text:
Missouri Attorney General holds landfill owners feet to the fire
Missouri's top law enforcement official wants the owner of a St. Louis landfill to provide more details about a underground smoldering fire at the site which could threaten radioactive waste buried nearby.
On Thursday, Attorney General Chris Koster asked the St. Louis County Circuit Court to order Republic Services to provide additional monitoring data related to the Bridgeton Landfill.
Koster says the state has asked Republic Services to supply data and maps showing the concentration of carbon monoxide at various locations in an effort to track movement of the fire.
He says the company has not supplied comprehensive data for the north part of the site, nearest the nuclear material.
A spokesman says the company expects to provide additional monitoring data that it believes will validate that the site is safe.
More radioactive waste discovered at West Lake Landfill
The construction of a trench designed to keep the slow smoldering fire at the Bridgeton Landfill away from radioactive soil buried at the West Lake Landfill may have hit a snag. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch reports that EPA testing has revealed more radioactive material at West Lake.
The paper reports that Florissant City Engineer Tim Barrett wrote about the newly discovered materials in a letter to Mayor Thomas Schneider. Barrett wrote that the EPA is expected to release a report on the new findings later this week.
Barrett also wrote that the location of the radioactive materials and the results of additional testing will determine how and where the trench will be built.
Westlake Landfill group pushes for radioactive waste removal
A group of north county residents want their neighbors near the West Lake Landfill to put more pressure on elected leaders to clean up the site. About 100 people attended a public meeting Thursday night hosted by the West Lake Landfill Community Group and Missouri Coalition for the Environment.
MCE's Ed Smith told the group that the current fire smoldering at the Bridgeton Landfill isn't the first to threaten the radioactive site. "There was a landfill fire in the early 90s closer to the radioactive wastes than the current landfill fire," he said.
That's why the groups say plans to build a barrier between the smoldering Bridgeton Landfill and West Lake isn't enough. They want local leaders to put pressure on the Army Corps of Engineers to remove the soil, as they're doing at other radioactive waste sites.
Missouri State Representative Bill Otto was among the political leaders who attended last night's meeting. He told Fox 2 News that EPA work on the barrier project that had stopped because of the government shutdown is back on track. "They're getting back in the office," he said. "And getting ready to resume the work that they had started or were tasked to do with the landfill."
Bridgeton Landfill LLC released the following statement: "We're eager to resume work with the EPA in conjunction with state agencies to begin the next stage of the construction."
Pattonville Fire officials along with St. Louis County Councilman Steve Stenger and representatives from County Executive Charlie Dooley's office also attended the meeting.
Organizers are calling on residents to note odor issues and contact their local politicians to make a change.
Bridgeton Landfill testing delayed by government shutdown
The consequences of the federal government shutdown could ultimately have an effect on the health and safety of St. Louisans.
Missouri's attorney general Chris Koster has joined the call for federal regulators to proceed with required testing of a St. Louis County landfill that's been halted by the budget and debt ceiling stalemate.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency decided to delay testing at the Bridgeton Landfill until federal funding for the work is enacted. There has been an underground fire burning at the landfill which is adjacent to the West Lake Landfill where radioactive waste is buried.
Chris Koster's office released a letter yesterday asking the EPA to reconsider its decision to delay testing.
Bridgeton Landfill plan to keep fire away from radioactive waste found "deficient"
The company that owns the smoldering Bridgeton Landfill has 20 days to submit a new plan to stop the fire's spread toward radioactive waste buried at the adjacent West Lake Landfill.
The Missouri Department of Natural Resources yesterday found "significant deficiencies" in Republic Service's contingency plan.
Residents living near the two landfills have expressed serious concerns about the underground fire that continues to creep closer to the radioactive waste site.
Missouri Attorney General Chris Koster sued Republic in March because the continuous burning violates state environmental laws. Koster says he will take them back to court if necessary to force the company to comply with the DNR's request for a new plan.
Hundreds pack meeting to discuss radioactive waste at Bridgeton landfill
New air and water tests showed no health risk from the West Lake Landfill in Bridgeton. That was the message from the EPA to the big – and sometimes rowdy – crowd Tuesday night at Pattonville High School.
Residents say they are concerned that the underground fire burning at the nearby Bridgeton Landfill could spread to radioactive waste buried in the 1970s at the West Lake facility. About 650 came to Tuesday night's meeting, many demanding immediate action.
But EPA Region 7 Administrator Karl Brooks says preliminary studies show there is time to study the situation before making a decision. "That event over there on the Bridgeton side does not threaten the West Lake Landfill," Brooks said. "It gives us time to assess the science, take a look at the engineering and make good choices about it."
Some residents want the radioactive materials removed. Others favor a buyout.
Brooks says all options are on the table, but nothing will happen right away.
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Purposeful Jettison of Petroleum Cargo
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Purposeful Jettison of Cargo
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Purposeful Jettison of Petroleum Cargo
Michael Ellis
Jettison has a long and significant history. In the Old Testament stow of Jonah, it will be recalled, the sailors threw cargo overboard to lighten the ship. Jonah's exit overboard shortly afterwards did not constitute jettison—as it was to appease the Lord—although it certainly appears to have been efficacious in saving the ship!
Mercantile law followed the practice when in 900 B.C. the laws of the island of Rhodes prescribed the law of jettison whereby, if cargo was thrown overboard to lighten a ship for the general safety, that which was thrown away would be made good by general contribution or, as it later became known, by General Average.
Another Biblical hero, Paul, witnessed jettison firsthand near the island of Crete on his voyage from Caesarea to Rome. You may recall the vessel was making very heavy weather and they began to lighten the ship and, on the third day, they jettisoned the ship's gear with their own hands. Presumably General Average was not declared because, despite the jettison, the ship subsequently went aground and was pounded to pieces.
Rhodian law on jettison was incorporated into the Digest of Justinian (Emperor Justinian—A.D. 500) and later into the laws of Oleron in the twelfth century. Those were attributed to the English king, Richard I, or his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Article 8 of the Sea Laws of Oleron provided for General Average when cargo was jettisoned to save ship and cargo. Three thousand years on from the laws of Rhodes, and even longer from the days of Jonah, the current rules of General Average—the York/Antwerp Rules 1974—provide that the sacrifice of cargo by jettison for the common safety shall be made good in General Average.
Lloyd's Open Form 1990 (LOF 90), the most frequently used salvage contract, (although it is little used in the United States) permits the salvor to jettison cargo within reason to salve the ship, although that is not something which any salvor does lightly in practice.
Jettison therefore has a long history and encapsulates the rule which applies in many walks of life—that at times it is necessary to make a small sacrifice in order to avert a greater loss.
Groundings were much more common 100 years ago than they are today. Ships still depended to a degree on sail, propulsion machinery was not always reliable, and navigational aids were primitive. The Salvage Associations' records for 1892 and 1893 show its surveyors attending many groundings. Often, the ship had to be lightened, and it is fair to say that in most instances the cargo was lightened rather
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than jettisoned. Except as a last resort, no one wanted to throw away the cargo in those days either, but sometimes they had to. In one case, coal was jettisoned; in another, iron products; and in a third, grain.
Oil was not transported in great quantities at that time but in 1893 the Salvage Association did attend a difficult casualty in the Dardanelles on a British ship carrying cased petroleum to Calcutta from Batoum in what was then, and is once again, Georgia. The vessel's position was described as "dangerous." The weather was blowing very hard and the barrels of petroleum were jettisoned in large quantities. Alas, on this occasion, it was largely in vain because the ship eventually became a total loss. However, some of the cargo was saved so jettison did avert some cargo loss and pollution, although it is interesting to note that there was not one mention of the word "pollution"—perhaps it was a term that had not yet been used in the context of oil and the oceans.
The Salvage Association's records and discussions with our surveyors indicate that jettison has continued to play a part in salvage, but it seems the cargo jettisoned has usually been dry bulk, particularly ore, coal, rock, and stone. One surveyor jettisoned, as a last resort, a small quantity of bunkers from a large fishing vessel, which did enable it to refloat. Another related jettisoning 2,500 tons of frozen meat in the southern Pacific. This was apparently seen as a bonus by the local islanders and the aquatic population. Deck cargoes of logs and timber have quite frequently been jettisoned but usually for stability reasons, rather than to refloat.
Though probably not categorized as jettison as such, there have been many cases where damaged tanks have been "blown" or "pressed" out to enable refloating, or where engine rooms have been dewatered, sometimes resulting in an escape of oil. In the latter case, pumping out would hopefully be stopped before any oily water was discharged.
Until the late 1960s, almost every vessel was geared and there were fewer pontoon barges in service. Jettison of cargo was very often the quickest means of lightening a vessel, and time is generally of the essence in salvage. Ships were often smaller than they are today with the consequence that smaller quantities of cargo needed to be lightened.
The advent of gearless bulk carriers has deprived such vessels of the ability to self-discharge or jettison. Therefore, when they go aground—particularly if they are loaded with high-density cargoes such as ore—lightening can present a very major problem. The size of the vessel may also mean it will be difficult, within any realistic time frame, to bring in vessels with cranes of sufficient outreach before the situation has irretrievably deteriorated. Nevertheless, it is submitted that with dry bulk cargoes where it is not usually possible, as it is on a tanker, to shift the cargo around the ship to assist refloating, jettison must still be seen as an important option to facilitate refloating, to avoid a semipermanent wreck and in particular to avoid the risk of pollution from fuel oil onboard. It should be remembered that a bulk carrier, depending on size, could have anything up to 4,000 tons of fuel oil onboard, and that this is usually a more potent pollutant than crude oil.
Modern container vessels can present similar problems. Offloading containers from a stranded vessel in a remote locations can be difficult. Some containers might contain potentially hazardous cargoes and a modern container vessel might have a
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bunker capacity of up to 5,000 tons. Jettison in one way or another might be the best solution.
In recent years, the Salvage Association has dealt with casualties where local authorities have either prohibited, or have been extremely slow to give approval to, jettison of cargo such as iron ore or even oranges, and this has put the prospect of successful salvage at risk and has sometimes led to more serious problems. In one case, for instance, fear of discoloring the water near a high-ranking official's private beach appears also to have colored the judgment of the local authorities. The subsequent breaking up of the gearless ship led to a much more difficult removal operation.
Despite quite wide enquiry, no classic cases of jettison of part of an oil cargo with successful salvage of the remainder have been identified in, say, the last thirty years. However, it is perhaps worth reflecting for one moment on how rapidly our reaction to oil on water has changed. As recently as 1961 a nautical textbook repeated the then British Ministry of Transport's advice to mariners on the beneficial use of oil for modifying the effect of breaking waves. Their advice included the fact that "the heaviest and thickest oil are most effectual."
There appears to be only one case of purposeful jettison of an oil cargo in recent years and that case is somewhat infamous.
MT Zoe Colocotroni. In March 1973, this tanker ran aground off Puerto Rico carrying a cargo of crude oil. She refloated within four hours without tug assistance, but after jettisoning some 5,000 tons of crude oil, apparently without consultation. While jettison certainly appears to have allowed the vessel to refloat, contemporary accounts suggest that the situation did not warrant such drastic action.
There have been two cases on the northeast of the North American continent where jettison of oil cargo was proposed but not carried out.
ST Arrow. In February 1970 this tanker grounded in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, with approximately 16,000 tons of Bunker C oil on board. The weather was bad and she very quickly began to break in two. The stern section in which, it was estimated, some 7,000-8,000 tons of oil remained, was broken away from the forward section using tugs. This section grounded. It was then proposed to salvage this section by blowing certain tanks, which it was calculated would have meant about 10 percent of the oil escaping into the sea, but with the prospect of salving the other 90 percent. This was agreed in principle by the authorities but, for a number of reasons, operations were delayed. The stern section and the cargo sank in bad weather, resulting in further pollution. The full details of this casualty are to be found in the 250-page Report of the Royal Commission. In this case, the difficult decision to jettison oil was made but not quickly enough to ensure a successful outcome.
Argo Merchant. This tanker ran aground on the Nantucket Shoals in 1976 with 27,000 tons of No. 6 fuel oil onboard. The proposal to jettison up to 3,000 tons of oil was rejected by the authorities, apparently on various grounds,
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including the risks of discharge with pumps which were not inherently safe. She subsequently broke up and discharged her full cargo into the sea.
The men on the spot in those salvage operations had the unpredictability of the future to contend with, and did not have the considerable benefit of hindsight. However, in the case of both the Arrow and the Argo Merchant, it has been suggested with hindsight that jettison might have been a less damaging option.
Usually a salvor would much prefer to salvage a grounded tanker than a grounded bulk carrier or container ship, particularly if the tanker has her cargo pumps operational. On a tanker cargo can be pumped from one tank to another to alter the trim and shift the weight. Provided a suitable tanker or barge can be brought alongside or close by, the cargo can be discharged, although this is neither an easy nor an absolutely safe operation. It is an option which has to be exercised with care. A tanker can be ballasted down very readily, if the seabed is suitable and it is not being ballasted down onto further pinnacles—and problems.
While there have been no recent cases of jettison of oil cargoes, there have been very many cases of tankers being lightened in order to refloat. The fact is that, when tankers are loaded and underway, their momentum is such that if they ground even at slow speed they can rarely be refloated using tug power alone. They almost always require lightening. A possible exception is when a tanker grounds on a low tide and can be refloated as the tide rises. Tankers have been known to ground so lightly that the crew hardly notice and yet, even so, the ground reaction has been several thousand tons.
Basic principles suggest that a laden 100,000-ton tanker that goes aground at 5 knots is hardly likely to be refloated by tugs alone. The biggest salvage tugs afloat—and there are not many—have a maximum pull of 250 tons. The unlikely juxtaposition of three such tugs in one place would have a combined pull of 750 tons. It is worth reflecting that, for a ship grounded on a sandy bottom with a relatively low coefficient of friction (µ) of only .3, 750 tons of pull will only be as effective as lightening 2,500 tons of cargo. For a ship aground on a rocky bottom, 750 tons of pull might only be as effective as lightening 750 tons of cargo or less. Bear in mind, too, that rarely, if at all, would three such large tugs be available for one casualty, and many ships would not have securing points capable of handling the load. Furthermore, if a ship's bottom is damaged or she is impaled on an obstacle, then pulling might only exacerbate the problem.
In many cases, it will be more expedient to jettison cargo rather than to wait for equipment and weather windows which would permit a lightening operation. But in recent times salvors have not taken that option. Why?
Salvors, like others, are in general concerned for the environment. They would be reluctant to jettison without seeking approval from the appropriate authorities and they are very conscious of the obloquy that might attach if they were to act without consultation.
Oil cargoes are usually valuable and to jettison them is to reduce the salved fund, which might in turn reduce the salvage award.
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Circumstances surrounding grounds have rarely given rise to the hard decision to jettison or perhaps it has been prohibited, as it apparently was in the case of the Argo Merchant.
For lightening to be a valid salvage option, the right equipment needs to be available within a reasonable time frame. The right equipment will depend on the circumstances and size of the lightening operation that is required. It could mean a small tanker or a tankbarge. If conditions are right, they might be moored alongside. It might need bigger lightening vessels, and conditions might be such that they have to anchor off. There is much associated equipment required: large fenders, fuel hose, even portable inert gas generators and inherently safe fuel transfer pumps, if the casualty has lost power. Whereas much of this equipment is portable, the lightening tanker or tankbarge may take time to arrive. For instance, in the recent case of the Braer off the Shetland Islands, a suitable tankbarge was not on site until six days after the stranding. As it happened, the weather was so bad in the interim (though not abnormal for the place and season) that it is unlikely anything could have been achieved, even had the tankbarge been available earlier.
However, consider the situation where there is a fine weather window with the prospect of rapid deterioration shortly thereafter. If immediate jettison of part of the cargo has a chance of succeeding, do you risk deteriorating weather and delay until a lightening vessel is on the scene? Bear in mind, too, that engaging a suitable lightening craft might mean putting that at risk as well as the casualty itself and, because of that, chartering in such a vessel might not be easy.
If a casualty is ballasted down safely on a sandy bottom in an area of generally favorable weather, time might permit textbook solutions. Contrast a tanker partially aground on a rocky bottom with tugs available but no immediate prospect of lightening. Should jettison be considered if it might result in less overall pollution at the end of the day? On an exposed coast, though a simple operation in concept, lightening can bring enormous practical problems. It needs time, reasonable weather, and luck. These are not always available.
If an aircraft is in trouble, fuel is sometimes jettisoned before an emergency landing. Safety of life is paramount, time is of the essence, and in these circumstances a decision to jettison would rarely be criticized. Of course, kerosene would usually, though not always, disperse before reaching ground or sea level. The absolutes of time and immediate threat to human life are not usually as stark when a tanker is aground and the decision process is therefore more complicated. Even so, time can be of the essence.
The tanker Braer, wrecked off the Shetlands, remained intact, to many people's surprise, for some seven days but contrast that with a casualty on the Norwegian coast a few days later. A very strong 700-ft offshore barge, which had gone aground, broke up completely and disappeared from view within 36 hours. The Aegean Sea which stranded off La Coruna had an even more precipitate fate. She broke in two within 18 hours. The time frame in shipping casualties is often very short.
Whereas the case with an aircraft emergency may be clearcut, the case with a ship carrying an oil cargo is less straightforward. Few people would sanction the
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jettison of an oil cargo with the consequences of pollution just for the sake of saving property, the ship, and the cargo. But what about jettisoning cargo to save even greater pollution, as was intended in the case of the Arrow? If tugs had managed to get a line to the Braer, and if she was just aground, and if jettison was possible (and on the actual facts it clearly was not), would jettison of say 10,000 tons of cargo have been justified to prevent the other 70,000 tons causing much greater pollution? Remember, too, that the Braer was carrying nearly 2,000 tons of fuel oil and diesel oil (and a ULCC might carry up to 7,000 tons of bunkers).
The most notable recent tanker casualties have involved crude oil. But there will be circumstances involving cargoes other than crude oil or tankers. Let us consider some of the possibilities.
Carriage of Heavy Oils. The Arrow was carrying bunker C and the Argo Merchant No. 6 fuel oil. Both vessels ran aground in the cold of a northeast Atlantic coast winter. In both cases, the efforts to transfer the oil were hampered by falling temperatures, which made the oil thick. In these instance, perhaps a case could be made for oil to be jettisoned while it is still pumpable, rather than run the risk of the whole cargo being unpumpable and therefore lost.
Light Petroleum Products, Animal, and Vegetable Oils. All these products are covered by the Oil Pollution Act. The environmental impact of such cargoes will vary but generally it would be correct to say they would disperse much more quickly and be less damaging than, say crude oil and heavier oils. Would the jettison part of such a cargo be preferable to the total loss of both cargo and vessel and, perhaps, a significant quantity of much heavier fuel oil? Even for a relatively small ship, this could be as much as a thousands tons.
Chemical and Parcel Carriers. Whereas vegetable and animal oils might be considered relatively benign, other liquid cargoes carried afloat can be particularly toxic. A cargo such as toluene might form a part cargo. The balance of cargo might be far less worrying. Is there a case for jettisoning a relatively harmless cargo to prevent the serious ecological damage caused by the more dangerous substance?
Dewatering Enginerooms and Discharging Dirty Ballast. An engineroom may have flooded. Is it preferable to dewater the engineroom or discharge dirty ballast—both of which are likely to be oily to a degree—if this would increase the chances of a successful refloating and of preventing more serious pollution?
Bulk Carriers, Container Ships, and Other Ships. Such vessels can carry significant quantities of oil and might be carrying hazardous cargoes. Blowing out damaged tanks or jettison of some cargo or even fuel oil might, under extreme conditions, be the optimum solutions.
Because salvors have not resorted to jettisoning oil cargoes in recent years, it might be concluded that to prohibit such jettison is, like Rhodian law, merely to confirm what has become the practice.
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Before that conclusion is drawn, however, it should be remembered that all the tugs in the world may, on their own, be unable to refloat many grounded vessels and that cargo will first have to be discharged. There will inevitably be situations where to wait to lighten into tankers or barges may be to wait too long. Better to jettison and accept that sometimes sacrifice is necessary for the common good and that this applies not only to preserving property but also, and perhaps more so, to preventing even greater pollution.
Michael Ellis is the general manager of the Salvage Association in London, England. He served in the British Navy for nineteen years, and during that time he qualified as a barrister. Upon leaving the Navy, he became a marine solicitor in London. He joined the Salvage Association in 1984, becoming general manager of that worldwide organization in 1986.
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Purposeful Jettison of Petroleum Cargo
F. R. Engelhardt
Marine oil spills occur in a wide range of sizes, from very small volumes to thousands of tons of discharge.1 While it may be attractive to generalize that the larger a spill, the greater the potential for environmental damage, this is difficult to describe quantitatively. In fact, exceptions can be cited that suggest certain large spills, such as the Argo Merchant in 1976 or the Braer in January 1993, were less damaging than might have been expected.
Influential variables that will be discussed in this paper include:
Physical and chemical characteristics of the oil.
Physical environmental conditions.
Containment and recovery measures.
Geology of the impact zones.
Toxicological sensitivity of vulnerable species.
Ecological characteristics of vulnerable areas.
These variables are not independent of each other, but interact to characterize weathering rates and persistence, spread of the spill, direction of slick movement, effectiveness of response measures, size of the impact zone, extent and duration of biological effect, and degree and rate of recovery.
Efforts are underway to quantify the severity of oil spills in a way that integrates variables that might influence their outcome. Garriba2 for instance, describes an approach similar to the establishment of the Richter scale for earthquakes. Using this ''Marine Oil Spill Scale'' concept, the Argo Merchant, which released 29,000 tons of oil, ranked as one on the scale (i.e., an "anomaly" without significant impact). The Amoco Cadiz, with about 240,000 tons released, ranked as nine (i.e., a "critical accident" with widespread serious impact). Follow-up investigations could confirm that the Braer might be ranked as only a level two or three on the scale, even though the vessel spilled most of its 84,000-ton cargo nearshore.
Breslau, L.R. and G.F. Ireland. 1991. MSRC Surveillance System Information Needs Analysis. Consultants Report to the Marine Spill Response Corporation, Washington, D.C. October 4, 1991.
Garriba, S. 1992. Providing a new field in today's environment. Proceedings, Spillcon 1992: Environmental Care-Responsible Action. July 5-8, Gold Coast, Australia.
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Physical characteristics and chemical composition of crude and other petroleum oils exert strong influences on the fate of an oil spill, as well as the environmental effects resulting from such a spill. There is extensive primary and review literature on this topic.3 A good summary correlating differences in physical properties of oils with their rate of removal from the sea surface is presented in Figure 1.4 A speculative mass balance for spilled oil, as shown in Figure 2, illustrates the range of environmental compartments that may be influenced by spilled oil and shows that the various weathering factors exert their influence differentially in the various media.
Oils are classified by a variety of standard nomenclature (API gravity, pour point, viscosity, specific gravity, etc.) depending on the user's perspective. One of the useful classifications in relation to oil spill response and spill effects is to characterize oils on the basis of their "weight," as light, medium, or heavy oils. This classification is analogous to a characterization of low to medium to high viscosity.
Light-weight oils have a low boiling point and high volatility, and are composed of a high proportion of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons. They tend to evaporate readily from the sea surface, can be mixed easily into the water as oil particles by wave energy, and are also the most water soluble. These weathering processes are rapid so that within a day much of the spilled oil may be removed from the sea surface. Similarly, their persistence on oiled shorelines tends to be reduced if there is some sea energy available for physical washing action. The high proportion of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, including the aromatic compounds, tends to make the oils acutely toxic to aquatic organisms.
Medium-weight oils represent a mid-range composition, with a smaller proportion of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, which tends to evaporate and dissolve more slowly than the light oils. Their persistence on the sea surface is at least in the order of days, with the rate and amount of discharge influencing the degree of persistence of a slick. The toxicity of the oils is related to their lower physical and chemical ability, and they tend to be marked by bioaccumulation of hydrocarbons and longer term and chronic toxicity effects.
Heavy-weight oils are characterized by low evaporation and negligible dissolution, attributable to a high proportion of medium-and large-
Among others, the literature is well represented by:
Mackay, D. 1985. The physical and chemical fate of spilled oil. In Petroleum Effects in the Arctic Environment, F.R Engelhardt, ed. New York: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. Pp. 37-61.
National Research Council (NRC). 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 601 p.
International Tanker Owners Port Federation (ITOPF). 1987. Response to Marine Oil Spills. London: The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd.
Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution (GESAMP). 1993. Review of Potentially Harmful Substances: Oil and Other Hydrocarbons, Including Used Lubricating Oils, Oil Spill Dispersants and Chemicals Used in Offshore Exploration and Exploitation. London: GESAMP, International Maritime Organization UK.
International Tanker Owners Port Federation (ITOPF). 1987. Response to Marine Oil Spills.
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Figure 1.
The rate of removal of four oil types from the sea surface. SOURCE: International Tanker
Owners Port Federation (ITOPF). 1987. Response to Marine Oil Spills.
Figure 2.
A speculative mass balance for a "typical" oil spill. Source: Mackay, D. 1985.
The physical and chemical fate of spilled oil.
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Marine Mammals
Investigations of actual oil spill incidents have generally not been conclusive in identifying the toxicity of petroleum in seals or whales, even though mortality has been attributed to oil exposure at sea. Only some of the species have demonstrated a clear sensitivity to petroleum in experimental studies. Recent studies in seals, sea otters, polar bears, and whales have helped to round out the limited information base on the subject. Although the cetaceans at least are able to detect oil on the sea surface, it remains controversial if marine mammals would avoid oil spills at sea. In some circumstances both whale and seal species have been observed to surface through oil slicks.
Contact with viscous oils can lead to long-term coating of the body surface of the furred marine mammals to result in thermoregulatory stress, or may interfere with the filtering capabilities of baleen in whales. A limited experimental data base suggests that seals, whales, sea otters and polar bears differ in degree of clinical toxicity damage following exposure to petroleum. It is clear that both seals and whales are able to absorb hydrocarbons and will store the contaminants in blubber, as well as to a lesser degree in other body tissues. Tainting of harvested marine mammals is considered a potential problem.
Population-significant impact on marine mammals appears to be a potential only in definable circumstances, that is, restricted to localities that may seasonally host a large proportion of a population. The high densities of white whales in estuaries and bays may be a case in point, as are traditional colony areas for walrus. Evaluations of impact have to be case specific.
It is possible in only a general way to state that large spills have a greater potential for environmental impact than small-sized spills. Since there appear to be significant exceptions to this statement, the situation should be analyzed in depth on the basis of global record for marine spills. An approach using the proposed ''Marine Oil Spill Scale'' might be useful. The results of both experimental data and information gathered from oil spills point out that a prediction of spill impact related to spill volume must take into consideration a wide range of variables. These include the characteristics of the spilled oil, physical environmental conditions, the effectiveness of oil containment and recovery measures, and the biological parameters of affected areas.
Dr. F. Rainer Engelhardt is vice president for research and development for the Marine Spill Response Corporation. He has an extensive background in oil spills and their effect on the environment. He was formerly in executive management positions with the Canadian government, including the Canada Oil and Gas Lands Administration.
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Jerry Galt
There is a perception in the general population that oil spill models represent reality: turn one on and it tells what is going to happen with a spill and what is going to happen in the ocean. That is not true. Each model has special strengths and weaknesses and it is not reasonable to consider any model outside the context in which it is intended to be used. My charge is to cover six aspects of trajectory modeling:
How present models work.
The types of models that are available.
Factors that limit model accuracy.
How models are used.
What technology is available to support models.
What improvements are needed.
A model is a tool. You have something in mind when you apply it to a particular situation. When considering a model to support a jettison decision, the particular type of incident must also be considered. For example, a grounding implies that a certain subset of ocean dynamics are involved. Most importantly, it is nearshore, and models that might work very well in the open ocean won't work very well nearshore. Groundings have a tendency to degenerate and malinger. If the ship goes aground, there are a lot of feathers flying right away but it is very likely still to be a problem two weeks later. Thus for most groundings we should be looking at a model that has some capability to understand what is going on in a time scale of a week or a month, occasionally longer.
Yet when a grounding occurs, something needs to be done to stabilize or fix the situation quickly. The initial output, the initial recommendations, the initial look forward from a model, should be available very quickly. If a ship parks on a rock, bad things are going to start happening fast. The typical time scale is a tidal cycle. If a tanker sits on a rock and the tide drops it 10 feet on its end, it has a serious problem. We need models that have high resolution, that can look forward in time, and that can get an answer out very quickly. That is the context in which we are going to try to evaluate and think about models.
Virtually all oil spill models that are available have to say something about the current, because anything dropped in the ocean is carried away or drifts off with the flow. This involves looking at oceanographic flow problems and hydrodynamics. In a nearshore regime, there is considerable complexity in this kind of a problem. One of the first things we need is models that realistically cover geophysical geometry. There
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are plenty of models that describe the open ocean. Currents are averaged, for example, over 50 miles square or 100 miles square. Those kinds of models won't help. We need to resolve complex shorelines and realistic bathymetry, and it is complicated.
In every model I know, shoreline and bathymetry factors have actually been taken out of the model and set in a separate submodel. Oceanographers run models that try to do that. For example, a typical model that would resolve geometry would be based on a finite element scheme that can get realistic shapes down to some resolution. An alternative proposal would be to use a finite difference grid, or just a bunch of little cells. In that case, the cells have to be quite small in order to resolve what you need to look at, and this would require much larger computer resources.
Another characteristic of oil spills that every model has to deal with is that they start off small and (if they are going to be a problem) they eventually become big. Models have to resolve multiple scales. You can't get fine resolution in one spot then carry it throughout because you will run out of computer space. Models are thus formulated in a mixed sense; that is, they use a combination LaGrandian/Eulerian formulation. This means that they consider the oil as a bunch of little pieces of oil and the flow as a larger scale field. You keep track of the oil by keeping track of all these particles and making some inference out of the information.
Models need to consider other physical processes besides moving along with the water. Most of them have a weathering component. Again, depending on the kind of oil involved, some fraction of the oil is going to disappear on its own. This means it will go somewhere else in the environment; it can evaporate, or it can disperse in such a way that you can't find it any more. These factors are typically represented algorithmically and most models have such a component. They may vary in terms of quality, however. Some are quite coarse, but generally a sensitivity analysis would show that most of the models are adequate compared to human observational skill.
Most models also have algorithms or representations for beaching effects. When oil gets near a shoreline, it becomes a problem on the shore and you need to represent that computationally. The naive view is that when oil approaches a beach, it just drives up and parks on the beach. That is not the case. Oil is probably more easily modeled like a tennis ball, you can get about three bounces out of it as it goes ashore. When oil approaches a shoreline, it has to stick to the shoreline. Typically, it will go ashore on a falling tide and an onshore wind. If it gets next to the beach, the currents alone won't take it ashore: it has got to be held against the beach by a wind and then the tide has to drop out from underneath it.
Many times we have observed oil ashore when the winds are not onshore and the tide is dropping, but the oil doesn't stick. When oil approaches a shoreline and the tide is rising, it won't stick. It just continues to fill up the beach face. For example, in the Huntington Beach spill, oil was on the shoreline and in the surf zone for a number of days, but the falling tide occurred in conjunction with a sea breeze reversal. There wasn't any oil on the beach for three days while those conditions prevailed, although the oil was right there. This provides an excellent opportunity to clean it up, by the way.
Another important—almost determining—factor in many model examples is wind drift. Oil is affected by wind in several different ways. When the wind blows, it scoots the ocean surface along with it, so you need the wind as well as the current to determine where the oil is going to go. The oil also interacts directly with the waves created by the winds. An oil slick is smooth because the waves are damped out. The first thing you notice about an oil slick is the difference in roughness. Oil absorbs
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small waves. Small waves have a small amount of energy. They push the oil around. An oil slick will motor through the water it is floating on because it is being pushed by the waves it absorbs. This is another reason wind effects have to be considered. Currents by themselves almost never penetrate a shoreline. (In a marsh, there may be some inundation and percolation through the shoreline, but generally the currents can take oil toward the shore, but it won't beach without wind.) Thus the wind field is critical for determining this particular aspect of a spill. All the models I know that are routinely used contain these kinds of processes.
The differences in models are not so much in the detail, but in the resolution and feeding requirements, the kind of data it takes to make the models run, and the input/output presentation. These factors are designed for a variety of different hardware platforms. These days models run routinely on anything from a microcomputer to a supercomputer, and there are models that have been developed all over the world:
Warren Springs in England has Eurospill.
There is a commercial version of the U.S. World Oil Spill Model.
A model used in government called OSSM stands for On-Scene Spill Model.
Florida is running a large model on a Cray-type supercomputer.
Regional areas have their own models.
There is something called Gulf Slick, which runs from the Arabian Gulf.
Each of these models include all these kinds of processes. The big differences are how you feed them and what they show you when they are over.
There are a lot of problems with how models work. First, if we want a model to respond very quickly, we are typically talking about one based on climatology or average conditions. The reason is that there are no real time, up and running, forecast models of the ocean. In theory, one could make a model of the ocean which would be similar to the weather service models; turn it on and it will tell you what is going to happen with the weather tomorrow. Atmospheric models are supported by the World Meteorological System's network of measurements at hundreds of places around the world every six hours. That network is required to bring a model back to reality whenever necessary. In other words, there is a hindcast/forecast procedure. There is no such system for the ocean. This means if my phone rings and somebody says "I have a spill," I can't go see what happened at that site yesterday. I have to go on climatology. Another way to think about this problem is, if you wanted to plan a picnic for next August, you could look at climatology and say that is a good idea, it is probably going to be hot. If you want to plan a picnic today, you should look out the window. A spill situation is like that. Unfortunately, it is difficult to look out the window—not impossible, but difficult.
Another problem with available oceanographic data is the effect of seasonal flows that are nonaverage. Freshwater input is a critical factor because it tends to govern the nearshore flow and it tends to disproportionately affect movement of the oil. These are poorly understood factors. Climatology, for example, will not predict heavy rain freshets coming down the Delaware River and affecting a spill in the Delaware
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Bay. Climatology won't include many situations that are environmentally difficult, which is a time when ships tend to get in trouble. The average conditions off the Shetland Islands didn't make much sense compared to what was going on in the Braer. The two or three spills on the Gulf Coast after Hurricane Andrew were not average in any sense, either.
Another problem that is almost impossible to understate is that we need to know where the oil is going. To do that, we need to know the velocity field, i.e., what is happening in the currents. That is difficult to determine. More importantly, we need to know the derivative of the rate of velocity change. When a substance starts to disperse, mixing and entropy and chaos are going to make it less and less concentrated and it is going to spread. For example, a smoke plume from a smokestack gets less and less dense until it thins out entirely and goes away. It is never possible for that smoke to recoalesce into a black cloud and splat onto the side of a building 100 miles away. This is not true about oil because oil is buoyant, so when ocean water converges and sinks, the material floating on it stays on top. That gives an oil spill the power to recoalesce. Time after time, we see spills spread out, get thin, disappear, then suddenly reappear in tide rips and convergence zones. When they do reappear they can do it in a form that can do tremendous damage. If this didn't happen, however, we wouldn't ever have an opportunity to recover the oil. Once again, compare oil spills to smoke from a smoke stack.
Thus there are aspects to currents and current flow that are very important, Yet we are not even close to being able to predict them with models. Invariably, when we deal with a spill, these are things that are determined observationally. We just don't have any models that will resolve these factors on the scale we need in the nearshore environment.
Other small-scale, nearshore factors that we can never model are such phenomena as rip currents. A rip current is a current that turns perpendicular to the shore and carries water out of the surf zone. If oil is in the surf zone, the rip current rejects the oil back out to the ocean and leaves a smearing effect on the beach. We don't understand these phenomena very well. We know they occur, we have seen spills where they are important, but there are no models that can resolve them.
Finally, present models lack technological ability to present information well, such as good graphic presentations and the ability to routinely transmit the data to other places. Running a model and full four-color or sixty-color pictures on a console doesn't do much good unless you can project that image to somebody who needs to make a decision. The next problem is to take the data and overlay it with resources. It isn't enough to see a threat profile of where the oil is going, we need to know who it will hit and how it will hurt. Those are the kind of real questions we want to answer: we are just beginning to do that.
One advantage I have from responding to spills and running these models for many years is I have some feeling for accuracy. Typically, when we get called on a spill, we make an immediate projection based on available climatological data and whatever we can infer at the time. We can predict where the oil is going. About two-thirds of the time I am pretty close in terms of directions. But there are other errors in this process. For example, the Weather Service can tell you the wind direction—north, northeast, east, something like that—but the bad news is, a third of the time it is somewhere else. This is what climatology will do to you—like planning a picnic months in advance. When on-scene observations begin to come in, you can improve on
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those predictions. Whenever we go to a spill, we have an experiment in progress. The first overflight comes back with data and we begin to calculate hindcast/forecast information. The reliability of information improves the forecast quite a bit. Gathering nowtime background information is important. We don't have capability at the present time to be collecting this type of data anywhere, let alone everywhere.
The naive approach is that the first thing you want to do with a model is forecast—take everything you know, take the best weather forecast, specify where the oil is, and predict where it is going. We do that all the time. But in many respects it is not the best use of the model because we are often considering a problem that has a time scale longer than the forecast period. The Weather Service will forecast to 24 hours; call them up on the back line and you can get 48; beat on the person doing the forecast and you might get 72. But they are not going to stand behind it and nobody believes it very much anyway. In general, when we talk about a spill, particularly if we expect it to degenerate and lose the whole cargo, it will be weeks.
What we need to do is consider using the model in another way: run the model in a statistical mode, look at the average conditions, go back to wind statistics, go back to current statistics, and go back to tide statistics. Invariably, in dealing with a spill, the first thing we do is determine which direction we think it is going.
The second thing we try to do is try to figure out what the bound—the envelope—is. This brings us to trajectory analysis. A model is one piece: it is the analysis that you want. No model is accurate enough to stand on its own. We need to understand what the model tells us and what it doesn't tell us.
Another way to run a model is something called a receptor mode. This is when you say, "I don't care if oil is all over the place. I only care if oil threatens a high-value resource." The response is to try to create a spill at a high-value resource—such as a wildlife refuge or a marina full of politicians' boats, or anything else you don't want to get oil on—then trace the spill backward and see where it could have come from.
Statistically, this is a fairly intensive prospect, but the result is two maps. The first map is a joint probability of distribution map: it says, if you start at point a, there is a probability X that you will end up at point b. It is also a threat zone map. It tells where oil could come from and threaten a resource. These things are statistical in nature and can be done ahead of time: receptor mode maps can be plotted for all areas, so if an event occurs the threat zone is determined. The second thing the receptor mode does is plot out a time-of-travel contour. With these two maps we have what the probability of the threat is and the time available to react to it.
Forecast, statistical, and receptor mode analysis are all ways to use models. On a major spill we run all of them. Another aspect of strategy doesn't have to do with how to run the model, it has to do with how to think about it. This gets back to the idea that most people naively think the first thing to do with a model is run a forecast—take a best guess at the weather and figure out what is going to happen. In game theory, that is equivalent to going for the big win, doing what offers the best chance of success. When dealing with high-value resources, the best game strategy is often not to go for maximum win but for minimum regret. It is an exploration of the situation—to find out the worst downside and then plan for that scenario. Unfortunately, what I am talking about doesn't lead to certain answers. I don't believe there is a silver bullet associated with computers being able to determine that it is a good idea to jettison
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cargo. They can establish that it could be pretty bad if you don't, but that is not going to help much.
There are some technological options that can be helpful in trajectory analysis. For example, technology is available to help in such areas as gathering information from satellites. We use satellites all the time. If there is a spill off the east coast of the United States, we can get a thermal image of the Gulf Stream in a flash. That is a little further offshore than the scenario we are talking about at this symposium, but if you happen to be in a Gulf Stream eddy going the other way, you would like to know that, and a satellite picture provides the information quickly.
On a more relevant scale, the west coast of the United States has a banded current system which, from a forecasting point of view, is perverse in every regard in the sense that it reverses at a moment's notice. It is seasonally one way, then seasonally another; in between seasons, it is something else again. One thing we do is get a thermal picture of the coast, because when the current is the right way it often causes upwelling and when that happens there is a cold spot behind headlands. We look for those right away as indicators. We are talking minutes in terms of the time to set up model response.
There are also experimental surface current radars that can actually map currents out to about 50 kilometers. A few of these are in semi-permanent shoreside stations, one in Monterey, California, and one in Florida. We have tested them in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The Canadians are developing them and the United States has some. These are interesting and encouraging, but unfortunately they were also encouraging about 15 years ago when we first started seeing them. The data analysis required for them is massive, and there is no place where we have used them in real time. We may see more of this technique in the future.
Some harbors actually put current meters (Doppler acoustic systems) on the bottom that look back and forth at the current. These may help and they do work in real time, but they have not yet seen spill action. Another technology that is available but not online is pattern analysis on shelf circulation. The oceanographic problem is "shelf waves," which are analogous to the high/low patterns in the atmosphere, except that they wander up and down the continental shelf and cause highs and lows and cells to migrate around. On the Texas coast, shelf waves probably represent 30 percent of the current. They can be spotted under optimal conditions by satellites, and hooking up a satellite with a real-time background model has been talked about. This would be a first attempt at trying to do what the Weather Service does, by keeping up a background model. Again, this is experimental and it is expensive.
Finally, we will need real time capability. If we had background forecasters (remember, when we go on spills, we have an experiment that is running) that were looking at the coast, talking to the fishermen, telling if the current had reversed, that would give us a leg up. There are no quick answers. We are nowhere near long-term forecasts, so we will have to rely on statistical analysis and trajectory analysis to predict the consequences of a spill.
Jerry Galt is chief of the Modeling and Simulation Studies Branch, Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. He is a physical oceanographer from the University of Washington with considerable experience in trajectory models.
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DAVID HUTCHINSON, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE: We have been focusing on oil. Have you had any situations involving hazardous or noxious substances in the concept of jettison?
MR. ELLIS: Yes, during a lightening operation we were monitoring some nasty products being transferred from one vessel to another, because there was a problem with one vessel. It wasn't a situation where time was of the essence, but I certainly foresee cases where time will be of the essence. We should keep our minds open and say those circumstances might one day arise. Many salvors would say that oil is only one problem, and it is a relatively known quantity. There are lots of other substances being carried today that might present much greater problems.
UNIDENTIFIED PARTICIPANT: Have floating bladders ever been flown to a tanker for offloading?
MR. ELLIS: We have salvors in the room right here, and I would rather they answered. I can tell you that in one case in the north of Scotland they have actually been flown onto a deserted island, but we are talking there about 30 tons of bunkers. When we are talking about several thousand tons, of course, the problem is very different.
KLAAS REINIGERT, INTERNATIONAL SALVAGE UNION and SMIT TAK B.V.: They have never been used.
MR. ELLIS: That is a salvor telling us they have never been used.
NINA SANKOVITCH, NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE COUNCIL: About the Braer, you said you had difficulties in getting lighters to go there in time. Was that because the request for lighters wasn't made quickly enough? That the need for salvage wasn't recognized quickly enough? Or because the lighters or salvors were located far away?
MR. ELLIS: My understanding is that in the case of the Braer, the salvage contract was signed promptly. I believe the decision to deploy a barge would have been made almost immediately, but it was several hundred miles away and towing a barge in the weather conditions that were prevailing would have taken a great deal of time. I assume that other suitable barges weren't available. The condition was that the barge would have to anchor off, therefore you had to have a barge with a great deal of ground tackle to keep her in position.
ROBERT BUSH, UNIVERSE TANKSHIPS, INC.: Are there countries other than the United States that have laws about jettisoning?
MR. ELLIS: I am unaware of any, but my researches have not been exhaustive. In practice, though, when salvors have tried to jettison anything at all in
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recent years there has been a great reluctance for even the most benign cargoes to be jettisoned. So, in practice there is already a problem.
RICHARD LEE, SKIDAWAY INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY: You said in deep water, other than the example of dispersants, when oil is lost in the open ocean—deep subtidal—it is not a problem, it is only when it comes ashore.
DR. ENGELHARDT: As a generality, I think that is true, although shortly after the Braer grounded, predominantly mechanical dispersion due to extreme wave action was able to distribute the oil from the sea surface so that it was very broadly spread throughout—diluted, basically—through nonaffected areas. Toward the end of January there was some significant resurfacing of oil. Although the water depths there were relatively deep, the local circulation patterns seem to have maintained some sort of localized plumes of oil that then resurfaced. Whether that is going to be significant from an impact perspective requires determination. But the generality still holds that in that instance there was a lot of weathering of the oil and the proportional volume losses due to weathering were relatively high. So, from an impact perspective, dilution was an answer.
RICHARD BROWN, KIRLIN, CAMPBELL, MEADOWS & KEATING: How do you get your information to the owner/operator? Is that through the on-scene coordinator?
DR. GALT: Yes, I work for the government during spills. NOAA provides assistance to the Coast Guard on-scene coordinator. As soon as a spill occurs we are assigned as technical staff.
CHARLES BOOKMAN, MARINE BOARD, NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL: Captain Fullwood's scenario is a situation where somebody needs an answer and he needs it soon. In your experience, how well do you work within those kinds of constraints? He has a 24-hour window.
DR. GALT: Well, we can usually start talking soon. Again, we could come up with estimates but we would also have to talk about uncertainties. In a situation like that, there are uncertainties that make climatology a problem. A hurricane is a good example. This is a bit of a divergence, but when Hurricane Andrew came ashore, one of the platforms offshore broke loose, started to hop around and stepped on a pipeline, so there was a pipeline spill off Louisiana.
There is a convergence zone there. It has been there forever. We have seen it in lots and lots of spills—freshwater overlaying salt water. Hurricane Andrew obliterated it—just stirred the dickens out of it. So, here is a case where, if we had made the forecast based on climatology, it wouldn't have worked. However, the some hurricane dumped eight inches of rain in the lower Mississippi Delta so the fresh water was re-establishing itself in a hurry. I guess the answer is, we could give advice but I don't think we could say, go ahead and dump it, it is a good idea. We could say, here is where we think the threat is. Actually, the picture that emerged was very good in the following sense: if the spill had occurred with a jettison, the trajectory is considerably more certain because the wind would have blown straight ashore and it would have been all over from the surf and the waves and everything else.
If you were to say, "I have a new scenario—I am going to dump it, I want to look at it for the next couple of days," you will know the weather or at least you have
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an idea what it is. If it is going to malinger for a month, you go back to climatology, which means that for a couple of days it will be one way, a couple of days it will be another way. What will happen is that a larger area is impacted. If you have a choice of which area it is and how to confine it spatially, that could easily be a determining factor. If a particular wind is going straight into a marine marsh, you might want to take a chance of spreading it out.
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greattastic Feb 06, 2006 9:30 AM EST |
Just did it with a Netgear WG511v2 (made in China) with a Marvell chipset. thanks :-) |
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You're welcome. :) |
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The Ross Flow is a modern rendition of the center pin reel. The sport of center pin fishing is loaded with incredible history and tradition, but rather than simply reproducing a reel design that so many have done before them, Ross has incorporated their thirty plus years of fly reel engineering into what will become the new standard for all center pin reels. This reel is SMOOTH! Precision machining, high quality bearings and a perfect balance result in a spool that spins effortlessly and without interruption. Whether you are looking for the perfect drag free drift, or the ability to quickly reel in line, the ultra smooth rotation of the spool will make it effortless. And Ross didn't stop there! They have also incorporated a revolutionary center pin quick release locking spool, smooth moving on/off cam lever switch to engage and fully disengage the drag clicker and a unique symmetrical spool design that eliminates the need for re-spooling line when converting the reel from left-hand to right-hand retrieve. Add in the water shedding grooves on the spool edge and you have a complete center pin reel the likes of which have never been seen before, ready to fight big, fast running fish. The Flow has a spool diameter 4.5" and a width of .8". These reels weigh 8.6 oz. Line capacities are 300 yards of 8 pound test monofilament with 100 yards of 20 pound test backing or 300 yards of 12 pound test monofilament with 50 yards of 20 pound test backing. Custom engraving is available on all Ross USA reels. If you would like to have your reel engraved, please call us at 800-922-1219 Monday through Friday, 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. EST to place your order. An engraving fee of $30.00 will be charged in addition to the cost of the reel. The Flow center pin reel comes with the following standard features:
Great product. I have caught several steelhead on it, & it has been flawless. I also love the Ross lifetime warranty (rather than the competitors 2 year warranty)!


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University Preparatory Academy Elementary School - Mark Murray Campus is the newest and last piece of the University Prep Academy K-12 system. It opened in September of 2008 with 384 students, its maximum population at the time. The Mark Murray building and program were designed to match the successful program previously established at UPA's Ellen Thompson Campus. Therefore, all of the basic organizational structures and programs are the same as those found at Ellen Thompson.
The program at University Prep Elementary School - Mark Murray Campus is rigorous, comprehensive, and personalized to meet the individual needs of each student. It includes a strong program of art, music, physical education, and performing arts in addition to outstanding core academics. We consider these experiences to be critical to student success. Research has shown that passion is a critical factor in maintaining the kind of focus and energy that is needed for high achievement in any endeavor. Most young children do not know what they are passionate about. Providing students with a wide range of engaging experiences is necessary to educate children's interests and help them begin to identify their passions, an important engine for future learning.


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Swipe Baby Wipes Case by Skip Hop (SHSWIPE)
- Brand: Skip Hop
- Type: Baby Health and Hygiene
- Overview
- Compare Prices
Consumer Reviews
Showing 1 Product Review From Shopping.com |
A must have if you are out and about with baby!!!
I have to admit I was skeptical when I first saw this product. With 3 kids I have had my share of wipe containers. The ones that you can get in the trial size section of the store, the plastic ones and even the fancy fabric decorated ones. They are all compact but when it comes to reaching in after... Read full review »
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Swipe Baby Wipes Case by Skip Hop
Find diaper bags and storage at Target.com! Always keep baby wipes in easy reach with the skip hop swipe baby wipes case. Must-have baby gear for families on the go, the swipe's secure-snap lid keeps wipes moist and super accessible at all times. Its innovative, quick-draw opening allows for easy, one-handed access because you know you don't want to dig around your purse for a wipe when your little one's all dirty. Swipe's grab-strap snaps easily onto any stroller or bag so you can take it anywhere. The conveniently translucent case lets you see when you need a refill. Skip hop is a new york city-based designer that creates stylish, practical baby products and...
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Skip Hop Swipe Baby Wipes Case
Shop for Diapering from Hayneedle.com! About Skip Hop The ultimate goal of Skip Hop is to develop products that make parenting better. Skip Hop is a New York City company devoted to the design of groundbreaking products to suit a new generation of parents. At Skip Hop, they truly understand today's moms and dads because that's who they are. They're in tune with the cool person you were before parenthood, and know that you're even cooler now that you're a mom or dad. Skip Hop gets it. They strive to create products that are smarter, more innovative and safer. These are products that appeal not only to your heart but to your modern sense of design. A percentage of each Skip Hop product sold is given to support various organizations such as the Pediatric Aids Foundation and The Ovarian Cancer Research Fund.
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This autumn has been one of the most hectic periods I've ever experienced. Several big projects in the making, including new books, big exhibitions and more. I have also managed to make a few official appearances, and tomorrow (the 29th of November) is one which I am really looking forward to.
I will be part of a seminar on comics and education, held at the University of Aarhus, Denmark, as one of four speaker; the other three being Dr. Bernd Dolle-Weinkauff, who will be talking about the impact of manga, fellow PhD student Rikke Cortsen, who will talk about graphic novels and finally artist extraodinaire Peter Madsen, who will talk about his masterpeice Valhalla. I will talk about my experiences of the combination of pedagogics and comics, both in general and more specifically about the Comics Art School of Malmö.
The whole program can be found here. This is not a free seminar, but if you are a student at the University of Aarhus you do get a discount on the entrance fee.
Go, Look: Arthur Suydam's Mudwogs Art
49 minutes ago


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Comfort Inn Batesville
Travel Blogs from Batesville
"All Roads Lead to Rome"
... set against the background of a red patch, is now part of the proud tradition of the 45th Division, and is a familiar insignia to friend and foe alike. Its military reputation, now almost legendary, has been earned by the blood, sweat and courage of fighting men.
Now - Made it to the airport on time. So excited to go! The Kirchgassner family dynamic has already started.
Made it to Charlotte, NC for our ...
jUST WANTED TO SAY HI AND HOPE YOU MISSED ALL OF THE STORMS. IT HAS BEEN VERY COOL HERE THE LAST COUPLE OF DAYS. THE INDY 500 WILL BE ON SUNDAY AND IT WILL START OUT AT ABOUT 50 DEGREES. WE ARE ALLWELL . HAVE FUN ...
Good food and good times in Osgood
... about the town of Osgood, and even visited a school in Milan, Indiana (which is the home of the team that inspired the movie, Hoosiers!!!).
We drove back to Liberty for their BBQ festival they're having this weekend...John and Beth were invited to clown at the festival tomorrow (they're selling tickets for the Kelly Miller Circus also) and we're being paid in AS MUCH BBQ AS WE CAN EAT. Ohhhhhhh yes, that will be the perfect way to spend our day off. :)
RV repair day
... RVing and when I told him we were into our third week, he smiled really big and said we were in for a treat; that this was the best kind of life. He and his two brothers all own RVs and they just convinced their youngest brother to buy one also. He and his wife were in PA visiting his mom and they're slowly making their way back to Colorado.
It's continually reassuring to meet other RV people who love to talk about what a great life this ...
Rushville with friends
We rushed to Rushville (groan) after spending time in New Castle...it's a small town like all the others we visit, but we actually had a chance to walk around downtown a bit after our programs, which was really nice (especially since John had a chance to do so in his civvies).
We spent some time at an local assisted living home (where we met some really delightful ...
- Continental Breakfast
- Suites
- Swimming pool
- Free High-Speed Internet
- Wheelchair accessibility
- Fitness/Health center


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merlinmurph's Page
merlinmurph's Forum Posts
Forum Post: Favorite place for ice cream?
I'm with medwayfan - Blask Cow in Millis. They try different flavors all the time and come up with some good stuff. I had pumpkin ice cream once and loved it.
Forum Post: The best American athlete
Locally, one of the best athletes around is our own Danny Ainge. While he was a student at BYU, his summer job was playing ball for the Toroto Blue Jays. No Cape league for him. ;-) He graduated, deci more »
Forum Post: Bob Lobel and Local News Providers
I'm with you, brydog. When the Sox won in 2004, all the TV reporters were out on the field trying to come up with something creative to say and getting people to the camera. Mike Lynch was like a lost more »
Forum Post: Bob Lobel and Local News Providers
I can't believe Joyce was still around. Years ago, she gave me the impression of someone that was�always trying to justify her existence, and not doing a very good job of it. I found her airtime total more »
Forum Post: Together We Can - Get Deval published?
I just don't see much of a story regarding the book. He is in his first year of his first position in public office,�and his performance has been rather inept. I think the only people who know him are more »
Forum Post: Police among highest paid city employees
I know kids, through coaching, that lived in Mattapan, Roxbury, and Dorchester who just decided they didn't want to continue on with the way of life that they knew growing up. They DECIDED to make a d more »
Forum Post: Police among highest paid city employees
but still think you have some kind of a scam going because you get summers off.Aw c'mon, it's not a scam, it's part of the deal. Everybody knows from day 1 that teachers get the vacations they do - it more »
Forum Post: Boston firefighters' divahood
Oh I see. So it's ok to get the time you didn't take that you EARNED ifit's called "vacation" days. When it's called "sick" days THAT's whereyou have the problem understanding it. Ok, thanks for thecl more »
Forum Post: Boston firefighters' divahood
Why do you think they call them SICK days? Because you take them when you're sick. They are not intended to be vacation days. Yes, you had an employer where they were all lumped into one pool, but thi more »
Forum Post: Boston firefighters' divahood
I didn't say that. Nobody I know in the private sector gets paid for unused sick days, nor should they. The example one poster gave was because their sick time and vacation time come from the same poo more »
Forum Post: Boston firefighters' divahood
I'm sorry, but getting paid for leftover sick days is just pure wrong. The only place you see this is in the public sector. The BFD has separate vacation days and sick days and the abuse of sick days more »
Forum Post: Rising costs at Newton's school
I agree with you. I have never understood the rationale of tearing down buildings that aren't even that old. 35 years is nothing, I'm sure most of us live in homes older that that. Oh BTW, these are a more »
Forum Post: Rising costs at Newton's school
ppag, you're bringing up something that is totally irrelevant to the conversation - it's apples and oranges. The people of Newton have no control over Iraq, but they do have direct control over their more »
Forum Post: Rising costs at Newton's school
It truly amazes me how much emphasis parents place on building shrines for their kid's education. Nothing but the best, no expense spared. The design and architectural fees are exorbitant enough - the more »


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- Armed Forces Recruitment
- Brief:
Recruit newly graduated students that have the potential to become an officer in the armed forces via qualifications gained whilst studying.
Initially I decided to tackle the brief by creating posters that where aimed at people who had good qualifications but where being under estimated in their current job (these posters are below).
The posters where designed to initially deceive the viewer as you can't really tell what the shapes are in the background but upon logging onto the web site shown on the posters and seeing that the poster is actually an advertisement for the Armed Forces the viewer would be able to put two and two together and realize what the shape in the background was for instance the tank or the plane which relates to the marines and the RAF. - This page shows my Adshel designs mocked up showing how they would work.
The Adshel would be fitted with a motion sensor and as a person got closer they would activate it. The light would then switch on from behind the poster and beam the typographic layer through the camouflage. - The idea is that initially with the person being further away they would just see the camouflage pattern but as they get closer and activate the light through the motion sensor they would make the hidden message visible.
- Above shows how I experimented with with my adshell concept. I created a light box with several layers and printed my cammo onto acetate. As you can see the results where great and when the light was turned on the typographic layer behind beamed through and was visible to the viewer. This idea took a lot of experimentation with the distance between the light and each layer and also the opacity of the cammo and typography but I got there in the end and I felt the results where brilliant!
- Here would be my guerilla marketing campaign. My plan is to use the camouflage pattern, that's also used in my Adshels, on many different forms of public transport as they will be used and seen most commonly by my prime target audience - students.
The target audience would keep seeing the camouflage pattern pop up around town and city centres when they would then eventually see the billboard which will also be somewhere around town or within the city. - They will have the visual link and connect the two together. My intentions here where to play around with irony as with the vehicles being camouflaged they still stick out like a sore thumb and this is the intention I'm going for. I also think that the slogan used on the billboard connects the two really well telling the audience not to just blend in like the rest of the people but to stand out and be somebody.
- This is the web site that potential recruits would be drove to via my poster, adshel and guerilla campaigns. As you can see the home page is initially neutral but upon clicking or hovering over the emblem that represents that particular area of the Armed Forces the page suddenly changes into the colour scheme of that area and the text also changes from 'An Officer in the Armed forces' to 'An Officer in The Army' for example.
- As you can see I've based the web design around info graphics as I wanted the potential recruits not to be put off by information overload. I wanted them to read the benefits of joining the Armed Forces before being put off by a boring web site. I think the web site looks really interesting and would also be a bit fun for the target audience which where my intentions.
The web site is kind of like a puzzle and above you can see that you make your way through with ease by clicking on the button to view the next set of information. The reason for doing was to give the audience a sense of direction within the web site.
Upon reaching the end of the information the user then has the option to send off for an information pack. This would then explain in more depth the process of becoming an Army Officer. - Above would be the web site for the marines which is very similar in style to the army. The page would be very similar to the other sections of the Armed Forces apart from a few minor changes to pay, gender and contact telephone numbers or the web page.
- I created an App similar to my web design using info graphics but instead made it fit the resolution of phone screens in order to make it flow a lot more for scrolling purposes. Here shows how the app would flow in it's single form.
Upon logging onto: www.jointoday.co.uk on your smart phone you would be asked if you wanted to download the App from the App store. This would give the viewer a much easier viewing experience. - As I mentioned earlier you can obtain an information poster from the web site that would explain in more depth how to become an Armed Forces Officer.
The Army Officer design would be on the front of the poster and the information diagram would be on the back. The reason for the poster is that I hope the user will stick it up in there room or somewhere else with it being nicely designed rather than receiving an information pack and dumping it in a cupboard after reading it once. - Here are the emblems for each area of the armed forces.
From left to right: Army, RAF, Navy & Marines


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Found November 20, 2012 on
Steelers Depot:
Plaxico Burress,
Mike Tomlin,
Derrick Williams,
Jerricho Cotchery,
Byron Leftwich
TEAMS: Pittsburgh Steelers
TEAMS: Pittsburgh Steelers
Pittsburgh Steelers head coach Mike Tomlin comfirmed during his Tuesday press conference that the team will indeed sign one quarterback and one wide receiver to the roster today.
Several media outlets are reporting that free agent wide receiver Plaxico Burress and quarterback Brian Hoyer are the players that will sign after they worked out for the team earlier in the day.
The Steelers had also brought in wide receiver Derrick Williams and quarterback Mike Kafka for workouts on Tuesday.
The team is short at both of those positions after both Jerricho Cotchery and Byron Leftwich sustained Read more [...]
Original Story:
Report: Burress may sign with Steelers
Steelers Now Must Make Two Roster Moves To Accomidate Burress & Hoyer
Steelers Sign Plaxico Burress, Jed Hoyer
Report: Plaxico Burress to Work Out for Steelers on Tuesday
Report: Plaxico Burress To Visit The Steelers
Plaxico Burress' Return to Pittsburgh Could Offer Steelers Relief During Quarterback Dilemma
Time for Tomlin to Say More than Clichés
The Terrible Podcast – Talking Burress, Hoyer, Injuries & Steelers Browns Preview With Nate Ulrich Episode
NFL Rumors: With Randy Moss And Plaxico Burress In The NFL, Will Chad Johnson And Terrell Owens Be Next To Return?
The Steelers Go Bird Hunting
'Gritty' Wasn't Enough For Steelers
Steelers Injury Report: Antonio Brown & Troy Polamalu Deemed Questionable For Browns
Pittsburgh Steelers: Week 12 NFL Power Rankings (#10)
NFL Forum Discussions
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Latest Rumors | The Backyard | |||
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text:
20-2200 - Freeze Spray 10 Oz
Rapidly evaporating liquid that super-chills isolated areas. Used as a troubleshooting aid for intermittently faulting capacitors, resistors, semiconductors, and other defective components. It also increases visibility of cold solder joints, cracks in printed circ...
Mfr Name: Techspray
Mfr Number: 1672-10S
See all items in Freeze Spray
82-18191 - Multifunction CCTV Tester w/ IP, PoE, and TDR
This multifunction tester is the perfect tool for any security/surveillance installer. It not only lets you test any camera or monitor remotely in both IP and analog installations, but also features a TDR function that locates the specific distance of cable fault...
Mfr Name: Defender Security
Mfr Number: 82-18191
See all items in CCTV Test Equipment
555-20220 - 8 Way Isolated DMX Splitter - 3-Pin to 3-Pin
8-Way Isolated DMX Splitter Eight way DMX splitter solves two basic limitations of DMX-512 control, cable distance and number of devices. Because each output is isolated and independently amplified, it also prevents faults on one branch from affecting others.
Mfr Name: Stellar Labs
Mfr Number: DMX-SPLIT8
See all items in DMX Control
72-9960 - 3-In-1 Professional Cable Tester/Tracer/Toner
A mult-function test set for RJ-45 LAN cable, BNC and "F" coaxial cable, tone generator, continuity and 6P2C/4P2C jacks. Ideal for electricians, service technicians. telecommunications, networking or general home use.
Mfr Name: Tenma
Mfr Number: TCT-700
See all items in Tone & Probe Kits
28-9845 - APC BE350R Battery Backup
The most popular desktop UPS in the world! The Back-UPS ES offers our best value for protecting your home and home office computer systems. It provides battery backup power that allows you to work through short and medium length power outages. It also safeguards...
Mfr Name: APC
Mfr Number: BE350G
See all items in 200~350VA
22-2000 - E-Z Check Plus GFI Circuit Tester
The E-Z Check® plus GFI circuit tester checks for the following conditions: Correct wiring, open ground, reverse polarity, open hot, open neutral, hot on neutral, hot and ground reversed with open hot, and ground fault interruption...
Mfr Name: Ideal
Mfr Number: 61-051
See all items in Circuit / Outlet Finders & Testers
72-9920 - Tone and Probe Kit
Identify or trace wires or cables within a group without having to damage the insulation. Identifies faults, checks continuity, locates break points and identifies state of telephone lines.
Mfr Name: Distributed By MCM
Mfr Number: IN05266
72-9800 - 2000W Pure Sine Wave Inverter with Remote
High efficiency pure sine wave inverter converts 12 VDC to 115 VAC at an output frequency of 60 Hz. Includes a LCD remote control and 10' of connecting wire for control from a distance to keep inverter out of sight. This model features soft start technology and ...
Mfr Name: Samlex America
Mfr Number: SSW-2000-12A
See all items in DC - AC Power Inverters
22-17165 - Multicomp Freeze Spray - 10oz. Can
Non-flammable freeze spray is formulated with HFC-134a, a rapidly evaporating liquid that chills to -62°. Used as a troubleshooting aid for intermittently faulting capacitors, resistors, semiconductors and other components.
Mfr Name: Multicomp
Mfr Number: SPC12779
72-9685 - Modified Sine Wave Power Inverter - 250W
A low interference, high efficiency modified sine wave DC-AC inverter that simply plugs into any 12V cigarette lighter socket making it ideal for use in cars, boats, trucks or RV's. You can also connect directly to a battery with battery clamps (included). Conve...
Mfr Number: SAM-250-12
72-11305 - VDV Scout™ Pro LT Tester Starter Kit - Voice/Data/Video
Professional testing kit provides simultaneous testing of voice, video and data cables to save time and improve efficiency. Tests continuity on RJ11/12 cables, RJ45 and F-connections for voice, data and video applications, displays PASS, cross-over open, short, m...
Mfr Name: Klein Tools
Mfr Number: VDV501-816
See all items in Cable Mappers
72-9916 - Network Cable Analyzer
A fast comprehensive tool for testing RJ45 based network cabling such as Cat5, Cat6, etc.. Identifies the connection configuration (straight through, crossover, token ring and many other types) and also identifies faults such as open, short or miss-wired connecti...
Mfr Name: Peak
Mfr Number: ALTLAS IT
See all items in Network Cable Testers
72-9690 - Modified Sine Wave Power Inverter - 450W
Mfr Number: SAM-450-12
72-9795 - 1500W Pure Sine Wave Inverter with Remote
Mfr Number: SSW-1500-12A
105-360 - Microscanner2 Cable Tester And Verifier
The MicroScanner2 Cable Verifier displays all key test results for voice, data, and video cable testing. Tests for wiremap, pair lengths, distance to fault, cable ID, and far end devices simultaneously and displays results on one screen. Integrated RJ11, RJ45, a...
Mfr Name: Fluke Networks
Mfr Number: MS2-100


text:
One dead, 3 in custody after Muskegon shooting | News
Title (Max 100 Characters)
MUSKEGON, Mich. (WZZM) - Muskegon Police are investigating an overnight murder. Shortly after 1:00 a.m. Sunday officers were sent to a house in the 1200 block of Allen Avenue on a report of shots fired. When they arrived at the house they found a male victim lying in the yard, with gun shot wounds to the back and head. The victim was transported to Mercy Health Partners where he died.
A witness told officers that a tan colored four door vehicle was possibly involved and the vehicle fled west on Allen. A vehicle matching the description was spotted at Getty St. and Laketon Ave.
When police attempted to stop the vehicle, the driver fled, after a short pursuit it crashed at the corner of Ray St. and Dale Ave. Two subjects were immediately taken into custody and a third subject was captured after a foot pursuit.
The investigation is ongoing at this time.
The Muskegon Police Department is asking anyone with information on this incident call us at 231-724-6750 or Silent Observer at 231-722-7463
Top Muskegon Stories
Upcoming Events near Muskegon
Most popular stories from nearby communities
Community Sponsors
Muskegon Real Estate Listings
Courtesy of: Five Star Professionals
Courtesy of: Five Star Professionals


text:
Ask a Question Please complete this question form so we can get back to you! Thank you.
Vintage: 1950's Signed Hand Painted China Table Lamp $ 75.00 Signed, stands 18" high from top of metal socket to bottom and 5" wide at base. White background with fuschia flower and dark green leaves and gold trim. Brass base. This lamp could blend in with other lamps in the room.
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Silversnow Antiques and More Contact us! PO Box 732Downers Grove, IL 60515United States Updated Tuesday, March 11 2014Product descriptions copyright© 2014 Silversnow Antiques and MoreAll else copyright© 1995-2014 TIAS.com All rights reserved.


text:
Step away from the food
LONDON - The scale never lies and after doing my first post-Christmas weigh in, I've decided to stop stuffing my face with food (there's been too much this year). I'm opting for something a lot healthier.
Hope you had a Merry Christmas.
No comments yet


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Slow Cooker
(7 Recipes) Created by BSOMMERSRPH
Recipes in this Collection
Very Good 4.6/5
(7 ratings)
I found this recipe on the Weight Watchers recipe boards a few years ago. Submitted by CHRISTYK08 Carbs: 29.5g | Fat: 6.5g | Fiber: 4g | Protein: 23.3g | Calories: 262.3
This is THE most popular recipe on SparkRecipes. We've added more vegetables and reduced the sodium drastically to make it even better. Submitted by CHEF_MEG Carbs: 7.3g | Fat: 2.5g | Fiber: 2.1g | Protein: 27.6g | Calories: 164.9
A very easy way to make pulled pork in the slow cooker. This is a tangy BBQ sauce. Submitted by SLCOLMAN Carbs: 12.3g | Fat: 11.9g | Fiber: 0.7g | Protein: 32.4g | Calories: 296.9
Very Good 4.5/5
(11 ratings)
I simmer my stew meat in the crock pot half the day, so this is really easy, when the meat is tender I transfer to a pan or wok and cook up the veggies! Super easy, no fuss dinner! Submitted by MINDYYY Carbs: 10.5g | Fat: 3.9g | Fiber: 2g | Protein: 26.8g | Calories: 187.8
This is one of my family's very favorite dinners. One of the best things about this recipe is how easy it is to adjust to your own tastes. I entered it in with my true ingredients, which are SPICY! If you don't like it super spicy, adjust your ratio of Sweet Thai chili sauce (found in the grocery store asian food section) and the spicy Sambal Oelek (found in the same section). Try 1/4 cup of sambal oelek and 3/4 cup sweet chili sauce. Also very good with skinless chicken thighs, trimmed. I just ordered PB2 and am looking forward to trying it with this recipe, to cut the fat back even further! Submitted by MISSRED1970 Carbs: 15.8g | Fat: 14.5g | Fiber: 2g | Protein: 20.2g | Calories: 268.1
Six ingredients, 5 minutes of hands-on cooking, and dinner is served! Submitted by ORANGECOWCAT Carbs: 24.1g | Fat: 12.5g | Fiber: 0.9g | Protein: 41g | Calories: 385.4
Tangy, sticky chicken drumsticks cook perfectly in the slow cooker, with very little effort. Served with rice or potatoes and a green salad. Submitted by SPARK_RECIPES Carbs: 39.5g | Fat: 2.4g | Fiber: 1.1g | Protein: 13.6g | Calories: 208.1