africa into the same group as apes, classifying them as degenerate children of Adam; citing their lack of "perfect reason" and modesty, 17th-century naturalist Edward Topsell argued that "above all they cannot be Men as they have no religion." Meanwhile, what some Europeans considered evidence of the Old Testament reached new heights of absurdity. Canon Johann Jakob Scheuchzer found a fossil of what he claimed was a relic of "the accursed race that must have been swallowed up by the waters" of the Great Flood. Less than a century later, French naturalist Georges Cuvier demonstrated that the bones had really belonged to a giant salamander.
Most Recent Additions
Year: 1799
Scientist/artist: Charles White
Originally published in: An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables
Now appears in: The Flamingo's Smile by Stephen Jay Gould and Humankind by Felipe Fernández-Armesto
This particularly odious depiction of "lower" and "higher" life forms was once widely accepted as part of the Great Chain of Being. In this depiction, the lowest form of human life is the Negro, and at the top of the ladder is the Greek ideal. The depictions are carefully arranged so that "lower" humans appear in close proximity to "lower" animals. "In whatever respect the African differs from the European," White wrote, "the particularity brings him nearer to the ape."
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Year: 1799
Scientist/artist: Charles White
Originally published in: An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables
Now appears in: Humankind by Felipe Fernández-Armesto
White described this plate as including "copies of the best authenticated engraving" of apes, as well as profiles of a "native of Botany Bay" and an African.
Year: 1617
Scientist/artist: Robert Fludd
Originally published as: The Great Chain of Being
Now appears in: "Science by the Eyeful" in Science and Robert Fludd and His Images of The Divine by Urszula Szulakowska in Public Domain Review
The Great Chain of Being didn't come into existence with Charles White's 1799 diagram. The concept dated back to the ancient Greeks. Persisting throughout the centuries, the great chain was a hierarchical structure of all matter and life, with God at the top and minerals at the bottom. Humans ranked above the other earthly life forms (though, as White's diagram shows, humans could also be ranked by race). At first glance, the Great Chain of Being might look like an early form of evolutionary theory, but it wasn't. The hierarchy wasn't only strict, it was static and, unlike evolution, precluded change. However the Great Chain of Being might have influenced how some early biologists thought about biological diversity, including "higher" and "lower" life forms. One of many people to document the great chain, Robert Fludd was an English physician who worked in the court of King James I. In his vision, the Goddess of Wisdom stands above all life forms on earth, just below the angels. In 2014, this diagram was among the oldest illustrations on display in the British Library's Beautiful Science exhibition highlighting science visualizations over the centuries.
Year: 1731
Scientist/artist: Johann Jakob Scheuchzer
Originally published in: Sacred Physics
Now appears in: Crossing Over by Stephen Jay Gould and Rosamond Wolff Purcell
Swiss naturalist Johann Jakob Scheuchzer found the Old Testament a perfectly plausible account of the history of life on earth. But he also tried to reconcile the story with discoveries about the natural world, including the existence of apes. In this image, Scheuchzer compared biblical Esau (Jacob's inordinately hairy, slightly dim-witted older twin) with a "satyr" (the term at the time for chimpanzees). The 18th-century naturalist stopped short of calling the father of the Edomites an ape. "Nonetheless, in making this comparison, I do not wish to insinuate that Esau was a Satyr, nor that this race of savage animals has descended from him. I consider Esau as a monstrous man."
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Year: 1731
Scientist/artist: Johann Jakob Scheuchzer
Originally published in: Sacred Physics
Now appears in: Fossils: Evidence of Vanished Worlds by Yvette Gayrard-Valy and Cradle of Life by J. William Schopf
"The reality of the Universal Deluge, albeit acknowledged for many centuries, has never been more patent than it is at the present time." So declared Scheuchzer in describing this specimen, which he named Homo diluvii testis. This "witness to the flood" was a 4-foot-long fossil with eyes that had apparently widened their sockets with horror at the rising waters. Decades later, Georges Cuvier reexamined and cleaned the fossil, and discovered its clawed forefeet. It wasn't a human witness to Noah's flood; it was a big, extinct salamander. The species was later renamed, in Scheuchzer 's dubious honor, Andrias scheuchzeri.
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Years: 1839-1849, 1977-1996
Scientists: Samuel George Morton, Stephen Jay Gould
Artist: John Collins
Originally published in: Crania Americana
Now appears in: "The Mismeasure of Science: Stephen Jay Gould versus Samuel George Morton on Skulls and Bias" by Lewis et al. in PLoS Biology
In the mid-19th century, Morton measured hundreds of skulls from different ethnic groups to determine differences in cranial capacity, initially using mustard seed and later, on a more diverse sample, lead shot. In the late 20th century, Gould reanalyzed Morton's results and found them lacking, as he explained in The Mismeasure of Man. Gould did not accuse Morton of deliberately falsifying his results, and pointed out that Morton published his raw data, something he wouldn't have done if he felt he had anything to hide. But Morton's conclusions that Caucasians consistently came out on top, plus changes in some skull measurements between the seed-based and shot-based studies, led Gould to conclude that Morton's assumptions about race subconsciously influenced his results. Gould did not actually re-measure Morton's skulls, but in the early 21st century, a group of anthropologists did — at least some of them. They found that Morton, whom Gould made the poster boy of a priori assumptions, had actually done a reasonably accurate job. The errors he did make were mostly random, and the skulls he consistently inflated were Egyptian, people he would have classified as Negro. Ironically, Gould's findings on cranial capacity were actually closer to the assumptions he presumed Morton made than were Morton's own findings. The 2011 study concluded that Gould's criticisms of Morton were at best poorly substantiated and at worst false. Morton's study did include errors, and he apparently held views that typified the racism of the time, but the 2011 researchers concluded, "Biased scientists are inevitable, biased results are not." A Nature editorial the following week observed, "Of course, Lewis and his colleagues have their own motivations. Several in the group have an association with the University of Pennsylvania, and have an interest in seeing the valuable but understudied skull collection freed from the stigma of bias (although, as for many 19th-century museum collections, its ethically dubious assembly will remain an issue)."
Year: 1854
Scientists: Josiah Nott and George Gliddon
Originally published in: Types of Mankind
Now available at: Types of Mankind (http://books.google.com/books?id=9osXAAAAYAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s)
Fondly dedicated to the memory of craniometry founder Samuel Morton, Nott and Gliddon's book promoted polygenism — the idea that human races had been created separately, were unrelated to each other and were emphatically unequal. Nott and Gliddon devoted a considerable chunk of their 700+-page book to arguing that African slaves deserved their lowly position. Naturally the book was a big hit in the antebellum South. Opposed to both shared ancestry of all humans and (presumably) the Emancipation Proclamation, Nott and Gliddon wrote, "To one living in, or conversant with, the Slave-States of North America, it need not be told, that the Negroes, in ten generations, have not made the slightest physical approach either towards our aboriginal population, or to any other race. As a mnemonic, we here subjoin, sketched by a friend, the likenesses of two Negroes (Figs. 179, 180) who ply their avocations every day in the streets of Mobile where anybody could in a single morning collect a hundred other quite as strongly marked. . . . Mr. Lyell, in common with tourists less eminent, but in this question not less misinformed, has somewhere stated, that the Negroes in America are undergoing a manifest improvement in this physical type. He has no doubt that they will, in time, show a development in skull and intellect quite equal to the whites. This unscientific assertion is disproved by the cranial measurements of Dr. Morton." And how could Nott and Gliddon be sure that sub-Saharan Africans were unchanging? Because of biblical chronology. "The authors confidently trust, that the antiquity of Negro races, no less than the permanence of Negro types, during the (1853+2348) 4201 years that have just elapsed since Usher's Flood, are questions now satisfactorily set at rest in the minds of lettered and scientific readers." Furthermore, ancient Egyptians had enslaved sub-Saharan Africans, which justified continuing the practice, Nott and Gliddon argued. And slaves didn't have it so bad. "For the sake of illustrating that, even in Ancient Egypt, African slavery was not altogether unmitigated by moments of congenial enjoyment; not always inseparable from the lash and the hand-cuff; we submit a copy of some Negroes 'Dancing in the streets of Thebes', by way of archaeological evidence that, 8400 years ago; (or before the Exodus of Israel, B.C. 1822), 'de same ole Nigger' of our Southern plantations could spend his Nilotic sabbaths in saltatory recreations, and 'Turn about, and wheel about, and jump Jim Crow!'" Wow.
Year: 1857
Scientist: George R. Gliddon
Originally published in: Indigenous Races of the Earth
Now appears in: "The Moral Discourse of Climate: Historical Considerations on Race, Place and Virtue" by David Livingstone in Journal of Historical Geography
Gliddon was a practitioner of anthropometric cartography, and he argued that climate drove character. This image is part of a diagram he included in his book, "Chart illustrative of the geographical distribution of monkeys in their relation to that of some inferior types of men." Besides arguing that no civilization had ever arisen where black people lived, he went on to say, "the most superior types of Monkeys are found to be indigenous exactly where we encounter races of some of the most inferior types of Men." Many of Gliddon's contemporaries agreed with him (Alexander von Humboldt being a notable exception). The reasoning went like this: People living in temperate climates were fashioned by nature to be smart, hardworking, upright citizens. People who lived in the tropics were slackers, and pretty loose slackers at that. You would think, considering the presumed relationship between cold and character, that people living in or near the Arctic would be overachievers, but no. Somehow they were slackers, too. As for whether the races shared a common origin, convictions varied. Gliddon believed in multiple origins, but others argued that we all arose from common stock, only some races improved over time, and the races that headed south (or too far north) degenerated.
Year: 1895
Scientist: Paul Du Chaillu
Originally published in: Stories of the Gorilla Country
Now appears in: "Race, Sex and the Trials of a Young Explorer" by Richard Conniff in The New York Times (http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/13/race-sex-and-the-trials-a-young-explorer/)
In the mid-19th century, an intrepid young explorer named Paul Du Chaillu ventured into the jungles of Gabon. In the four years he spent there, he encountered gorillas, and brought back some 20 specimens. They arrived on the scientific scene about the time that Darwin and Wallace introduced the theory of natural selection. Gorillas are certainly big and strong, but Du Chaillu depicted the gorilla as a "hellish dream creature." In writing about his African expedition, he also embellished accounts of his travels, and may even have plagiarized the works of others. Yet Du Chaillu's reputation tanked not so much for what he wrote about Africa as for his alleged relationship to it. Whispers circulated that amateur naturalist wasn't entirely white. The Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia sponsored Du Chaillu's trip, and science historian Richard Conniff argues that the same academy might have kicked Du Chaillu out in 1860 at least in part because an academy officer named George Ord fretted over the shape of the naturalist's head and facial features. In short, Ord wrote, he discerned "evidence of spurious origin." Du Chaillu's father was a slave owner and his mother was probably mixed race — something Ord blamed for Du Chaillu's overly dramatic accounts of his travels. "If it be a fact that he is a mongrel, or a mustee, as the mixed races are termed in the West Indies, then we may account for his wondrous narratives; for I have observed that it is a characteristic of the negro race, and their admixtures, to be affected to habits of romance."
Year: 1794
Scientist/artist: Pieter Camper
Originally published in: The Works of the Late Professor Camper
Now appears in: Science: A Four Thousand Year History by Patricia Fara
It's far from obvious, but this image was actually intended to show that differences between races were superficial. Dutch anatomist Camper was an abolitionist. The faces appear along a spectrum that measures the angle at which the face slopes backward — from apes to Apollo. Although the grid lines lend an air of mathematical finality, the scale is really one of aesthetics, with the unlikely pinnacle of a Greek god. Although aimed at minimizing the perceived differences between races, this diagram apparently had the opposite effect.
Year: 1795
Scientist/artist: J.F. Blumenbach
Originally published in: De generis humani varietate nativa
Now appears in: I Have Landed by Stephen Jay Gould
Pieter Camper wasn't the only well-intentioned 18th-century naturalist whose work had the opposite effect of what he hoped. Although he probably assumed (as did everyone he knew) that Europeans outshone everybody else, Blumenbach was an abolitionist who maintained that slaves' morality often surpassed that of their masters. (He especially admired the poetry of Phillis Wheatley, a Boston slave.) Moreover, Blumenbach argued forcefully that humans comprised a single species — hardly a view shared by many of his peers. But Blumenbach made a blunder with long-lasting effects. Whereas his role model Linnaeus had classified human races based on geography, Blumenbach classified them based on a purely subjective judgment: beauty. Blumenbach concluded that mankind arose — and the most beautiful people on earth continued to live — in the Caucasus (hence Caucasian). He figured that other races diverged from their ancestral types as they adapted to different environments. This illustration shows the "ideal" Caucasian skull in the middle. Moving toward the left are American Indian and Mongolian skulls. On the right are Malay and African skulls. Blumenbach's personal preference became, for many people, just more evidence of intellectual and moral superiority.
Year: 1822
Scientist/artist: William Buckland
Originally published in: Goat Hole Cave, Paviland
Now appears in: Homo Britannicus by Chris Stringer
William Buckland completed one of the first, if not the very first, reconstructions of living habits when he examined fossil hyena remains in Kirkdale Cave. About the same time, he discovered an ancient human skeleton: a Cro-Magnon fossil at Goat Hole Cave. Buckland produced detailed diagrams of the cave and noted that the skeleton was covered with red ochre, possibly the result of a burial ceremony. Buckland probably had no way of knowing how ancient or significant his find was. He also had no great means of determining the individual's gender. He described the ancient human (perhaps jokingly) as a witch, then gave the more palatable name of "Red Lady of Paviland." The ochre-covered human was less-than-average height for a Cro-Magnon male fossil, at least compared to other finds, and that might explain why Buckland misinterpreted the male fossil as female. Still, for such an early find, it wasn't a bad effort.
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Year: 1493
Originally published in: Nuremberg Chronicle
Now appears in: Amazing Rare Things by Attenborough, Owens, Clayton and Alexandratos
Europeans imagined all sorts of odd "people" lived elsewhere in the world: people with horns, with giant floppy ears, with giant single feet, to name a few. This late 15th-century publication shows a few of the odd humans assumed to live elsewhere. The bottom picture shows a human whose face appears on his or her torso. The middle picture is of a cyclops. The top picture is apparently of a werewolf crossed with a cheesy lounge singer.
Year: 1475
Scientist/artist: Konrad von Megenberg
Originally published in: Book of Nature
Now appears in: "Marvels of the East: A Study in the History of Monsters" by Rudolf Wittkower in Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 1942
The notion that faraway lands — India in particular — held monstrous human races arose in Antiquity, when some Greek scholars spread fabulous accounts. The Greeks had their share of skeptics who challenged such stories, but while the skeptics' criticisms were lost to medieval Europeans, the fantastic tales lived on, thanks to the uncritical writings of Pliny and others. For all their belief in monstrous races, Europeans in the Middle Ages adopted a pretty generous stance about them, insisting that even the monstrous races were God's children. Monsters as portents of divine punishment may have been more common during the sectarian tensions of the Reformation.
Century: 13th
Scientist/artist: Zakariya ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud Abu Yahya al-Qazwini
Originally published in: Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
Now appears in: Science in Medieval Islam by Howard R. Turner
Just as Europeans had outlandish ideas of odd people who might live far away, Muslim scholars entertained equally fanciful notions. Published in what is today Iraq, this encyclopedia of the "Wonders of Creation" covered a range of topics, mixing fact and fiction about geography and biology.
Year: 1851
Scientist/artist: Robert Knox
Originally published in: The Races of Men
Now appears in: Making Modern Science by Bowler and Morus
If the work of Robert Knox was any indication, not much improved in race relations between the beginning and the middle of the 19th century. To Victorian minds, a sloping forehead implied and tiny brain, and Knox sure wanted his readers to get his point about people of color.
Year: 1758
Scientist/artist: Carolus Linnaeus
Originally published in: Systema Naturae
Now appears in: Human Origins: The Search for Our Beginnings by Herbert Thomas
It's impossible to overestimate the contribution Linnaeus made to science — he developed the system for classifying all living organisms that is still in use today. Yet his uncertainty about how to classify apes and humans is obvious from some of his depictions. He even developed terms such as "day man" and "night man," and admitted that he couldn't find a characteristic to differentiate humans from apes.
Year: 1658
Scientist: Edward Topsell
Originally published in: Historie of Foure-Footed Beastes
Now appears at: Topsell's Historie of Foure-Footed Beastes at the University of Houston Digital Library
This 17th-century depiction of a full-bodied beast with long claws and a human face might have looked like a human-hybrid monster to the people who read Topsell's book. It was then known as Arctopithecus (the bear-ape), a New World animal utterly foreign to Europeans. Today it seems a little more benign. It's a three-toed sloth.
Year: 1812
Scientist/artist: F. Jacob
Originally published in: Histoire Naturelle des Singes
Now appears in: Human Origins: The Search for Our Beginnings by Herbert Thomas
Jacob showed the fetus of a monkey and a human side by side to illustrate their similarities, maintaining that the only thing the monkey lacked was a soul.
Year: 1868
Scientist: Ernst Haeckel
Originally published in: Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte
Now appears in: Human Origins: The Search for Our Beginnings by Herbert Thomas
Haeckel divided humanity into no less than 12 distinct species, based upon hair type, skull shape, skin color and eye color. Although he believed humanity now comprised 12 species, he maintained that they had all arisen from a single ancestral type that once lived on a continent now submerged beneath the Indian Ocean.
Year: 1868
Scientist: Ernst Haeckel
Artist: Gustav Müller
Originally published in: Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (1st edition)
Now appears in: "Pictures of Evolution and Charges of Fraud" by Nick Hopwood in Isis June 2006 issue
Reminiscent of Charles White's 1799 diagram, this illustration pointed out the affinity between the "lowest humans" and "highest apes." The heads pictured here were supposed to represent — from best to worst, so to speak — Indo-German, Chinese, Fuegian, Australian Negro, African Negro, Tasmanian, gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, gibbon, proboscis monkey, and mandrill. An interesting shift from White's diagram was that the best of the best was no longer Grecian but German. In fairness to Haeckel, he didn't like this illustration much (his publisher apparently did), but an expanded version appeared in the second edition of his book. Haeckel was, to say the least, confident of the superiority of the white race, as were many of his contemporaries. But at least one scientist, Michael Foster described the illustration in Haeckel's second book as "at once absurdly horrible and theatrically grotesque, without any redeeming feature either artistic or scientific."
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Year: 1870
Scientist: Ernst Haeckel
Originally published in: Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte (2nd edition)
Now appears in: The Tragic Sense of Life by Robert J. Richards
For the second edition of Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, Haeckel drafted new pictures. As in the first version, the pinnacle of humanity was the Greek ideal, but this time, the Greek sported a beard. So, by pure coincidence, did Haeckel.
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Year: 1909
Originally published in: The Illustrated London News
Scientist: Marcellin Boule
Artist: Frantisek Kupka
Now appears in: Life by Richard Fortey, God — or Gorilla: Images of Evolution in the Jazz Age by Constance Areson Clark and "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall" by Marianne Sommer in Social Studies of Science (Also
discussed in Java Man by Swisher, Curtis and Lewin)
The first fairly complete Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in 1908 by Amadee and Jean Bouyssonie and L. Bardon. The "Old Man of La Chapelle" showed indications of intentional burial, a topic that would be debated for decades. But in the early 20th century, scientists tussled over myriad issues, including the basic question of how long ago the Neanderthal lived. Today the La Chapelle skeleton is estimated at roughly 60,000 years old, but when the skeleton was first found, scientists had few means of figuring out its exact age. Marcellin Boule estimated the skeleton's age at just 20,000 years. Another basic question dealt with how different Neanderthals were from us. Earlier hypotheses about the first recognized Neanderthal fossil, found in the 1850s, suggested that that individual suffered from rickets, hence the bowed legs, and that the pain from the condition caused the sufferer to habitually furrow his brow, producing prominent brow ridges. (In fact, extensive use of muscles can cause bone buildup where those muscles attach, but they can't make a modern human skull look Neanderthal.) Boule worked with the artist Frantisek Kupka, who rendered this Neanderthal as very different from modern humans: hairy, savage, blank-faced, wielding a club. The Illustrated London News quickly reproduced Kupka's illustration. How much Boule approved of this particular image isn't entirely clear.
Year: 1911
Originally published in: The Illustrated London News
Scientist: Arthur Keith
Artist: Amédée Forestier
Now appears in: "Mirror, Mirror on the Wall" by Marianne Sommer in Social Studies of Science
In sharp contrast to French paleontologist Marcellin Boule (above), British anthropologist Sir Arthur Keith believed that humans had acquired more or less modern anatomy very long ago. (He also believed that humans originated in Europe, and he has been named as the possible culprit behind the Piltdown Hoax.) The picture of the spear-wielding specimen on the left was titled, "Modern Man, the Mammoth-Slayer: The Briton of 170,000 Years Ago." This was based on the Galley Hill Man, considered to be a modern human. Only slightly less impressive was the specimen on the right, the Neanderthal known as the Old Man of La Chapelle, and this vignette was titled, "Not in the 'Gorilla' Stage: The Man of 500,000 Years Ago." Boule's estimate of the La Chapelle Neanderthal age was off from modern estimates by some 40,000 years, but his guess was much closer than Keith's. By modern estimates, Neanderthals did not evolve until about 200,000 years ago. Anatomically modern humans — and that term is less straightforward than you might think since it's based on an overall tendency toward modern features — evolved at about the same time, but they first evolved in Africa, not Europe. So Keith substantially overestimated the age of both the mammoth-hunting Briton and the Neanderthal. But the rendition of this noble Neanderthal is arguably closer to modern interpretations than Boule's brute.
Year: 1922
Originally published in: Illustrated London News
Scientists: Henry Fairfield Osborn and Grafton Elliot Smith
Now appears in: God — or Gorilla: Images of Evolution in the Jazz Age by Constance Areson Clark
The year 1922 found the American Museum of Natural History's Henry Fairfield Osborn clashing with ardent anti-evolutionist William Jennings Bryan, the "Scopes Monkey Trial" being just a few years away. When Nebraska paleontologist Harold Cook found a fossil tooth that might belong to a primate, Osborn saw his opportunity. How deliciously ironic that an early human tooth might come from Bryan's own home state! Well, the tooth did come from Nebraska. It also came from a pig. Bryan and generations of creationists delighted in pointing out Osborn's gaffe. Fewer have been anxious to acknowledge that the definitive debunking of Hesperopithecus (Nebraska Man) came from William King Gregory — an evolutionist and Osborn's own former student.
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Year: 1927
Appears in: "Recent Discoveries Relating to the Origin and Antiquity of Man" in Science
Scientist: Henry Fairfield Osborn
In a single paper in Science, Osborn slammed Darwin, Haeckel and Huxley for missing or ignoring "the profound cleft between ape and man;" asserted that "the home of primitive man should be looked for in the same kind of country in which the primitive horse flourished" (that would be Asia); asserted that Neanderthals didn't have to work hard to find food or survive in their environment; insisted that the ancestors of the "higher races of man" could not occur "south of the Neanderthal Eurasiatic belt, because to the south conditions of life were less rigorous;" and described the brain capacity of Homo erectus as "not far inferior to that of the native Indian Veddahs." And he backed up his assertions with the evidence of Piltdown Man and Nebraska Man. Piltdown Man hadn't yet been exposed as a hoax, and Nebraska Man's tooth hadn't yet been identified as that of a pig. This unwelcome bit of dental news would arrive — also in Science — several months later.
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Year: 1931
Originally published in: The Mongol in Our Midst: A Study of Man and His Three Faces
Scientist: Francis Crookshank
Now appears in: "Welcome to the Twilight Zone: A Forgotten Early Phase of Human Evolutionary Studies" by Richard G. Delisle in Endeavour
British physician Crookshank laid out his view of human ancestry in 1931. He believed in polyphyletism, i.e., that humankind had derived from multiple ancestral lines that were isolated from each other. He further linked the different human races with what he believed to be their closest simian relatives. Crookshank wasn't the first polyphyletist but luckily he was one of the last.
Year: 1836
Scientist: George Combe (based on earlier work by Johann Caspar Spurzheim)
Originally published in: Outlines of Phrenology
Now appears in: Victorian Sensation by James A. Secord (Also discussed in Postcards from the Brain Museum by Brian Burrell, and Making Modern Science by Bowler and Morus)
Although modern science has tied certain functions to various regions of the brain, we realize there's still so much we don't know. Nineteenth-century phrenologists were a lot more confident — and convinced that they could tell a patient's mental abilities from the shape of his or her skull. "Phrenological organs" of the brain named in this work included (among many others) destructiveness, secretiveness, veneration, hope, wonder, wit and individuality. Spurzheim, the popularizer of phrenology, took many of his ideas from Franz Josef Gall. Gall and Spurzheim started out as colleagues but later had a philosophical split. Though he got wrapped up in the silly notion of skull shapes, Gall was onto something regarding localization of certain brain functions.
Year: 1902
Scientist: L.A. Vaught
Originally published in: Vaught's Practical Character Reader
Now appears in: Phrenology Diagrams in Public Domain Review
Popular confidence in phrenology lasted through the 19th century and into the 20th. At the dawn of the 20th century, Vaught sought to offer practical advice for people wanting to understand human nature, no matter the country. "More than a million observations have been made to confirm the examinations," the author boasted. This pair of illustrations aimed to help women choose good husbands. For the picture on the left, Vaught advised, "Young ladies, indelibly fix this shape of head in your memories. Any man who will make a natural, kind and true husband will have a head in outline from a side view like this." For the picture on the right, Vaught cautioned, "The reason this man is an unreliable husband is because his is very weak in Conjugality and Parental Love and exceedingly strong in Amativeness. Young ladies, beware of such men as husbands." Among that man's likely sins were bigamy and polygamy.
Year: 1744
Scientist: William Smith (not the 19th-century geologist)
Now appears in: Man's Place in Nature by T.H. Huxley
Huxley discredited this image in 1863, and suggested that it really represented a chimpanzee. By the time Huxley wrote, human understanding of the great apes had substantially improved. He quoted from a paper published in 1852 by a new researcher: "opportunities for receiving a knowledge of the [gorilla] have not been wanting; traders having for one hundred years frequented [the Congo region of Africa], and specimens, such as have been brought here within a year, could not have been exhibited without having attracted the attention of the most stupid."
Year: 1915
Scientist: William Diller Matthew
Originally published in: "Climate and Evolution" in Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.
Now appears in: Man Rises to Parnassus by Henry Fairfield Osborn
Following up a lecture he delivered in 1911, William Diller Matthew published this map showing his hypothesis about the origin and dispersal of human races. From Asia, "Mongols" headed north and into the Americas, "Caucasians" headed into southern and western Europe, "Malays" went eastward and morphed into Australian Aborigines, and "Negroids" aimed for Africa. "Negritos" probably referred to the Khoi-San of southern Africa. Nobody much liked the idea now commonly accepted today: African ancestry for all modern humans.
Year: 1927
Scientist: Henry Fairfield Osborn
Artist: James Howard McGregor
Originally published in: Man Rises to Parnassus by Henry Fairfield Osborn
Titled "The Rise of Character in the Human Face," this collection of busts shows Osborn's conception of human ancestry. Although debate continues about the possible contribution of Neanderthal DNA to that of modern humans, Neanderthals are no longer regarded as direct ancestors. Yet Osborn's inclusion of the Neanderthal as a direct ancestor is dwarfed by another gaffe: the inclusion of Piltdown Man.
Year: c. 1930
Originally appeared in: Traveling exhibit on eugenics
Now appears in: Better for All the World by Harry Bruinius
If people could breed better pigs, chickens and cows, they could certainly breed better children. Traveling exhibits in the first half of the 20th century showed the simple logic of heritage trumping education and environment. Ironically, some of the main thinkers behind the eugenics movement had troubles of their own. Harry Laughlin, who vigorously campaigned for the sterilization of the unfit, kept secret his own epilepsy. Of course, epilepsy in no way diminishes one's worth as a human being (unless, unfortunately, one is a eugenicist). Another thinker behind the movement, Charles Davenport, confidently predicted that his daughter would — like himself — respect the values of Protestant America, manage expenses responsibly, and prefer nature to art. His daughter turned out to be a bohemian spendthrift. Even worse, she was a bohemian spendthrift who defied her daddy and married a Jew.
Year: 1911
Scientist: Charles Davenport
Originally published in: Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
Now appears in: Davenport's Dream edited by Witkowski and Inglis
Eugenicist Charles Davenport believed that practically everything came down to inheritance: intelligence, artistic ability, wanderlust and good (or bad) morals. To support his argument, he published an abundance of inheritance diagrams showing the relationships between various defects. His caption for this one reads, "This mating illustrates the principle that migraine (M) and paralysis frequently indicate the presence of defective germ cells, as well as normal. In the central mating the paralytic father has an insane brother, an insane niece and 3 feeble-minded grandnephews, besides a grandniece, who died in convulsions." Besides M for migraine, Davenport employed these abbreviations: N for normal, A for alcoholic, E for epileptic, F for feeble-minded, I for insane, D inf. for died in infancy. Also written next to some boxes are apparently less serious traits: "neurotic" and "peculiar." When he produced these diagrams, Davenport likely didn't know that his trusted colleague, Harry Laughlin, suffered from epilepsy, a condition he tried to hide for many years. Eugenicists frequently found the condition grounds for forced sterilization.
Larger image available
Year: 1896
Scientist: Cesare Lombroso
Originally published in: The Man of Genius
Italian anthropologist Cesare Lombroso gained fame for, among other things, alleging that genius was a form of retrograde evolution, and that madness was how biology coped with that genius. Lombroso also asserted that some people are born delinquent, and society should save itself from these hopeless cases by any means necessary. (Lombroso tried convincing Leo Tolstoy of this. Nonplussed, Tolstoy wrote Resurrection to refute the notion.) Besides believing in genius-madness links and born criminals, Lombroso was sure mental attributes could be determined from the appearance of the brain and even the skull. Here he showed some skulls of geniuses, including Volta and Foscolo (inordinately tall) and Kant (exceptional cranial capacity). Given the chance to examine the brain of a contemporary, Carlo Giacomini (who had collected evidence contradicting Lombroso's theory), Lombroso declared victory when he found Giacomini's preserved brain sported a rare feature, a double Rolando sulcus.
Year: 1897
Scientist: Cesare Lombroso
Originally published in: L'uomo delinquente in rapporto all'antropologia, alla giurisprudenza ed alla psichiatria
Image provided by: El Bibliomata (some rights reserved)
Lombroso didn't consider the fairer sex too fair for scrutiny when it came to delinquency. He was sure the female skull could shed as much light on criminal behavior as the male skull. This image, titled "Cranii di donne delinquenti italiane," presented a collection of skulls of female criminals whose deviance Lombroso believed he could identify in skull shape. Interestingly, the skulls shown in profile are all tilted backward rather than shown upright as they would be at the top of a living woman's neck. Maybe the skulls were portrayed this way simply because it was easier to rest them on a flat, level surface, but it was a practice frequently (if unconsciously) followed when showing the skulls of "savage" races.
Year: 1911
Scientists: Cesare Lombroso and G. Ferrero
Originally published in: "Applications de la nouvelle école au Nord de l'Amérique"
Now appears in: The Mismeasure of Man by Stephen Jay Gould (Lombroso's work also discussed in "Turin's Criminology Museum" by Alison Abbott in Nature Magazine, January 21, 2010 issue)
Lombroso teamed up with colleague Ferrero to illustrate some unprepossessing facial features that identify born criminals. Unfortunately for many accused, the stigmata he described became "evidence" in their criminal trials. While he pushed for capital punishment for the worst "born criminals," Lombroso believed that other deviants had only some or only slightly troubling criminal characteristics — big ears, little heads, protruding brows — and they should simply be placed in asylums. His genetic-throwback explanation of criminality, genius and deviance was known as atavism.
Year: 1586
Scientist: Giambattista Della Porta
Originally published in: De Humana Physiognomia
Now appears in: Astrology, Magic, and Alchemy in Art by Matilde Battistini, translated by Rosanna M. Giammanco Frongia
Della Porta was a respected naturalist and glittering playwright. Unfortunately, his reputation gave his misguided ideas a long life, including the notion that one's character could be inferred from one's face. He apparently considered this example obstinate.
Year: 1586
Scientist: Giambattista Della Porta
Originally published in: De Humana Physiognomia
Now appears at: Historical Anatomies on the Web (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/porta_home.html)
In his De Humana Physiognomia Libri IIII, Della Porta produced plenty of examples of human-animal similarities, some less noble than others. Della Porta also believed in the doctrine of signatures, that plants resembling certain body parts could cure what ailed them.
Larger image available
Century: Early 19th
Scientist: W. Johnson
Now appears in: Blood and Guts by Roy Porter
For centuries, doctors maintained that health and personality were determined by one's balance of four key bodily fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. (Blech.) If you were sanguine, you were ruddy, lively, energetic and hard working, but maybe impulsive and something less than an intellectual giant. If you were phlegmatic, you were chubby and lazy. If you were choleric (with an excess of yellow bile), you might be thin, jaundiced, mean and stingy. If you were melancholic (with an excess of black bile) you were depressed. Paracelsus scorned this mind set in the 16th century, but it persisted anyway. This engraving showed examples of the different temperaments.
Larger image available
Year: 1945
Scientists: Franz Weidenreich and Roy Chapman Andrews
Artist: T.W. Voter
Originally published in: Meet Your Ancestors by Roy Chapman Andrews
In the mid-1940s, Roy Chapman Andrews wrote a book about paleoanthropology aimed at a popular audience, with "The Family Tree of Man" (only part of which appears here) on the inside cover. The book reflected the views of scientists Andrews truly admired, including Henry Fairfield Osborn and (especially) Franz Weidenreich. (Weidenreich's work led to the multiregional theory of human origins, arguing that modern human races evolved independently from Homo erectus with some gene flow in between.) To his credit, Andrews mentioned Africa's possible role as the cradle of humankind, and he expressed reservations about the Piltdown fossils. New finds in science, however, still couldn't override old feelings about race. Andrews summed up the issue with the example of radishes growing at different rates in different types of soil. So, he stated, "the progress of the different races was unequal." It shouldn't take much effort to guess which race Andrews considered the winner. The "giants" Andrews described belonged to the now-discredited genus of Meganthropus and Gigantopithecus. Gigantopithecus is still considered a valid genus, and modern paleontologists surmise that it may actually have been as much as 10 feet tall, though it's not considered a human ancestor.
Year: 1926
Originally published in: Evolution and Religion in Education
Scientist: Henry Fairfield Osborn
Now appears in: God — or Gorilla: Images of Evolution in the Jazz Age by Constance Areson Clark
In his biography published in 1940, W.E.B. Du Bois remarked, "I remember once in a museum, coming face to face with a demonstration: a series of skeletons arranged from a little monkey to a tall well-developed white man, with a Negro barely outranking a chimpanzee." Henry Fairfield Osborn of the American Museum of Natural History wielded enormous influence, not just at AMNH, but in other museums and in textbooks, which adapted AMNH material. A self-described opponent of "miscegenation," Osborn didn't think twice about which race was the very best. Notice the "Ascent of Increasing Intelligence."
Year: 1929
Originally published in: Our Face from Fish to Man
Scientist: William King Gregory
Now appears in: God — or Gorilla: Images of Evolution in the Jazz Age by Constance Areson Clark
William King Gregory criticized his old mentor, Henry Fairfield Osborn, for "pithecophobia" — a fear of apes and monkeys in the human family tree. But Gregory (like many people) shared Osborn's views of race. This dust jacket includes six stylized faces and one real one. The Tasmanian face, apparently not quite human in Gregory's view, is from a 19th-century photograph of a woman who may have been the last remaining member of Tasmania's native population. Her name was Trucanini, and at the time her picture was taken, she was one of just five survivors in what could be termed an internment camp, established by the British. All of her companions were so ill that they would soon die. Trucanini died in 1876.
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Narrative text and graphic design © by Michon Scott - Updated March 1, 2014


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by Vincent Imhoff, Managing Partner, Imhoff & Associates, P.C.
Clarence Earl Gideon was about 50-years old when he was arrested in relation to the theft of money and wine from a pool hall in Panama City, Fla., in 1961. Gideon's father had died when he was young, and Gideon himself quit school after eighth grade, running away from home and becoming a drifter. By the time Gideon was 16 he already had a criminal record, one that would follow him up until that fateful day when he was arrested, tried, and convicted of breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny. Gideon was too poor to pay for any type of defense in the case, and back in 1961 in Bay County, Fla., that meant you had to defend yourself against even the toughest prosecuting attorneys unless you were convicted of a capital offense. So it was that the Gideon's judge denied him access to a lawyer, Gideon defended himself, lost, and was sentenced to the maximum prison term of one year.
While serving his time, Gideon learned a little bit about law and wrote a 5-page letter to the Supreme Court about how his right to counsel under the Sixth Amendment had been violated. The Supreme Court eventually decided to take his case, and, under the argument that "you cannot have a fair trial without counsel," ruled in Gideon's favor. The landmark case, Gideon v. Wainwright, set precedent that states had to provide counsel for criminal defendants who could not afford counsel, essentially owing to the eventual segment of the Miranda Rights that basically read "if you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you." After a retrial, Gideon was set free, and the legal landscape of the United States of America was changed.

subset: commoncrawl


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You go Shere Khan. Keep posting.
I know I am a little late on this one, but the other day when I noticed she was at 997...she stayed idle the entire time I was on and then I got busy! So...better late than never!
CONGRATULATIONS on reaching 1000 posts!!!! And once again....thank you for the Murder Mystery Games!!!!
BTW....GrumpyDude also reached a milestone of 2000 posts, but he thinks these congratulatory threads are silly and would rather keep the fact that he reached 2000 posts between him and I so disregard this part of the thread!
You go Shere Khan. Keep posting.
Woo hoo Shere Kahn! You go girl! I second the thanks for our Murder Mystery Games, they're great!
Now who are the murderers this time?
All Right Shere Khan! Way to go. Love the game!
(way to go GD)
Congratulations on reaching 1000 posts!!
Here's to the next 1000!!
"Most of my life I have done what I wanted to do. I have had fun on the job.I have never been able to confine that fun to office hours." ~ Walt Disney
i second woo hoo!. way to go Sher Khan. I only have about 994 post to go until I reach 1000.... Do ya'll think I can do it by june.... maybe, we'll see.
April 23rd, oh yeah it's gonna be ON!
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If you love Macs, it's almost impossible to look at the 2013 Mac Pro without dropping your jaw, drooling a little, and thinking, "Want. Want so badly." And that's understandable. It's a powerful machine with a sleek new design that's perfect for professionals across the creative spectrum.
But the thing is, it's not like creative professionals just started using Mac Pros in 2013. And if you dropped top dollar on a Mac Pro anytime in the past few years, the idea of investing several thousand more dollars in the latest model might not seem that attractive to you. On the other hand, nobody wants to be left behind. It's competitive enough out there on a level playing field.
That's where OWC comes in. If you make your living in graphic design, video editing, or any other visual medium, you're going to want to keep reading. We'll show you how you can bring your 2009-2012 Mac Pro up to par with many GPU based tasks without breaking the bank.
OWC's benchmark testing has revealed that a 2009-2012 Mac Pro can be upgraded to perform on par with the 2013 Mac Pro in many GPU based tasks and in some cases, even outperform it. Lets take a look at some of the options OWC has to help make your older Mac Pro the powerful machine you need to express your creativity. Article Continues…


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The Institute on Scholarly Communication (ISC), a coordinated effort by the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), is hosting a two-day workshop, "Increasing the Effectiveness of Your Scholarly Communication Program: Strategic Skills for Success," April 9–10, 2013, in Indianapolis, Indiana.
Washington, DC—Online registration is now open for the 2012 MINES for Libraries® Webcast, a free workshop designed to provide potential and current participants with vital information on the MINES for Libraries® service, an online, transaction-based survey that collects data on the reasons people use electronic resources and on the demographics of users. This one-hour webcast will introduce the MINES for Libraries® assessment protocol, share the benefits and results of participation, and present useful case studies.
The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) Board of Directors has appointed Elliott Shore as Executive Director of the Association, effective January 1, 2013. Dr. Shore is currently Chief Information Officer, Constance A. Jones Director of Libraries, and Professor of History at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania.
The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) will host a webcast on October 16, 2012, from 1:00 to 2:00 p.m. eastern time, to discuss the Kirtsaeng v. Wiley case, the first-sale doctrine, and what's at stake for libraries and others. The webcast will be moderated by Brandon Butler, Director of Public Policy Initiatives at ARL, and will feature discussion from:
ARL is seeking nominations and applications for the 2013–2014 Leadership and Career Development Program (LCDP). The LCDP is an 18-month fellowship program that prepares mid-career librarians from underrepresented racial and ethnic minority groups to take on increasingly demanding leadership roles in ARL libraries.
The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) announces the selection of two master of library and information science (MLIS) students to participate in the 2012–2014 ARL/Music Library Association (MLA) Diversity and Inclusion Initiative (DII):
The 2013 Service Quality Evaluation Academy, co-sponsored by the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and the Canadian Association of Research Libraries (CARL), is now accepting participant nominations, with a deadline of December 14, 2012.
The academy is an intensive five-day program that focuses on introductory qualitative and quantitative methods for collecting and analyzing library service quality data. Although some of the training will be presented in the context of ARL assessment programs and activities (LibQUAL+®, ARL Profiles, etc.), the program will emphasize basic concepts and skills in measurement and data analysis that will be applicable to service quality evaluations in general. There will be some time spent on relevant software skills, including the use of ATLAS.ti to analyze text-based evidence like responses to open-ended surveys and the use of SPSS for quantitative data analysis.
Washington, DC—The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) has published Library Contribution to Accreditation, SPEC Kit 330, which explores the scope of accreditation standards, the data provided by research libraries to meet the requirements of accrediting bodies, and which library staff participate in preparing reports and site visits. The survey results may help libraries identify and understand what standards exist, and how their contributions lead to successful accreditation and reaccreditation for their parent institutions. Additionally, this survey sought to identify how deeply ARL libraries are involved in the accreditation process at the institutional level. As libraries strive to establish their impact and value in higher education, this measure is one way to gauge how institutional leaders perceive their libraries' contributions.
Washington, DC—The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) has published Managing Born-Digital Special Collections and Archival Materials, SPEC Kit 329, which explores the tools, workflow, and policies special collections and archives staff use to process, manage, and provide access to born-digital materials they collect. This SPEC Kit looks at which staff process and manage born-digital materials and how they acquire the skills they need for these activities. The publication also examines how libraries have responded to the challenges that managing born-digital materials present.
Washington, DC—The Association of Research Libraries (ARL) will host a forum, "Library Workforce for 21st-Century Research Libraries," on October 11–12, 2012, in Washington, DC, immediately following the ARL Membership Meeting. The forum is open to all and is geared for research library directors, senior library staff, and organization development and human resources staff. This event will provide a balance of discussion between two sets of issues—the workforce of the future and the processes undertaken to create that workforce.


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I have just started surfing, and i dont count myself as good.
But i dont have ny mates that surf so i hardly ever go, even though i am hooked.(HECTIC SPORT by the way)
Where can i meet (fit guy) surfers my age????!!! (15) Ny1 surf at croyde or woolacome??


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Saturday, 08 March 2014 Last Update: 06:56am
Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim's defence lawyer Karpal Singh (pic) said with the Appeals Court ruling, the opposition leader could not contest in the Kajang state by-election. "With today's conviction, Anwar can't file his nomination paper for the Kajang by-election on March 11 (this Tuesday)," he told reporters at the... Read More
Joharee, 38, sells decorative lights at a road side in Kajang town in Selangor. – The Malaysian Insider pic by Nazir Sufari, March 7, 2014.
The Court of Appeal has been manipulated by Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak to halt the rakyat's march in... Read More
Barisan Nasional (BN) got what it wanted. Datuk Seri Najib Razak got what he wanted. Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad got... Read More
Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim was today sentenced to five years jail for sodomy, after the court of appeal overturned... Read More
Election Commission (EC) chairman Tan Sri Abdul Aziz Yusof (pic) said the commission will study the provisions in... Read More
A gathering to show solidarity to Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim is being organised at Stadium Kajang tonight. PKR... Read More
The man who accused opposition leader Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim of sodomising him said he was thankful to the... Read More
Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim's plan to win the Kajang by-election and become the Selangor menteri besar was... Read More
Support for opposition leader Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim poured in on Twitter as news of his sodomy conviction... Read More
The Court of Appeal heard today that the trial judge in Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim's (pic) sodomy case was right... Read More
Opposition leader Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim's political career may grind to a halt should he be convicted for... Read More
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AT&T may have sent the most bizarre iPhone 5 activation ever
The iPhone 5 has caused a significant level of human heart palpitation.
Well, it's new and it's an iPhone and if you can get one quickly, then you can show it off to the envious or the mere tasteless.
So please imagine the feelings of one Katherine the Great.
This is not a pseudonym. This is a high-schooler whom I think of as the niece I've always forgotten to meet. She really does go by that name in her more intimate circles. (Though I'm pretty sure she's not on Google+)
Katherine was terribly excited about … Read more


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£266 Value
52% Discount
£137 Saving
+44 (0) 20 3564 3000
Monday-Friday, 08:00 - 18:00
The Castle Hotel, High Street,
Wales, LL32 8DB
01492 582800
To get the deal, purchase a voucher now. You can buy as many vouchers as you wish for multiple-night stays. Once you've decided on your dates, call the hotel to reserve the room, quoting your voucher number only (not the PIN). Print your voucher(s) and present to the hotel upon arrival. This voucher is valid for an overnight stay for two in a Premium room with full Welsh breakfast, a bottle of champagne in the room on arrival and a 4-course dinner for two. The dinner is from a fixed menu and subject to change. Vouchers are valid for Sunday-Thursday stays from 1 October-22 December and 3 January-31 March, 2012. Not available on 23-27 October & 14 February, 2012. Buy additional bed-and-breakfast stays for Sunday-Thursday night stays only for £99 (regular cost £136). Seven days' notice is required for cancellations or changes to your reservation, otherwise your voucher is subject to forfeiture. This deal cannot be combined with any other offer. No cash value or cash back. Additional vouchers may be purchased as gifts.
Enjoy a gourmet break at The Castle Hotel in Conwy for £129 per room - over 50% off the regular rate. The boutique hotel is situated in the heart of a medieval walled town of Conwy and the old coaching inn stands on the site of a former Cistercian abbey.
The offer includes the following:
-Accommodation for two in an upgraded Premium room
-Full Welsh breakfast for two
-A 4-course fixed course à la carte dinner for two in the 2-AA-Rosette restaurant (worth £90) -Complimentary bottle of champagne in the room on arrival (worth £40)
The 4-star 15th-century town hotel, fuses contemporary design with traditional period features.
The fine-dining restaurant has two AA Rosettes and is recommended in the Michelin guide. The property has also received a Welsh Rarebit Hotel of Distinction, which is a collection of luxury and boutique hotels in Wales.
This award-winning property is an hour and 20 minutes' drive from Liverpool and an hour and 40 minutes' drive from Manchester.


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Press ReleaseSome State Waters Closed to FishingJune 02, 2010 The Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources has closed Gulf waters to commercial and recreational fishing activity from the east end of Dauphin Island to the Mississippi state line. The emergency regulation, signed by Conservation Commissioner Barnett Lawley on June 1, 2010, closes these Gulf waters, including Pelican Bay, west of longitude 88 degrees 4.5 minutes west, to all fishing activity. Updates to any further fishing closures in state waters will be posted to www.outdooralabama.com as needed. The Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources promotes wise stewardship, management and enjoyment of Alabama's natural resources through five divisions: Marine Police, Marine Resources, State Lands, State Parks, and Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries. ### |


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Boston Globe baseball writer Gordon Edes checks in every week (usually on Thursdays or Fridays) to answer your questions on the Red Sox. Ask yours now, and come back next week to see if it was answered.
Gordon, I was thinking about the Sox re-inserting Papelbon as the closer. Will this be a long term decision? How will this affect the long term development of prospects like Craig Hansen and Bryce Cox, who are considered heirs apparent for the closer's job? Would the Sox consider converting either of them into starters if they keep "Pap" as the closer? Or would Hansen and Cox continue as relievers to someday replace Timlin and strengthen the pen while getting younger at the same time? I feel it would be most beneficial to the squad to only keep "Pap" as a closer until one of the youngsters is ready to take over that role, then put him back into the rotation. He's more valuable in the long run as a 200 inning/16-18 win starter, so long as we have a reliable, not necessarily terrific, closer/pen.
Although with young starting pitching prospects like Buchholtz, Bowden, and Bard coming up, it may not be necessary.
Imagine a rotation/pen in a couple of years like this one:
1. Josh Beckett
2. Daisuke Matsuzaka
3. Jon Lester
4. Clay Buchholz
5. Michael Bowden
6. Daniel Bard
Middle/long relief Kyle Snyder
6th Manny Delcarmen/Edgar Martinez
7th Craig Hansen
8th Bryce Cox
9th Jonathan Papelbon
All 28 or younger and potentially Very Good!
Bob Oliveira, third grade teacher, San Carlos Park Elementary, Fort Myers
A: Bob, I'm not sure you intended your letter to be in the mailbag, but it was too good to pass up. Plus, I don't often get a chance to give a shout-out to a third-grade teacher...thanks for your hard work.
You share the vision Theo Epstein and his player development have for this team, with the abundance of gifted young arms that are in the system. Jonathan Papelbon appears to have made a firm decision that closing is what he wants to do for the rest of his career, so a return to the rotation would seem to be out, but the team is well-positioned to build a rotation with home-grown talent to supplement Beckett and Dice-K at the top. I'm reminded, after Paul Wilson was released this week by the Reds, how precarious the shelf life of pitchers is. Wilson, a No. 1 draft pick in '94 out of Florida State, Bill Pulsipher and Jason Isringhausen were widely hailed as the young guns that would carry the Mets to glory. But Wilson and Pulsipher both broke down physically, and only Isringhausen has come close to fulfilling the career path imagined for him. And Jon Lester's bout with cancer also delivers the message that there are no guarantees. Teams go into this process knowing that all of their great arms probably aren't going to make it to the big leagues--that's why it's so important to have depth in your system, which the Sox certainly do.
Hey Gordo, Huge fan of yours. Definitely one of the best sports writers around so thank you for what you do. Now my question is obviously regarding this great news of Paps going back to the closer role. Why would they slot Taverez in the fifth spot and not Kyle Snyder? I think this kid has some real potential and could be the next Arroyo if he can stay healthy.
Chris Vigneault, Manchester, N.H.
A: Chris, I think they feel Tavarez is entitled to a look because he pitched so well in six starts at the end of last season. He was unbeaten (3-0) with a 4.01 ERA and had a complete game. They're paying him like a starter, too -- $3.1 million, although in truth, middle relievers' pay took a big jump this winter. I think if Tavarez falters, Snyder would definitely get a good look, though both pitchers are probably just keeping a seat warm for Jon Lester. If Tavarez does well, I could see the Sox using him as a potential trading chip.
With Papelbon back as closer, what are the chances of getting Roger Clemens? I'd like to see the media make a big deal about this because they did it when the Yankees were the lead runner. Now I say its the Sox and Yanks tied with the Astros shortly behind.
Michael Thomas, Chandler Ariz.
A: Michael, I won't pretend to know what Clemens is thinking -- I really thought last year the Sox had a great shot at him, but if I had to handicap the field this year, I'd say, 1. Astros, 2. Yanks, 3. Sox. That could change if 'Stros get off to a bad start, but with his pal Andy Pettitte in pinstripes again, I would think the Bombers have an edge on the Sox.
Hey Gordon ... what do you think of Curt Schilling breaking the news of Papelbon's closing on his blog yesterday? I imagine the Red Sox didn't care for that too much considering they were waiting to make the announcement.
Chad, Arlington
A: Chad, actually, Schill didn't break the news -- ESPN, which was televising the game, reported it first. Curt just weighed in on it, and I'm sure those who look to his blog for info were hoping he would do just that. Hey, I was in Clearwater with the team and Schill was back in Fort Myers, so I was interested in what he had to say, though I did think it was pretty funny we heard from him before we got an official announcement. Francona said Schill apologized to him the next morning, and I imagine Schill might wait until stuff becomes official, but to me it was no biggie.
Hi Gordon, I should apologize. I've never written to say that I read all (or almost all) your Sox columns because they're well-written informative pieces. Yet, here I am writing for the first time, and it's to criticize. Figures.
Anyway, I couldn't help but notice how fixated you've become with Manny's "attitude." You bemoan the fact that fans cut him too much slack and you seem particularly indignant about how he "quit" on the team for the last six weeks of the '06 season.
I'll confess that Manny sometimes does things that leave me shaking my head too but those last six weeks aren't among them. You've made it obvious that you think his knee injury was highly exaggerated. I give him the benefit of the doubt, but lets assume you're right and that he simply chose not to play. I'm not sure whether you think his failure to play was the cause of the Sox' fold or is simply a character flaw that we should all condemn. I submit that it is certainly not the latter, and that while it may have contributed to the former, there were many other contributors, with Manny's unavailability not even being among the top reasons for the fold.
We all agree that the five Yankee games in August were the turning point. Manny went 8 for 11 with nine walks and seven RBIs in that series. Ponder those numbers for a moment. Unfortunately, not everyone stepped up like he did so by the end of the day on August 21, the Sox had dropped five straight to the dreaded Evil Empire. Nine days later, the Sox traded David Wells for a minor leaguer. What message did that send? At the time, Boomer was arguably their number one money starter. When Theo traded Wells, he threw in the towel and everyone except my Aunt Pollyanna knew the season was over. Sure, Manny could have ignored the message from management and played, risking a more serious (real?) injury. Some special players (e.g. Varitek.) might have done so, because their persistence and determination to fight against adversity extends even to adversity caused by their own general manager/owners. That might be a reason to praise the special player, but not to criticize a guy who wouldn't risk his body for owners who wouldn't risk losing a pitcher without getting something in return. I'm not suggesting Theo was wrong to trade Wells. But if Theo had the right to decide the season was over on August 31, Manny had the same right to reach the same conclusion. Lose the fixation. You'll feel better and be back to your old insightful self. Sincerely,
Jerry Jasinski, Niskayuna, N.Y.
A: Hey Jerry, Thanks for writing, and the thoughtfulness of your remarks. Let's all agree to love Manny, until one of us (me?) decides we can't again.
A couple of things: There were some significant developments between the end of the NY series and the Wells trade. Despite the debacle against the Yanks, the Sox were still in the wild-card race, four games behind the White Sox and 3 1/2 behind the Twins, the eventual playoff qualifier. By Aug. 30, however, the Sox had won just two of nine games after the Yank series, including six in a row, and were 7 1/2 back, which is when Theo decided to make the Wells deal. And sometimes "white flag" deals are anything but. The Phillies dealt Bobby Abreu and Cory Lidle at the trading deadline, and the Phils suddenly got hot, which is why Pat Gillick then went out and got Jamie Moyer and Jeff Conine.
But what I'd really like to focus on is Manny's performance against the Yanks-not only in that series, but the entire season. Manny hit a stunning .556 (25 for 45) against the Bombers in 2006, with seven home runs and 21 RBIs. He also drew a startling 17 walks, which gave him a fantastic OBP of .667. Of the 15 games he played against the Yanks, he hit safely in 12 of them (the last one, he walked in both of his plate appearances) before coming out with a sore knee. And he had two or more hits in nine of those games. That's incredible. How can you not love this guy? Do me a favor, would ya, and point out the pinhead who doesn't.
Sorry, not a question, just a correction, but I can't find other contact info for you. You wrote that Jacoby Ellsbury is the first prominent Native American player since Allie Reynolds, but in fact Kyle Lohse is a member of the Nomlaki tribe. See for
Sean Dongre, Pacifica, Calif.
A: Sean, It was strictly a matter of how I defined prominent. I mentioned Allie Reynolds because he was a star for the Yankees, while Lohse, who is now with the Reds, has been a journeyman pitcher. But he is indeed a member of the Nomlaki tribe, which is based in northern California.
Mr. Edes, I enjoyed your story on Jacoby Ellsbury and look forward to his progress toward the big club. Here in New Mexico we are fortunate to have many native tribes, and also many Hispanic families. While "Ganado" is associated with the Ganado Red blankets (red background; black, white, and gray designs), Ganado Mucho's name originates from the Spanish for "many cattle," which is consistent with what you report. Maybe teammates should call Jacoby, "Golpes Muchos" or Many Hits.
Michael Pettit, Red Sox Nation, Santa Fe, N.M.
A: Michael, thanks for the insight, and the potential nickname. That's the hope for Jacoby, anyway!
So we've all heard about this "power core" in the center of the lineup, Ortiz, Manny, and Drew. We're seeing them in the lineup day-in and day-out. How're they doing? Is it going to work?
Jeff Smith, Missoula, Mont.
A: Jeff, Manny and Papi, we all know what they can do. Drew has had a sensational spring, and with his ability to go the opposite way, should do some damage to the Monster. These guys are going to put up some big numbers.
I've been reading crazy blogs where people are actually saying that Mike Lowell will retire next year. What are your thoughts on this? I think it's crazy to think that, since he himself has stated that he has many years left in him. And hopefully he shows that to everyone this season, and gets a new contract at the end of the season.
Steve Penser, Fall River
A: Steve, if you haven't read it yet, I urge you to go to Boston.com and read Nick Cafardo's terrific story from last Sunday on Mike. In that story, he talked about his plans of playing past this season, but also said how much he missed being away from his kids. I expect Mike will play as long as he's productive. A class act.
I am a huge Tim Wakefield fan. My question: how important are Tim's fastball and curveball to keeping hitters honest regarding his knuckleball? How good are his fastball and curveball? I know his curveball does not cut the mustard otherwise, but I heard that compared to his knuckball, the fastball looks a LOT faster. Is this true? Part of my concern is that as Tim gets older, while this in theory has no effect on his knuckleball, does this affect his other pitches? If so, how important is that? Thanks!
John A. Donaldson, Singapore
A: John, thanks for checking in from Singapore. Funny you should ask, but after he pitched Thursday, Wake talked about his curveball. "I just want to make sure I throw them for strikes," he said. "I just feel sometimes my breaking ball is short, down and away to right-handed hitters all the time. I feel like if I don't throw it for a strike, not too many guys will swing at it. But it's not as if I'm going to throw it more, if the knuckleball is working." I don't think his fastball or curve are necessarily critical weapons in Wake's repertoire, John, but I do think the element of surprise can be a useful weapon. And since he's never thrown much more than a BP fastball, I don't think advancing age should make much of a difference with that pitch.
Hey, who sets the spring training schedule? I'm assuming each team creates their own schedule, but who specifically?
Brian, Bristol, R.I.
A: Brian, Katy Feeney, who is MLB's vice president for club relations and scheduling, was in Bradenton this week to catch the Sox-Pirates, and she told me that she personally sets the schedule for all 30 clubs. She sends out questionnaires to each club's traveling secretary -- in Boston's case, that would be Jack McCormick, to get some idea of the needs and requests of each club. As you can imagine, she said, everyone in Florida wants to play the Sox or Yanks. She then sends a draft to each team's traveling secretary, who do some additional revisions. McCormick sets the team's game times and adds split-squad games to satisfy the requirements of manager Terry Francona and Theo Epstein. She's already well down the road toward completing next spring's schedule.
Hi Gordon, In your bit about Jon Lester in the Sox Notebook from 3/22, you noted that "Lester did not finish the second or third inning because of pitch-count restrictions". Would you mind explaining what this means? Is this saying that after a certain number of pitches are thrown, the inning is automatically over? Interesting twist if this is the case. Thanks!
Ken Anderson, Westminster, Colo.
A: Ken, you got it right. It was a controlled situation, and wasn't specific to Lester. When Jonathan Papelbon pitched in a minor-league game, it was the same arrangement. If he reached a certain number of pitches in a given inning, play was stopped, and the inning was declared over, regardless of how many outs there were.
You read often where a player has run out of options and can't be sent down without clearing waivers. My question is how many options does each player . Thank you
David G. Farrar, Essex Jct., Vt.
A: This is an annual question, David, which is why I downloaded Rob Neyer's "transactions primer." Here's his entry on options:
"After three years as a pro, a player must be protected on a team's 40-man roster, or he is eligible for the Rule 5 draft. Once he's served those three years, and assuming he is added to the 40-man roster, his club then has what are called "options" on him. When a player is on the 40-man roster but not on the 25-man Major League roster, he is on "optional assignment." One common misconception about the rules is that a player may only be "optioned out" three times. Actually, each player has three option years, and he can be sent up and down as many times as the club chooses within those three seasons. When you hear that a player is "out of options," that means he's been on the 40-man roster during three different seasons, beginning with his fourth as a pro, and to be sent down again he'll have to clear waivers."
I am an inner-city physical education teacher and high school baseball coach. I am interested in holding some youth baseball clinics for the elementary children in the city of Hartford. Do you know any Sox players or contacts in the baseball community who might support this? These kids really need a positive outlet in their lives. Please consider this. Thanks.
Patrick Mairson, Hartford, Conn.
A: Patrick, I would suggest you contact the Sox department of community relations. The director is Vanessa Leyvas. Hartford is a bit off the beaten track for players during the season , but the Sox are big on community outreach, so I think it's worth getting in touch. Good luck on your season!
Now that Papelbon has expressed his desire to remain a closer for the rest of his career, could we potentially see Craig Hansen get traded? Since Hansen was being groomed for the closer role wouldn't it make sense to maximize his value by trading him? Could the Todd Helton talks come back on the table? Keep up the good work.
Josh Wasserteil, Portland, Ore.
A: Josh, that's not an unreasonable proposition, though I think an effective Hansen could make a major impact as a setup man. Think back on the Yankees about a decade ago, when Mariano Rivera was setup man to John Wetteland. Not too shabby, no?
Do pitchers in Japan hit or is there a DH?
Joshua Jacoby, Natick
A: Joshua, it's just like in the major leagues. One league uses the DH, the other doesn't. Daisuke Matsuzaka pitched in the Pacific League, which uses the DH, but word is he's a good hitter. He hit a home run last season. Francona has ordered him not to swing. "Daisuke told me he finds that boring," Francona said.
Gordon, Thanks for the great mailbag even if all the complainers about Manny and the press seem to be hogging it up lately. I know it's a very long way off, but I've been hearing that the Sox may try to sign Ichiro after this season when he becomes a free agent. Although I would love to have him on the team, where do we put him? I've only seen him play right field and, forgive me if I'm wrong, but didn't we just sign Drew to a very expensive long term contract? Who would play where? Thanks, in advance, for answering.
Cindy Dunn, Milford, N.H.
A: Cindy, both Ichiro and Drew could play center field, with Drew probably the one more likely to move over if the Sox made such a move. It will make for juicy speculation all summer, especially given Ichiro's friendship with Dice-K.
I read the Globe Red Sox coverage every day, and I've not seen a feature article on the new pitching coach, covering his career in baseball, and delving in to his strengths, weaknesses, and his philosophy of the game. If such a piece has been written, would you please email me a link? Otherwise, would you suggest it to your team of beat writers? Thank you. I rarely get to a game, but I see them all on the radio up here deep in Red Sox Nation.
Spiros Polemis, Stockton Springs, Maine
A: Spiros, we had two pieces on Farrell when he was hired last October, one by Nick Cafardo (10/17, Globe) and one that I wrote (10/14 Globe), which delved into his background, but I think it's a topic definitely worth revisiting. Dave Magadan, the new hitting coach, new first base coach Luis Alicea and bullpen coach Gary Tuck are all worth a look, too. We'll get there. I promise.
Hey Gordon, I enjoy your work on the Red Sox, you have the best job in the world don't you!? Anyways, I grew up in MASS. and my daughter's middle name is Fenway, she was a world series baby. I do believe we are in the midst of the glory days, never again will we see another David Ortiz, and he is not possible without the bat of the much maligned Manny Ramirez. Did he really quit last year or was he merely protecting himself when it was obvious the season was over. Can we give him a break please. He will be missed and appreciated when he is gone, many Red Sox fans have turned arrogant since 2004, myself included for a little while, and lets not forget that Manny was World Series MVP, he's not a criminal, he's not on drugs (hopefully), he doesn't cause disturbances at night clubs, he seems like a mostly joyful presence, he is a human being and under tons of scrutiny all the time and he still performs. Yes, I think we pamper our superstars today but that is a fact we as fans simply have to accept, change with the times or stop enjoying your baseball life. I know I can't get the game out of my blood, and nor would I want to try, so why not just enjoy it for the beautiful game that it is, "ballet on grass" as my girlfriend describes it. Anyways, thanks for your time, life is good, the Red Sox are awesome, tough imperfect as all things, and we are poised, on paper, to make a run at another championship, what else could be better, it's Spring, the greatest time of the year, and baseball is coming, did it ever leave?
Shane Sayers-Couzyn, Richmond, Va.
A: Hey, Shane, I had to publish your letter for no other reason than your daughter's middle name. Thank God the Sox didn't play in Ameriquest Field when they won the World Series. All the positive things you say about Manny, no quarrel here. I enjoy your passion.
It was nice to see Bellhorn playing yesterday (3/17) - though I barely recognized him all cleaned up. I'd rather gotten used to him reminding me of a certain Geico commercial character (no, not the lizzard).
As I waxed nostalgic about his time here, I started wondering: whatever happened to Pokey Reese? He was brilliant at short when healthy...Thanks for your time -- love your work.
Lisa K. M. Stroup, Lynn
A: Lisa, there was a lot to like about Pokey, wasn't there? He went AWOL on the Marlins last spring three weeks into camp, and was released shortly thereafter. Pokey had rib and shoulder problems-surgery on his shoulder robbed him of that great throwing arm-and he had more than his share of personal tragedy. He isn't in camp with anyone this season, to my knowledge.
Did you read the Schilling post with the "Media Sucks" headline before you wrote about it? It was pretty clear the heading was a joke, although apparently enough people missed it that Schilling posted the following in his next entry:
"For any of you newbs that didn't get it, "The Media Sucks" was tongue in cheek. I assumed that went without saying, but obviously that was a mistaken assumption. While I certainly have issues with some, there are some pretty cool people in the sports media. Like any profession there are bad eggs but there are more good ones than bad ones in my opinion." Does that make you feel better?
Jo McKee, Mason, Ohio
A: Jo, I can go on living again. Thanks.
With Andruw Jones, Torii Hunter, and Ichiro on the market next year, with Coco under contract through 2009, and with Jacob Ellsbury progressing so well, who will play CF for the Sox next year?
Don Brushaber, Inver Grove Heights, Minn.
A: Great question. If I had to bet, I'd say...Jacoby Ellsbury. But those are powerful options you mention, especially Jones.
Love what you're writing here, and I always look forward to the mailbag--it's good to hear the relatively unfiltered opinions of a media member who's at least somewhat in the know. Two things: 1. As I'm sure many have already told you, Curt Schilling doesn't think you suck. The blog post entitled "The Media Sucks" was a tongue-in-cheek thing, which you would have known if you read the first word of it--"Gotcha." 2. Here's the actual question: if Dustin Pedroia falters, who's going to play second? I don't think there are any great middle infield prospects in the minors, and the idea of 150 games of Alex Cora doesn't excite me. Would the Sox make a move at that point, or is there an in-house solution of which I'm not aware?
Mike Geiger, Middleboro
A: Mike, Yes, Curt was tongue in cheek, though he has said similar things in all seriousness. He has on numerous other occasions cited the fact that there are media people he respects, most notably people like Jayson Stark of ESPN.com and Tom Verducci of SI, two of the very best in our business. Wouldn't it be fair to give Pedroia a chance to succeed before we designate his replacement? You're right, though; there's no big league -- ready prospect in the system.
Who in Red Sox Nation doesn't love Kevin Millar? Not only is he still a decent player, but he brought that certain 'idiot' dynamic that made the 2004 team so special. So why isn't there more talk about bringing him back on board and letting him work his laid back, idiot magic? Millar may not be 100%, but he helps bring 100% out of the guys around him, and isn't that just as valuable?
Jared Onorato, Williamsburg, Va.
A: Jared, I always found Millar to be fun to be around. He was one of a kind, and didn't lose sight of his independent-league roots. But when his numbers dipped, there were plenty of Sox fans who ripped him as a tired act, which deeply hurt him.
One name I have not heard mentioned ONCE this entire sping is Abe Alvarez. How did he so completely fall off the radar? Have the Red Sox given up on him? Does he have any trade value anymore?
Justin Nardin, New York City
A: Sox took him off the 40-man roster this fall, and he was an early cut this spring. His trade value is very limited.
I'm a big fan of your columns, mailbag and NESN appearances. I've never written in before, but one thing in your most recent mailbag struck a chord with me.
I didn't think your shot at Curt Schilling for his blog title "Why the Media Sucks" was warranted. If you actually read the post, the first line is "Gotcha!" and the entry itself is not really focused on the media for the most part (there are references to the media's take on his contract talks, but nothing overly derogatory). The title was written largely in sarcasm (hence the "Gotcha" opening), and fittingly so given that Schill has gotten criticism in some circles of the media for his blog, which brings me to my point.
I think it's fantastic that Curt has reached out to the fans in this way, and find it kind of amusing that certain media members have lashed out at him for it. There is no logical reason why he should NOT connect directly with the fans if he is willing to put in that kind of time. It seems to me that these critics are just worried that he's cutting on the middle man (i.e. the media), which the internet has done in many industries over the last couple decades. The media will just have to learn to compete in this environment, and honestly there probably isn't much to worry about because I don't think too many athletes are going to be putting in the kind of time that Schilling has been for this blog. I enjoy the blog, but I also still read every sports article in the Globe every day (and I don't even live in Boston anymore!). So I think there's a place for both.
I'm not accusing you here, cause I don't think you have denounced Schill's blog in general the way that some have. I'm just pointing out that there is really no reason to jump on this bandwagon by accusing him of "sinking" to some lower level for something that was little more than a sarcastic remark on his part. The article itself I felt was a fair assessment of how he viewed the facts, and while there was an undertone suggesting that he was not pleased with the media portrayal of the contract situation, I don't think he crossed any lines by stating his side of things.
I would also be curious what your general thoughts are on players blogging or chatting online with fans and what impact this has or could have on traditional media. If I get my technical baseball talk from Schilling's blog, are traditional journalists even more relegated to celebrity gossip type articles (another topic alluded to in your last mailbag)?
Don Robinson, Savannah, Ga.
A: Don, I think Schill is probably in the vanguard of something that will become increasingly popular in sports. The only other big-time baseball player I know of who blogs is Barry Bonds, but Schill's is exhaustive, at least so far. He had a 6,000-word entry the other day, and I certainly recognize its appeal to fans-he gives detailed, usually insightful answers to their questions, and offers a lot of inside-baseball stuff that only a player could offer. I agree with you: There is a place for such blogs. I think Curt is smart enough to avoid using the blog to create controversy inside the clubhouse. He's not going to use it as a forum to rip people. I wonder if he'll be able to devote as much time to it in the season-he's raised the same issue-and while you may see me make an occasional crack about it in print, I think he'll attract a lot of eyeballs, and for good reason.


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So it's really sloppy.. but basically, it shows you all you need to know :D
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So it's really sloppy.. but basically, it shows you all you need to know :D
I wonder if I can put that knowlegde into GIMP terms. I'll try it later on.
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