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Polarization (waves)
Polarization (also polarisation) is a property of waves that can oscillate with more than one orientation. Electromagnetic waves, such as light, and gravitational waves exhibit polarization whereas this is not a concern with sound waves in a gas or liquid which have only one possible polarization, namely the direction in which the wave is travelling.
In an electromagnetic wave such as light, both the electric field and magnetic field are oscillating but in different directions; by convention the "polarization" of light refers to the polarization of the electric field. Light which can be approximated as a plane wave in free space or in an isotropic medium propagates as a transverse wave -- both the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillation of these fields may be in a single direction (linear polarization), or the field may rotate at the optical frequency (circular or elliptical polarization). In that case the direction of the fields' rotation, and thus the specified polarization, may be either clockwise or counter clockwise; this is referred to as the wave's chirality or handedness.
The most common optical materials (such as glass) are isotropic and simply preserve the polarization of a wave but do not differentiate between polarization states. However there are important classes of materials classified as birefringent or optically active in which this is not the case and a wave's polarization will generally be modified or will affect propagation through it. A polarizer is an optical filter that transmits only one polarization.
Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse wave propagation, such as optics, seismology, radio and microwaves. Especially impacted are technologies such as lasers, wireless and optical fiber telecommunications, and radar.
- 1 Theory
- 2 Measurement techniques involving polarization
- 3 Applications and examples
- 4 See also
- 5 Notes and references
- 6 External links
Wave propagation and polarization[edit]
Most sources of light are classified as incoherent and unpolarized (or only "partially polarized") because they consist of a random mixture of waves having different spatial characteristics, frequencies (wavelengths), phases, and polarization states. However for understanding electromagnetic waves and polarization in particular, it is easiest to just consider coherent planes waves; these are sinusoidal waves of one particular direction (or wavevector), frequency, phase, and polarization state. Characterizing an optical system in relation to a plane wave with those given parameters can then be used to predict its response to a more general case, since a wave with any specified spatial structure can be decomposed into a combination of plane waves (its so-called angular spectrum). And incoherent states can be modeled stochastically as a weighted combination of such uncorrelated waves with some distribution of frequencies (its spectrum), phases, and polarizations.
Transverse electromagnetic waves[edit]
Plane electromagnetic waves (such as light), traveling in free space or another homogeneous isotropic non-attenuating medium, are properly described as transverse waves, meaning that the wave's electric field vector E and magnetic field H are in directions perpendicular to (or "transverse" to) the direction of wave propagation; E and H are also perpendicular to each other. Considering a plane wave of a given optical frequency f (light of wavelength λ has a frequency of f = c/λ where c is the speed of light), let us arbitrarily assign the direction of propagation as the z axis so that E and H must lie in the x-y plane. The physical electric field and magnetic fields are often considered to be the real parts of their corresponding complex quantities given by the following equations. As a function of time t, and spatial position z (for a plane wave in the +z direction the fields have no dependence on x or y) these complex quantities can be written as:
where k is the magnitude of the wavevector (being entirely in the z direction in this case). The leading vectors e and h each consist of two complex numbers describing the amplitude of the wave in the x and y polarizations (again, the z component of the electric and magnetic fields are zero for this transverse wave in the +z direction). For a given medium with a characteristic impedance , h is related to e by:
so that one can just as well specify the wave in terms of just ex and ey describing the electric field. The vector containing ex and ey (but without the z component which is necessarily zero for a transverse wave) is known as a Jones vector. In addition to specifying the polarization state of the wave, a general Jones vector also specifies the overall magnitude and phase of that wave. Specifically, the intensity of the light wave is proportional to the sum of the squared magnitudes of the two electric field components:
however the wave's polarization is only dependent on the (complex) ratio of ey to ex. So let us just consider waves whose |ex|2 + |ey|2 = 1; this happens to correspond to an intensity of about .00133 watts per square meter in free space (where ). And since the absolute phase of a wave is unimportant in discussing its polarization state, let us stipulate that the phase of ex is zero, in other words ex is a real number while ey may be complex. Under these restrictions, ex and ey can be represented as follows:
where the polarization state is now totally parameterized by the value of Q (such that -1 < Q < 1) and the relative phase . By convention when one speaks of a wave's "polarization," if not otherwise specified, reference is being made to the polarization of the electric field. The polarization of the magnetic field always follows that of the electric field but with a 90 degree rotation, as detailed above.
Other types of polarization[edit]
In addition to transverse waves, there are many wave motions where the oscillation is not limited to directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation. These cases are beyond the scope of the current article which concentrates on transverse waves (such as most electromagnetic waves in bulk media), however one should be aware of cases where the polarization of a coherent wave cannot be described simply using a Jones vector, as we have just done.
Just considering electromagnetic waves, we note that the preceding discussion strictly applies to plane waves in a homogeneous isotropic non-attenuating medium, whereas in an anisotropic medium (such as birefringent crystals as discussed below) the electric and/or magnetic field may have longitudinal as well as transverse components. In those cases the electric displacement D and magnetic flux density B still obey the above geometry but due to anisotropy in the electric susceptibility (or in the magnetic permeability), now given by a tensor, the direction of E (or H) may differ from that of D (or B). Even in isotropic media, so-called inhomogeneous waves can be launched into a medium whose refractive index has a significant imaginary part (or "extinction coefficient") such as metals; these fields are also not strictly transverse.[1]:179-184[2]:51-52 Surface waves or waves propagating in a waveguide (such as an optical fiber) are generally not transverse waves, but might be described as an electric or magnetic transverse mode, or a hybrid mode.
Even in free space, longitudinal field components can be generated in focal regions, where the plane wave approximation breaks down. An extreme example is radially or tangentially polarized light, at the focus of which the electric or magnetic field respectively is entirely longitudinal (along the direction of propagation).[3]
For longitudinal waves such as sound waves in fluids, the direction of oscillation is by definition along the direction of travel, so the issue of polarization is not normally even mentioned. On the other hand, sound waves in a bulk solid can be transverse as well as longitudinal, for a total of three polarization components. In this case, the transverse polarization is associated with the direction of the shear stress and displacement in directions perpendicular to the propagation direction, while the longitudinal polarization describes compression of the solid and vibration along the direction of propagation. The differential propagation of transverse and longitudinal polarizations is important in seismology.
Polarization state[edit]
Over each cycle of a sinusoidal wave, the electric field vector (as well as the magnetic field) traces out an ellipse; note that a line and circle are special cases of ellipses. The shape and orientation of this ellipse (or line) defines the polarization state. The following figures show some examples of the evolution of the electric field vector (black), with time (the vertical axes), at a particular point in space, along with its x (red) and y (blue) components; at the base is the path traced by the vector in the transverse plane.
In the leftmost figure above, the electric field's x and y components (according to the axes we have established) are exactly in phase. The net result is polarization along a particular direction (depending on the relative amplitudes of the two components) in the x-y plane over each cycle. Since the vector traces out a single line in the plane, this special case is called linear polarization. Most polarizing filters produce linear polarization from unpolarized light.
In the middle figure, the x and y components still have the same amplitude but now are exactly ninety degrees out of phase. In this special case the electric vector traces out a circle in the plane, and is thus referred to as circular polarization. Depending on whether the phase difference is + or -90 degrees, it may be qualified as right-hand circular polarization or left-hand circular polarization, depending on one's convention.
The more general case with the two components out of phase by a different amount, or 90 degrees out of phase but with different amplitudes [4] is called elliptical polarization because the electric vector traces out an ellipse (the polarization ellipse). This is shown in the above figure on the right. Again, the same ellipse shape can be produced either by a clockwise or counterclockwise rotation of the field, corresponding to distinct polarization states.
Of course the orientation of the x and y axes in such a picture is arbitrary, and any state of polarization can be represented regardless. One would typically chose axes to suit a particular problem such as x being in the plane of incidence. Moreover, one can use as basis functions any pair of orthogonal polarization states. Beyond the linear polarizations we have used here, the most useful choice is right and left circularly polarized states. The Cartesian polarization decomposition is natural when dealing with reflection from surfaces, birefringent materials, or synchrotron radiation. The circularly polarized modes are a more useful basis for the study of light propagation in stereoisomers.
This section needs attention from an expert in Physics. (February 2009) |
For ease of visualization, polarization states are often specified in terms of the polarization ellipse, specifically its orientation and elongation. A common parameterization uses the orientation angle, ψ, the angle between the major semi-axis of the ellipse and the x-axis[5] (also known as tilt angle or azimuth angle[citation needed]) and the ellipticity, ε, the major-to-minor-axis ratio[6][7][8][9] (also known as the axial ratio). An ellipticity of zero or infinity corresponds to linear polarization and an ellipticity of 1 corresponds to circular polarization. The ellipticity angle, χ = arccot ε= arctan 1/ε, is also commonly used.[5] An example is shown in the diagram to the right. An alternative to the ellipticity or ellipticity angle is the eccentricity; however, unlike the azimuth angle and ellipticity angle, the latter has no obvious geometrical interpretation in terms of the Poincaré sphere (see below).
Full information on a completely polarized state is also provided by the amplitude and phase of oscillations in two components of the electric field vector in the plane of polarization. This representation was used above to show how different states of polarization are possible. The amplitude and phase information can be conveniently represented as a two-dimensional complex vector (the Jones vector):
Here and denote the amplitude of the wave in the two components of the electric field vector, while and represent the phases. The product of a Jones vector with a complex number of unit modulus gives a different Jones vector representing the same ellipse, and thus the same state of polarization. The physical electric field, as the real part of the Jones vector, would be altered but the polarization state itself is independent of absolute phase. The basis vectors used to represent the Jones vector need not represent linear polarization states (i.e. be real). In general any two orthogonal states can be used, where an orthogonal vector pair is formally defined as one having a zero inner product. A common choice is left and right circular polarizations, for example to model the different propagation of waves in two such components in circularly birefringent media (see below) or signal paths of coherent detectors sensitive to circular polarization.
Regardless of whether polarization ellipses are represented using geometric parameters or Jones vectors, implicit in the parameterization is the orientation of the coordinate frame. This permits a degree of freedom, namely rotation about the propagation direction. When considering light that is propagating parallel to the surface of the Earth, the terms "horizontal" and "vertical" polarization are often used, with the former being associated with the first component of the Jones vector, or zero azimuth angle. On the other hand, in astronomy the equatorial coordinate system is generally used instead, with the zero azimuth (or position angle, as it is more commonly called in astronomy to avoid confusion with the horizontal coordinate system) corresponding to due north.
s and p designations[edit]
Another coordinate system frequently used relates to the plane made by the propagation direction and a vector perpendicular to the plane of a reflecting surface. This is known as the plane of incidence. The component of the electric field parallel to this plane is termed p-like (parallel) and the component perpendicular to this plane is termed s-like (from senkrecht, German for perpendicular). Polarized light with its electric field along the plane of incidence is thus denoted p-polarized, while light whose electric field is normal to the plane of incidence is called s-polarized. p polarization is commonly referred to as transverse-magnetic (TM), and has also been termed pi-polarized or tangential plane polarized. s polarized light is also called transverse-electric (TE), as well as sigma-polarized or sagittal plane polarized.
Unpolarized light[edit]
Most common sources of visible light, including thermal (black body) radiation and fluorescence (but not lasers), produce light described as "incoherent". Radiation is produced independently by a large number of atoms or molecules whose emissions are uncorrelated and generally of random polarizations. In this case the light is said to be unpolarized. This term is somewhat inexact, since at any instant of time at one location there is a definite direction to the electric and magnetic fields, however it implies that the polarization changes so quickly in time that it will not be measured or relevant to the outcome of an experiment. A so-called depolarizer acts on a polarized beam to create one which is actually fully polarized at every point, but in which the polarization varies so rapidly across the beam that it may be ignored in the intended applications.
Light is said to be partially polarized when there is more power in one polarization mode than another. At any particular wavelength, partially polarized light can be statistically described as the superposition of a completely unpolarized component, and a completely polarized one. One may then describe the light in terms of the degree of polarization, and the parameters of the polarized component. Stokes parameters are the most common way of specifying such states of partial polarization.
Polarization in wave propagation[edit]
In a vacuum, the components of the electric field propagate at the speed of light, so that the phase of the wave varies in space and time while the polarization state does not. That is, the electric field vector e of a plane wave in the +z direction follows:
where k is the wavenumber. As noted above, the instantaneous electric field is the real part of the product of the Jones vector times the phase factor . When an electromagnetic wave interacts with matter, its propagation is altered according to the material's (complex) index of refraction. When the real or imaginary part of that refractive index is dependent on the polarization state of a wave, properties known as birefringence and polarization dichroism (or diattenuation) respectively, then the polarization state of a wave will generally be altered.
In such media, an electromagnetic wave with any given state of polarization may be decomposed into two orthogonally polarized components that encounter different propagation constants. The effect of propagation over a given path on those two components is most easily characterized in the form of a complex 2×2 transformation matrix J known as a Jones matrix:
The Jones matrix due to passage through a transparent material is dependent on the propagation distance as well as the birefringence. The birefringence (as well as the average refractive index) will generally be dispersive, that is, it will vary as a function of optical frequency (wavelength). In the case of non-birefringent materials, however, the 2×2 Jones matrix is the identity matrix (multiplied by a scalar phase factor and attenuation factor), implying no change in polarization during propagation.
For propagation effects in two orthogonal modes, the Jones matrix can be written as
where g1 and g2 are complex numbers describing the phase delay and possibly the amplitude attenuation due to propagation in each of the two polarization eigenmodes. T is a unitary matrix representing a change of basis from these propagation modes to the linear system used for the Jones vectors; in the case of linear birefringence or diattenuation the modes are themselves linear polarization states so T and T−1 can be omitted if the coordinate axes have been chosen appropriately. In media termed birefringent, in which the amplitudes are unchanged but a differential phase delay occurs, the Jones matrix is a unitary matrix: |g1| = |g2| = 1. Media termed diattenuating (or dichroic in the sense of polarization), in which only the amplitudes of the two polarizations are affected differentially, may be described using a Hermitian matrix (generally multiplied by a common phase factor). In fact, since any matrix may be written as the product of unitary and positive Hermitian matrices, light propagation through any sequence of polarization-dependent optical components can be written as the product of these two basic types of transformations.
In birefringent media there is no attenuation but two modes accrue a differential phase delay. Well known manifestations of linear birefringence (that is, in which the basis polarizations are orthogonal linear polarizations) appear in optical wave plates/retarders and many crystals. If linearly polarized light passes through a birefringent material, its state of polarization will generally change unless its polarization direction is identical to one of those basis polarizations. Since the phase shift, and thus the change in polarization state, is usually wavelength dependent, such objects viewed under white light in between two polarizers may give rise to colorful effects, as seen in the accompanying photograph.
Circular birefringence is also termed optical activity especially in chiral fluids, or Faraday rotation when due to the presence of a magnetic field along the direction of propagation. When linearly polarized light is passed through such an object, it will exit still linearly polarized but with the axis of polarization rotated. A combination of linear and circular birefringence will have as basis polarizations two orthogonal elliptical polarizations; the term "elliptical birefringence" however is rarely used.
Paths taken by vectors in the Poincaré sphere under birefringence. The propagation modes (rotation axes) are shown with red, blue, and yellow lines, the initial vectors by thick black lines, and the paths they take by colored ellipses (which represent circles in three dimensions).
One can visualize the case of linear birefringence (with two orthogonal linear propagation modes) with an incoming wave linearly polarized at a 45° angle to those modes. As a differential phase starts to accrue, the polarization becomes elliptical, eventually changing to purely circular polarization (90° phase difference), then to elliptical and eventually linear polarization (180° phase) perpendicular to the original polarization, then through circular again (270° phase), then elliptical with the original azimuth angle, and finally back to the original linearly polarized state (360° phase) where the cycle begins anew. In general the situation is more complicated and can be characterized as a rotation in the Poincaré sphere about the axis defined by the propagation modes. Examples for linear (blue), circular (red), and elliptical (yellow) birefringence are shown in the figure on the left. The total intensity and degree of polarization are unaffected. If the path length in the birefringent medium is sufficient, the two polarization components of a collimated beam (or ray) can exit the material with a positional offset, even though their final propagation directions will be the same (assuming the entrance face and exit face are parallel). This is commonly viewed using calcite crystals, which present the viewer with two slightly offset images, in opposite polarizations, of an object behind the crystal. It was this effect that provided the first discovery of polarization, by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669.
Media in which the amplitude of one polarization mode is preferentially reduced are called dichroic or diattenuating. In terms of the Poincaré sphere, an input polarization state is "dragged" in the direction of the preferred mode. Devices that block nearly all of the radiation in one mode are known as polarizing filters or simply "polarizers". This corresponds to g2=0 in the above representation of the Jones matrix. The output is a specific polarization state but with an amplitude equal to the input wave's original amplitude in that polarization mode. Power in the other polarization mode is absorbed (or diverted). Thus if unpolarized light is passed through an ideal polarizer (where g1=1 and g2=0) exactly half of its initial power is retained. Practical polarizers, especially inexpensive sheet polarizers, have additional loss so that g1 < 1. However in many instances the more relevant figure of merit is the polarizer's degree of polarization or extinction ratio which involves a comparison of g1 to g2. Since Jone's vectors refer to waves' amplitudes (rather than intensity), when illuminated by unpolarized light the remaining power in the unwanted polarization will be (g2/g1)2 of the power in the intended polarization.
Polarization in specular reflection[edit]
In addition to birefringence and dichroism in extended media, polarization effects describable using Jones matrices can also occur at (reflective) interface between two materials of different refractive index. These effects are treated by the Fresnel equations. Part of the wave is transmitted and part is reflected; for a given material those proportions are dependent on the angle of incidence and are different for the s and p polarizations. Therefore the polarization state of reflected light (even if initially unpolarized) is generally changed. Any light striking a surface at a special angle of incidence known as Brewster's angle, where the reflection coefficient for p polarization is zero, will be reflected with only the s-polarization remaining. The generally smaller reflection coefficient of the p polarization is the basis of polarized sunglasses; by blocking the s (horizontal) polarization, most of the glare due to reflection from a wet street, for instance, is removed.
A reflected wave is a mirror image of the incident wave, therefore an elliptically or circularly polarized reflection will have the opposite handedness to the incident wave.
Optical scattering[edit]
The transmission of plane waves through a homogeneous medium are fully described in terms of Jones vectors and 2×2 Jones matrices. However in practice there are cases in which all of the light cannot be viewed in such a simple manner due to spatial inhomogeneities or the presence of mutually incoherent waves. So-called depolarization, for instance, cannot be described using Jones matrices. For these cases it is usual instead to use a 4×4 matrix that acts upon the Stokes 4-vector. Such matrices were first used by Paul Soleillet in 1929, although they have come to be known as Mueller matrices. While every Jones matrix has a Mueller matrix, the reverse is not true. Mueller matrices are then used to describe the observed polarization effects of the scattering of waves from complex surfaces or ensembles of particles, as shall now be presented.
Parameterization of incoherent or partially polarized radiation[edit]
The Jones vector perfectly describes the state of polarization and phase of a single monochromatic wave, representing a pure state of polarization as described above. However any mixture of waves of different polarizations (or even of different frequencies) do not correspond to a Jones vector. In so-called partially polarized radiation the fields are stochastic, and the variations and correlations between components of the electric field can only be described statistically. One such representation is the coherency matrix:
where angular brackets denote averaging over many wave cycles. Several variants of the coherency matrix have been proposed: the Wiener coherency matrix and the spectral coherency matrix of Richard Barakat measure the coherence of a spectral decomposition of the signal, while the Wolf coherency matrix averages over all time/frequencies.
The coherency matrix contains all second order statistical information about the polarization. This matrix can be decomposed into the sum of two idempotent matrices, corresponding to the eigenvectors of the coherency matrix, each representing a polarization state that is orthogonal to the other. An alternative decomposition is into completely polarized (zero determinant) and unpolarized (scaled identity matrix) components. In either case, the operation of summing the components corresponds to the incoherent superposition of waves from the two components. The latter case gives rise to the concept of the "degree of polarization"; i.e., the fraction of the total intensity contributed by the completely polarized component.
The coherency matrix is not easy to visualize, and it is therefore common to describe incoherent or partially polarized radiation in terms of its total intensity (I), (fractional) degree of polarization (p), and the shape parameters of the polarization ellipse. An alternative and mathematically convenient description is given by the Stokes parameters, introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in 1852. The relationship of the Stokes parameters to intensity and polarization ellipse parameters is shown in the equations and figure below.
Here Ip, 2ψ and 2χ are the spherical coordinates of the polarization state in the three-dimensional space of the last three Stokes parameters. Note the factors of two before ψ and χ corresponding respectively to the facts that any polarization ellipse is indistinguishable from one rotated by 180°, or one with the semi-axis lengths swapped accompanied by a 90° rotation. The Stokes parameters are sometimes denoted I, Q, U and V.
The Stokes parameters contain all of the information of the coherency matrix, and are related to it linearly by means of the identity matrix plus the three Pauli matrices:
Mathematically, the factor of two relating physical angles to their counterparts in Stokes space derives from the use of second-order moments and correlations, and incorporates the loss of information due to absolute phase invariance.
The figure above makes use of a convenient representation of the last three Stokes parameters as components in a three-dimensional vector space. This space is closely related to the Poincaré sphere, which is the spherical surface occupied by completely polarized states in the space of the vector
All four Stokes parameters can also be combined into the four-dimensional Stokes vector, which can be interpreted as four-vectors of Minkowski space. In this case, all physically realizable polarization states correspond to time-like, future-directed vectors.
Measurement techniques involving polarization[edit]
Some optical measurement techniques are based on polarization. In many other optical techniques polarization is crucial or at least must be taken into account and controlled; such examples are too numerous to mention.
Measurement of stress[edit]
In engineering, the phenomenon of stress induced birefringence allows for stresses in transparent materials to be readily observed. As noted above and seen in the accompanying photograph, the chromaticity of birefringence typically creates colored patterns when viewed in between two polarizers. As external forces are applied, internal stress induced in the material is thereby observed. Additionally, birefringence is frequently observed due to stresses "frozen in" at the time of manufacture. This is famously observed in cellophane tape whose birefringence is due to the stretching of the material during the manufacturing process.
Ellipsometry is a powerful technique for the measurement of the optical properties of a uniform surface. It involves measuring the polarization state of light following specular reflection from such a surface. This is typically done as a function of incidence angle and/or wavelength. Since ellipsometry relies on reflection, it is not required for the sample to be transparent to light or for its back side to be accessible.
Ellipsometry can be used to model the (complex) refractive index of a surface of a bulk material. It is also very useful in determining parameters of one or more thin film layers deposited on a substrate. Due to their reflection properties, not only are the predicted magnitude of the p and s polarization components, but their relative phase shifts upon reflection, compared to measurements using an ellipsometer. A normal ellipsometer does not measure the actual reflection coefficient (which requires careful photometric calibration of the illuminating beam) but the ratio of the p and s reflections, as well as change of polarization ellipticity (hence the name) induced upon reflection by the surface being studied. In addition to use in science and research, ellipsometers are used in situ to control production processes for instance.[10]:585ff[11]:632
The property of (linear) birefringence is widespread in crystalline minerals, and indeed was pivotal in the initial discovery of polarization. In mineralogy, this property is frequently exploited using polarization microscopes, for the purpose of identifying minerals. See optical mineralogy for more details.[12]:163-164
Sound waves in solid materials exhibit polarization. Differential propagation of the three polarizations through the earth is a crucial in the field of seismology. Horizontally and vertically polarized seismic waves (shear waves)are termed SH and SV, while waves with longitudinal polarization (compressional waves) are termed P-waves.[13]:48-50[14]:56-57
We have seen (above) that the birefringence of a type of crystal is useful in identifying it, and thus detection of linear birefringence is especially useful in geology and mineralogy. Linearly polarized light generally has its polarization state altered upon transmission through such a crystal, making it stand out when viewed in between two crossed polarizers, as seen in the photograph, above. Likewise, in chemistry, rotation of polarization axes in a liquid solution can be a useful measurement. In a liquid, linear birefringence is impossible, however there may be circular birefringence when a chiral molecule is in solution. When the right and left handed enantiomers of such a molecule are present in equal numbers (a so-called racemic mixture) then their effects cancel out. However when there is only one (or a preponderance of one), as is more often the case for organic molecules, a net circular birefringence (or optical activity) is observed, revealing the magnitude of that imbalance (or the concentration of the molecule itself, when it can be assumed that only one enantiomer is present). This is measured using a polarimeter in which polarized light is passed through a tube of the liquid, at the end of which is another polarizer which is rotated in order to null the transmission of light through it.[15]:360-365[16]:169-172
In many areas of astronomy, the study of polarized electromagnetic radiation from outer space is of great importance. Although not usually a factor in the thermal radiation of stars, polarization is also present in radiation from coherent astronomical sources (e.g. hydroxyl or methanol masers), and incoherent sources such as the large radio lobes in active galaxies, and pulsar radio radiation (which may, it is speculated, sometimes be coherent), and is also imposed upon starlight by scattering from interstellar dust. Apart from providing information on sources of radiation and scattering, polarization also probes the interstellar magnetic field via Faraday rotation.[17]:119,124[18]:336-337 The polarization of the cosmic microwave background is being used to study the physics of the very early universe.[19][20] Synchrotron radiation is inherently polarised. It has been suggested that astronomical sources caused the chirality of biological molecules on Earth.[21]
Applications and examples[edit]
Polarized sunglasses[edit]
Unpolarized light, after reflection at a specular (shiny) surface, generally obtains a degree of polarization. This phenomenon was observed in 1808 by the mathematician Étienne-Louis Malus after whom Malus' law is named. Polarizing sunglasses exploit this effect to reduce glare from reflections by horizontal surfaces, notably the road ahead viewed at a grazing angle.
Wearers of polarized sunglasses will occasionally observe inadvertent polarization effects such as color-dependent birefringent effects, for example in toughened glass (e.g., car windows) or items made from transparent plastics, in conjunction with natural polarization by reflection or scattering. The polarized light from LCD monitors (see below) is very conspicuous when these are worn.
Sky polarization and photography[edit]
Polarization is observed in the light of the sky, as this is due to sunlight scattered by aerosols as it passes through the earth's atmosphere. The scattered light produces the brightness and color in clear skies. This partial polarization of scattered light can be used to darken the sky in photographs, increasing the contrast. This effect is most strongly observed at points on the sky making a 90° angle to the sun. Polarizing filters use these effects to optimize the results of photographing scenes in which reflection or scattering by the sky is involved.
Sky polarization has been used for orientation in navigation. The "sky compass", was used in the 1950s when navigating near the poles of the Earth's magnetic field when neither the sun nor stars were visible (e.g., under daytime cloud or twilight). It has been suggested, controversially, that the Vikings exploited a similar device (the "sunstone") in their extensive expeditions across the North Atlantic in the 9th–11th centuries, before the arrival of the magnetic compass in Europe in the 12th century. Related to the sky compass is the "polar clock", invented by Charles Wheatstone in the late 19th century.
Display technologies[edit]
The principle of liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology relies on the rotation of the axis of linear polarization by the liquid crystal array. Light from the backlight (or the back reflective layer, in devices not including or requiring a backlight) first passes through a linear polarizing sheet. That polarized light passes through the actual liquid crystal layer which may be organized in pixels (for a TV or computer monitor) or in another format such as a seven-segment display or one with custom symbols for a particular product. The liquid crystal layer is produced with a consistent right (or left) handed chirality, essentially consisting of tiny helices. This causes circular birefringence, and is engineered so that there is a 90 degree rotation of the linear polarization state. However when a voltage is applied across a cell, the molecules straighten out, lessening or totally losing the circular birefringence. On the viewing side of the display is another linear polarizing sheet, usually oriented at 90 degrees from the one behind the active layer. Therefore when the circular birefringence is removed by the application of a sufficient voltage, the polarization of the transmitted light remains at right angles to the front polarizer, and the pixel appears dark. With no voltage, however, the 90 degree rotation of the polarization causes it to exactly match the axis of the front polarizer, allowing the light through. Intermediate voltages create intermediate rotation of the polarization axis and the pixel has an intermediate intensity. Displays based on this principle are widespread, and now are used in the vast majority of televisions, computer monitors and video projectors, rendering the previous CRT technology essentially obsolete. The use of polarization in the operation of LCD displays is immediately apparent to someone wearing polarized sunglasses, often making the display unreadable.
In a totally different sense, polarization encoding has become the leading (but not sole) method for delivering separate images to the left and right eye in stereoscopic displays used for 3D movies. This involves separate images intended for each eye either projected from two different projectors with orthogonally oriented polarizing filters or, more typically, from a single projector with time multiplexed polarization (a fast alternating polarization device for successive frames). Polarized 3D glasses with suitable polarizing filters ensure that each eye receives only the intended image. Historically such systems used linear polarization encoding because it was inexpensive and offered good separation. However circular polarization makes separation of the two images insensitive to tilting of the head, and is widely used in 3-D movie exhibition today, such as the system from RealD. Projecting such images requires screens that maintain the polarization of the projected light when viewed in reflection (such as silver screens); a normal diffuse white projection screen causes depolarization of the projected images, making it unsuitable for this application.
Although now obsolete, CRT computer displays suffered from reflection by the glass envelope, causing glare from room lights and consequently poor contrast. Several anti-reflection solutions were employed to ameliorate this problem. One solution utilized the principle of reflection of circularly polarized light. A circular polarizing filter in front of the screen allows for the transmission of (say) only right circularly polarized room light. Now, right circularly polarized light (depending on the convention used) has its electric (and magnetic) field direction rotating clockwise while propagating in the +z direction. Upon reflection, the field still has the same direction of rotation, but now propagation is in the -z direction making the reflected wave left circularly polarized. With the right circular polarization filter placed in front of the reflecting glass, the unwanted light reflected from the glass will thus be in very polarization state that is blocked by that filter, eliminating the reflection problem. The reversal of circular polarization on reflection and elimination of reflections in this manner can be easily observed by looking in a mirror while wearing 3-D movie glasses which employ left and right handed circular polarization in the two lenses. Closing one eye, the other eye will see a reflection in which it cannot see itself; that lens appears black! However the other lens (of the closed eye) will have the correct circular polarization allowing the closed eye to be easily seen by the open one.
Radio transmission[edit]
All radio (and microwave) antennas used for transmitting and/or receiving are intrinsically polarized. They transmit in (or receive signals from) a particular polarization, being totally insensitive to the opposite polarization; in certain cases that polarization is a function of direction. As is the convention in optics, the "polarization" of a radio wave is understood to refer to the polarization of its electric field, with the magnetic field being at a 90 degree rotation with respect to it for a linearly polarized wave.
The vast majority of antennas are linearly polarized. In fact it can be shown from considerations of symmetry that an antenna that lies entirely in a plane which also includes the observer, can only have its polarization in the direction of that plane. This applies to many cases, allowing one to easily infer such an antenna's polarization at an intended direction of propagation. So a typical rooftop Yagi or log-periodic antenna with horizontal conductors, as viewed from a second station toward the horizon, is necessarily horizontally polarized. But a vertical "whip antenna" or AM broadcast tower used as an antenna element (again, for observers horizontally displaced from it) will transmit in the vertical polarization. A turnstile antenna with its four arms in the horizontal plane, likewise transmits horizontally polarized radiation toward the horizon. However when that same turnstile antenna is used in the "axial mode" (upwards, for the same horizontally-oriented structure) its radiation is circularly polarized. At intermediate elevations it is elliptically polarized.
Polarization is important in radio communications because, for instance, if one attempts to use a horizontally polarized antenna to receive a vertically polarized transmission, the signal strength will be substantially reduced (or under very controlled conditions, reduced to nothing). This principle is used in satellite television in order to double the channel capacity over a fixed frequency band. The same frequency channel can be used for two signals broadcast in opposite polarizations. By adjusting the receiving antenna for one or the other polarization, either signal can be selected without interference from the other.
Especially due to the presence of the ground, there are some differences in propagation (and also in reflections responsible for TV ghosting) between horizontal and vertical polarizations. AM and FM broadcast radio usually use vertical polarization, while television uses horizontal polarization. At low frequencies especially, horizontal polarization is avoided. That is because the phase of a horizontally polarized wave is reversed upon reflection by the ground. A distant station in the horizontal direction will receive both the direct and reflected wave, which thus tend to cancel each other. This problem is avoided with vertical polarization. Polarization is also important in the transmission of radar pulses and reception of radar reflections by the same or a different antenna. For instance, back scattering of radar pulses by rain drops can be avoided by using circular polarization. Just as specular reflection of circularly polarized light reverses the handedness of the polarization, as discussed above, the same principle applies to scattering by objects much smaller than a wavelength such as rain drops. On the other hand, reflection of that wave by an irregular metal object (such as an airplane) will typically introduce a change in polarization and (partial) reception of the return wave by the same antenna.
Polarization and vision[edit]
Many animals are capable of perceiving some of the components of the polarization of light, e.g., linear horizontally polarized light. This is generally used for navigational purposes, since the linear polarization of sky light is always perpendicular to the direction of the sun. This ability is very common among the insects, including bees, which use this information to orient their communicative dances. Polarization sensitivity has also been observed in species of octopus, squid, cuttlefish, and mantis shrimp. In the latter case, one species measures all six orthogonal components of polarization, and is believed to have optimal polarization vision.[22] The rapidly changing, vividly colored skin patterns of cuttlefish, used for communication, also incorporate polarization patterns, and mantis shrimp are known to have polarization selective reflective tissue. Sky polarization was thought to be perceived by pigeons, which was assumed to be one of their aids in homing, but research indicates this is a popular myth.[23]
The naked human eye is weakly sensitive to polarization, without the need for intervening filters. Polarized light creates a very faint pattern near the center of the visual field, called Haidinger's brush. This pattern is very difficult to see, but with practice one can learn to detect polarized light with the naked eye.
Angular momentum using circular polarization[edit]
It is well known that electromagnetic radiation carries a certain linear momentum in the direction of propagation. In addition, however, light carries a certain angular momentum if it is circularly polarized (or partially so). In comparison with lower frequencies such as microwaves, the amount of angular momentum in light, even of pure circular polarization, compared to the same wave's linear momentum (or radiation pressure) is very small and difficult to even measure. However it was utilized in a remarkable experiment to achieve an incredibly high rotation speed.
The University of St Andrews team caused a microscopic bead of calcium carbonate 4 micrometres in diameter to rotate at speeds of up to 600 million revolutions per minute.[24] The bead was suspended by a laser beam in a location using the principle of optical tweezers. However that beam was also circularly polarized. The calcium carbonate (calcite) bead, being birefringent, caused light transmitted through it to slightly change its polarization into one that was not fully circularly polarized, and which therefore had less angular momentum. The difference in the angular momentum between the incident beam and light transmitted through the bead was imparted to the bead itself. Suspended in a near-vacuum and facing little friction, the rotation rate of the bead could be increased to rates as high as 10 million revolutions per second. This rotation rate corresponded to a centrifugal acceleration some one billion times that of gravity on the Earth surface, but which surprisingly did not lead to the bead's disintegration. [25]
See also[edit]
Notes and references[edit]
- Principles of Optics, 7th edition, M. Born & E. Wolf, Cambridge University, 1999, ISBN 0-521-64222-1.
- Fundamentals of polarized light: a statistical optics approach, C. Brosseau, Wiley, 1998, ISBN 0-471-14302-2.
- Polarized Light, second edition, Dennis Goldstein, Marcel Dekker, 2003, ISBN 0-8247-4053-X
- Field Guide to Polarization, Edward Collett, SPIE Field Guides vol. FG05, SPIE, 2005, ISBN 0-8194-5868-6.
- Polarization Optics in Telecommunications, Jay N. Damask, Springer 2004, ISBN 0-387-22493-9.
- Optics, 4th edition, Eugene Hecht, Addison Wesley 2002, ISBN 0-8053-8566-5.
- Polarized Light in Nature, G. P. Können, Translated by G. A. Beerling, Cambridge University, 1985, ISBN 0-521-25862-6.
- Polarised Light in Science and Nature, D. Pye, Institute of Physics, 2001, ISBN 0-7503-0673-4.
- Polarized Light, Production and Use, William A. Shurcliff, Harvard University, 1962.
- Ellipsometry and Polarized Light, R. M. A. Azzam and N. M. Bashara, North-Holland, 1977, ISBN 0-444-87016-4
- Secrets of the Viking Navigators—How the Vikings used their amazing sunstones and other techniques to cross the open oceans, Leif Karlsen, One Earth Press, 2003.
- ^ Griffiths, David J. (1998), Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.), Prentice Hall, pp. isbn=0–13–805326–X
- ^ Geoffrey New (7 April 2011). Introduction to Nonlinear Optics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-50076-0.
- ^ Dorn, R. and Quabis, S. and Leuchs, G. (dec 2003). "Sharper Focus for a Radially Polarized Light Beam". Physical Review Letters 91 (23,): 233901–+. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91w3901D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.233901.
- ^ Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1960) Radiative transfer, p.27
- ^ a b M. A. Sletten and D. J. McLaughlin, "Radar polarimetry", in K. Chang (ed.), Encyclopedia of RF and Microwave Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, 2005, ISBN 978-0-471-27053-9, 5832 pp.
- ^ Merrill Ivan Skolnik (1990) Radar Handbook, Fig. 6.52, sec. 6.60.
- ^ Hamish Meikle (2001) Modern Radar Systems, eq. 5.83.
- ^ T. Koryu Ishii (Editor), 1995, Handbook of Microwave Technology. Volume 2, Applications, p. 177.
- ^ John Volakis (ed) 2007 Antenna Engineering Handbook, Fourth Edition, sec. 26.1. Note: in contrast with other authors, this source initially defines ellipticity reciprocally, as the minor-to-major-axis ratio, but then goes on to say that "Although [it] is less than unity, when expressing ellipticity in decibels, the minus sign is frequently omitted for convenience", which essentially reverts back to the definition adopted by other authors.
- ^ Dennis Goldstein; Dennis H. Goldstein (3 January 2011). Polarized Light, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-203-91158-7.
- ^ Masud Mansuripur (2009). Classical Optics and Its Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521881692.
- ^ Randy O. Wayne (16 December 2013). Light and Video Microscopy. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-411536-1.
- ^ Peter M. Shearer (2009). Introduction to Seismology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88210-1.
- ^ Seth Stein; Michael Wysession (1 April 2009). An Introduction to Seismology, Earthquakes, and Earth Structure. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-1131-0.
- ^ Hecht, Eugene (1998). Optics (3rd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-19-510818-3.
- ^ K. Peter C. Vollhardt; Neil E. Schore (2003). Organic Chemistry, Fourth Edition: Structure and Function. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4374-3.
- ^ Vlemmings, W. H. T. (Mar. 2007). "A review of maser polarization and magnetic fields.". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3 (S242): 37–46.
- ^ Hannu Karttunen; Pekka Kröger; Heikki Oja (27 June 2007). Fundamental Astronomy. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-34143-7.
- ^ Boyle, Latham A.; Steinhardt, PJ; Turok, N (2006). "Inflationary predictions for scalar and tensor fluctuations reconsidered". Physical Review Letters 96 (11): 111301. arXiv:astro-ph/0507455. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..96k1301B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.111301. PMID 16605810.
- ^ Tegmark, Max (2005). "What does inflation really predict?". JCAP 0504 (4): 001. arXiv:astro-ph/0410281. Bibcode:2005JCAP...04..001T. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2005/04/001.
- ^ Clark, S. (1999). "Polarised starlight and the handedness of Life". American Scientist 97: 336–43. Bibcode:1999AmSci..87..336C. doi:10.1511/1999.4.336.
- ^ Sonja Kleinlogel, Andrew White (2008). "The secret world of shrimps: polarisation vision at its best". PLoS ONE 3 (5): e2190. arXiv:0804.2162. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2190K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002190. PMC 2377063. PMID 18478095.
- ^ "No evidence for polarization sensitivity in the pigeon electroretinogram", J. J. Vos Hzn, M. A. J. M. Coemans & J. F. W. Nuboer, The Journal of Experimental Biology, 1995.
- ^ "University of St Andrews scientists create 'fastest man-made spinning object'"
- ^ "Laser-induced rotation and cooling of a trapped microgyroscope in vacuum", Research @ St. Andrews
External links[edit]
- Polarized Light in Nature and Technology
- Polarized Light Digital Image Gallery: Microscopic images made using polarization effects
- Polarization by the University of Colorado Physics 2000: Animated explanation of polarization
- MathPages: The relationship between photon spin and polarization
- A virtual polarization microscope
- Polarization angle in satellite dishes.
- Using polarizers in photography
- Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You — Polarization of Light: Interactive Java tutorial
- Electromagnetic waves and circular dichroism: an animated tutorial
- HyperPhysics: Polarization concepts
- Tutorial on rotating polarization through waveplates (retarders)
- SPIE technical group on polarization
- A Java simulation on using polarizers
- Antenna Polarization
- Animations of Linear, Circular and Elliptical Polarizations on YouTube


text:
The first completed piece of costume design for my first university short film.
The bodice is Burda 7494 without the collar, and the skirt is just a pleated rectangle.
More on blog! http://laikadoll.blogspot.com.au/2012/03/oink-dress.html
Piggy quilting cotton, bias tape
Apr 25, 2012, 09.38 AMby Ruffles Gazebo
AHHH pigs are my favorite animal…i have seen quilting fabric like this before but never thought to make it into a dress like this! amazing
Mar 15, 2012, 01.55 AMby ModestyFashions
Super cute!!!
Mar 9, 2012, 01.48 PMby kajawillip
Love love love it!!!! gorgeous print, shape and really loving the neck/armhole trim!
Mar 8, 2012, 09.59 AMby pambox
This is fantastic! Is the fabric from Spotlight? I've seen lots of farm animal quilting fabrics there.
Mar 8, 2012, 09.54 AMby Ezzles
Love this! The pattern is lovely and that fabric is just AWESOME!
Mar 8, 2012, 02.00 AMby schnui
Great dress miss Laikadoll. Good luck with uni work. I guess you don't have as much time to sew now. I know I don't which is frustrating.
Mar 8, 2012, 01.53 AMby Jhulys Diary
This is SUPERRRRRRRRR, hahahaha!
Mar 8, 2012, 01.26 AMby Irina Schwab
Superb! Suits you!
Mar 7, 2012, 11.16 PMby kerstika
Haha, I LOVE it!! So cute!
Mar 7, 2012, 10.20 PMby Jolands
Love THE fabric!!
Mar 7, 2012, 09.18 PMby poppykettle
Love it :)
Mar 7, 2012, 08.06 PMby mokosha
hehee.. i love it.. i want piggy dress too
Mar 7, 2012, 07.40 PMby LouisaLoves
Love it!
Mar 7, 2012, 04.48 PMby pamchar
Hahaha, funny print! I love the way you use playful prints for making cute dresses.
Mar 7, 2012, 04.19 PMby LadyDanburry
Awesome. I love the neckline trim.
Mar 7, 2012, 03.44 PMby tassadit
Ooooh, this is too cute! Love it!
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Behind the seams with Marina von Koenig Part 2
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Hippie meets grunge in this plaid top with flared sleeves and a round neckline.
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subset: commoncrawl


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Zoggs Little Ripper Goggles - Pink - 6+
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The Zoggs Little Ripper junior swimming goggles are our international best seller -featuring an adjustable nose bridge with silicone seal and headstrap for comfort and durability.
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Our Chrome Weight Magnets carry their share of the load. These easy-to-grasp magnets are powerful enough to hold calendars, thick invitations, photos and notes to any steel surface. Plus, they're stylish enough to use as decorative accents on their own.
Item | Enter your zip code for product availability and pickup options at your nearest store. | Quantity | Price |


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This is a picture of my brother-in-law, Jadon, he will be turning 7 on 07-07-07. Happy Birthday Jadon!!!
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New & used cds, dvds, and vinyl with 28 years in Fort Wayne!


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As Heard on WTOP
Thu Sep 06th, 2012
Long Live the King.. long live the queen...oops
King Henry VIII is known for, among other things, his many wives. Now is your chance to see him with his first wife. The year is 1514 in Revel Grove as the King and Queen, Katherine of Aragon, make their royal court visit the village as part of their annual summer progress. The Maryland Renaissance Festival and all its fun and pageantry runs weekends through Oct 21st. As they say, "Enter the gates of Revel Grove and leave the hectic pace of the twenty-first century behind." 1821 Crownsville Road, Annapolis, MD 21401


text:
[JURIST] A group of Massachusetts plaintiffs who are or have been married under the state's same-sex marriage [JURIST news archive] law filed a lawsuit [complaint, PDF; GLAD press release] against the US federal government Tuesday in the US District Court for the District of Massachusetts [official website], challenging the federal Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) [text]. The plaintiffs in the suit, which was filed against the Office of Personnel Management (OPM), United States Postal Service (USPS) [official websites], and other departments and officials of the US federal government, are seeking declaratory and injunctive relief as well as review of a number of agency actions. The lawsuit is a direct challenge to DOMA, which the plaintiffs claim violates their Fifth Amendment [text] right to equal protection as it applies to several federal laws and administrative rules. The lawsuit also asks the court to declare DOMA unconstitutional, and "enjoin the defendants from continuing to discriminate against the plaintiffs by treating them differently from similarly situated individuals who are married to persons of the opposite sex." In the compliant, the plaintiffs argue that DOMA:
as applied to plaintiffs, violates the United States Constitution by refusing to recognize lawful marriages for purposes of the laws governing benefits for federal employees and retirees, the Internal Revenue Code, the Social Security laws and the laws and regulations governing issuance of passports. The result of these violations of the Constitution is that each of the plaintiffs has been denied, and will continue to be denied, legal protections and benefits under federal law that would be available to them if their spouses were of the opposite sex.


text:
by Lexi Petronis
April is officially National Grilled Cheese Sandwich month! You've got plenty of time left, so start dreaming up cheesy ideas.
Here are some tasty grilled cheese options to try-and, as a bonus, each option has a specific health benefit you might not find in a typical grilled cheese sammie.
More from Glamour:
10 Things That Should Be on Every Girl's Beauty Bucket List
15 Hair-Color Makeover Ideas to Try in 2013
10 Beauty Tricks That Make Guys Melt


text:
The best Windows 8.1 tablets and convertible laptops
16 Comments
1. akki20892 (Posts: 2285; Member since: 04 Feb 2013)
Nothing like Sony.
6. sri_tech (Posts: 184; Member since: 21 May 2013)
Sony tablets and convertibles are good but they seems to have dropped the ball on battery life with Flip and Tap 11.
Its really surprising because Vaio pro 13 has got tremendous battery life but flip 15 is just giving half of that.
I hope Flip 13 will have the similar battery life to vaio pro 13.
2. ArtSim98 (Posts: 832; Member since: 21 Dec 2012)
Windows 8 is awesome because it made these kind of devices possible! With these we can actually get some work to do unlike with tablets. I would take one of the Sony's or the Lenovo Yoga
3. akki20892 (Posts: 2285; Member since: 04 Feb 2013)
Sony Vaio Duo 13 is the best. Check in your near stores.
4. ArtSim98 (Posts: 832; Member since: 21 Dec 2012)
Yeah, I know. And it's even made in Japan isn't it?
5. itsdeepak4u2000 (Posts: 1883; Member since: 03 Nov 2012)
Sony's are best...
7. valapsp (Posts: 422; Member since: 12 Aug 2011)
I can't decide between these: Surface Pro 2, Dell Venue 11 Pro, Sony Vaio Flip 13, HP Spectre 13vand Acer Aspire S7-392.
Any help is appreciated!
13. fsnas (Posts: 86; Member since: 18 Jun 2012)
Go with the one that supports LTE because it's a useful feature and rare in windows 8 tablets!
8. 7thspaceman (Posts: 838; Member since: 14 Feb 2011)
Folks the second generation windows 8.1 Tablets and laptops really are showing people what windows 8 an 8.1 is about. but what I am looking for is not among them. I want a
good old blur ray DVD reader/writer drive in my windows 8.1-Laptop/notebook. have any of you folks out their seen up for sale by any of Microsoft's OEM's yet. prefer writeable DVD's to flash drives or SD cards because you write enough info on them to easily retrieve them and get your information on your laptop/notebook. in this age of tablets and hybrids I guess the good old full work station laptop witn a dvd reader writer drive was forgotten?
10. madpiyal (Posts: 108; Member since: 11 Feb 2013)
You can take a look at sony vaio fit 14 (comes with touch). it dosent come with haswell but with 3rd gen ULV processors. but you will get your desired blueray drive and full set of connectivity options.
9. axllebeer (Posts: 250; Member since: 05 Apr 2011)
I just put the HP Envy X2 on layaway for myself for Christmas. Looking forward to playing with it .
11. Joshing4fun (Posts: 1026; Member since: 13 Aug 2010)
Lenovo is the best. Would be Sony if they didn't overprice their products.
14. SleepingOz (Posts: 2377; Member since: 22 Oct 2011)
Second you on this! Yoga 2 is the best value for money here.
12. -box- (Posts: 3537; Member since: 04 Jan 2012)
I'm surprised at the omission of the 8" Dell Venue Pro. It's comparable to the Lenovo Miix, and the Acer W4. Very likely I'll be getting a Windows 8.1 tablet soon. Plus Nokia is announcing their tablet(s) on Tuesday. We are glut for choice for actually good computer tablets, not the overhyped giant phones masquerading as tablets from other mobile-focused OSes
15. StreetNerd (Posts: 698; Member since: 08 Dec 2010)
Asus T100 or Toshiba Encore
16. darkvadervip (Posts: 261; Member since: 08 Dec 2010)
I've owned the dell latitude 10 pro tablet since it came out and I love it. If I had the money the next one would be the surface 2 because of the build quality and because it had the best processor.


text:
Crenshaw was one of the hot spots 21 years ago when Los Angeles exploded after the acquittal of the white police officers who had been captured on tape beating Rodney King. For years, the broad thoroughfare was lined with empty buildings. But things have been changing in one of the last African-American neighborhoods in the city. Back in 2006, an African-American investor led a major renovation of the "mall." It now includes a Wal-Mart where area residents both shop and work.
So why riot and loot your neighborhood retailer?
That is, of course, precisely what happened this past Sunday night, when the Los Angeles Police Department, suited out for "riots" and "mass arrests," broke up not so much a riot but a crowd of looters protesting the acquittal of George Zimmerman?
I ask again: Why does damaging a store that serves the African-American community, in a mall whose primary investor is African-American, whose very purpose was to provide both retail and employment opportunities in the African-American community, why does doing that in Los Angeles serve the cause of social justice for African-Americans?
I can understand the frustration many feel with the Florida verdict. As a law professor, I can explain to you why it is understandable and even entirely predictable that the jury would have "reasonable" doubt about who started a fight when only one of the participants is alive to tell his story (albeit without taking the stand and facing cross-examination). I can try to convince you that it is not the job of the criminal justice system to solve the social ills of our society, real and deep though they are, and that when jurors try to do that, they often do more harm than good. Even if you disagree, why destroy a store that serves the very community that is understandably feeling injured?
I have no doubt that something went very wrong the night Trayvon Martin was killed by George Zimmerman. An unarmed kid should not be killed on the way home from buying candy. He should not be killed even if he was obnoxious and aggressive; and he certainly should not be killed because the man who pulled the trigger was afraid of other young men in hoodies, even if that fear was -- at least judged statistically -- painfully rational.
I heard some commentators trying to explain how it was that race had nothing to do with the verdict. Maybe they believe that. I'm certainly not accusing any of the jurors of acquitting Zimmerman because he is white and Martin was black. I have to assume, and I think we all should, that they did their best to look only at the evidence presented to them, without regard to race, and analyze whether the elements of self-defense had been met.
But let's be serious: Would George Zimmerman have had the same reaction to a white kid in a Lacoste golf shirt? Would any of us?
The problem isn't George Zimmerman and it certainly isn't the Crenshaw Wal-mart.
It's that young black men are way too likely to be criminals. Not because they are young and black. We are talking about a correlation, not a causal connection.
The African-American attorney general appointed by the African-American president can give all the speeches in the world criticizing state self-defense laws, but the real problem with those laws is that they become the avenues through which our tragic fears are translated.
Rev. Jesse Jackson admitted more than a decade ago to feeling relieved when he turned to find that the footsteps behind him were not those of young black men. Tragic relief.
If this administration wants to do something to get race out of the criminal justice system, then they are going to have to start at pre-school, and do it. Break the correlation between being young and male and black and in trouble with the law. Break that, and you don't need to loot the local Wal-Mart's. Don't break it, and the looting will confirm -- and not undermine -- a tragic verdict.
Why the Crenshaw Wal-Mart?
- Editorials
Concerning the Natatorium
A few weeks ago it was suggested that I go to Water Aerobics.
Al Sharpton's biggest cause: himself
If anyone dies as a result of protests following the George Zimmerman verdict, the Justice Department should charge Al Sharpton.
Why the Crenshaw Wal-Mart?
Crenshaw was one of the hot spots 21 years ago when Los Angeles exploded after the acquittal of the white police officers who had been captured on tape beating Rodney King.
Dead lawyers and dying young people
"Though it's cold and lonely in the deep dark night"
-Jim Steinman (song by Meat Loaf and later the cast of Glee) -
Obama's latest scandal? Broccoligate
Enough is enough.
Celebrate our freedoms
From The Editor
Political stops and starts
This was a week of major political moves in Washington.
Sen. Robert Nichol - My five cents...
In the movie Groundhog Day, Bill Murray's character wakes up again and again only to find he is stuck living the same day until he finally gets the day right.
Sometimes moms play the role of father, too
"Dear old Daddy, rest his soul
Left my mom a heavy load
She tried so very hard to fill his shoes
Working hours without rest
Wanted me to have the best"
—Merle Haggard -
Where never lark, nor eagle flew
The poem, "High Flight", was written by a young American pilot, John Magee, flying for the Royal Canadian Air Force before the U.S. entered World War II.
- More Editorials Headlines
Concerning the Natatorium


text:
Olive and Me
De Toni Crickmore-Thompson Jimbones
A dedication from Debbie to her friend Olive as a present for her 40th birthday. The book portrays the story of their friendship, from when they first met at Nursing school to the present. They now each have a family and live in different countries, but their special friendship continues.
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At Bonavista, we help you get the photos out of the box or off the CD, and into a beautifully designed book or show that can be enjoyed regularly, inspiring stories of past experiences. Revisit these books or shows and see the wealth of delight that one life can contain.
We take your photos and weave them into a story. Our books and shows become a precious, thoughtful gift that is a celebration of: • a significant birthday or anniversary • a family history, so every member has the same images and the same visual panorama of their ancestors and themselves • a certain event, such as a wedding or a family reunion • a remembrance of a specific time, such as baby's first year • a retirement • important corporate anniversaries • team triumphs • school years, creating yearbooks for the whole grade or for one student in particular The opportunities for memory books and photo shows are as varied as the people whose lives we chronicle.
Fecha de publicación 23 de septiembre de 2010
Dimensiones Apaisado estándar 62 páginas Papel premium, acabado mate
Categoría Biografías y memorias
Etiquetas 40th birthday, Bonavista Memories, memoir, Bonavista, gift, Olive
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Sixth Annual Religions in Conversation ConferenceSchool of Arts, Humanities & Religion, Claremont Graduate UniversityClaremont, CA |
Who's Going
Event Details
The Sixth Annual Religions in Conversation Conference of Claremont Graduate University, held on February 22 and 23, 2013, is presenting "Sacred Vows, Sacred Bodies: Gender, Marriage, and Sexuality in Text and Tradition." The issue of marriage, sexuality, and gender is now a major political platform discussed by both parties at their respective conventions. There is no denial that political opinions about these issues are religiously motivated. Recently, academia has exploded with issues of Gender, Marriage, and Sexuality and this conference hopes of correcting, confirming, or focusing that scholarship on religion. The conference theme engages not only modern political and religious issues, but also text and tradition as it addresses the topic. The topic is meant to be broad in order to include transdisciplinary research that allows engagement and dialogue with the traditions represented by Claremont Graduate University's religious councils: Catholicism, Coptic Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Mormonism, Protestantism, and Zoroastrianism, as well as other religious traditions. We encourage papers on the topic as it focuses on religion wholly or more specifically but not limited to: Marriage Equality, Sexual Ethics, Divorce, Polygamy, Prostitution, Concepts of Love, Eunuchs, Queer studies, Gender Equality, LGBTQIA, Taboos, Religious Legal Texts, Feminism, Gendered clothing, Priesthood, Masculinity studies, Goddess worship, Pornography, Sexual Addiction and Sexual Violence. The Brownlee lecture will be held in the Harper Board of Trustees room. Also, the panels will be held inside of Burkle 16 of the Burkle building at Claremont Graduate University and the keynote lecture will be held in Albrecht Auditorium.


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Tudor - English
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Jeff Bzdelik is in trouble, Notre Dame is coming off a tough year, and the ACC Tournament expands to five days. More>>
North Carolina State's T.J. Warren is the Atlantic Coast Conference player of the year. More>>
Duke, N.C. State and UNC place players on the ACC basketball all-conference team.
N.C. State gets past Boston College as T.J. Warren scored a career-high 42 points.
Duke and UNC get byes into Friday in the ACC Tournament, and N.C. State will play Thursday. More>>
N.C. State star Markeisha Gatling scores 28 points but is injured in the game.
WNCN reporter Todd Gibson took a hit from a Wolfpack player while filming N.C. State's spring practice on Wednesday. More>>
T.J. Warren scored a career-high 41 points and N.C. State surged past Pittsburgh 74-67 on Monday night. More>>
North Carolina State offensive tackle Rob Crisp will return after missing nearly all season with a concussion. More>>
Rion Brown scored 20 points and Miami pulled away to beat North Carolina State 85-70 on Saturday. More>>
Jones Angell of UNC and Gary Hahn of N.C. State have different reactions to the dramatic ending of the State-Carolina game. More>>
North Carolina guard Marcus Paige hit the game-winning basket in the final moments to put the Tar Heels over N.C. State, 85-84. More>>
T.J. Warren scored 31 points to lead NC State to a 71-64 victory over Virginia Tech on Saturday. More>>
Kody Burke had career highs of 30 points and six 3-pointers in the Wolfpack's 83-70 loss to No. 7 Duke on Thursday night. More>>
It was the kind of Clemson victory K.J. McDaniels had envisioned all season - one where he's not doing all the work. More>>
NC State's Reynolds Coliseum was packed Sunday, many in symbolic pink. More>>
Freshman Diamond DeShields scored 27 of her season-high 38 points after halftime to help No. 17 UNC beat No. 10 N.C. State 89-82 on Sunday. More>>
N.C. State held a lead over No. 1 Syracuse for most of the game but ultimately fell to Syracuse 56-55.
N.C. State's game against Syracuse has been delayed until 7 p.m. Saturday due to travel-related issues, the University said. More>>
NC State got a huge ACC win, thanks in part to a super freshman. More>>
Tom O'Brien is joining the staff of the University of Virginia. More>>


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1 September 2002
Miniature modular is NeSSI
By David Simko
As the capabilities of process analysis have continued to develop and improve, there has been an increase in the variety of measurements that the more sophisticated analyzers can take.
Industry seeks to reduce the cost to design, build, and install the systems as well as operating and maintenance costs. One important way to meet these needs is to make sampling systems miniature, modular, and intelligent.
The Center for Process Analytical Chemistry (CPAC), a joint industry/academic research consortium located at the University of Washington, has moved forward with a New Sampling/Sensor Initiative (NeSSI) through the efforts of CPAC leadership and the industrial affiliates.
The purpose of NeSSI is to "facilitate the state-of-the-art evaluation and ongoing development of the next-generation modular sampling system designs." A key element in the modularization strategy is open architecture.
ISA's SP76 Composition Analyzers Committee added a subcommittee charged to develop interface seal standards to apply to functional fluid control components and the fluid path substrates of a miniature, modular, smart sampling system.
Along with NeSSI, CPAC issued a request for proposals for design concepts for the new systems to all interested parties. The request included drawings of six real systems in actual use in process plants. They ranged from a relatively simple system to a complex eight-stream system.
Six concepts using modular technology originally developed for specialty gas handling systems used in the semiconductor industry lay out in modular form, using a configurator software package.
The advantages of the modular approach are many:
Development and layout time and costs are lower, due to tools such as system configurator software. The reduced size, weight, and footprint make it easier to couple the sample system to dedicated field-mounted analyzers and place them at the sample point, reducing the need for long, heated sample transport lines.
- The small modular sample systems have less internal surface area than a traditional system, reducing the amount of possible adsorption of material from the fluid.
- The internal volume of the system is less, making it easier to purge or flush the system and conserve expensive analyzer fluids.
- The systems are easier to assemble.
- The footprints are small, and the work can likely be done on a bench rather than a rack.
- Installation is simpler, requiring only a few connections. For example, in the case of the demonstration unit described earlier, only six connections are required.
- Maintenance is easier, as functional components are surface mounted. By removing four bolts, one can extract any component.
The NeSSI Generation I systems described resolve the physical issues of modularity by applying commercially available surface-mount functional components and control solutions.
Generation I systems involve simple automation, where functional components such as pressure transducers, thermocouples, and mass flow controllers that are monitoring the physical properties of the process fluid are connected through I/O modules to a controller. The signals are conventional 4–20 mA. Communications are point to point and one way and accommodate only one device per wire.
CPAC has developed a specification for NeSSI Generation II systems that addresses the connectivity and communications issues that will lead to intelligent control of these sample systems. Some key features of these next-generation systems defined in the specification are as follows:
- Compact, smart pressure, temperature, and flow sensors
- Smart valves with built-in electric-to-pneumatic actuators
- Multidrop sensor bus communications, which may be wireless
- Sensor Actuator Manager (SAM) to provide control and connectivity to the sample system
The smart functional components should have true plug-and-play capability. Because these sampling systems may be located in potentially explosive environments, the functional devices, the sensor bus, and the SAM should certify safe for use in these kinds of hazardous areas. The preferred protection scheme is intrinsic safety, which would allow removal and insertion under power in such an area.
NeSSI Generation I systems can use commercially available I/O-based control solutions. NeSSI Generation II systems are intended to use an intelligent fieldbus-based control architecture.
Communication is to be two way, so when integrated into a system, these devices will be able to talk to one another through the SAM. The architecture permits many devices and variables per wire.
Many of the devices required to build NeSSI Generation II systems are not yet commercially available, but suppliers are working on their development.
Generation I and Generation II systems differentiate between modular and smart issues. CPAC has developed a road map detailing the development timelines for these systems.
CPAC also looks to the longer-term future and describes the development of NeSSI Generation III systems, which are expected to incorporate microanalytical devices such as lab on a chip. Smart miniature modular sample systems will provide the platform for such development. IT
David Simko is an ISA member. He works at Swagelok Co. as the marketing resources manager.
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You can be certain that it was a hardware fault. Glad to hear you got a replacement. Apple tend to be very good like that.
As to your dilemma, you wouldn't get anything but biassed advice from me, so really the decision is yours... Only you can decide which is the better device for your needs


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More About MAZZMLANI
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This refreshing and flavorful salad, packs a nutritious punch!
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Blessed Carlo Erana Guruceta
Also known as
- Carlos Erana Guruceta
- Karl Eraña Gurceta
Member of the Society of Mary (Marianists). Martyred with Blessed Fidel Fuidio Rodriguez and Blessed Jesus Hita Miranda during the persecutions of the Spanish Civil War.
- 2 November 1884 at Arechavaleta, Guipuzcoa, Spain
- on 18 September 1936 at Alarcos, Ciudad Real, Spain
- 6 July 1993 by Pope John Paul II (decree of martyrdom)
Additional Information
- Book of Saints, by the Monks of Ramsgate
- Catholic Online
- Hagiography Circle
- Kirken i Norge
- Santi e Beati
- Our Sunday Visitor's Encyclopedia of Saints
MLA Citation
- "Blessed Carlo Erana Guruceta". Saints.SQPN.com. 18 September 2013. Web. 17 March 2014. <>


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Digital Library of South Dakota
Office of University Relations SDSM& T News 501 E. St. Joseph Street • Rapid City, SD 57701- 3995 Phone: ( 605) 394- 6082/ 2554 • Fax: ( 605) 394- 3388 FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE ( March 21, 1997) SDSM& T HONORS GILLETTE STUDENT Steven Schaefer of Gillette, a student at the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, received the Old Timer's Club Award for Mining Engineering during SDSM& T's recent Forty- sixth Annual Honors Convocation. The ceremony is held each spring to recognize SDSM& T students, faculty, staff members, and community leaders for their outstanding work and support of the university. University President Richard J. Gowen presented Schaefer with the award. " Steven Schaefer is to be congratulated on receiving these honors. The South Dakota School of Mines and Technology offers top- notch educational opportunities which combine traditions of excellence with the latest technologies. We are pleased that Steven is a part of the South Dakota Tech family,�� said SDSM& T President Richard Gowen. -- 30-- ( f:\ programs\ dept\ univrel\ pressrele\ 03- 97\ HonorsSchaefer) ( Gillette News Record)
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Apply for CertificationHelp Organic Grow
Dairy operations may transition non-certified livestock to organic by managing animals organically for one year. This is a one-time allowance for an entire, distinct herd. All other livestock, excluding poultry, must be managed organically starting no later than the last third of gestation to qualify for organic certification. Poultry must be managed organically starting no later than the 2nd day of life.
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Home |
Early Steuben Golden Art Glass Vessel browse these categories for related items... All Items: Antiques: Decorative Art: Glass: American: Pre 1920: item # 922053 Please refer to our stock # Steuben1-6 when inquiring.
Golden Age Antiques By Appointment Northern California tele:530.222.5338 Guest Book $595 |
This is a beautiful complex art deco example from Steuben. The handle is an opaque frosted glass and the inside is lined a separate blue jade colored glass. On the exterior is a beautiful golden iridescent .pattern. The piece is not signed and that may be because there is a slight mistake in one of the diamonds on the outside pattern. See images. There are no damages. The piece stands 6 inches tall. It came from a very old estate that included signed Tiffany pieces. The previous owner had passed away in 1980 and the estate was held intact until a few years ago when his wife passed away. |


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I'm writing to urge residents of Wood County to vote to authorize additional levies for the Wood County Public Library. Being a homeowner myself, I don't take any levy lightly, but the public value of the library's services and the urgency of its needs have convinced me it's important to support the proposed levy.
If approved this November, the additional funds would allow the county to build a new branch in south Parkersburg, now woefully underserved; create greater accessibility to the main library on Emerson Avenue; restore or extend hours of operation; expand book deliveries at the various branches; and, provide a small staff increase for children's programming and services at the main library - all this for an estimated penny or two a day for most households over the five years of the levy. In my view, that's money well spent.
Voters, particularly property owners, may question why they should support yet another levy. That question is best answered by looking at the value of services the library offers: not only access to thousands of books, music and audio books, periodicals, DVDs and videos, but also free access to computers and the Internet; walk-in, phone and email reference services; local history and genealogy collections; services for people with hearing or sight impairments; bookmobile visits around the county; programs for children of all ages; literacy tutoring; income tax and voter registration forms and assistance; public meeting rooms; and even free notary services. In short, the library is a unique and important public resource available to all. If you believe it's not, just visit any branch at any time and observe for yourself the number of people who take advantage of it.
If the levy were to fail, the county's choices would be limited: forego the needed improvements, take funds from other pressing needs, or borrow the money in the municipal bond market. My choice is to vote for the levy, and I encourage Wood County voters to follow suit.
John R. Swales III


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What does SSB mean in Military?
This page is about the meanings of the acronym/abbreviation/shorthand SSB in the Governmental field in general and in the Military terminology in particular.
Source Selection Board
Find a translation for SSB in other languages:
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Use the citation below to add this abbreviation to your bibliography:
"SSB." Abbreviations.com. STANDS4 LLC, 2014. Web. 17 Mar. 2014. <http://www.abbreviations.com/term/510410>.
SSB also stands for:
- Ballistic Missile Submarine, Conventional Powered (Submarine, Submarine, Ballistic missile)
- Sapporo School of Business
- Scramble Status Byte
- Securities Supervisory Board
- Sheet Supporting Binder
... and 23 more »
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The trade deadline was nuts and exciting this year. Here's hoping the ghost of a not-quite-dead baseball player didn't screw it up for you.
The trade deadline was nuts and exciting this year. Here's hoping the ghost of a not-quite-dead baseball player didn't screw it up for you.
Went to the I-Cubs game last night and watched Vitters and The Greg of Rohan hit back-to-back jacks. Vitter's was a bomb. Also, Iowa's pitching is almost comically bad.
@ Aisle424:
Yeah, I guess it wasn't much different than watching Coleman or Volstad pitch. I'd never heard of Iowa's starter, though. I don't pay as much attention as dylan, but I'd like to think I'd recognize most of the names on the roster, especially the starters. Ty'relle Harris? No clue.
Speaking of Dylan, his new shit is up: http://www.obstructedview.net/minor-leagues/the-children-are-the-future-cubs-minor-league-update-sponsored-by-kfc.html
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Gender: Male
Years in Practice: 27 Years
Languages Spoken: English, Spanish
Medical School: UNIV OF IBADAN, COLL OF MED, IBADAN, OYO, NIGERIA
Graduation Date: 1987
Hospital Affiliations: Gwinnett Medical Center
Specialties: Internal Medicine
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