text:
Battle of Thermopylae
The Battle of Thermopylae (/θərˈmɒpɨliː/ thər-MOP-i-lee; Greek: Μάχη τῶν Θερμοπυλῶν, Machē tōn Thermopylōn) was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I over the course of three days, during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It took place simultaneously with the naval battle at Artemisium, in August or September 480 BC, at the narrow coastal pass of Thermopylae ('The Hot Gates'). The Persian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece, which had been ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Xerxes had amassed a huge army and navy, and set out to conquer all of Greece. The Athenian general Themistocles had proposed that the allied Greeks block the advance of the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae, and simultaneously block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium.
A Greek force of approximately 7,000 men marched north to block the pass in the summer of 480 BC. The Persian army, alleged by the ancient sources to have numbered over one million but today considered to have been much smaller (various figures are given by scholars ranging between about 100,000 and 150,000),[7][8] arrived at the pass in late August or early September. The vastly outnumbered Greeks held off the Persians for seven days (including three of battle) before the rear-guard was annihilated in one of history's most famous last stands. During two full days of battle the small force led by Leonidas blocked the only road by which the massive Persian army could pass. After the second day of battle a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing a small path that led behind the Greek lines. Leonidas, aware that his force was being outflanked, dismissed the bulk of the Greek army and remained to guard the rear with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans and perhaps a few hundred others, most of whom were killed.
After this engagement the Greek navy, under the command of the Athenian politician Themistocles, at Artemisium received news of the defeat at Thermopylae. Since the Greek's strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held, and given their losses, the withdrawal to Salamis was decided. The Persians overran Boeotia and then captured the evacuated Athens. The Greek fleet, seeking a decisive victory over the Persian armada, attacked and defeated the invaders at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC. Fearful of being trapped in Europe, Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia (losing most to starvation and disease), leaving Mardonius to attempt to complete the conquest of Greece. The following year, however, saw a Greek army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea, thereby ending the Persian invasion.
Both ancient and modern writers have used the Battle of Thermopylae as an example of the power of a patriotic army defending native soil. The performance of the defenders at the battle of Thermopylae is also used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers and has become a symbol of courage against overwhelming odds.
The primary source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus'.[9] The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are referred to by other authors, as in Aeschylus' The Persians. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column (now in the Hippodrome of Istanbul), also supports some of Herodotus' specific claims.[10]
The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had encouraged the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.[11][12] Darius, moreover, was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.[11]
The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved; especially the Athenians, "since he was sure that [the Ionians] would not go unpunished for their rebellion".[13] Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.[14] A preliminary expedition under Mardonius in 492 BC to secure the land approaches to Greece re-conquered Thrace, and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia.[15]
Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states in 491 BC asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him.[16] Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed by throwing them in a pit; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well.[16][17] This meant that Sparta was also effectively at war with Persia.[16]
Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed.[18] Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.[19]
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.[12] Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.[20] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.[21] Since this was to be a full scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stockpiling and conscription.[21] Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).[22] These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any other contemporary state.[22] By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army which Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.[23]
The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be essential for the Greeks to fight the Persians.[24] However, the Athenians did not have the manpower to fight on land and sea; and therefore combating the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for 'earth and water' — a traditional token of submission — but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta.[25] Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC,[26] and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.[27]
The 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the Greeks could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes' advance.[28] A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched to the Vale of Tempe, through which they believed the Persian army would have to pass. However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through the Sarantoporo Pass, and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, the Greeks retreated.[29] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.[28]
A second strategy was therefore suggested by Themistocles to the Greeks. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians.[30] Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress.[30] However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, whilst the women and children of Athens had been evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.[31]
The Persian army seems to have made slow progress through Thrace and Macedon. News of the imminent Persian approach eventually reached Greece in August thanks to a Greek spy.[32] At this time of year the Spartans, de facto military leaders of the alliance, were celebrating the festival of Carneia. During the Carneia, military activity was forbidden by Spartan law; the Spartans had arrived too late at the Battle of Marathon because of this requirement.[33] It was also the time of the Olympic Games, and therefore the Olympic truce, and thus it would have been doubly sacrilegious for the whole Spartan army to march to war.[33][34] On this occasion, the ephors decided the urgency was sufficiently great to justify an advance expedition to block the pass, under one of its kings, Leonidas I. Leonidas took with him the 300 men of the royal bodyguard, the Hippeis.[35] This expedition was to try to gather as many other Greek soldiers along the way as possible, and to await the arrival of the main Spartan army.[34]
The legend of Thermopylae, as told by Herodotus, has it that the Spartans consulted the Oracle at Delphi earlier in the year. The Oracle is said to have made the following prophecy:
O ye men who dwell in the streets of broad Lacedaemon!
Mourn for the loss of a king, descendant of great Heracles.[36]
Either your glorious town shall be sacked by the children of Perseus,
Or, in exchange, must all through the whole Laconian country
Herodotus tells us that Leonidas, in line with the prophecy, was convinced he was going to certain death since his forces were not adequate for a victory, and so he selected only Spartans with living sons.[35]
The Spartan force was reinforced en route to Thermopylae by contingents from various cities (see below) and numbered more than 7,000 by the time it arrived at the Thermopylae pass.[37] Leonidas chose to camp at, and defend, the 'middle gate', the narrowest part of the pass of Thermopylae, where the Phocians had built a defensive wall some time before.[38] News also reached Leonidas, from the nearby city of Trachis, that there was a mountain track which could be used to outflank the pass of Thermopylae. Leonidas stationed 1,000 Phocians on the heights to prevent such a manoeuvre.[39]
Finally, in mid-August, the Persian army was sighted across the Malian Gulf approaching Thermopylae.[40] With the Persian army's arrival at Thermopylae the Greeks held a council of war.[41] Some Peloponnesians suggested withdrawal to the Isthmus of Corinth and blocking the passage to Peloponnesus.[41] The Phocians and Locrians, whose states were located nearby, became indignant and advised defending Thermopylae and sending for more help. Leonidas calmed the panic and agreed to defend Thermopylae.[41]
A Persian emissary was sent by Xerxes to negotiate with Leonidas. The Greeks were offered their freedom and the title "Friends of the Persian People," moreover they would be re-settled on land better than that they possessed.[42] When these terms were refused by Leonidas the ambassador asked him more forcefully to lay down his weapons. Leonidas' famous response was for the Persians to "Come and take them" (Μολὼν λαβέ). A more famous response was from his general. When Leonidas refused to back down the messenger told him, "Our arrows will block out the sun." To this Leonidas' general replied, "Then we shall have our battle in the shade!"[43][44] With the Persian embassy returning empty-handed battle became inevitable. Xerxes delayed for four days, waiting for the Greeks to disperse, before sending troops to attack them.[45]
Opposing forces[edit]
Persian army[edit]
- For a full discussion of the size of the Persian invasion force, see Second Persian invasion of Greece
The number of troops which Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece has been the subject of endless dispute, because the numbers given in ancient sources are very large indeed. Herodotus claimed that there were, in total, 2.6 million military personnel, accompanied by an equivalent number of support personnel.[46] The poet Simonides, who was a near-contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias gave 800,000 as the total number of the army that was assembled by Xerxes.[47]
Modern scholars tend to reject the figures given by Herodotus and other ancient sources as unrealistic, and as a result of miscalculations or exaggerations on the part of the victors.[48] Modern scholarly estimates are generally in the range 70,000–300,000.[49]b[›] These estimates usually come from studying the logistical capabilities of the Persians in that era, the sustainability of their respective base of operations, and the overall manpower constraints affecting them. Whatever the real numbers were, however, it is clear that Xerxes was anxious to ensure a successful expedition by mustering an overwhelming numerical superiority by land and by sea.[50] The number of Persian troops present at Thermopylae is therefore as uncertain as the number for the total invasion force. For instance, it is unclear whether the whole Persian army marched as far as Thermopylae, or whether Xerxes left garrisons in Macedon and Thessaly.
Greek army[edit]
According to Herodotus,[37][51] and Diodorus Siculus,[52] the Greek army included the following forces:
Group | Number – Herodotus | Numbers – Diodorus Siculus |
Lacedaemonians/ Perioeci |
900?[53] | 1,000 (including 300 Spartans) |
Spartan hoplites | 300[53] | – |
Mantineans | 500 | 3,000 (other Peloponnesians sent with Leonidas) |
Tegeans | 500 | |
Arcadian Orchomenos | 120 | |
Other Arcadians | 1,000 | |
Corinthians | 400 | |
Phlians | 200 | |
Mycenaeans | 80 | |
Total Peloponnesians | 3,100[37] or 4,000[54] | 4,000 or 4,300 |
Thespians | 700 | – |
Malians | – | 1,000 |
Thebans | 400 | 400 |
Phocians | 1,000 | 1,000 |
Opuntian Locrians | "All they had" | 1,000 |
Grand Total | 5,200 (or 6,100) plus the Opuntian Locrians | 7,400 (or 7,700) |
- The number of Peloponnesians
- Diodorus suggests that there were 1,000 Lacedemonians and 3,000 other Peloponnesians, for a total of 4,000. Herodotus agrees with this figure in one passage, quoting an inscription by Simonides saying there were 4,000 Peloponnesians.[54] However, elsewhere, in the passage summarized by the above table, Herodotus tallies 3,100 Peloponnesians at Thermopylae before the battle.[37] Herodotus also reports that at Xerxes' public showing of the dead, "helots were also there for them to see",[55] but he does not say how many or in what capacity they served. Thus, the difference between his two figures can be squared by supposing (without proof) that there were 900 helots (three per Spartan) present at the battle.[53] If helots were present at the battle, there is no reason to doubt that they served in their traditional role as armed retainers to individual Spartans. Alternatively, Herodotus' "missing" 900 troops might have been Perioeci, and could therefore correspond to Diodorus' 1,000 Lacedemonians.[53]
- The number of Lacedemonians
- Further confusing the issue is Diodorus' ambiguity about whether his 1,000 Lacedemonians include the 300 Spartans. At one point he says: "Leonidas, when he received the appointment, announced that only one thousand men should follow him on the campaign'".[52] However, he then says that: "There were, then, of the Lacedaemonians one thousand, and with them three hundred Spartiates".[52] It is therefore impossible to be clearer on this point.
Pausanias' account agrees with that of Herodotus (whom he probably read) except that he gives the number of Locrians, which Herodotus declined to estimate. Residing in the direct path of the Persian advance, they gave all the fighting men they had; according to Pausanias 6,000 men, which added to Herodotus' 5,200 would have given a force of 11,200.[56]
Many modern historians, who usually consider Herodotus more reliable,[57] add the 1,000 Lacedaemonians and the 900 Helots to Herodotus' 5,200 to obtain 7,100 or about 7,000 men as a standard number, neglecting Diodorus' Melians and Pausanias' Locrians.[58][59] However, this is only one approach, and many other combinations are plausible. Furthermore, the numbers changed later on in the battle when most of the army retreated and only approximately 3,000 men remained (300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans, possibly up to 900 helots and 1,000 Phocians stationed above the pass; less the casualties sustained in the previous days).[57]
Strategic and tactical considerations[edit]
From a strategic point of view, by defending Thermopylae, the Greeks were making the best possible use of their forces.[60] As long as they could prevent further Persian advance into Greece, they had no requirement to seek a decisive battle, and could thus remain on the defensive. Moreover, by defending two constricted passages (Thermopylae and Artemisium), the Greeks' inferior numbers became less problematic.[60] Conversely, for the Persians the problem of supplying such a large army meant that the Persians could not remain in the same place for too long.[61] The Persians must therefore retreat or advance; and advancing required the pass of Thermopylae to be forced.[61]
Tactically, the pass at Thermopylae was ideally suited to the Greek style of warfare.[60] A hoplite phalanx would be able to block the narrow pass with ease, with no risk of being outflanked by cavalry. In the pass, the phalanx would have been very difficult to assault for the more lightly armed Persian infantry.[60] The major weak point for the Greeks was the mountain track which led across the highland parallel to Thermopylae, and which would allow their position to be outflanked. Although probably unsuitable for cavalry, this path could easily be traversed by the Persian infantry (many of whom were versed in mountain warfare).[62] Leonidas was made aware of this path by local people from Trachis, and he positioned a detachment of Phocian troops there in order to block this route.[63]
Topography of the battlefield[edit]
At the time, the pass of Thermopylae consisted of a track along the shore of the Malian Gulf so narrow that only one chariot could pass through at a time.[38] On the southern side of the track stood the cliffs that overlooked the pass, and on the north side was the Malian Gulf. Along the path itself was a series of three constrictions, or "gates" (pylai), and at the center gate a short wall that had been erected by the Phocians in the previous century to aid in their defense against Thessalian invasions.[38] The name "Hot Gates" comes from the hot springs that were located there.[64]
Today, the pass is not near the sea but is several kilometres inland because of sedimentation in the Malian Gulf. The old track appears at the foot of hills around the plain, flanked by a modern road. Recent core samples indicate that the pass was only 100 meters wide and the waters came up to the gates; "Little do the visitors realize that the battle took place across the road from the monument."[65] The pass still is a natural defensive position to modern armies, and British Commonwealth forces in World War II made a defense in 1941 against the Nazi invasion metres from the original battlefield.
First day[edit]
On the fifth day after the Persian arrival at Thermopylae (which would become the first day of the battle), Xerxes finally resolved to attack the Greeks. First of all, he ordered five thousand archers to fire a barrage of arrows at the Greeks, but the bronze shields and helmets deflected the missiles, leaving no permanent damage - the missiles were fired from at least 100 yards away, according to modern day scholars. After that, Xerxes sent a force of ten thousand Medes and Cissians against the Greeks, to take them prisoner and bring them before him.[45][69] The Persians soon found themselves launching a frontal assault, in waves of around 10,000 men, on the Greek position.[45] The Greeks fought in front of the Phocian wall, at the narrowest part of the pass, in a strategic attempt to use as few soldiers at once as possible.[70][71] Details of the tactics are scant; Diodorus says "the men stood shoulder to shoulder" and the Greeks were "superior in valor and in the great size of their shields."[72] This is probably describing the standard Greek phalanx, in which the men formed a wall of overlapping shields and layered spear points protruding out from the sides of the shields, which would have been highly effective as long as it spanned the width of the pass.[73] The weaker shields and shorter spears and swords of the Persians prevented them from effectively engaging the Greek hoplites.[72][74] Herodotus says that the units for each city were kept together; units were rotated in and out of the battle to prevent fatigue, which implies the Greeks had more men than necessary to block the pass.[75] The Greeks killed so many Medes that Xerxes is said to have stood up three times off the seat from which he was watching the battle.[76] According to Ctesias, the first wave was "cut to ribbons" with only two or three Spartans dead.[47]
According to Herodotus and Diodorus, the king, having taken the measure of the enemy, threw his best troops into a second assault the same day, the Immortals, an elite corps of 10,000 men.[72][74] However, the Immortals fared no better than the Medes had, failing to make headway against the Greeks.[74] The Spartans apparently used a tactic of feigning retreat, and then turning and killing the enemy troops when they ran after the Spartans.[74]
Second day[edit]
On the second day, Xerxes again sent in the infantry to attack the pass, "supposing that their enemies, being so few, were now disabled by wounds and could no longer resist."[76] However, the Persians fared no better on the second day than on the first.[76] Xerxes at last stopped the assault and withdrew to his camp, "totally perplexed".[47]
Late on the second day of battle, however, as the Persian king was pondering what to do next, he received a windfall; a Trachinian named Ephialtes informed him of the mountain path around Thermopylae and offered to guide the Persian army.[77] Ephialtes was motivated by the desire of a reward.[77] For this act, the name of Ephialtes received a lasting stigma, his name coming to mean "nightmare" in the Greek language and becoming the archetypal traitor in Greek culture.[78]
Herodotus reports that Xerxes sent his commander Hydarnes that evening, with the men under his command, the Immortals, to encircle the Greeks via the path. However, he does not say who those men are.[79] The Immortals had been bloodied on the first day, so it is possible that Hydarnes may have been given overall command of an enhanced force including what was left of the Immortals, and indeed, according to Diodorus, Hydarnes had a force of 20,000 for the mission.[80] The path led from east of the Persian camp along the ridge of Mt. Anopaea behind the cliffs that flanked the pass. It branched with one path leading to Phocis and the other down to the Malian Gulf at Alpenus, first town of Locris.[39]
Third day[edit]
At daybreak on the third day, the Phocians guarding the path above Thermopylae became aware of the outflanking Persian column by the rustling of oak leaves. Herodotus says that they jumped up and were greatly amazed.[81] Hydarnes was perhaps just as amazed to see them hastily arming themselves as they were to see him and the Persian forces.[82] He feared that they were Spartans but was informed by Ephialtes that they were not.[81] The Phocians retreated to a nearby hill to make their stand (assuming that the Persians had come to attack them).[81] However, not wishing to be delayed, the Persians gave them a volley of arrows, before passing by to continue with their encirclement of the main Greek force.[81]
Learning from a runner that the Phocians had not held the path, Leonidas called a council of war at dawn.[83] According to Diodorus a Persian called Tyrrhastiadas, a Cymaean by birth, warned the Greeks.[84] Some of the Greeks argued for withdrawal, but Leonidas resolved to stay at the pass with the Spartans.[83] Many of the Greek contingents then either chose to withdraw (without orders), or were ordered to leave by Leonidas (Herodotus admits that there is some doubt about which actually happened).[83][85] The contingent of 700 Thespians, led by their general Demophilus, refused to leave with the other Greeks but committed themselves to the fight.[86] Also present were the 400 Thebans, and probably the helots that had accompanied the Spartans.[82]
Leonidas' actions have been the subject of much discussion. It is commonly stated that the Spartans were obeying the laws of Sparta by not retreating, but it seems it was actually the failure to retreat from Thermopylae that gave rise to the notion that Spartans never retreated.[87] It is also possible that recalling the words of the Oracle, Leonidas was committed to sacrifice his life in order to save Sparta. However, since the prophecy was specific to him, this seems a poor reason to commit 1,500 other men to a fight to the death.[87] The most likely theory is that Leonidas chose to form a rearguard so that the other Greek contingents could get away.[87][88] If all the troops had retreated, the open ground beyond the pass would have allowed the Persian cavalry to run the Greeks down. If they had all remained at the pass, they would have been encircled and would eventually have all been killed.[82] By covering the retreat, and continuing to block the pass, Leonidas could save more than 3,000 men, who would be able to fight at some later point.[88] The Thebans have also been the subject of some discussion. Herodotus suggests that they were brought to the battle as hostages to ensure the good behavior of Thebes.[35] However, as Plutarch long ago pointed out, if they were hostages, why not send them away with the rest of the Greeks?[87] The likelihood is that these were the Theban 'loyalists', who unlike the majority of the fellow citizens, objected to Persian domination.[87] They thus probably came to Thermopylae of their own free will, and stayed at the end because they could not return to Thebes if the Persians conquered Boeotia.[82] The Thespians, resolved as they were not to submit to Xerxes, faced the destruction of their city if the Persians took Boeotia.[87] However, this alone does not explain the fact that they remained; the remainder of Thespia was successfully evacuated before the Persians arrived there.[87] It seems that the Thespians volunteered to remain as a simple act of self-sacrifice, all the more amazing since their contingent represented every single hoplite the city could muster.[89] This seems to have been a particularly Thespian trait – on at least two other occasions in later history, a Thespian force would commit itself to a fight to the death.[87]
At dawn Xerxes made libations, pausing to allow the Immortals sufficient time to descend the mountain, and then began his advance.[71] A Persian force of ten thousand men, consisting of light infantry and cavalry, charged at the front of the Greek formation. The Greeks this time sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians in the wider part of the pass in an attempt to slaughter as many Persians as they could.[71] They fought with spears until every spear was shattered and then switched to xiphē (short swords).[90] In this struggle, Herodotus states that two brothers of Xerxes fell: Abrocomes and Hyperanthes.[90] Leonidas also died in the assault, shot down by Persian archers, and the two sides fought over his body, the Greeks taking possession.[90] As the Immortals approached, the Greeks withdrew and took a stand on a hill behind the wall.[91] The Thebans "moved away from their companions, and with hands upraised, advanced toward the barbarians..." (Rawlinson translation), but a few were slain before their surrender was accepted.[91] The king later had the Theban prisoners branded with the royal mark.[92] Of the remaining defenders, Herodotus says:
"Here they defended themselves to the last, those who still had swords using them, and the others resisting with their hands and teeth."[91]
Tearing down part of the wall, Xerxes ordered the hill surrounded, and the Persians rained down arrows until every last Greek was dead.[91] In 1939, archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, excavating at Thermopylae, found large numbers of Persian bronze arrowheads on Kolonos Hill, changing the identification of the hill on which the Greeks died from a smaller one nearer the wall.[93]
The pass at Thermopylae was thus opened to the Persian army according to Herodotus, at the cost to the Persians of up to 20,000 fatalities.[94] The Greek rearguard, meanwhile, was annihilated, with a probable loss of 2,000 men, including those killed on the first two days of battle.[95] Herodotus says at one point that 4,000 Greeks died, but assuming that the Phocians guarding the track were not killed during the battle (as Herodotus implies), this would be almost every Greek soldier present (by Herodotus' own estimates), and this number is probably too high.[96]
When the body of Leonidas was recovered by the Persians, Xerxes, in a rage against Leonidas, ordered that the head be cut off and the body crucified. Herodotus observes that this was very uncommon for the Persians, as they had the habit of treating "valiant warriors" with great honor (the example of Pytheas, captured off Skiathos before the Battle of Artemisium, strengthens this suggestion).[91][97] However, Xerxes was known for his rage. Legend has it that he had the Hellespont whipped – the water itself – because it would not obey him.[23] After the Persians' departure, the Greeks collected their dead and buried them on the hill. After the Persian invasion ended, a stone lion was erected at Thermopylae to commemorate Leonidas.[98] A full forty years after the battle, Leonidas' bones were returned to Sparta where he was buried again with full honors; funeral games were held every year in his memory.[90][99]
With Thermopylae now opened to the Persian army, the continuation of the blockade at Artemisium by the Greek fleet became irrelevant. The simultaneous naval Battle of Artemisium had been a tactical stalemate, and the Greek navy was able to retreat in good order to the Saronic Gulf where they helped to ferry the remaining Athenian citizens across to the island of Salamis.[88]
Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities which had not submitted to the Persians, Plataea and Thespiae, before marching on the now evacuated city of Athens.[100] Meanwhile, the Greeks (for the most part Peloponnesian) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolishing the single road that led through it, and building a wall across it.[101] As at Thermopylae, to make this an effective strategy required the Greek navy to stage a simultaneous blockade, barring the passage of the Persian navy across the Saronic Gulf, so that troops could not be landed directly on the Peloponnese.[102] However, instead of a mere blockade, Themistocles persuaded the Greeks to seek a decisive victory against the Persian fleet. Luring the Persian navy into the Straits of Salamis, the Greek fleet was able to destroy much of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Salamis, which essentially ended the threat to the Peloponnese.[103]
Fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes now retreated with much of the army back to Asia,[104] though nearly all of them died of starvation and disease on the return.[105] He left a hand picked force under Mardonius to complete the conquest the following year.[106] However, under pressure from the Athenians, the Peloponnesians eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle, and marched on Attica.[107] Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea.[107] There, at the Battle of Plataea, the Greek army won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army, and ending the invasion of Greece.[107] Meanwhile, at the near-simultaneous naval Battle of Mycale they also destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet, thereby reducing the threat of further invasions.[108]
Thermopylae is arguably the most famous battle in European ancient history, repeatedly referenced in ancient, recent, and contemporary culture. In Western culture at least, it is the Greeks who are lauded for their performance in battle.[109] However, within the context of the Persian invasion, Thermopylae was undoubtedly a defeat for the Greeks.[110] It seems clear that the Greek strategy was to hold off the Persians at Thermopylae and Artemisium;[60] whatever they may have intended, it was presumably not their desire to surrender all of Boeotia and Attica to the Persians.[60] The Greek position at Thermopylae, despite being massively out-numbered, was near-impregnable.[88] If the position had been held for even slightly longer, the Persians might have had to retreat for lack of food and water.[61] Thus, despite the heavy losses, forcing the pass was a clear Persian victory, both tactically and strategically.[88] The successful retreat of the bulk of the Greek troops, though morale-boosting, was in no sense a victory, though it did take some of the sheen off the Persian victory.[88]
It is sometimes stated that Thermopylae was a Pyrrhic victory for the Persians,[111][112] that is, one in which the victor is as damaged by the battle as the defeated party. However, there is no suggestion by Herodotus that this was the effect of the Battle of Thermopylae on the Persian forces. Furthermore, this idea ignores the fact that the Persians would, in the aftermath of Thermopylae, conquer the majority of Greece,[113] and the fact that Persians were still fighting in Greece a year later.[114] Alternatively, the argument is sometimes advanced that the last stand at Thermopylae was a successful delaying action that gave the Greek navy time to prepare for the Battle of Salamis.c[›] However, compared to the probable time (about one month) between Thermopylae and Salamis, the time bought by the last stand at Thermopylae was negligible.[115] Furthermore, this idea also neglects the fact that a Greek navy was fighting at Artemisium during the Battle of Thermopylae, incurring losses in the process.[116] George Cawkwell suggests that the gap between Thermopylae and Salamis was caused by Xerxes systematically reducing Greek opposition in Phocis and Boeotia, and not as a result of the battle of Thermopylae; thus, as a delaying action, Thermopylae was insignificant compared to Xerxes's own procrastination.[113] Far from labeling Thermopylae as a pyrrhic victory, modern academic treatises on the Greco-Persian Wars tend to emphasise the success of Xerxes in breaching the formidable Greek position, and in the subsequent conquest of the majority of Greece. For instance Cawkwell states that "he was successful on both land and sea, and the Great Invasion began with a brilliant success... Xerxes had every reason to congratulate himself,"[117] while Lazenby describes the Greek defeat as "disastrous".[110]
The fame of Thermopylae is thus principally derived, not from its effect on the outcome of the war, but for the inspirational example it set.[115][118] Thermopylae is famous because of the heroism of the doomed rearguard, who, despite facing certain death, remained at the pass.[109] Ever since, the events of Thermopylae have been the source of effusive praise from many sources; e.g. "...the fairest sister-victories which the Sun has ever seen, yet they would never dare to compare their combined glory with the glorious defeat of King Leonidas and his men."[119] A second reason is the example it set of free men, fighting for their country and their freedom:
"So almost immediately, contemporary Greeks saw Thermopylae as a critical moral and culture lesson. In universal terms, a small, free people had willingly outfought huge numbers of imperial subjects who advanced under the lash. More specifically, the Western idea that soldiers themselves decide where, how, and against whom they will fight was contrasted against the Eastern notion of despotism and monarchy — freedom proving the stronger idea as the more courageous fighting of the Greeks at Thermopylae, and their later victories at Salamis and Plataea attested."[120]
While this paradigm of "free men" outfighting "slaves" can be seen as a rather sweeping over-generalization (there are plenty of counter-examples), it is nevertheless true that many commentators have used Thermopylae to illustrate this point.[60]
Militarily, although the battle was actually not decisive in the context of the Persian invasion, Thermopylae is also of some significance, on the basis of the first two days of fighting. The performance of the defenders is used as an example of the advantages of training, equipment, and good use of terrain as force multipliers.[121]
There are several monuments around the battlefield of Thermopylae.
Epitaph of Simonides[edit]
Simonides composed a well-known epigram, which was engraved as an epitaph on a commemorative stone placed on top of the burial mound of the Spartans at Thermopylae. It is also the hill on which the last of them died.[54] The original stone has not survived, but in 1955, the epitaph was engraved on a new stone. The text from Herodotus is:[54]
- Ὦ ξεῖν', ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις ὅτι τῇδε
- κείμεθα, τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι.
- Ō ksein', angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti tēide
- keimetha, tois keinōn rhēmasi peithomenoi.
- "Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by,
- That here, obedient to Spartan law, we lie."
The alternative ancient reading πειθόμενοι νομίμοις for ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι substitutes "laws" for "orders." In other words, the "orders" are not personal but refer to official and binding phrases (the Ancient Greek term can also refer to a formal speech).[122]
The form of this ancient Greek poetry is an elegiac couplet, commonly used for epitaphs. Some English renderings are given in the table below.
It was well known in ancient Greece that all the Spartans who had been sent to Thermopylae had been killed there (with the solitary exception of the hapless Aristodemus), and the epitaph exploits the conceit that there was nobody left to bring the news of their deeds back to Sparta. Greek epitaphs often appealed to the passing reader (always called 'stranger') for sympathy, but the epitaph for the dead Spartans at Thermopylae took this convention much further than usual, asking the reader to make a personal journey to Sparta to break the news that the Spartan expeditionary force had been wiped out. The stranger is also asked to stress that the Spartans died 'fulfilling their orders'.
Translation | Notes |
Go tell the Spartans, thou who passest by, That here, obedient to their laws, we lie.[123] |
William Lisle Bowles |
Stranger, tell the Spartans that we behaved as they would wish us to, and are buried here.[124] |
William Golding |
Stranger! To Sparta say, her faithful band Here lie in death, remembering her command.[125] |
Francis Hodgson |
Stranger, report this word, we pray, to the Spartans, that lying Here in this spot we remain, faithfully keeping their laws.[126] |
George Campbell Macaulay |
Stranger, bear this message to the Spartans, that we lie here obedient to their laws.[127] |
William Roger Paton |
Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws we lie.[128] |
Steven Pressfield |
Go, stranger, and to Lacedaemon tell That here, obeying her behests, we fell.[129] |
George Rawlinson |
Go, way-farer, bear news to Sparta's town that here, their bidding done, we laid us down.[130] |
Cyril E. Robinson |
Go tell the Spartans, you who read: We took their orders, and lie here dead.[131] |
Aubrey de Sélincourt |
Friend, tell Lacedaemon Here we lie Obedient to our orders.[132] |
William Shepherd |
Oh Stranger, tell the Spartans That we lie here obedient to their word.[133] |
From the 1962 film The 300 Spartans |
Stranger, go tell the Spartans That we lie here True, even to the death To our Spartan way of life.[134] |
J. Rufus Fears |
Go tell the Spartans, passerby: That here, by Spartan law, we lie.[135] |
Frank Miller (subsequently used in the 2007 film, 300) |
The first line of the epigram was used as the title of the short story "Stranger, Bear Word to the Spartans We…" by German Nobel Prize laureate Heinrich Böll.
John Ruskin expressed the importance of this ideal to Western civilization as follows:
Also obedience in its highest form is not obedience to a constant and compulsory law, but a persuaded or voluntary yielded obedience to an issued command .... His name who leads the armies of Heaven is "Faithful and True"... and all deeds which are done in alliance with these armies ... are essentially deeds of faith, which therefore ... is at once the source and the substance of all known deed, rightly so called ... as set forth in the last word of the noblest group of words ever, so far as I know, uttered by simple man concerning his practice, being the final testimony of the leaders of a great practical nation ... [the epitaph in Greek][136]
Leonidas monument[edit]
Additionally, there is a modern monument at the site, called the "Leonidas Monument", in honor of the Spartan king. It features a bronze statue of Leonidas. A sign, under the statue, reads simply: "Μολὼν λαβέ" ("Come and get them!"—as in answer to Xerxes' demand that the Greeks give up their weapons). The metope below depicts battle scenes. The two marble statues on the left and the right of the monument represent, respectively, the river Eurotas and Mount Taygetos, famous landmarks of Sparta.
Thespian monument[edit]
In 1997, a second monument was officially unveiled by the Greek government, dedicated to the 700 Thespians who fought with the Spartans. The monument is made of marble and features a bronze statue depicting the god Eros, to whom the ancient Thespians accorded particular religious veneration. Under the statue, a sign reads "In memory of the seven hundred Thespians."
A plate, below the statue, explains its symbolism:
- The headless male figure symbolizes the anonymous sacrifice of the 700 Thespians to their country.
- The outstretched chest symbolizes the struggle, the gallantry, the strength, the bravery and the courage.
- The open wing symbolizes the victory, the glory, the soul, the spirit and the freedom.
- The broken wing symbolizes the voluntary sacrifice and death.
- The naked body symbolizes Eros, the most important god of the ancient Thespians, a god of creation, beauty and life.
The monument to the Thespians is placed beside the one to the Spartans.
Associated legends[edit]
Herodotus' colorful account of the battle has provided history with many apocryphal incidents and conversations away from the main historical events. These accounts are obviously not verifiable, but they form an integral part of the legend of the battle. They often demonstrate the Laconic speech (and wit) of the Spartans to good effect.
For instance, Plutarch recounts in his Sayings of Spartan Women that upon his departure, Leonidas' wife Gorgo asked what she should do if he did not return; to which Leonidas replied, "Marry a good man and have good children."[137]
It is reported that, upon arriving at Thermopylae, the Persians sent a mounted scout to reconnoiter. The Greeks allowed him to come up to the camp, observe them, and depart. When the scout reported to Xerxes the size of the Greek force and that the Spartans were indulging in calisthenics and combing their long hair, Xerxes found the reports laughable. Seeking the counsel of Demaratus, an exiled Spartan king in his retinue, Xerxes was told that the Spartans were preparing for battle and that it was their custom to adorn their hair when they were about to risk their lives. Demaratus called them "the bravest men in Greece" and warned the Great King that they intended to dispute the pass. He emphasized that he had tried to warn Xerxes earlier in the campaign, but the king had refused to believe him. He added that if Xerxes ever managed to subdue the Spartans, "there is no other nation in all the world which will venture to lift a hand in their defense."[138]
Herodotus also describes the reception of a Persian embassy by Leonidas. The ambassador told Leonidas that Xerxes would offer him the kingship of all Greece if he joined with Xerxes. Leonidas answered: "If you had any knowledge of the noble things of life, you would refrain from coveting others' possessions; but for me to die for Greece is better than to be the sole ruler over the people of my race."[139] Then the ambassador asked him more forcefully to surrender their arms. To this Leonidas gave his famous answer: Μολὼν λαβέ (pronounced Greek pronunciation: [moˈlɔːn laˈbe]) "Come and get them."[140]
Such Laconic bravado doubtlessly helped to maintain morale. Herodotus writes that when Dienekes, a Spartan soldier, was informed that Persian arrows would be so numerous as "to block out the sun", he retorted, unconcerned; "So much the better...then we shall fight our battle in the shade."[141]
After the battle, Xerxes was curious as to what the Greeks had been trying to do (presumably because they had had so few men) and had some Arcadian deserters interrogated in his presence. The answer was that all the other men were participating in the Olympic Games. When Xerxes asked what was the prize for the winner, the answer was "an olive-wreath". Upon hearing this, Tigranes, a Persian general, said: "Good heavens, Mardonius, what kind of men are these that you have pitted against us? It is not for riches that they contend but for honor!" (Godley translation) or otherwise "Ye Gods, Mardonius, what men have you brought us to fight against? Men that fight not for gold, but for glory."[142]
In popular culture[edit]
The Battle of Thermopylae has remained an icon of western civilization ever since it was fought. The battle is revisited in countless adages, in literature in song, and in films, television programs and video games. The battle is discussed in many books and articles on the theory and practice of warfare. The movies The 300 Spartans (1962) and 300 (2007) were based on the events during and close to the time of the battle.
Prior to the battle, the Hellenes remembered the Dorians, an ethnic distinction to which the Spartans belonged, as the conquerors and displacers of the Ionians in the Peloponnesus. After the battle, Spartan culture became an inspiration and object of emulation, a phenomenon known as Laconophilia.
See also[edit]
- Aristodemus of Sparta
- Spartan Army
- Gates of Fire
- Battle of Traigh Ghruinneart, where a dwarf betrays the forces that rejected his service
- Battle of the Persian Gate a.k.a the "Persian Thermopylae"
^ a: Although some authors state the result was a Pyrrhic victory for Persia,[111][112] the majority of authors do not apply this label to the result: see above.
^ b: A huge number of estimates have been made since the 19th century, ranging from 15,000 to acceptance of Herodotus' 1,800,000. No real consensus exists; even the most recent estimates by academics vary between 70,000 and 300,000. As Holland puts it, "in short...we will never know."[49]
^ c: "The Battle of Thermopylae was a Pyrrhic victory for [the Persians] but it offered Athens invaluable time to prepare for the decisive naval battle of Salamis one month later."[143]
- ^ Bradford, p.162
- ^ Greswell, p. 374
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004y278
- ^ Histories (Herodotus)
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 25
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 24
- ^ Sacks, Kenneth (2003). Understanding Emerson: "The American scholar" and his struggle for self-reliance. Princeton University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-691-09982-8.
- ^ Cassin-Scott, Jack (2977). The Greek and Persian Wars 500-323 B.C.. Osprey. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-85045-271-6.
- ^ Diodorus XI, 28–34,
- ^ Note to Herodotus IX, 81
- ^ a b Holland, p. 47–55
- ^ a b Holland, p. 203
- ^ Herodotus V, 105
- ^ Holland, 171–178
- ^ Herodotus VI, 44
- ^ a b c Holland, pp. 178–179
- ^ Herodotus VII, 133
- ^ Herodotus VI, 101
- ^ Herodotus VI, 113
- ^ Holland, pp. 206–206
- ^ a b Holland, pp. 208–211
- ^ a b Holland, pp. 213–214
- ^ a b VII, 35
- ^ Holland, p. 217–223
- ^ Herodotus VII, 32
- ^ Herodotus VII, 145
- ^ Holland, p. 226
- ^ a b Holland, pp. 248–249
- ^ Herodotus VII, 173
- ^ a b Holland, pp. 255–257
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 40
- ^ Holland, pp. 255–256
- ^ a b Herodotus VII, 206
- ^ a b Holland, pp. 258–259.
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 205
- ^ Rawlinson translation of Herodotus VII, 242
- ^ a b c d Herodotus, VII, 202
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 176
- ^ a b Herodotus VII, 217
- ^ Holland, pp. 269–270
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 207
- ^ Holland, pp. 270–271
- ^ Padrusch, David (2012-04-23). "Legendary Battle at Thermopylae". History Channel DVD. Retrieved 2012-04-22.
- ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica,saying 11
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 210
- ^ Herodotus VII, 186
- ^ a b c Ctesias, Persica (from Photius' Epitome)
- ^ Holland, p. 237
- ^ a b Holland, p. 394.
- ^ de Souza, p. 41.
- ^ Herodotus VII, 203
- ^ a b c Diodorus Siculus XI, 4
- ^ a b c d Macan, note to Herodotus VIII, 25
- ^ a b c d Herodotus VII, 228
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 25
- ^ Pausanias X, 20
- ^ a b Green, p. 140
- ^ Bradford, p. 106
- ^ Bury, pp. 271–282
- ^ a b c d e f g Lazenby, pp. 248–253
- ^ a b c Holland, pp. 285–287
- ^ Holland, p 288
- ^ Holland, pp. 262–264
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 201
- ^ Dore, pp. 285–286
- ^ Web.archive.org
- ^ Uoregon.edu
- ^ [1] Livius.org
- ^ Diodorus Siculus XI, 6
- ^ Herodotus VII, 208
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 223
- ^ a b c Diodorus Siculus XI, 7
- ^ Holland, p. 274
- ^ a b c d Herodotus VII, 211
- ^ Herodotus VII, 204
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 212
- ^ a b Herodotus VII, 213
- ^ Tegopoulos, entry for Εφιάλτης
- ^ Herodotus VII, 215
- ^ Green (2006), p. 59
- ^ a b c d Herodotus VII, 218
- ^ a b c d Holland, p. 291–293
- ^ a b c Herodotus VII, 219
- ^ "Diodorus Siculus, Library, Book XI, Chapter 8, section 5". Retrieved 2013-10-09.
- ^ Herodotus VII, 220
- ^ Herodotus VII, 222
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lazenby, pp. 144–145
- ^ a b c d e f Holland, p. 294
- ^ Lazenby, pp. 259–260
- ^ a b c d Herodotus VII, 224
- ^ a b c d e Herodotus VII, 225
- ^ Herodotus VII 233
- ^ Crawford, p. 302
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 24
- ^ Holland, p. 397
- ^ Lazenby, p. 148
- ^ Herodotus VII, 181
- ^ Herodotus VII, 238
- ^ Pausanias III, 14
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 50
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 71
- ^ Holland, pp. 299–303
- ^ Holland, pp. 327–334
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 97
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 115
- ^ Holland, p. 327–329
- ^ a b c Holland, pp. 338–341
- ^ Holland, p. 357–359
- ^ a b Holland, p. xviii.
- ^ a b Lazenby, p. 151.
- ^ a b Tung & Tung, p. 239.
- ^ a b Marozzi, p. 74.
- ^ a b Cawkwell, pp. 105–106
- ^ Herodotus IX, 1
- ^ a b "Greco-Persian Wars: Battle of Thermopylae". HistoryNet. Archived from the original on 28 February 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 1–19
- ^ Cawkwell, p. 104.
- ^ Lazenby, p. 150
- ^ Michel de Montaigne, quoted in Holland, p. xviii.
- ^ "Victor Hanson article". Victor Hanson article. 2006-10-11. Archived from the original on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ Eikenberry, 1996
- ^ Macan, note to Herodotus VII, 228
- ^ Strachey, p. 481
- ^ Golding, exceprt from The Hot Gates.
- ^ Merivale, p. 64
- ^ Macauley translation of Herodotus, p. 220
- ^ Paton, p. 139
- ^ Pressfield, p. 384
- ^ Rawlinson translation of Herodotus, p. 51
- ^ Robinson, p. 65
- ^ Sélincourt translation of Herodotus (1954)
- ^ Translation by William Shepherd, from the Cambridge series of translations by Greek and Roman authors.
- ^ Credited writers for the film are: George St. George, Gian Paolo Callegari, Remigio Del Grosso, Giovanni d'Eramo, and Ugo Liberatore.
- ^ Translation by American historian, Professor J. Rufus Fears in his Ancient Greeks lectures for the Teaching Company.
- ^ Miller, 300 (comic)
- ^ Ruskin, p. 212
- ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica Plut. Apoph. 51.2 and Moralia, 240 E (6)
- ^ Herodotus VII, 209
- ^ Plutarch, Moralia, 225, saying 10
- ^ Plutarch, Apophthegmata Laconica, Saying 11.
- ^ Herodotus VII, 226
- ^ Herodotus VIII, 26
- ^ Tung & Tung, p. 239
- Bradford, Ernle (2004). Thermopylae: The Battle for the West. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81360-2.
- Bury, J. B.; Russell Meiggs (2000). A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (4th Revised ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
- Cawkwell, George (2006). The Greco-Persian Wars. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-929983-8.
- Crawford, Osbert Guy Stanhope (1955). Said and Done: The Autobiography of an Archaeologist. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
- Dore, Lyn (2001). "Once the War Is Over". In Freeman, P.W.M.; Pollard, A. Fields of Conflict: Progress and Prospect in Battlefield Archaeology. David Brown Book Co. pp. 285–286. ISBN 978-1-84171-249-9.. The article can be viewed at [2]
- Eikenberry, Lt. Gen. Karl W. (Summer 1996). "Take No Casualties". Parameters: US Army War College Quarterly XXVI (2): 109–118.
- Golding, William (2002). "The Hot Gates". The Sparta pages. Archived from the original on 20 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
- Green, Peter (1996). The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20313-5.
- Green, Peter; Greek History 480-431 B.C., the Alternative Version, University of Texas Press, (2006). p. 59 ISBN 0-292-71277-4
- Greswell, Edward (1827). Origines kalendariæ Hellenicæ. E. Duychinck, Collin & co.
- Herodotus; George Rawlinson (Translator) (2005). "The History of Herodotus: Polymnia". Greek Texts. Greek-Texts.com & Greece Http Ltd. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
- Herodotus; John M. Marincola (Contributor); Aubrey de Sélincourt (Translator) (2003). The Histories. penguin group (usa). ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2.
- Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51311-9.
- Lazenby, JF. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 (ISBN 0-85668-591-7)
- Lemprière, John (1862). A classical dictionary.
- Macan, Reginald Walter. "Herodotus: The Seventh, Eighth & Ninth Books with Introduction and Commentary: Commentary on Herodotus, Histories, book 7, chapter 228". The Perseus Digital Library (Tufts University). pp. section 8. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
- Marozzi, Justin (2008). The Way of Herodotus: Travels with the Man Who Invented History. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81621-0.
- Merivale, J.K. (1833). From the Greek Anthology by the Late Rev. Robert Bland, and Others: A New Edition: Comprising the Fragments of Early Lyric Poetry, With Specimens of All the Poets Included in Meleager's Garland. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman; and John Murray.
- Miller, Frank (w, a). 300 (1999), Dark Horse Comics
- Paton, W.R. (Editor and Translator) (1918). The Greek Anthology. W. Heineman.
- Plutarch. "Leonidas, Son of Anaxandridas". Moralia: Apophthegmata Laconica: as published in Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1931. Bill Thayer. Retrieved 2007-10-26.
- Plutarch. "Gorgo". Moralia: Apophthegmata Lacaenarum: as published in Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1931. Bill Thayer. Retrieved 2007-10-26.
- Pressfield, Steven (1998). Gates of Fire: An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae. Doubleday. ISBN 1407066595.
- Robinson, C.E. (2007). Hellas – A Short History of Ancient Greece. Pantheon Books. ISBN 1-4067-6699-2.
- Ruskin, John (1894). "Part VIII: Of Ideas of Relation – I. of Invention Formal: Chapter I: The Law of Help". The Complete Works: Modern Painters: Volume the Fifth. New York: Bryan, Taylor and Company.
- Strachey, Edward (February 1871). "The Soldiers' Duty". The Contemporary Review (London: Strahan & Co) XVI: 480–485.
- Tegopoulos, G.; A. Phytrakis (1988). Elliniko Lexico (Greek Dictionary). Athens: Armonia.
- Tung, Douglas S.; Tung, Teresa K. (2010). 36 Stratagems Plus: Illustrated by International Cases. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1-4269-2806-8.
Further reading[edit]
- Campbell, George (1889). The History of Herodotus: Translated into English: Vol. II. London: MacMillan and Co., Limited.
- Cartledge, Paul (2006). Thermopylae: The Battle That Changed the World. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press. ISBN 1-58567-566-0.
- Matthews, Rupert (2006). The Battle of Thermopylae: A Campaign in Context. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing. ISBN 1-86227-325-1.
- Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989
- Kraft, John C.; Rapp, George; Szemler, George J.; Tziavos, Christos; Kase, Edward W. (July 1987). "The pass at Thermopylae, Greece". Journal of Field Archaeology 14 (2): 181–98. doi:10.2307/530139. ISSN 0093-4690.
- Finley, Moses (1972). "Introduction". Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner). Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044039-9.
- Barkworth, Peter R. (1993). "The Organization of Xerxes' Army". Iranica Antiqua. XXVII: 149–167. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
- Morris, Ian Macgregor (2000). "To Make a New Thermopylae: Hellenism, Greek Liberation, and the Battle of Thermopylae". Greece & Rome 47 (2): 211–230. doi:10.1093/gr/47.2.211.
- Sacks, Kenneth S. (1976). "Herodotus and the Dating of the Battle of Thermopylae". The Classical Quarterly 26 (2): 232–248. doi:10.1017/S0009838800033127. JSTOR 638269.
- Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους = History of the Greek nation volume Β', Athens 1971
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of Thermopylae. |
- EDSITEment Lesson Plan: 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae: Herodotus' Real History (from the National Endowment for the Humanities)
- Lendering, Jona (1996-2007). "Herodotus' twenty-second logos: Thermopylae". Livius articles on ancient history. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
- The Five Great Battles of Antiquity by David L. Smith, Symposion Lectures, 30 June 2006.
- Modern monument at siu.edu
- Spartan burial mound at coloradocollege.edu
Coordinates: 38°48′0″N 22°32′0″E / 38.80000°N 22.53333°E


text:
Save Money by Getting Your Financing Approved Before Visiting a Dealer.
Clifton Motor Co
1819 S Beckley Ave
Dallas, Texas, 75224
You are in good hands when you visit Clifton Motor Co. We can help you in choosing the right vehicle that fits your preferences. Our excited sales colleagues are knowledgeable and here to help you in seeking the best car and payment for you. Clifton Motor Co has grown to be Dallas's most recognized spot for used vehicles of any type. Our selection of cars is great for picking the perfect vehicle for you. No matter what you may need, Clifton Motor Co can assist you in getting any car or truck. Clifton Motor Co of Dallas at 1819 S Beckley Ave, Dallas, Texas 75224 is the place to go when you are planning to purchase a vehicle.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Kate Maddox of B2BOnline reports today on a new white paper by Slack Barshinger and SearchChannel that projects revenue from B2B vertical search engines will reach $1 billion by 2009.
Entitled "The Emerging Opportunity in Vertical Search," the white paper analyzes 38 B2B vertical search engines serving two dozen industries, including Business.com, SearchFinance, ThomasNet and Zibb.
According to the report, the number of B2B vertical search engines grew by 26% in the past six months.
Meet Your Favorite Search Engine Watch Contributors
Many of SEW's leading expert contributors will be at ClickZ Live, the new online and digital marketing event kicking off in New York (March 31-April 3). Hear from the likes of:
Thom Craver,
Josh Braaten,
Lisa Barone,
Simon Heseltine,
Josh McCoy,
Lisa Raehsler,
Greg Jarboe,
Dan Cristo,
Joseph Kerschbaum,
John Gagnon,
Eric Enge and more!


text:
Tester (DWH / SQL) - Banking - East Sussex - Up to £400pd
Our Client, an investment bank, are currently looking for a Technical Tester to work in their East Sussex Office, on a long-term contract basis.
The successful candidate will have the following technical competencies:
* Strong Testing Background
* Data-Warehousing Experience
* SQL Server (2005) Knowledge
Excellent communication skills required.
If you are interested and meet the above requirements please send me your latest C.V and I'll call you to discuss in further detail.
To find out more about Orgtel please visit www.orgtel.com


text:
Music Observed |
What people are saying - Write a review
We haven't found any reviews in the usual places.
Related books
India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy Ramachandra Guha No preview available - 2008 |
Other editions - View all
References from web pages
JSTOR: Music Observed
Music Observed. By ah Fox Strangways. The Selection made by Steuart Wilson. pp. 235. (Methuen, London, 1936) 6s. It is embarrassing for a man to be talked ...
links.jstor.org/ sici?sici=0027-4224(193701)18%3A1%3C73%3AMO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0
Music and Letters
Whoever would test that has only to read ' Music Observed.' It. is a selection of his writings in ... So I turn back to ' Music Observed ' and particularly ...
ml.oxfordjournals.org/ cgi/ reprint/ XX/ 4/ 343.pdf


text:
This form is for reviews ONLY. Please refrain from advertising. All advertisements will be removed by staff, so save us all some time and don't post them. If you are an owner or manager, BarFinder.com does have a wide array or advertisiment solutions. Visit the owner page for more info. You can also post event announcements in the forums and in your calendar for other members to see.
You are not logged in. You can still post a review but it will be posted as Guest. Become a member, it's FREE - JOIN NOW or LOGIN then post your review.
3rd Down (Chicago, IL)
All Star Lounge (Bridgeview, IL)
Bohica Bar & Grill Incorporated (Chicago, IL)
Brown Jug Inn (Summit, IL)
Caballo Local Saloon (Chicago, IL)
Clancys Public House (Burbank, IL)
Clowns Alley (Chicago, IL)
Compu Tap Incorporated (Summit, IL)
Contractors Pub (Chicago, IL)
Daddyos Incorporated (Summit, IL)
Delta Lounge (Burbank, IL)
Dickies Saloon (Burbank, IL)
Four Points Sheraton (Chicago, IL)
Georges Too (Lyons, IL)
Guide's Tap (Chicago, IL)
Idle Hour Lounge (Chicago, IL)
Illinois Bar & Grill Midway Airport (Chicago, IL)
J & J Lounge (Chicago, IL)
Karolina Polka Club (Chicago, IL)
Kolmar Lounge (Chicago, IL)
La Duena (Summit, IL)
Last Call Lounge (Chicago, IL)
Lyons Cave (Lyons, IL)
Maggie McGuires (Burbank, IL)
Marlins (Lyons, IL)
McCaffertys Pub (Lyons, IL)
Midway Catering & Banquet Hall (Chicago, IL)
Paps Tap (Chicago, IL)
Patricks Tavern (Chicago, IL)
Pelfrey Vivian (Summit, IL)
Pigiron Incorporated (Burbank, IL)
Redmond's Pub (Chicago, IL)
Reggies Lounge Limited (Chicago, IL)
Ricky DS Place (Lyons, IL)
Solofras Sports Bar & Grill (Chicago, IL)
Sports Time Bar & Grill (Bridgeview, IL)
Studio 63 (Summit, IL)
Summit Meeting Bar & Grill (Summit, IL)
The Chicago Bear Sports Bar & Grill (Chicago, IL)
The Krash Incorporated (Bridgeview, IL)
Tic N Tin Tap (Burbank, IL)
Toms Tap (Chicago, IL)
Top Flight Restaurant (Chicago, IL)
Touch Of Class Lounge (Chicago, IL)
Town Tap (Summit, IL)
Two Amigos Incorporated (Summit Argo, IL)
Uncle Johns Place (Summit, IL)
Waterworks (Lyons, IL)
Wertelkas Tavern (Chicago, IL)
Zofia & Leon Lounge Incorporated (Bridgeview, IL)


text:
US 4285090 A Resumen In combination, a cylindrical cold pressure fusing roller for an electrophotocopying machine and a section of wire helically strung across the surface of the cold pressure fusing roller for removing electrostatic toner particles from the cylindrical surface of the cold pressure fusing roller.
Reclamaciones(10) 1. In combination, a cylindrical roller, a section of wire helically strung across the cylindrical surface of said roller for removing particles from the cylindrical surface of said roller, and a pair of discs flanking the ends of said roller for providing continuous linear contact between the section of wire and said rollers, said discs having a diameter less than the diameter of said roller, and wherein said section of wire is fixedly secured to the peripheral surfaces of said discs.
2. The combination of claim 1, wherein the section of wire wraps helically around said roller between about 1/4 and 1/360 of a turn.
3. The combination of claim 1, further including a second section of wire helically strung across the surface of the roller for removing particles missed by the first section of wire.
4. The combination of claim 3, wherein the second section of wire is circumferentially spaced about 20
5. The combination of claim 1, wherein the section of wire wraps helically around said roller about 1/8 of a turn.
6. The combination of claim 1, wherein said roller comprises a cold pressure fusing roller and wherein said particles comprise electrostatic toner particles.
7. The combination of claim 6, wherein the section of wire wraps helically around said cold pressure fusing roller between about 1/4 and 1/360 of a turn.
8. The combination of claim 6, further including a second section of wire helically strung across the surface of the cold pressure fusing roller for removing electrostatic toner particles missed by the first section of wire.
9. The combination of claim 8, wherein the second section of wire is circumferentially spaced about 20 degrees from the first section of wire.
10. The combination of claim 6, wherein the section of wire wraps helically around said cold pressure fusing roller about 1/4 of a turn.
Descripción In describing the preferred embodiment of the instant invention, reference is made to the drawings, wherein there is seen in FIG. 1 a pair of cold pressure fixing rollers 10 and 12 secured to shafts 11 and 13 respectively. The upper shaft 11 is rotatably mounted in side frames 14 and l6 while the bottom shaft 13 is rotabably mounted in side frames 18 and 20. The side frames 14, 16, 18 and 20 are all secured to a housing for an electrostatic copying machine, not shown, in a manner well known to those skilled in the art. Each of the rollers 10 and l2 is flanked by a pair of truncated, stationary discs 22, 23, 25 and 27 through which the shafts 11 and 13 rotate. The left side discs 22 and 23 are adjustably secured to the side frames 14 and l6 by means of set screws 24 seated in arcuate slots 29 formed in the side frames 14 and l6. As seen in FIGS. 1 and 2, each of the rollers 10 and 12 is provided with a section of music wire 26 and 28 respectively on the exit side of the rollers. The music wires 26 and 28 wrap around their respective rollers helically about 1/4 turn (90 contact with the rollers. The music wires 26 and 28 are secured to the discs 22 by means of screws 30. The diameters of the discs 22 are slightly less than the diameters of the rollers 10 and 12, as best seen in FIG. 4, thereby assuring the desired continuous linear contact between the wires and their respective rollers. A catcher tray 32 is secured to the side frames 14 and 16 with screws 34 to prevent any of the toner particles removed by the upper wire section 26 from dropping onto the fused copy paper (indicated by arrows 36 and 38 in FIG. 2). If desired a second catcher tray may similarly be added for use with the lower roller 12 and wire 28. An open threaded aperture 40 is shown adjacent each of the screws 30 so that a second wire may be added to each roller, as explained hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 3. Additionally, each of the left side discs 22 and 23 includes an opening 42 in its periphery to permit insertion therein of a lever arm to apply a torque to the discs 22 and 23 to thereby provide the appropriate, predetermined tension to the wires 26 and 28. In FIG. 3 is seen an alternative embodiment of the instant invention, wherein an upper roller 110 and a lower roller 112 is each provided with a pair of wire sections. Wire sections 126 and 127 are circumferentially spaced about 20 wire sections 128 and 129 are also circumferentially spaced about 20 131 are seated in the threaded apertures 40 (best seen in FIG. 1) for securing wire sections 127 and 129. With a second wire on each roller, the chance for developer material to remain on the roller is minimized. All other elements of the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 are identical to those shown in FIG. 1. Music wire is the preferred form of wire for use in the instant invention, owing to the fact that it possesses enduring mechanical properties, including hardness and elasticity. Music wire is thus able to withstand any lack of concentricity or cylindricity in the fixing rollers. Since even the best fixing rollers, despite elaborate grinding procedures, are eccentric to some degree, and not completely cylindrical from end to end, music wire is preferred for virtually all types and qualities of fixing rollers. Although the wire sections are shown as making about a 1/8 turn about the rollers, the turn for any given wire section can vary between about 1/4 and 1/360 of a turn. This wrapping relationship between the wire section and the roller assures, together with the ends of the wire sections being secured at points within the circumference of the fixing rollers, continuous, linear contact between the wire sections and the fixing rollers. While music wire is preferred for the wire sections, other materials that may be used include stainless steel, plastic, leather and copper. Although most wire sections are circular in cross section, it may prove advantageous to employ a wire section which is square or rectangular in cross section. While the wire sections have been shown situated at about the 3 o'clock position on the exit side of the pressure fixing rollers, they may be located on the entry side also but with less advantage. Obviously, the wire section should not cross over the top of the fusing roller in order to obviate problems with previously removed toner particles falling back on the roller, but may otherwise be situated almost anywhere relative to the roller and depending on the amount of turn in the wire. For example, if one were using only a 1/360 turn in the wire, the wire should not be situated near the top of the roller, but rather closer to the middle of the roller, and preferably split on either side of the 3 o'clock position. In general, it is preferred to locate the wire along the lower half of the roller. The adjustment in the tension of the wire sections is easily accomplished by slightly loosening the set screws 24, applying a torque to the discs 22 and 23 using a lever arm inserted in the holes to gain the desired tension, and then tightening the set screws 24. Obviously, if the paper passing through the fuser is an uncut web, having no separations therein, it is superfluous to have any wire sections on the lower roller. Various other modifications, alternative constructions and equivalents may be employed without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention, as exemplified in the foregoing description and defined in the following claims. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a cleaning device for a pair of cold pressure fusing rollers according to the instant invention; FIG. 2 is a sectional view taken on the vertical plane indicated by the line 2--2 in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is identical to FIG. 1 except it shows two wires for each roller; FIG. 4 is a fragmented, axial view of the cleaner and upper roller seen in FIG. 1. The instant invention relates to electrostatic copying machines, and more particularly to a cleaning device for cold pressure fusing rollers in such machines. Conventionally, in the direct or indirect electrostatic coping process, for the fixing of a developed image formed of a proper toner on a permanent record carrier, various fixing processes may be used. According to a known fixing process, the permanent record carrier (such as a paper sheet) is passed between a heated fixing roller and a pressure roller which is in engagement with the fixing roller. During this step the powder of the toner image is melted on the sheet and is caused to adhere thereto. This process, however, still has certain drawbacks. A portion of the toner sticks to the circumferential surface of the fixing roller which contacts the toner image; these adhered residues then are transferred to the consecutive record carriers, thus causing soiling thereof. In case the temperature of the fixing roller is too low, unmelted powder adheres thereto and is pressed, in an offset-like manner, onto the successive record carriers. If, on the contrary, the temperature of the fixing roller is too high, melted powder may adhere thereto and again, soil the successive sheets. In order to prevent such an offset soiling of the permanent record carriers, it is necessary to carefully control the fixing temperature. Such a control of the fixing temperature, however, is fraught with difficulties. More recently, due to the availability of new toners, another fixing process has been introduced wherein the toner image is fixed without the use of heat by means of generating a sufficiently high pressure between the two rollers. In this process too, after the pressure fixing, a certain quantity of toner remains on the cylindrical surface of the fixing roller which had contacted the toner image; these toner portions have to be removed as well, since the residual toner adhering to the fixing roller would again lead to the above-noted offset soiling of the record carriers. It is a common practice to provide a device to remove the excess toner accumulated on the cold pressure fixing rollers, one such device being a scraper blade. However, there are certain problems attendant with the use of scraper blades, such as annoying squeaks and insufficient wear characteristics. In those fixing roller assemblies where the rollers are skewed, i.e. cross each other, there is posed an additional problem of conforming the scraper blade to the surface of the roller, making skewed fixing rollers especially difficult to clean. The foregoing problems are all overcome by the instant invention. Accordingly, the instant invention provides, in combination, a cylindrical, cold pressure fusing roller, and a section of wire helically strung across the surface of the cold pressure fusing roller for removing electrostatic toner particles from the cylindrical surface of the cold pressure fusing roller. Citas de patentes
Citada por
Girar |


text:
- Dec 26:
- Prosecutors accuse psychiatrist of bias in James Holmes evaluation
- Dec 18:
- Man permanently disabled in Aurora theater shooting sues Cinemark
- Aug 24:
- Charity drive honoring Aurora theater victim heals scars of all sorts
- Jun 18:
- Aurora theater shooting victim backs Biden in call for new gun laws
- Feb 13:
- Feds announce $2.9 million grant to aid services for Aurora theater shooting victims
- Jan 17:
- Century Aurora theater reopens with ceremony, showing of "The Hobbit"
- Jan 16:
- Aurora shooting survivor recalls July 20 horror in visit to remade Theater 9
- Jan 14:
- Vacant since mass shooting, renewed Aurora theater to reopen Thursday
- Jan 8:
- Aurora theater shooting victim Caleb Medley to go home from long-term care
- Jan 2:
- Victims' famlies of Aurora theater shooting protest remembrance event
- Nov 4:
- Father of Aurora theater shooting victim latest to file suit
- Hospital write-offs exceed $2 million in theater tragedy
- Nov 2:
- Youngest victim's father files latest Aurora theater lawsuit
- Mar 14:
- Judge cancels death penalty motions hearings in theater shooting case
- Mar 11:
- Theater shooting jurors won't visit Colorado's death row, judge rules
- Mar 10:
- James Holmes' lawyers take Fox News subpoena fight to Supreme Court
- Holmes' lawyers want high court ruling on sources
- Feb 28:
- Judge rules James Holmes' family can't offer opinion on death penalty
- Feb 27:
- Judge sets October trial for James Holmes in Aurora theater shooting
- Feb 24:
- James Holmes insanity case poised to become a "battle of the experts"
- Feb 19:
- Judge orders new psychiatric exam for James Holmes
- Feb 10:
- Judge allows evidence from James Holmes' iPhone, e-mails at trial
- Ruling due on Holmes' phone, other evidence issues
- Jan 31:
- Defense in Aurora theater case pushing for Fox reporter's testimony
- Jan 29:
- Judge limits what Holmes jury is told of execution
- Jan 27:
- Closed-door hearings in Aurora theater shooting case begin Monday
Ken Feinberg, special master for the $5 million Aurora Victim Relief Fund, will meet with victims of the movie theater shooting in Aurora Oct. 11 and 12 and plans to announce the distribution plan Oct. 15.
The office of Gov. John Hickenlooper also announced an Oct. 15 deadline for making donations online to the Aurora Victim Relief Fund through Community First Foundation's website, GivingFirst.org.
Money can still be donated to the fund until Nov. 15 by sending a check to the Aurora Victims Relief Fund, in care of the Governor's Office, 136 State Capitol, Denver, CO 80203.
Feinberg told the Post he expects to make final payment determinations by Nov. 15, with disbursements to follow as quickly as possible.
Feinberg will hold private, one-on-one meetings with victims and their families Nov. 1-9.
Electa Draper: 303-954-1276, email@example.com or twitter.com/electadraper


text:
Has Suzuki short-changed Maruti? In a word, ôYes.ö The announcement of the Gujarat plant has left Marutiĺs shareholders with the short-end of the stick. Maruti is funding the entire capital expenditure and reimbursing the cost of manufacturing without having any shareholding in the company. Hereĺs how:
* Suzuki Japan will bring in about Rs 3,000 crore to set up the first phase of production at Gujarat, which is being funded almost entirely by Maruti. In 2012-13, Maruti paid Rs 2,450 crore as royalty and an additional Rs 136 crore as dividend to Suzuki. Almost Rs 1,200 crore of royalty is accrued to Suzuki for the first half of 2013-14 sales.
* Suzuki Gujarat will invest in the first phase of capex. The remaining phases will be undertaken from the margin Suzuki Gujarat makes on selling cars to Maruti. Effectively, Maruti also funds the remaining capacities at Gujarat, and yet has no ownership of it.
* Suzuki Gujarat will pay Maruti lease rentals for the use of Gujarat land. Maruti will reimburse Suzuki for this lease rental through the cost of car manufacture. In effect, Suzuki will have free use of Maruti land in Gujarat.
Contrary to claims made in the announcement, it is financially more efficient for Maruti to invest in the Gujarat plant than Suzuki Gujarat. Maruti contends that Suzuki Japan is making the investment in the Gujarat plant because it has a lower cost of capital than Maruti. This means Maruti gets better returns investing its Rs 7,500 crore cash surplus in India than Suzuki Japan gets by investing its excess liquidity in Japan. But if Maruti invested its Rs 7,500 crore in the business instead of investing it in securities, it would get a much higher return, because Marutiĺs RoI from core operations is much higher than its investment yield. Thus, Maruti shareholders lose out on the incremental returns that investing in core operations would generate.
The Gujarat plant announcement is just another action that Suzuki Japan has taken that is far more in its own interest than in Marutiĺs. Suzuki Japan has steadfastly doubled its royalty payout percentages over a five-year


text:
Join Our Mailing List! |
FBB announces two new small grant recipients
Foundation Beyond Belief periodically awards small grants to programs doing unique, focused, necessary work that is line with FBB's mission. We're excited to announce two new education-focused small-grant awardees for the first quarter of 2013: the Science Cubed program of Black Atheists of America (BAAm) and Black Skeptics of Los Angeles' First in the Family Scholarship Fund. Click here to give a donation in support of Science Cubed:
Click here to give a donation in support of the First in the Family Scholarship Fund: |


text:
Click on a label to read posts from that part of the world.
Photo of the day - I break for tanks
Road signs are designed to be universal so that anywhere in the world drivers can be aware of local driving rules and potential hazards. Yet this sign in South Korea isn't something you'll see on most roads, setting the speed limit for trucks as well as tanks at 20 kilometers per hour. Flickr user BaboMike guesses it's a remnant from the war, as tank traffic isn't so common these days.
Seen any unusual signs on the road? Add your photos to the Gadling Flickr pool and we may use it for a future Photo of the Day.
Filed under: Photos, Asia, South Korea, Photo of the Day
Reader Comments (Page 1 of 1)
Andwcnors jhon Aug 5th 2011 1:22AM
The only risk you are taking is destroying your beneficial bacteria. The fish themselves will not be directly harmed.
margaret blount Aug 5th 2011 4:55AM
I'm ready for a new water heater and I'm considering a tankless water heater.How expensive are they and do you think they are worth it.
Frank Aug 5th 2011 8:02AM
You'll find the same signs in parts of Germany. - mostly in the areas where the US military bases are
Angella Aug 5th 2011 8:06AM
Agree, very cool pic..... I assume if I was their one would wonder hmmm I must be loss


text:
chicken scalapini
Yield: 1 serving
Community Recipe from
Share Your Personal Recipes
You can now share your personal recipes with the MyRecipes Community by making a new or existing recipe "Public".
Go to My Recipe File
- 1 bag(s) chicken
- 2 lemons
- veal, chicken, or pork scallopine, for four
- salt
- freshly ground pepper
- all-purpose flour
- 6 tablespoons olive oil
- 6 tablespoons unsalted butter
- 2 garlic cloves, peeled
- 10 large green olives, cut away from the pit in wide strips
- ¼ cup small capers in brine, drained
- ½ cup dry white wine
- 1 cup chicken stock, or canned reduced-sodium chicken broth
- Squeeze the juice from 1 1/2 of the lemons and reserve. Lay the remaining lemon half flat side down and cut into very thin slices with a paring knife. Remove the pits and set the lemon slices aside.
- Season the scallopine with salt and pepper. Dredge in flour to coat both sides lightly and tap off excess flour. Heat 3 tablespoons of the olive oil and 2 tablespoons of the butter in a wide, heavy skillet over medium heat until the butter is foaming. Add as many of the scallopine as will fit without touching and cook until golden brown on the underside, about 3 minutes. Flip and cook until the second side is lightly browned, about 2 minutes. Remove and drain on paper towels. Repeat with remaining scallopine.
- Remove all scallopine from the pan. Pour off the fat and carefully wipe out the skillet with a wad of paper towels. Pour in the remaining 3 tablespoons olive oil and add the remaining 4 tablespoons butter, the garlic and lemon slices. Cook, scraping the bottom of the skillet, until the garlic is golden brown, about 3 minutes. Scoop out the lemon slices and set aside. Scatter the olives and capers into the skillet and cook, stirring gently, until they begin to sizzle, about 4 minutes. Pour in the wine, bring to a vigorous boil and cook until the wine is reduced in volume by half. Pour in the chicken stock, bring to a boil and cook until slightly syrupy, about 4 minutes. Return the scallopine to the skillet, turning the cutlets in the sauce until they are warmed through and coated with sauce. Swirl in the parsley and divide the scallopine among warm plates. Spoon the sauce over them, including some of the capers and olives in each spoonful. Decorate the tops of the scallopine with the reserved lemon slices
- 2 tablespoons Italian parsley, chopped
November 2012
This recipe is a personal recipe added by davidlehker and has not been tested or endorsed by MyRecipes.
chicken scalapini Recipe at a Glance
- COURSE: Main Dishes
- CUISINE: Italian
- MAIN INGREDIENT: Poultry
More Recipes for Main Dishes
Best Carrot Cake
Southern Living -
Classic Beef Pot Roast
Cooking Light -
Classic Baked Macaroni and Cheese
Southern Living
Find out what we've got cooking...
Get our Free Weekly Specials Newsletter filled with our favorite recipes, seasonal menus, and special features.
We Respect Your Privacy. Privacy Policy


text:
The Delta State University Department of Music will present Courtney Wier in her senior clarinet recital on Nov. 21 at 1:30 p.m. in the Recital Hall of the Bologna Performing Arts Center. Wier, a clarinet major from Olive
Category Archives: College of Arts and Sciences
The Delta State University Wind Ensemble will present the Annual Fall Concert on Nov. 17 at 3:30 p.m. in the Bologna Performing Arts Center on the main stage. Under the direction of Dr. Joe D. Moore, band director and
Faculty from Delta State University's Department of Art will present work produced during the past year in the annual Faculty Art Exhibition to be featured in the Wright Art Center Gallery on campus. The exhibit will open
Many know that October is Breast Cancer Awareness month but it is also recognized as Arts and Humanities month. The Mississippi Humanities Council celebrates each year by awarding one Humanities faculty member at each
Delta State's Department of Music presents Woodwind Chamber Ensembles in concert on Nov. 6 at 7:30 p.m. in the Bologna Performing Arts Center Recital Hall. The concert will feature Delta State's Clarinet Duo, Saxophone


text:
Casino magnate Sheldon Adelson and his wife for a second time have given $500,000 to a Super PAC supporting Rabbi Shmuley Boteach's bid for Congress.
The Adelsons gave the money to the Patriot Prosperity PAC, The Wall Street Journal reported, citing people with knowledge of the gift, after having given the same amount earlier this year. They also gave $10,000 directly to the Boteach campaign.
Boteach is running as the Republican candidate in New Jersey's 9th Congressional District against eight-term incumbent Rep. Bill Pascrell (D-N.J.).
Boteach, who once was affiliated with the Chabad movement, bills himself as "America's Rabbi." He hosts a show on TLC called "Shalom in the Home" and is the author of several books, including "Kosher Sex," "Kosher Adultery," "The Kosher Sutra" and, most recently, "Kosher Jesus."
Adelson has said multiple times that a candidate's support for Israel is critical to whether he gives and how much. He has given $10 million to a Super PAC supporting Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney, and earlier in the campaign put $20 million toward Newt Gingrich's GOP primary bid.
Super PACs can raise unlimited sums from corporations, unions and other groups, as well as individuals, and indirectly support a political candidate. They cannot by law coordinate with the candidate's official campaign.
- By Lion
- 17 Oct 2012
The least the honorable candidate from New Jersey should do is cease using his rabbinic title when running for office.
thank you
Your talkback has been submitted successfully.
If selected for publication, it will appear as soon as possible on Haaretz.com.
If selected for publication, it will appear as soon as possible on Haaretz.com.


text:
27-02-2012 | |
Angelina Jolie
Moderator's note:
• In order to improve site performance, long threads that are draining our loading time will be closed and we are going to be periodically starting new threads. This should help pages load faster. • Please remember that not everyone is on a fast connection, or has a large screen, and keep your picture sizes to 800 pixels or less in the largest dimension. This will also help with page load speed. • Please refrain from posting the same images as contained in the archived threads (eg in the old closed thread). • Please remember to stay on topic... All off topic discussion will be removed. • Please do not power post eg make empty posts with no Info/questions/Images - Empty posts cause threads to grow rapidly and is a nuisance to those who subscribe to many threads. Please take any private conversations to PMs or Profile Comments. • This is a continuation thread, the old thread is Here Thank You ___________ celebrity-paradise
Stylish since 1986 Last edited by HeatherAnne; 27-02-2012 at 07:52 AM. |
27-02-2012 | |
Mr. Magic
More from ONTD
Our existence is not worthy without your presence. Join the fun!
(IT'S GOING DOWN) MENS Runway Model Showlists - Mens RTW F/W 14.15 |


text:
45% Off TicketsValid from 02 January 2014 until 31 March 2014 |
Now£12.50 | Save upto45% | Buy |
It's been an American institution for decades. Now, Ripley's Believe It or Not has become a lavish, eye-popping, mind blowing exhibition in the heart of London's Piccadilly Circus. Book your Ripley's Believe It or Not tickets here - you won't believe how brilliant it is.


text:
BeerAdvocate on your phone?! True story. Try the beta now.
Tickets for American Craft Beer Fest are on sale now! (May 30 & 31 in Boston, MA)
Yellow Wolf Imperial IPA - Alameda Brewhouse
Displayed for educational use only; do not reuse. |
Ratings: 127 | Reviews: 68 | Show All Ratings:
Reviews by DrinkSlurm:
More User Reviews:
3.81/5 rDev -1.3%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 3.75 | feel: 3.75 | overall: 3.75
Sitting in the Whole Foods on one of our many inversion days ,2014. I have had the Wolf before but the dreariness of the day made me think of the lone wolf I happened upon in the Frank Church. The beer pours beautifully in the glass, white foam, bright orange fades into amber coloration. Abundant carbonation, solid lacing dripping slowly into the bright liquid. Aroma great, very pleasing to the senses. Mouth feel subtle, taste certainly grape fruit slightly orange , the bitters just a light bite. It has my palette searching for a bit more floral oil, not there. Not as much mystery as you would think a wolf would need to survive in the micro IPA world of today. Very good beer, I might be howling if the complexity were there. A very strong bark. Highly recommend. Cheers!
Serving type: bottle
01-26-2014 19:32:11 | More by Goliveidaho
Alberta (Canada)
3.76/5 rDev -2.6%
look: 3.5 | smell: 3.75 | taste: 3.75 | feel: 4 | overall: 3.75
Enjoyed on tap at Beer Revolution in Calgary, the token IPA/double IPA finish to the evening. Quite light for a DIPA, a paler shade of honey-amber with a reasonable amount of whitish foam. Of course IPA and DIPA fall along a continuum and this brew smells about as aggressive as some of the stronger IPAs I've sampled, mixed citrus hops (grapefruit, orange, lime) along with a quasi-musky sweetness like old cotton candy or table syrup and some green weedy notes. The palate reflects this closely, with a sweet cotton candy or toasted marshmallow caramel malt backbone and fairly potent grapefruit citrus rind, pine, currant/Cascade hop character, and floral elements all vying for attention. I also get some old country green grass and vegetable peel flavors on the back end. Fairly thick and chewy as per the style with a semi-oily mouth feel and a vibrant carbonation. The ABV is too high but other than that this would be a reasonable session option for hopheads. Juicy and sweet yet sufficiently bitter and piney. Almost a DIPA prototype, albeit on the lighter end of the spectrum.
Serving type: on-tap
01-11-2014 22:36:07 | More by CalgaryFMC
British Columbia (Canada)
4.38/5 rDev +13.5%
look: 4 | smell: 4 | taste: 4.5 | feel: 4.5 | overall: 4.5
A: Pours a light orange to amber colour with a thin foam that dissipates somewhat quickly.
S: Floral and obvious grapefruit.
T: Well balanced grapefruit and oranges, other citrus and pine needles. Just as bitter as you'd want an IPA to be. Awesome to me.
M: Good carbonation with a slight buildup in bitterness.
O: This is the kind of IPA I would session without hesitation even though on the strong side, i.e. high ABV. Ranks pretty high on my IPA chart. Somewhat comparable to Sierra Nevada's Torpedo even though it has a bitter after taste. Way up there on my IPA list.
Serving type: bottle
01-04-2014 19:33:42 | More by Niceroad77
4.06/5 rDev +5.2%
look: 4.25 | smell: 4.25 | taste: 4 | feel: 4 | overall: 4
Cellar temperature in a tulip.
Yellow Wolf is a golden yellow-orange and comes with a rocky three-finger white head which clings to the walls of the glass in clumps after it dies down. An abundance of cloudy sediment lies at the bottom of the bottle.
The aroma has really good citrus in it - lemon and orange, I think. Also some dank hops and a touch of fragrant pine.
It has a fairly light flavor for a DIPA, and pretty low bitterness. There's some tangy citrus at first, and then a dry, malty, biscuity aftertaste. There's a little bit of astringent pine in that finish, too.This is tasty... just not INTENSELY tasty, which might be a good thing for people who don't like out-of-control hoppiness and bitterness.
The feel is sort of middle-of-the-road, with somewhat mild carbonation.
A domesticated, but nevertheless enjoyable DIPA that would be a good introduction to the style for the uninitiated.
Serving type: bottle
12-30-2013 23:17:55 | More by Kuaff
Alberta (Canada)
3.96/5 rDev +2.6%
look: 3.75 | smell: 4 | taste: 4 | feel: 3.75 | overall: 4
650ml bottle. Something about dogs and the colour yellow just doesn't sit right with me.
This beer pours a rather hazy medium golden yellow hue, with three fingers of puffy, rocky, and somewhat creamy bone-white head, which leaves a few swaths of chunky splattered lace around the glass as it evenly subsides.
It smells of sweet caramel malt, toffee pudding, orange cream, orange rind, and juicy orange/grapefruit flesh, a hint of pine resin, and a bit of cotton candy. The taste is more rounded, and bitter in its hoppy fruitiness - orange, lemon, lime, and grapefruit all representin' - with some pithy pine needles, grainy, and surprisingly dry bready caramel malt, and a mild floral, perfumed booziness rousing as it slowly warms.
The carbonation is frisky in its genial frothiness, the body on the lee side of a standard medium weight, and a tad too snakebitten by the prominent hop interference to be deemed anything other than basic in its smoothness. It finishes generally dry, the sweet fruity promise of the aroma now thoroughly morphed into a lingering citrus peel and pine cone bitterness.
A pleasant enough DIPA, for those hopheads in the house, myself counted. The malt puts in a bit of subterfuge up front, then easily cedes helm control to the big west coast hop bitterness, all the while the biggish ABV doing well to stay in the shadows, biding its time to spring on me, once this bomber is duly killed.
Serving type: bottle
12-29-2013 03:43:07 | More by biboergosum
3.73/5 rDev -3.4%
look: 4.5 | smell: 3.75 | taste: 3.5 | feel: 4.25 | overall: 3.75
Poured from a bottle into a New Belgium Globe. Bottled on ... 2012. The rest of the date rubbed off. This is old.
Appearance: An average pour produced a 2'' head. Color is amber. Lacing was quite nice.
Smell: Smells fairly strongly of sweet malts, but also has an orange smell as well. A lot of orange given the age.
Taste: Taste is sweet malts transitioning to hop bitterness and orange sweetness in the aftertaste. Flavor duration is short, with light-moderate sweetness, and moderate sour/bitterness.
Mouthfeel: Light-medium body, with a thin texture. Carbonation is soft to average, with a bittersweet finish. A nice light refreshing mouthfeel.
Overall: I don't know how this tastes good, being so old. Would love to try a fresh bottle!
Serving type: bottle
08-21-2013 00:05:07 | More by ChrisKayler
Yellow Wolf Imperial IPA from Alameda Brewhouse
out of 100
based on 127 ratings.


text:
Designer Caroline Noordijk has reinterpreted the basic kitchen knife into a multi-purpose tool. Without significantly changing the traditional shape, Noordijk packs functionality into the unused areas of the knife surface. Her basicKnives add a grater and herb scoop into the 6 inch cook's knife, a vegetable peeler into a 4 inch paring knife and a zest/decoration tool into a 3.5 inch paring knife.
[via The Kitchn]


text:
Advanced Search
Free Subscription to Campus Technology
Welcome to Campus Technology's article listing page for networking / wireless in higher education institutions.
Hands tied by budget cuts, Westmont College's first CIO has introduced the institution to cloud computing in an effort to enhance IT services without additional financial resources. Here Westmont CIO Reed A. Sheard shares details on four cloud-based projects he implemented to do just that.
InterDigital will launch a new wireless technology engineering contest in collaboration with the California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology at the University of California at San Diego.
eIQnetworks has released a beta version of a new security utility for maintaining "situational awareness." SecureVue Express is a free download with a five-node perpetual license that allows a security administrator to stay informed about security and compliance through multiple channels.
Xirrus will release a pair of new wireless arrays appropriate for dormitories and classrooms, which allows for increased deployment flexibility.
Juniper Networks has released a new access point designed specifically for high density WiFi environments, such as in a lecture hall filled with users on mobile devices.
University of Alabama Deputy CIO Scott Montgomery reveals how the institution is responding to the growing need for wireless connectivity on campus.
Faced with a surge in mobile devices, Utah State University and Morrisville State College have deployed cutting-edge wireless networks that act like air traffic-control systems, managing flow and optimizing performance.
Utah State University has gradually upgraded its wireless infrastructure and stuck with the same vendor it chose back in 2007 for a campus-wide wireless deployment.
Columbia College Chicago, a private arts and media college with 12,000 students, has upgraded its network to tap into dark fiber maintained by Sidera Networks.
The University of Tennessee at Knoxville is nearing completion of a campus-wide move to 802.11n wireless network.