text:
Report of the Panel on Solar Wind-Magnetosphere Interactions
The magnetosphere is a central part of the solar and space physics system. Its various regions interact globally in complex, nonlinear ways with each other, with the solar wind, and with the upper atmosphere. These interactions occur by a number of fundamental physical processes that operate throughout the universe. The resulting dynamic variations in the magnetospheric environment also have important practical consequences for a society that is increasingly reliant on ground- and space-based technological systems that are sensitive to Earth's space environment.
Significant progress has been made over the past decade in achieving the science objectives identified in the 2003 decadal survey for solar wind-magnetosphere interactions.1 This progress has been achieved through a powerful combination of tools, including new data from satellites launched during the decade or just before (e.g., Cluster, IMAGE, THEMIS, TWINS); analysis of data returned from earlier missions; data from instruments flown on non-NASA operational satellites; measurements from suborbital missions and from networks of ground-based observatories; greatly improved numerical simulations; analytical theory; and laboratory work.
For the coming decade, the Panel on Solar Wind-Magnetosphere Interactions (SWMI) identified a set of eight high-priority science goals for research in solar wind-magnetosphere interactions—goals that follow naturally from the progress that has been made and will contribute substantially toward accomplishing the decadal survey key science goals for solar and space physics identified in Chapter 1 of this report. These eight goals (which are not prioritized) are as follows:
SWMI Science Goal 1. Determine how the global and mesoscale structures in the magnetosphere respond to variable solar wind forcing.
1 National Research Council, The Sun to the Earth—and Beyond: A Decadal Research Strategy in Solar and Space Physics, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2003; and National Research Council, The Sun to the Earth—and Beyond: Panel Reports, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2003.
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Report of the Panel on Solar Wind-
Magnetosphere Interactions
The magnetosphere is a central part of the solar and space physics system. Its various regions interact
globally in complex, nonlinear ways with each other, with the solar wind, and with the upper atmosphere.
These interactions occur by a number of fundamental physical processes that operate throughout the uni-
verse. The resulting dynamic variations in the magnetospheric environment also have important practical
consequences for a society that is increasingly reliant on ground- and space-based technological systems
that are sensitive to Earth's space environment.
Significant progress has been made over the past decade in achieving the science objectives identified
in the 2003 decadal survey for solar wind-magnetosphere interactions.1 This progress has been achieved
through a powerful combination of tools, including new data from satellites launched during the decade
or just before (e.g., Cluster, IMAGE, THEMIS, TWINS); analysis of data returned from earlier missions; data
from instruments flown on non-NASA operational satellites; measurements from suborbital missions and
from networks of ground-based observatories; greatly improved numerical simulations; analytical theory;
and laboratory work.
For the coming decade, the Panel on Solar Wind-Magnetosphere Interactions (SWMI) identified a set of
eight high-priority science goals for research in solar wind-magnetosphere interactions—goals that follow
naturally from the progress that has been made and will contribute substantially toward accomplishing the
decadal survey key science goals for solar and space physics identified in Chapter 1 of this report. These
eight goals (which are not prioritized) are as follows:
WMI Science Goal 1. Determine how the global and mesoscale structures in the magnetosphere
respond to variable solar wind forcing.
National Research Council, The Sun to the Earth—and Beyond: A Decadal Research Strategy in Solar and Space Physics, The
National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2003; and National Research Council, The Sun to the Earth—and Beyond: Panel
Reports, The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., 2003.
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WMI Science Goal 2. Identify the controlling factors that determine the dominant sources of mag-
netospheric plasma.
WMI Science Goal 3. Understand how plasmas interact within the magnetosphere and at its boundaries.
WMI Science Goal 4. Establish how energetic particles are accelerated, transported, and lost.
WMI Science Goal 5. Discover how magnetic reconnection is triggered and modulated.
WMI Science Goal 6. Understand the origins and effects of turbulence and wave-particle interactions.
WMI Science Goal 7. Determine how magnetosphere-ionosphere-thermosphere coupling controls
system-level dynamics.
WMI Science Goal 8. Identify the structures, dynamics, and linkages in other planetary magneto-
spheric systems.
These are ambitious goals, and their accomplishment will require intelligent use of the variety of
research tools that are available. Achieving some of them will require new measurements from strategic
missions, either already under development (MMS and RBSP2) or to be started in the coming decade. Other
contributions toward accomplishing these goals will come from community-proposed Explorer missions,
suborbital flights, CubeSats, operational satellites, and instruments flown on commercial platforms as rides
of opportunity. Studies that combine data from the numerous existing spacecraft will elucidate important
aspects of global coupling, while analytical theory, laboratory studies, and especially powerful numerical
simulations will complement the various spacecraft measurements in a synergistic attack on the science
questions. However, because of budget constraints and as-yet immature technology, a number of critical
investigations must be deferred to a later decade, requiring investments in the coming decade in the areas
of technology innovation and development, as well as in ways to more effectively couple theory and data.
In this chapter, the SWMI panel advocates a coherent and balanced program of research in solar
wind-magnetosphere interactions based on a prioritized set of imperatives that will enable a cost-effective
approach to accomplishing the SWMI science goals. These imperatives are sorted into three categories:
(1) missions, (2) DRIVE-related initiatives, and (3) space weather. For simplicity, the panel assigned each
imperative to a single primary category, although some actually apply to multiple categories. The panel
prioritized the imperatives not only within but also across the three categories in order to identify the most
important and most cost-effective actions to accomplish its pressing science goals. The five overall SWMI
highest-priority imperatives that are developed in this chapter are the following:
WMI Imperative 1. Enhance the resources dedicated to the Explorer program and broaden the range
of cost categories.
WMI Imperative 2. Complete the strategic missions that are currently in development (MMS, RBSP/
BARREL) as cost-effectively as possible.
RBSP—the Radiation Belt Storm Probes mission—was launched successfully on August 30, 2012, shortly after the release of the
prepublication version of this report. The mission has since been renamed the Van Allen Probes.
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WMI Imperative 3. Initiate the development of a strategic mission, like MEDICI, to determine how
the magnetosphere-ionosphere-thermosphere system is coupled and responds to solar and magneto-
spheric forcing.
WMI Imperative 4. Ensure strong continued support for existing satellite assets that can still contribute
significantly to high-priority science objectives.
WMI Imperative 5. Enhance and protect support for theory, modeling, and data analysis, including
research and analysis programs and mission-specific funding.
Within the three categories, the panel's full set of prioritized imperatives is as follows. The number-
ing in each category reflects each priority's relative ranking among all three categories, as shown also in
Table 9.4 at the end of this chapter.
9.1.1 Missions
1. Enhance the resources dedicated to the Explorer program and broaden the range of cost categories.
2. Complete the strategic missions that are currently in development (MMS, RBSP/BARREL) as cost-
effectively as possible.
3. Initiate the development of a strategic mission, like MEDICI, to determine how the magnetosphere-
ionosphere-thermosphere system is coupled and responds to solar and magnetospheric forcing.
4. Ensure strong continued support for existing satellite assets that can still contribute significantly to
high-priority science objectives.
9. Develop a mechanism within NASA to support rapid development, deployment, and utilization
of science payloads on commercial vehicles and other missions of opportunity. NSF and DOD efforts in
this regard are also encouraged.
10. Through partnership between NASA's Heliophysics Division and Planetary Division, ensure that
appropriate magnetospheric instrumentation is fielded on missions to other planets. In particular, the SWMI
panel's highest priority in planetary magnetospheres is a mission to orbit Uranus.
11. Partner with other space agencies to implement consensus missions, such as a multispacecraft
mission to address cross-scale plasma physics.
15. If resources permit, initiate a strategic mission like MISTE to simultaneously measure the inflow of
energy to the upper atmosphere and the response of the ionosphere-thermosphere system to this input, in
particular the outflow back to the magnetosphere.
9.1.2 DRIVE-Related Actions
5. Enhance and protect support for theory, modeling, and data analysis, including research and
analysis programs and mission-specific funding.
6. Ensure continuity of measurements of the upstream solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field.
7. Invest significantly in developing the technologies to enable future high-priority investigations.
8. Ensure strong multiagency support for a broad range of ground-based assets that are a vital part
of magnetospheric science.
14. Strengthen workforce, education, and public outreach activities.
16. Create an interagency joint laboratory astrophysics program that addresses issues relevant to space
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9.1.3 Space Weather
12. Encourage the creation of a complete architecture for the National Space Weather Program that
would coordinate joint research, commercial, and operational space weather observations and define
agency roles for producing, distributing, and forecasting space weather products. In addition the SWMI
panel encourages all agencies to foster interactions between the research and operational communities
and to identify funding for maintaining a healthy research-to-operations/operations-to-research program.
13. Implement a program to determine, based on past observations, the optimum set of measurements
that are required to drive high-fidelity predictive models of the environment.
Implementation of these imperatives will enable achievement of the exciting and high-priority science
goals laid out in this report, providing a strong foundation for the accomplishment of the long-term actions
described earlier in this decadal survey. To summarize, eight overarching SWMI science goals motivate
sixteen prioritized, actionable imperatives that are required to enable the goals (these prioritized impera-
tives and their mapping to decadal categories from Part I are shown in Table 9.4 at the end of this chapter).
This section gives a brief introduction to the magnetosphere and its interactions with the solar wind
and the upper atmosphere. This information provides a context for the subsequent discussion of the past
decade's accomplishments and important unanswered questions, leading to the SWMI panel's science
goals for the coming decade and the initiatives necessary to accomplish them.
9.2.1 What Is the Magnetosphere?
The magnetosphere (Figure 9.1) is a vast, highly coupled system governed by fundamental physical
processes and characterized by complex, nonlinear linkages between its different parts. It is formed by the
interaction of the solar wind plasma stream and its embedded magnetic field with Earth's intrinsic magnetic
field. Earth with its field is an obstacle in the solar wind flow, carving out a separate plasma domain where
Earth's field has dominant control over the motions of the electrically charged particles trapped there. These
charged particles come from both the solar wind and Earth's upper atmosphere. This region of dominance,
the magnetosphere, extends out to approximately 10 Earth radii on the sunward side of Earth and, in a
long "magnetotail," extends to well beyond the Moon on the side away from the Sun. The shape of the
magnetosphere is determined by the balance between the pressure exerted by the solar wind plasma and
interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) and the pressure of Earth's plasma and magnetic field. Earth is only one
of six of the Sun's planets (Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) that are known to have a
magnetosphere by virtue of their intrinsic magnetic fields. Ganymede, one of Jupiter's satellites, also has
its own tiny magnetosphere embedded within Jupiter's giant one.
184.108.40.206 Regions
The magnetosphere is made up of regions with different plasma characteristics. As illustrated in
Figure 9.1, the shape of the underlying geomagnetic field lines governs the morphology of these various
regions. Nearest Earth, there is a relatively cold and dense region called the plasmasphere. The plasma-
sphere contains plasma that has escaped from the ionosphere, the ionized region of Earth's upper atmo-
sphere. Coincident with the plasmasphere or residing at slightly larger radial distances are higher-energy
charged-particle populations called the ring current and radiation belts. Ring-current particles drift azi-
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FIGURE 9.1 A schematic diagram of the magnetosphere, with various regions indicated. SOURCE: Adapted from L.A. Weiss,
P.H. Reiff, R.V. Hilmer, J.D. Winningham, and G. Lu, Mapping the auroral oval into the magnetotail using dynamics explorer
plasma data, Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity 44(12):1121, 1992.
Figure 9-1
muthally around Earth because of the strong magnetic field gradients, with positively charged ions drifting
west and electrons drifting east, producing an electrical current large enough to substantially modify the
global magnetic field. At still higher energies, the similarly drifting radiation-belt population possesses tre-
mendous energy per particle, but because of its very low density carries little net current. Beyond the ring
current and radiation belt is a low-density, hot plasma called the plasma sheet, extending to large distances
into the magnetotail and serving as the reservoir for much of the plasma that ultimately feeds the inner-
magnetosphere ring-current and radiation-belt populations. The high-latitude magnetic flux regions that
are nearly devoid of plasma and that extend down the magnetotail from the polar caps are called the tail
lobes. The magnetopause is the boundary of the magnetosphere, which separates it from the surrounding
regions dominated by the solar wind and its magnetic field. Upstream from the magnetopause there is a
standing shock wave, the bow shock, at which the supersonic solar wind is slowed and heated, enabling
it to flow around the magnetospheric obstacle. The transition region of shocked solar wind between the
bow shock and the magnetopause is known as the magnetosheath. A final region, beyond the bow shock,
is called the foreshock, in which fast particles move upstream along the IMF and perturb the supersonic
flow of the incoming solar wind. Another term that is often used synonymously with the magnetosphere-
ionosphere system is "geospace."
188.8.131.52 Physical Processes
Several primary physical processes produce the rich phenomenology of the structured, time-dependent
magnetospheric system. "Magnetic reconnection" is the process by which energy stored in magnetic fields
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is converted to plasma thermal energy, plasma bulk flow energy, and energized particles through a topo-
logical magnetic field reconfiguration. Charged particles in general conserve certain quantities of motion
called adiabatic invariants, which relate aspects of the particle motion to magnetic field parameters and can
lead to reversible energy changes. The term "wave-particle interactions" (WPIs) refers to the general and
broad process by which electromagnetic waves and charged particles exchange energy and momentum.
"Turbulence" describes the flow state of a fluid (including magnetized fluids) that is chaotic and stochas-
tic. Turbulent media provide a rich opportunity for WPI. These same physical processes, determining the
structure and dynamics of Earth's coupled solar wind-magnetosphere system, also govern other planetary
magnetospheres; by studying these fundamental processes in our own neighborhood, researchers glean
universally applicable knowledge.
126.96.36.199 Coupling to the Ionosphere and Solar Wind
The magnetosphere is physically bounded by the ionosphere and solar wind at its lower and upper
extents, respectively. Earth's magnetosphere has no internal plasma sources, and so these boundary
regions are the two major sources of magnetospheric plasma. The solar wind is a large source of protons
and electrons into the magnetosphere, while the ionosphere contributes not only protons but also heavy
ion species like oxygen, helium, and nitrogen, and their accompanying electrons. Furthermore, the solar
wind and IMF, through magnetic reconnection and viscous interaction, drive convective flow throughout
the magnetosphere. The ionosphere, with its high conductance, regulates and modulates this convective
flow. In addition, the neutral gas of the upper atmosphere, known as the thermosphere, can also influence
magnetospheric flow through ion-neutral collisions.
184.108.40.206 Space Weather and the Magnetosphere
"Space weather" is the name given to the time-dependent conditions and changes that occur in
near-Earth space to the magnetospheric plasmas and fields. These include changes in the plasma density,
temperature, and spatial distributions, from the cold plasmasphere to the very energetic radiation belts.
In particular, space weather implies changes that have significant impact on technology and society. For
example, the variable ionosphere and plasmasphere alter geolocation signals from GPS and transmissions
from communication spacecraft; strong magnetospheric currents create geomagnetically induced currents
in power distribution systems; energetic particles cause radiation damage to microelectronics and space-
farers; and substorm-related satellite charging causes malfunctions and surface degradation.
220.127.116.11 Magnetospheric Questions That Flow from the Motivations
The motivations underlying the study of solar and space physics3 apply directly to the study of Earth's
magnetosphere and its interaction with the solar wind and upper atmosphere: Earth's magnetosphere (and
those of other planets) is a fascinating, complex system, in which fundamental physical processes that
operate throughout the universe combine with unique conditions of plasma sources, sinks, and drivers
to create dynamic conditions that can affect humans and the technologies they depend on in space and
sometimes on the ground.
See the introduction to Part II of this decadal survey report.
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• Motivation 1. Understand our home in the solar system. The fundamental motivation of wanting to
understand the fascinating Sun-Earth system drives the desire to learn what determines the dynamically
changing charged-particle environment of the magnetosphere, from the lowest-energy particles emerging
from the upper atmosphere, to the hazardous high-energy particles of the radiation belts. What exactly
are the relationships between the different magnetospheric regions, and how are these regions coupled to
the solar wind and upper atmosphere? How do these linkages determine magnetospheric dynamics? And
what new insights do researchers gain from examining the similarities and differences in these regions and
processes at other planets?
• Motivation 2. Predict the changing space environment and its societal impacts. A thorough under-
standing of this complex and highly coupled system will make it possible to predict its behavior under
a variety of changing conditions, allowing anticipation and recognition of conditions that are adverse to
human life and technology. Within the magnetosphere, researchers are particularly interested in how they
can evaluate and predict damaging particle populations and electrodynamic fields.
• Motivation 3. Reveal universal physical processes. The geospace system constitutes a laboratory
for exploring a wide variety of processes that operate throughout the universe. These include the ways
in which ionized outflows can be driven from planetary atmospheres; how waves and particles provide
coupling between disparate plasma regions; how plasmas interact with neutral materials; how magnetic
reconnection occurs and how it energizes particles; how collisionless shock waves work; and how plasma
turbulence is generated and dissipated and affects other dynamical processes.
The following sections outline recent progress made toward addressing the fundamental questions
raised by these motivations; indicate the outstanding problems where significant progress can be accom-
plished in the near future, leading to the identification of specific science goals for the coming decade;
and lay out the SWMI panel's imperatives for actions that are needed to meet those goals.
9.3.1 Scientific Progression
The science of solar wind-magnetosphere interactions was established near the dawn of the space age,
only 50 years ago. Since that time, knowledge of the magnetosphere has grown tremendously, progressing
from discovery to understanding.
Early research focused on the discovery and exploration of the different regions that lie above Earth's
atmosphere: the radiation belts, the plasmasphere, the plasma sheet, and the solar wind. As researchers
discovered these regions and the particle populations that define them, they sought to identify and under-
stand the physical processes that accelerate and transport the particles. They also learned that the system
is not static, but rather exhibits substantial variability with identifiable patterns. It became clear that differ-
ent regions are not independent, but rather are intimately linked, and the variability and processes in one
region can be clearly related to those in other regions.
Scientists now appreciate that the magnetosphere is a vast, highly coupled system that involves a
wide array of fundamental physical processes and complex linkages between different regions. In the past
decade this system's impact on human technology and society has also come to be appreciated: storms
and other disturbances in geospace have significantly disrupted and disabled spacecraft and ground-based
power grids. Finally, as mankind has reached out to explore the solar system, researchers have discovered
that other solar system bodies possess magnetospheres that exhibit many of the same processes found near
Earth, but frequently manifested in different ways, and producing very different structure and dynamics.
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System Dynamics and Consequences
Understanding PredicƟon We are here!
Space Weather Effects
Linkages with other
Universal systems
FIGURE 9.2 A schematic of the temporal progression of scientific research into solar wind-magnetosphere interactions,
with time increasing upward.
Figure 9-2
Thanks to observations from new satellite missions, new analyses of data from previous missions,
and improved numerical modeling capabilities, substantial progress has been made in the past decade to
advance the field along the progression illustrated in Figure 9.2. Here the SWMI panel reviews some of
these significant accomplishments. This review is by no means comprehensive, but it serves to illustrate
the progress that continues to be made across a broad front of scientific endeavors. These accomplish-
ments lay the foundation for what needs to be done in the future to continue the progression toward a
comprehensive and actionable understanding of the SWMI system.
9.3.2 Regions
220.127.116.11 Statistical Description of Magnetospheric Properties
The decades-long reconnaissance of magnetospheric structure and dynamics has culminated in new
statistical descriptions of plasma properties in the magnetosphere, particularly their systematic variation
in response to solar wind drivers. For example, use of data sets that extend over more than a solar cycle
showed the activity-dependent spatial distribution of plasma-sheet fluxes to be well described by a rela-
tively simple convection model coupled with losses. These and similar results have solidified the statistical
picture of the structure of the inner magnetosphere, but they do not capture the dynamic evolution of these
regions, nor the coupling with the rest of the system.
220.127.116.11 Measuring Invisible Populations
During the past decade, several new techniques were exploited for measuring the plasma density over
more extended regions than allowed by single-point, in situ measurements. On the ground, observations
of field-line resonances enabled instantaneous determination of the equatorial plasma density over a broad
spatial domain. In space, active radio sounding techniques probed the density variation along magnetic
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field lines, and both radio sounding and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) images revealed not only the dynamics
of the boundaries of the plasmasphere, but also actual global plasmaspheric density distributions. These
advances made it possible for the first time to observe the global evolution of the plasmasphere in response
to variable driving of the magnetosphere.
Energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging established itself as a valuable tool in determining the global-
scale configuration, dynamics, and composition of the ring current (e.g., see Figure 9.6 below). It was
found that the peak of the ring-current proton distribution during the main phase of magnetic storms could
lie not in the historically expected afternoon location, but in the early morning sector, revealing that the
coupling with the ionosphere can very strongly alter the behavior of magnetospheric plasmas. In addition,
the hydrogen component of the ring current builds up and decays gradually throughout a magnetic storm,
but the oxygen component rises and falls impulsively. These variations in oxygen are often correlated with
substorm injections, highlighting the coupling between the magnetosphere and ionosphere. These results
represent more than a huge leap forward in system-level knowledge of the ring current; they also offer a
tantalizing hint of the dynamic magnetospheric behavior that could be uncovered with higher-resolution,
continuous, and global imaging.
9.3.3 Processes
22.214.171.124 Magnetic Reconnection
The recent decade has witnessed substantial progress in understanding how magnetic reconnection
works. For example, increased computing power has allowed full-physics simulations describing the
essential physics and structure of the diffusion region, the key region where magnetic field lines break
and reform. The decoupling of ion and electron motions plays a key role, accelerating the energy release,
creating high-speed electron beams, and warping the magnetic field. These predictions have facilitated
the first direct detections of the ion diffusion region in the magnetosphere (Figure 9.3) and in the labora-
tory, as well as glimpses of the much smaller electron diffusion region. The observations in the vicinity of
the diffusion region revealed surprisingly that electrons can be accelerated by reconnection to hundreds
of kiloelectron volts.
The past decade has also witnessed surprises regarding the triggering and modulation of reconnection:
theoretical studies using fully three-dimensional simulations revealed that the added dimension facilitates
plasma instabilities that can disrupt the diffusion region, making reconnection highly turbulent. Obser-
vationally, reconnection seems to behave differently in different regions. On the dayside magnetopause,
as well as recently discovered in the solar wind, magnetic reconnection can be quite steady in time and
extended in space. In the magnetotail, however, reconnection is most often patchy and bursty, producing
narrow flow burst channels. Using multispacecraft observations, these reconnection-generated flow chan-
nels have now been demonstrated to initiate magnetospheric substorms.
22.214.171.124 Wave-Particle Interactions
A delicate balance between acceleration and loss caused by wave-particle interactions controls the
variability of radiation belt fluxes during geomagnetic storms. Understanding of magnetospheric plasma
waves and their role in radiation belt dynamics has increased significantly during the past decade. Statisti-
cal analyses of satellite wave data have led to the development of global models of the wave environment.
These have then been used to quantify the rates of energization and scattering loss to the atmosphere.
Time-dependent two-dimensional and three-dimensional models for the radiation belts and the ring cur-
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magnetopause Polar Bow opa
use magnetotail Wind
shock agn
M Hall By
Hall By Magnetotail
Solar wind
Hall Ex (km/s)
4 0.4
Z (di) 2 0.2
0 0.0
-10 0 10
Polar X (di)
FIGURE 9.3 At the center is a schematic of the magnetosphere indicating the regions where magnetic reconnection usually
occurs. The lower panel is a simulation result of the quadrupolar magnetic field topology in the ion diffusion region, and
the left and right panels are observations of these field topologies by the Polar and the Wind spacecraft, respectively. For
comparison, the relative motions of the two spacecraft through the reconnection region are indicated on the simulation
result panel. The Hall field arises from the decoupling of the ions from the electrons. SOURCE: Left: Adapted from F.S. Mozer,
S.D. Bale, and T.D. Phan, Evidence of diffusion regions at a subsolar magnetopause crossing, Physical Review Letters 89:015002,
2002. © 2002 The American Physical Society. Middle, upper: C. Day, Spacecraft probes the site of magnetic reconnection in
Earth's magnetotail, Physics Today 54:10, 2001. Middle, lower: Adapted from T.D. Phan, J.F. Drake, M.A. Shay, F.S. Mozer, and
J.P. Eastwood, Evidence for an elongated (>60 ion skin depths) electron diffusion region during fast magnetic reconnec-
tion, Physical Review Letters 99:255002, 2007. © 2007 The American replaced
Figure 9-3 Physical Society. Right: Adapted from M. Øieroset, T.D.
Phan, M. Fujimoto, R.P. Lin, and R.P. Lepping, In situ detection of collisionless reconnection in the Earth's magnetotail, Nature
412:414-417, 2001, doi:10.1038/35086520.
rent, which incorporate the effects of wave-particle scattering, have been developed and are beginning to
provide a more realistic picture of storm-time particle dynamics.
Satellite observations of peaks in the radial profiles of radiation-belt electrons have demonstrated that
local acceleration due to WPI may at times dominate over traditionally accepted acceleration associated
with diffusive radial transport. Diffusive radial transport may actually lead to enhanced losses at the mag-
netopause, causing a decrease in trapped flux rather than an increase. Particle interactions with "chorus"
waves in particular have been shown to provide a major probable source of local acceleration. The source
of plasmaspheric hiss, another wave mode known to be responsible for strong losses of radiation belt elec-
trons near the edge of the plasmasphere, has been shown to be discrete chorus emissions generated in the
low-density region outside the plasmapause (Figure 9.4). Chorus emissions have also been shown to be the
dominant cause of scattering of plasma sheet electrons, leading to their precipitation into the atmosphere,
where they produce the diffuse aurora. Intriguingly, recent observations of extremely large-amplitude
waves suggest that nonlinear wave-particle physics may play an important role in radiation belt dynamics.
18.104.22.168 Turbulence
In the past decade the presence of large-amplitude MHD fluctuations in the magnetotail plasma sheet
has been established by spacecraft measurements, and the spatial scales (~1 RE) and timescales (~1 minute)
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–0.71 –0.48 –0.24 0 –0.24
–60º –40º –20º 0º 20º
Day side Night side
3 30º
1 10º
Earth radii, RE
0 0º
FIGURE 9.4 Ray path calculations showing how discrete whistler-mode chorus emissions generated outside the plasma-
pause can be refracted into the plasmasphere, become trapped, and eventually merge to form incoherent plasmaspheric
hiss. SOURCE: J. Bortnik, R.M. Thorne, and N.P. Meredith, The unexpected origin of plasmaspheric hiss from discrete chorus
emissions, Nature 452:62-66, 2008, doi:10.1038/nature06741.
of the fluctuations have been determined. Global simulations of the solar-wind-driven magnetosphere are
reaching high-enough spatial resolutions in the magnetotail to enable them to predict irregular vortical
flows at these scales and to statistically match the properties of the vortical flows to observed fluctuations.
However, the dynamical nature of these fluctuations, what causes them, and their influence on the behavior
of the magnetosphere have not been determined. Fluid turbulence provides one pathway by which energy
moves across scale sizes from large to small where energy can be dissipated in the form of heating. When
and where turbulent processes play a significant role in magnetospheric dynamics remain unclear.
9.3.4 Linkages
22.214.171.124 Coupling with the Solar Wind
The variable solar wind drives a wide range of variations in magnetospheric behavior. Over the past
decade, continuous measurements of the solar wind combined with observations throughout geospace
have enabled significant advances in identifying which specific large- and mesoscale solar-wind proper-
ties produce different modes of magnetospheric response (e.g., storms, steady magnetospheric convection
events, sawtooth events). For example, studies have linked variations in the solar wind dynamic pressure
to radiation-belt loss and energization processes. Other studies quantified that the strength of geomagnetic
storms depends on both the electrodynamic coupling between the solar wind and the magnetosphere
and plasma loading of the magnetosphere, including both ionospheric and solar wind sources. Spacecraft
observations and numerical simulations reveal that solar-wind plasma entry into the magnetosphere is
surprisingly efficient under "quiescent" conditions of northward interplanetary magnetic field. This plasma
in turn participates as a substantial element of the storm-time ring-current development when southward
interplanetary magnetic fields couple with and energize the magnetosphere. Additional progress has also
been made in delineating the effects of smaller-scale solar wind variations on magnetospheric behavior.
While some of the specific processes that mediate this coupling with the solar wind were clarified in the
past decade, major questions remain regarding the spatial extent over which they operate and the condi-
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FIGURE 9.14 The magnetic dipole axis of Uranus is strongly tilted with respect to its rotational axis, which in turn lies near
the orbital plane. Thus, depending on the season, the effects of solar wind-magnetosphere interaction vary dramatically over
the course of each day. Uranus significantly expands the parameter range over which scientists can study magnetospheric
structure and dynamics. SOURCE: Courtesy of Jerry Goldstein, Southwest Research Institute.
Figure 9-14
in UV, IR, and ENA. To make continued exciting progress toward understanding other magnetospheres,
the SWMI panel concluded with the following SWMI imperative:
SWMI Imperative: Through partnership between NASA's Heliophysics Division and Planetary Divi-
sion, ensure that appropriate magnetospheric instrumentation is fielded on missions to other planets. In
particular, the SWMI panel's highest priority in planetary magnetospheres is a mission to orbit Uranus.
126.96.36.199 Future Strategic Missions
Determining how mesoscale and global structures in the magnetosphere respond to variable solar
wind forcing and understanding how plasmas interact within the magnetosphere and at its boundaries
both require observations that match these scales. This effort essentially necessitates global-scale imaging
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and multisatellite constellation missions to obtain measurements of the physical parameters necessary to
accomplish these science objectives. A MEDICI-like mission will address these objectives through global
imaging, which is technically feasible primarily for the inner and middle magnetosphere. For the outer
magnetosphere, which forms the primary solar-wind entry and energy-storage region, the highly tenu-
ous plasma makes "imaging" by means of local measurements on many spatially separated satellites the
best approach to resolving global and mesoscale structure. Below, some exciting mission concepts are
highlighted that can address these challenging objectives but will require technology developments in the
coming decade to achieve feasible cost and readiness levels.
Magnetospheric Constellation Mission (MagCon)
Science Goals. Understanding the mass and energy transport at global and mesoscales in Earth's magneto-
spheric plasma sheet and reconnection regions of the near-Earth magnetotail, plus the dayside and flanks
of the magnetopause and bow shock regions, can be implemented using a multisatellite in situ mission
such as the MagCon mission. The prime overarching objective of the mission is to determine how the mag-
netosphere stores, processes, and releases energy in the magnetotail and accelerates particles that supply
the inner magnetosphere's radiation belts. It would track the spatial-temporal plasma structures and flows
associated with the solar wind plasma entry across the magnetopause and transport within and through
the magnetotail. On the dayside and flanks the constellation would provide multipoint measurements of
the upstream solar wind input, and the response throughout the magnetosphere, enabling determination of
how the entire system responds to variable solar wind driving. In the magnetotail it would provide a map
of the global plasma flows and field configurations, leading to determination of whether they are internally
developed or externally triggered. Throughout the mission, MagCon would provide a global "picture" of
these otherwise invisible regions of the magnetosphere.
Mission Concept. MagCon uses many satellites separated by mesoscale distances (~1-2 RE) that make
magnetic field plus plasma and energetic particle distribution function measurements at multiple points
simultaneously with relatively rapid cadence. The mission requires a significant number of spacecraft, 36 in
the concept the SWMI panel evaluated, to achieve mesoscale spacing while filling a significant fraction of
the near-Earth space using orbits with perigees in the 7-8 RE range and apogees dispersed uniformly up to 25
RE with low inclination. The satellites would be simple ~30-kg-class spin-stabilized vehicles with their spin
axes perpendicular to the ecliptic. Each spacecraft would carry a boom-mounted fluxgate magnetometer,
a three-dimensional ion-electron plasma analyzer, and simple energetic ion-electron particle telescopes.
To implement such a constellation requires development of small satellite systems and instruments
that can be more cheaply manufactured and tested in a reasonable time frame (2-3 years) with acceptable
reliability levels, plus a better match between launch vehicle capabilities and constellation mission needs.
Magnetospheric Constellation and Tomography (MagCat)
Science Goals. With science objectives similar in many respects to those of MagCon, MagCat would
address some of the most critical processes in Sun-Earth connections: plasma entry into the magnetosphere,
plasma-sheet formation and dynamics, and investigation of bow-shock structure, plasmaspheric plumes,
and other mesoscale structures that form in response to solar-wind variability. To achieve this objective
requires observations with a minimum spatial resolution of 0.5 RE at a minimum time cadence of 15 s.
MagCat could provide those required measurements.
Mission Concept. MagCat is a 20-spacecraft mission that would provide a combination of two-dimensional
images of the equatorial outer magnetosphere and multipoint in situ observations made concurrently and in
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the same imaged region. The spacecraft would be in two coplanar orbits that pass through critical regions in
the magnetotail, flank, and subsolar magnetosphere. Each satellite would transmit radio waves to all others,
obtaining 190 line-of-sight densities, enabling tomographic images of plasma density over large regions
with an average spatial resolution of 0.32 RE at 12 s cadence. Each satellite would carry a suite of plasma
and field instruments that provide complementary in situ data throughout the imaged area for ground truth
as well as revealing the detailed plasma processes in the region. The nominal payload would include a
3-axis fluxgate magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers that measure three-dimensional ion and electron
distributions, a relaxation sounder to determine the ambient density, and a radio tomography instrument.
As for MagCon, the pre-CATE estimate for the MagCat mission was deemed beyond the scope of the
budget in the coming decade. Thus, there is a similar need in the coming decade to develop cost-effective
and efficient manufacturing procedures to mass produce a large number of spacecraft and instruments.
220.127.116.11 International Partnerships
International partnerships involving a consortium of individual space agencies can be an effective way
to pool limited resources to achieve an outstanding science goal whose importance is agreed upon by a
consensus of these agencies. For example, determining the cross-scale coupling physics involved in key
plasma processes is believed to be crucial for complete understanding of the causes and consequences
of these processes. None of the past, current (e.g., Cluster and THEMIS), or planned missions (e.g., MMS)
are designed to address the cross-scale aspects of these processes. However, a mission concept has been
developed in Japan, Canada, and Europe that involves a fleet of spacecraft performing simultaneous in situ
measurements at electron, ion, and fluid scales. Such a mission can investigate how turbulence transports
and dissipates energy over multiple scales and how kinetic microscale instabilities are modulated by mac-
roscale properties of the plasma, as well as the relative role of global conditions versus microscale physics
in determining the structure and dynamics of magnetic reconnection. These are all important aspects of
SWMI critical science goals 6 and 7. This and other international, cross-agency partnerships should be
pursued when available and possible.
SWMI Imperative: Partner with other space agencies to implement consensus missions, such as a
multispacecraft mission to address cross-scale plasma physics.
9.5.3 DRIVE-Related Actions
In this section, the SWMI panel expands on a number of issues that have a material impact on the
national ability to conduct an effective and productive solar and space physics research effort.
126.96.36.199 Solar Wind Monitor
Knowledge of upstream solar wind conditions, the interplanetary magnetic field, and solar energetic
particles is required in essentially all of the programs that would address the SWMI science objectives.
Currently, instruments on the ACE8 spacecraft, which orbits around the L1 libration point approximately
1.5 million km from Earth, provide these data. Follow-ons to ACE, which could also be instrumented with
a solar coronagraph to view Earth-bound coronal mass ejections, are needed both to satisfy SWMI science
goals and as part of a space weather forecasting system (see Chapter 7). The SWMI panel does not have
Information about the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is available at http://www.srl.caltech.edu/ACE/.
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a preference for which agency conducts this mission, but these data must be available on a continuous
basis throughout the coming decade.
SWMI Imperative: Ensure continuity of measurements of the upstream solar wind.
188.8.131.52 Theory, Modeling, and Data Analysis
Efforts related to advancing theoretical and modeling studies of geospace are another key component
of the solar and space physics research effort. The future of data analysis is becoming ever more closely
linked with modeling, and tools need to be developed to enable a broad segment of the community to
access and combine observations and model results. Currently, a great deal of the science return from NASA
missions and NSF ground-based measurements occurs through theory, modeling, and data analysis sup-
ported in a portfolio of both NASA and NSF grants programs. The high productivity and cost-effectiveness
of these programs argue strongly that major increases in science output can be achieved with modest
funding increases. The SWMI panel therefore strongly encourages the agencies to enhance the funding of
R&A programs. In a constrained funding environment, this is one of the most cost-effective ways to ensure
that the high-priority science objectives outlined in this decadal survey will be accomplished.
In addition, the panel supports funding enhancements to enable the creation of a new program within
NASA's research portfolio to bring critical-mass multidisciplinary science teams together to address grand
challenge problems. However, these proposed Heliophysics Science Centers must not be created at the
expense of the current research programs, e.g., the Heliophysics Theory program. They must also be com-
peted regularly and be focused on addressing a key science question.
The SWMI panel also strongly affirms the vital role that theory and modeling supported by mission
funding play in advancing the science objectives of the missions. The panel believes that this role should
be protected by requiring external reviews of the impacts of any theory-funding reductions on the ability
of a mission to fulfill its science objectives.
SWMI Imperative: Enhance and protect support for theory, modeling, and data analysis, including
research and analysis programs and mission-specific funding.
126.96.36.199 Innovation and Technology
In reviewing the white papers submitted from the community, the SWMI panel found that many
relied on tried-and-true measurement techniques. However, while much can be accomplished with new
applications of state-of-the-art technology, it is also clear that to accomplish the most challenging science
objectives of the future, the development of new, innovative concepts will be necessary. Indeed, in an
observation-driven field such as solar and space physics, it is often new observations that point the way
to the science questions of the future.
Advanced instrumentation for constellation missions is an area of particular need for ultimate realiza-
tion of the science goals the SWMI panel has outlined. Targeted research on how to acquire, analyze, and
display the simultaneous measurements from many spacecraft is also needed, along with development of
new ways to integrate global modeling and global observations.
Another area where technology development efforts could have a big scientific payoff is global imaging
systems, particularly systems that can stand off, well outside the magnetosphere's bow shock, and image its
boundary structures using a range of techniques such as neutral atom imaging (ENA), scattered light, and
X-ray emission. New instrumentation with increased sensitivity and resolution is needed to achieve spatial
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resolutions (~0.5 RE) and image cadences (~15 min) sufficient to image the boundaries and visualize their
motions and structure. New techniques for reducing background noise are also needed.
A number of the science goals outlined in Section 9.4 involve connecting phenomena and signatures
that occur in the ionosphere with their corresponding phenomena and signatures in the magnetosphere.
Because this connection occurs primarily via the geomagnetic field, which is strongly distorted and highly
variable due to currents flowing within the magnetosphere itself, an accurate mapping between the iono-
sphere and magnetosphere for all relevant conditions is lacking. Current efforts to relate magnetospheric
and ionospheric physics thus typically rely on empirical models based on statistical analysis of large data
sets acquired over long time periods and under a variety of conditions. Techniques to definitively establish
the instantaneous mapping are thus urgently needed.
It is the SWMI panel's view that the current limited investment in technology development has discour-
aged the development of new instrument concepts. Therefore, the panel strongly supports the creation
of a robust Heliophysics Instrument and Technology Development Program (HITDP) in the context of the
NASA ROSES. In the panel's opinion, this program should be funded sufficiently to support several grants
at levels significantly larger than is possible at present through supporting research and technology.
Moreover, the missions of the future will require new satellite and systems technologies. Such technolo-
gies are most appropriately pursued by the Office of the Chief Technologist, in close consultation with the
Heliophysics Division so that real mission needs are addressed. Possible technology development needs
noted by the panel include, but are not limited to, techniques that make it feasible to produce and deploy
large numbers of identical spacecraft at an affordable price and with high radiation tolerance; solar sails;
advanced propulsion and power; low-cost launch vehicles; mass-production techniques; component min-
iaturization; and wireless communications within a satellite.
Another area where near-term investments will help reduce the risk and long-term cost of new instru-
ments is in raising the technology readiness level (TRL) of the instruments of the future, particularly in the
area of providing in-space operating experience. The panel believes that suborbital flights are cost-effective
ways to mature instrument technologies for future science applications, even if no immediate science can
be obtained from flying suborbitally. Thus, while the panel applauds and supports the science output of
the suborbital program, it also encourages the utilization of suborbital flights for increasing the TRL of
instruments with long-term science applications, but not necessarily science output from the flight itself.
SWMI Imperative: Invest significantly in developing the technologies to enable future high-priority
184.108.40.206 Ground-Based Instrumentation
Since the science objectives established by this panel emphasize a global view of the coupled mag-
netosphere-ionosphere-thermosphere system the SWMI panel strongly supports networks of ground-based
instruments. For example, the MEDICI mission will be greatly enhanced by the data from magnetometer
arrays and the SuperDARN network, and both MISTE and MEDICI benefit from the data provided by
incoherent scatter radars (ISRs) and networks of all-sky cameras. The panel concluded that existing facili-
ties, e.g., ISRs, SuperDARN, and magnetometer arrays, should continue to be supported, upgraded, and
perhaps enhanced. Moreover, research drawing on increasing access to data from these instrument suites
via the Internet would greatly benefit from the development of standards for data collection and access.
The SWMI panel takes note of successful NASA contributions in the past decade to ground-based assets
that directly support their space missions, e.g., the THEMIS all-sky camera network, for which an example
image is shown in Figure 9.15. The panel encourages continuation and expansion of these efforts. The
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FIGURE 9.15 Composite auroral image constructed from the THEMIS All-sky Imager network. SOURCE: Courtesy of NASA/
Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio; available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEebRsRnwm0.
panel also notes that DOD supports a number of ground-based observatories that contribute significantly
Figure 9-15 replaced
to the science objectives outlined above and encourages continued sponsorship of those facilities as well.
The panel further supports negotiation of international agreements to enable coordination and collabora-
tion with non-U.S. ground-based capabilities.
SWMI Imperative: Ensure strong multiagency support for a broad range of ground-based assets that
are a vital part of magnetospheric science.
184.108.40.206 Laboratory Studies
The SWMI panel endorses the recommendation in the plasma science decadal survey that the Depart-
ment of Energy be the prime steward for laboratory plasma science. However, to enable research on basic
plasma physics that will be of greater utility to SWMI science objectives, the panel supports the creation
of an interagency joint laboratory astrophysics program. This program should be competed on a regular
basis, include selection criteria that focus on issues relevant to space physics, contain a mechanism for
outside investigators to have access to supported facilities, and be open to proposals from any institution.
SWMI Imperative: Create an interagency joint laboratory astrophysics program that addresses issues
relevant to space physics.
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184.108.40.206 Education and Workforce
At the most basic level, the field of solar and space physics needs a robust, well-trained, and talented
workforce to accomplish its science goals, as well as an educated populace that recognizes the value of
addressing these exciting scientific challenges. The SWMI panel therefore endorses curriculum develop-
ment efforts across all academic levels, as well as faculty development programs. The panel notes in
particular the success of the NSF Faculty Development in Space Science program and strongly supports
its continuation and enhancement throughout the coming decade. The panel further endorses funded
training opportunities for both undergraduate and graduate students, especially for participation in the
development of flight hardware. Such opportunities could be provided by science grant augmentations,
stand-alone education and public outreach grants, and mission-related funding.
SWMI Imperative: Strengthen workforce, education, and public outreach activities.
9.5.4 Space Weather
As suggested by its title, the long-term goal of this decadal survey is to have the knowledge to ensure
the well-being of a society dependent on space. Actionable knowledge of space environment effects
involves the ability to characterize conditions anywhere in the system at any time in the past, as well as to
predict future conditions with good fidelity. This capability requires an understanding of the full, coupled
solar-terrestrial system that encompasses all the regions, processes, and coupling described above, across
spatial scales from meters to hundreds of Earth radii. It includes understanding the fundamental microscopic
physics as well as the global system behavior in response to variable driving. The ultimate objective in
the study of solar wind-magnetosphere interactions is to know how solar and solar-wind input at various
spatial and temporal scales determines the nature and behavior of magnetospheric populations, structures,
and processes and to be able to predict those that have significant space weather impacts.
There are three aspects of accomplishing this long-term goal:
1. Establishment of the foundation of comprehensive scientific understanding;
2. Development of sound, validated space environment models; and
3. Fielding of the optimum operational assets to drive those models.
The scientific program presented above will put in place some of the tools essential to achieving
this vision, particularly by defining outstanding questions that still inhibit a comprehensive scientific
The development of sound, validated space environment models requires a healthy research-to-
operations/operations-to-research program. This in turn clearly necessitates communication and coordi-
nation between research-oriented agencies and operational agencies with end-use requirements so that a
robust and adequately funded process exists for transitioning scientifically sound and operationally useful
models between the two emphases.
Observations are critical for an effective space weather program because they support research and
development of models and they drive models in their operational phase. Space weather observations
are available from government research and some operational programs as well as from the commercial
sector. Currently, each group in isolation develops observational requirements and observing systems to
fulfill those requirements. To make more effective use of limited resources, these observations should be
nationally coordinated, allowing research groups to provide input and possibly additional payloads to
operational or commercial endeavors. Similarly, coordination would allow operational and commercial
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entities to guide and use research observations. It is highly desirable that the National Space Weather
Program (NSWP) be augmented to provide a mechanism for coordinating space weather observations,
allowing for input to mission definition and payloads from all groups. The SWMI panel encourages the
placement and coordination of space-weather-related observing systems on research, commercial, and
government platforms to the greatest extent possible. The panel also supports development of mechanisms
for real-time data acquisition and distribution from all available platforms.
More generally, to make the most of limited resources, an effective space weather program must
be accomplished through coordinated activities within the government as well as with the commercial
sectors. Currently several commercial and government groups provide various forms of space weather
products with some limited coordination, yet many functions overlap. The panel urges that the NSWP be
enhanced and clarified in order to delineate the roles for each agency, e.g., NASA, NOAA, NSF, the U.S.
Geological Survey, DOD, and DOE, in producing and distributing data and models providing forecasting
and space-weather-related products. The panel strongly endorses the undertaking of a high-level study
to design a more complete overarching architecture for the NSWP that would define agency roles and
coordinate observations.
SWMI Imperative: Encourage the creation of a complete architecture for the National Space Weather
Program that would coordinate joint research, commercial, and operational space weather observations
and define agency roles for producing, distributing, and forecasting space weather products. In addition
the SWMI panel encourages all agencies to foster interactions between the research and operational
communities and to identify funding for maintaining a healthy research-to-operations and operations-to-
research program.
Achieving the key science goals of this decadal survey requires identifying the optimum set of
operational observations to drive models that will enable specification and prediction of the environment
throughout the magnetosphere. This effort may ultimately require an operational "great observatory" of
satellites in appropriate orbits for monitoring crucial aspects of the input from and response to solar wind
variability. In addition to providing the input necessary for high-fidelity environmental specifications, these
measurements would provide routine context information for future targeted science experiments, much
as magnetospheric activity indices are used today. Potential elements of such a space weather observa-
tory could include a solar wind monitor (including IMF, energetic particle, and potentially coronagraphic
measurements); high-altitude synoptic imaging of the aurorae, ring current, plasmasphere, and of the outer
magnetospheric boundary; constellation observations of plasma entry and global tail structure; low-altitude,
DMSP-like satellites to observe the magnetospheric input into the ionosphere and its response; multiple
geosynchronous measurements of plasma, energetic particles, and magnetic field; RBSP-like monitors of
the inner magnetospheric radiation environment; and a fine mesh of appropriate ground-based measure-
ments. One important near-term investment is to determine, based on past observations of this nature, the
optimum set of measurements that are required to drive high-fidelity predictive models of the environment.
SWMI Imperative: Implement a program to determine, based on past observations, the optimum set
of measurements that are required to drive high-fidelity predictive models of the environment.
9.5.5 Prioritization
The SWMI imperatives presented above would all greatly enhance the ability to accomplish the science
goals the panel has outlined, thereby providing the foundation needed for addressing the decadal survey's
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TABLE 9.4 Summary of SWMI Prioritized Imperatives
Rank Imperative Missions DRIVE Weather
1 Enhance the resources dedicated to the Explorer program and broaden the range of
cost categories.
2 Complete the strategic missions that are currently in development (MMS and RBSP/
BARREL) as cost-effectively as possible.
3 Initiate the development of a strategic mission, like MEDICI, to determine how the
magnetosphere-ionosphere-thermosphere system is coupled and responds to solar
and magnetospheric forcing.
4 Ensure strong continued support for extended missions that can still contribute
significantly to high-priority science objectives.
5 Enhance and protect support for theory, modeling, and data analysis, including
research and analysis programs and mission-specific funding.
6 Ensure continuity of measurements of upstream solar wind.
7 Invest significantly in developing the technologies to enable future high-priority
8 Ensure strong multiagency support for a broad range of ground-based assets that are
a vital part of magnetospheric science.
9 Develop a mechanism within NASA to support rapid development, deployment,
and utilization of science payloads on commercial vehicles and other missions of
opportunity. NSF and DOD efforts in this regard are also encouraged.
10 Through partnership between NASA's Heliophysics Division and Planetary Division,
ensure that appropriate magnetospheric instrumentation is fielded on missions
to other planets. In particular, the SWMI panel's highest priority in planetary
magnetospheres is a mission to orbit Uranus.
11 Partner with other space agencies to implement consensus missions such as a
multispacecraft mission to address cross-scale plasma physics.
12 Encourage the creation of a complete architecture for the National Space Weather
Program that would coordinate joint research, commercial, and operational space
weather observations and define agency roles for producing, distributing, and
forecasting space weather products. In addition the SWMI panel encourages all
agencies to foster interactions between the research and operational communities
and to identify funding for maintaining a healthy research-to-operations and
operations-to-research program.
13 Implement a program to determine, based on past observations, the optimum
set of measurements that are required to drive high-fidelity predictive models
of the environment, and to put in place a plan to ensure that the optimum set of
observational capabilities is maintained.
14 Strengthen workforce, education, and public outreach activities.
15 If resources permit, initiate a strategic mission like MISTE to simultaneously
measure the inflow of energy to the upper atmosphere and the response of the
ionosphere-thermosphere system to this input, in particular the outflow back to the
16 Create an interagency joint laboratory physics program that addresses issues relevant
to space physics.
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key science goals. However, in times of constrained budgets, it may not be possible to enact all of these
imperatives, and the panel has, therefore, undertaken a prioritization process to help identify which of
these are the most important. The panel's prioritization—which informed the survey committee but does
not carry its imprimatur—is based on the overarching objective to identify initiatives that will most cost-
effectively enable the science of the future. Accordingly, the SWMI panel adopted the following criteria:
• General considerations for prioritization
—Focus on elements that are directly relevant to the enumerated SWMI science goals.
—Consider historical evidence about contributions of various elements to scientific progress.
—Consider the cost of an imperative versus its likely return.
• For mission-related imperatives
—How well does the mission address the SWMI science goals?
—Is it highly focused or does it address a broader range of the goals?
—How feasible is it?
—Will it fit within the expected budget?
—What is the science return for the cost?
—Does it require technology development?
— hat is the broader impact (for example, for the science objectives of the other panels and for
the development of a forecasting system for space weather)?
• For other capabilities
—How central is the capability to the accomplishment of the SWMI science goals?
—Is it currently in danger?
—Could it make a much bigger contribution with a modest enhancement?
Using these criteria, the SWMI panel prioritized its imperatives not only within but also across the three
categories discussed above—missions, DRIVE initiative, and space weather—in order to identify the most
cost-effective approach to accomplishing its science goals. The full set of prioritized SWMI imperatives,
with their mapping to the three categories, is presented in Table 9.4.
9.6.1 Solar and Heliospheric Physics
It is clear from the foregoing discussion that the variable solar wind is the dominant driver of magne-
tospheric dynamics. To fully understand the ways in which long-term solar variations as well as short-term
eruptive events such as solar flares or coronal mass ejections can produce dramatic effects of importance
to humans at Earth, solar wind measurements upstream of Earth's magnetosphere are essential. At present
a nearly continuous record of measurements of the solar wind flow velocity, density, and temperature is
available from the very early days of the space program up to the present time. Any interruption in the
continuity of these measurements would have serious consequences for the ability to study the effects that
solar variations have on Earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere, and atmosphere, and for the ability to forecast
significant societal impacts.
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9.6.2 Atmosphere and Ionosphere
The past decade has significantly reinforced appreciation of the key influences the ionosphere has
on magnetospheric behavior and of the importance of magnetospheric driving for ionospheric behavior.
It is thus impossible to understand one without taking into account the two-way coupling with the other.
While this decadal survey separates the two regions for ease of discussion, it is clear that they must be
understood as a coupled system. During the coming decade one of the most important emphases of space
physics research will be to clarify quantitatively the coupling of these elements in order to enable progress
toward a predictive understanding of both.
9.6.3 Planetary Science
The magnetospheres of other planets display not only certain close similarities, such as the formation of
bow shocks and radiation belts, but also many processes that are markedly different, such as the source of
charged particles within the radiation belts, which can vary from a mixture of the solar wind and ionosphere
at Earth, to lava volcanoes and water geysers on small moons at Jupiter and Saturn. This rich diversity has
provided surprising discoveries of the breadth of expression of fundamental physical processes that play
important roles in the acceleration of charged particles and the generation of magnetic fields in planetary
magnetospheres. Both planetary and magnetospheric understanding is thus enriched by the comparative
study of magnetospheres. With orbital missions at many of the solar system's other planets, comparative
magnetospheric studies should increasingly provide insights into the diversity of magnetospheric processes
and how they couple to the planets themselves.
9.6.4 Physics and Astrophysics
Many of the processes and phenomena that determine magnetospheric behavior act throughout the
universe in settings as diverse as laboratory plasmas and supernova shock waves. The ability to observe
and diagnose these processes in situ, with no interference from walls, is a powerful tool to enable basic
understanding with broad applicability. Examples of such processes include magnetic reconnection, shock
acceleration of charged particles, and the physics of rapidly rotating magnetized bodies. Moreover, the
study of comparative magnetospheres not only elucidates the behavior of magnetized planets in our solar
system, but also points the way to the potential breadth of behavior of magnetized bodies throughout the
9.6.5 Complex Nonlinear System Studies
Eruptive solar processes such as solar flares and spontaneously occurring episodic dynamical variations
in planetary magnetospheres known as magnetic substorms involve highly nonlinear systems. Similarly,
planetary radiation belts evolve through a complicated and nonlinear combination of wave-particle pro-
cesses that accelerate particles to very high energies, transport them throughout the system, and cause their
loss. Although many of these phenomena are at best poorly understood, their study serves as an important
driver for furthering understanding of the mathematical analysis of complex nonlinear systems. Predict-
ing the behavior of the vast, coupled, multiscale, and nonlinear Sun-magnetosphere-atmosphere system
presents a major challenge to mathematical and computational methods.


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Billie Holiday's real name was Eleanora Fagan. She had an extremely rough life and was arrested for prostitution while a teenager. (Source)
O'Hara's book Meditations in an Emergency figured prominently in an episode of the much-ballyhooed TV show, Mad Men, about the advertising industry in the 1950s. (Source)
O'Hara is a highly quotable poet. One of our favorites: "It is easy to be beautiful; it is difficult to appear so." (Source)


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Home Depot Complaint - Pathetic customer service
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WATERFORD, CONNECTICUT -- 11/25/06 Tried to purchase a washer and dryer with the credit account no interest for 1 year. Sales person was so incompetent he could not figure out how to order what we wanted or process the credit application. When the application was processed they spelled our name wrong and it was denied. Ended up ordering something we really did not want.
12/11/06Called to change order for what we wanted. Another person who was not fully informed but able to change order to what we wanted
12/19/06 Order arrives - not what we asked for! They explained they had to change the order to make the washer and dryer match! Never bothered to tell us. Delivery people do not know how to hook up or read the manual to do so!
Maching does not work properly. Called for service.
12/26/06 Talk with "service" and they will not service our area.
12/26/06 Home depot calls to say due to trouble LG has agreed to give us a year extension of warrenty. What is good is warrenty if you cannot get service?
12/30/06 Still no service Home depot refuses to take back the machine. Agree to replace dedspite the fact I cannot get service in my area if it ever breaks.
1/5/07 Phone contact with KG they say serbvice might be avilable but if needed it will take them 5 days to find it!
1/9/07 Machine # 2 delivered unannounced and is brooken when brought into house. Again home depot refuses to give us our money back and schedules a delivery for maching #3 1-16-07
1/16/07 Machine # 3 delivered and is also brooken when brought into the house. 2 hours on the phone with LG and home depot and no resolution.
1/16/07 Talk with home depot and demand they take both machine and dryer and give us our money. FINALLY, they agree.
1/19/06 Phone contact with home depot about refund. Told will be processed 1/19 or 1/22.
1/24/07 Still no refund!
1/24/07 Receive message they cannot process the credit without more information because it has been too long! DUH!
1/25/07 Still no refund! Despite the fact they have had the returned product 8 days!
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Select () or exclude () categories to narrow your recipe search.
As you select categories, the number of matching recipes will update.
Find exactly what you're looking for with the web's most powerful recipe filtering tool.
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"adapted from BBC's Good Food, May 2002. NOTE: You may wish to parboil the potatoes is you prefer them to be very soft. The original version does not parboil them, which will result in quite firm roast potatoes. Parboil the potatoes by cooking them in boiling water just until they begin to become fork tender, but not fully cooked."
Ingredients: Dijon mustard, fresh parsley...
Prep Time: 24 hrs
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Thanks you so much to share this wonderful video
great great emotion, not enough words to say
we are all connected and live together here and our blue planet is so beautiful !
Location: People >> CS For All Ages >> 50s+ Travellers The Overview Effect
Apparently those of us who have left the planet and looked back have a new view of all of us. Here's something to watch & consider, whenever wherever however you are, today. http://vimeo.com/55073825# Cherie |


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Roffo's paintings have earned many awards including two prestigious "Grumbacher Gold Medals" and the "Yankee Sagendorph Award" and winner of the Massachusetts Duck Stamp in 1994.
His New England landscapes have been exhibited at numerous museums, including the Fitchburg Art Museum, the Springfield Art Museum and the Salmagundi Club in New York.
Born in Italy, Sergio Roffo came to America as a child in 1963. He studied at the Vesper George School of Art and then exhibited with the Copley Society in Boston and the American Artists Professional League. He is an elected member of the Guild of Boston artists and the Society of Illustrators in New York and is one of the youngest artists to be designated a "Copley Master" by the Copley Society of Boston.
He begins each painting with an 8"x12" sketch on location, prior to creating a larger image. He uses light to dramatize and strengthen each composition and occasionally utilizes photo references to ensure the accuracy of design. He makes use of both watercolors and oils to capture the mystique and serenity that surrounds the deserted beach at sunrise, or the majestic weathered homes of New Englanders that have survived the seas and the harsh winter storms.
Biography courtesy Susan Powell Fine Art


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Come & Sing Or Have A Laugh
This is the Royal Concert Hall which you will find opposite O'neill's pub. With live acts such as The Chippendales to Comedians down to pop bands and tribute bands. ( I have seen The Chippendales, Paul Young and afew others, Paul Young would of been better if he'd not had a bad throat ! )


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219 Elm St Somerville, MA 02144 WEBSITE Phone: 617-776-0005 As Mentioned In: Boston Events and Diversions Boston Events and Diversions The Weekend Guide The Posto folks go Mexican with a fun joint serving ceviche del mar (snapper, redfish), shiitake mushroom and squash enchiladas, Oaxaca cheese grits, and at least six kinds of taco (zucchini and cactus petal, Gulf shrimp, chorizo). Ballena Pacificos and tequila flights are best enjoyed under Day of the Dead murals by local artist Raul Gonzalez. Hours of Operation: Mon.-Sat., 5-11 p.m.; Sun., 11 a.m.-2 p.m. & 5-11 p.m. Tags: After Work Cheap Date Mexican Mamacita Driving Directions: GET DIRECTIONS Price: $$ WHAT'S NEARBY 1. Redbones 55 Chester St 2. Saloon 255 Elm St Bar 3. Diesel Cafe 257 Elm St Cafe, Coffeehouse 4. Posto 187 Elm St 5. M3 382 Highland Ave
A Week's Worth of Good-for-You Recipes Stuck in a what-to-bring-for-lunch rut? We snagged a sneak peek at recipes from an upcoming vegan cookbook.


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CHARLESTON, W.Va. -- It's back by popular demand.
The West Virginia Recycling Services Center resumed its glass recycling practices Monday, and owner George Hunyadi said he expects a large amount of glass in the next few weeks from people who have been saving glass items for disposal.
"I've heard from a number of residents that they've been stockpiling their glass," Hunyadi said. "I somehow suspect that we're going to have a lot of glass come in over the next two or three weeks, based on what I'm hearing."
According to Hunyadi, the recycling center received roughly 4 tons of glass each week before its previous owner stopped accepting glass items by March of last year.
It was much more glass than the center could dispose of readily, and Hunyadi expects similar amounts in the coming months. He has an idea for what to do with it.
"I'll be offering it free to county residents who want it," Hunyadi said. "What I'm hoping to do is eventually do some other things with it -- incorporate it for not only some road-based projects, some pothole fill-up, but maybe even some decorative projects as well."
The glass will be pulverized at the site and made available to residents, many of whom have expressed interest in using it as garden mulch, according to Hunyadi.


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A Recent Favorite:
Uh Oh, Nothing Here Yet
Why don't you go browse some Comics or Editorials and pick a few to favorite?
Recent Comments
Good ole Talky Toaster, if I remember the name right.
Saw that one coming a mile away. Ok, maybe not quite that far…..a half mile.
He has a valid point. However, I think the next time she should remind them where the trash can is and say to please dispose of their wrappers. If not, no more candy.
Me, too! My best friend (and former neighbor) got it for me one yr for my birthday.
But I wanted to go downtown %^(.
Just don't take a deep breath. In fact, holding your breath before you look in there would be a very, very good idea. Or possibly a gas mask.
We lived over there for 4 yrs in the early 70's and it's not that hard to get used to. Oddly enough it was harder for my husband to get used to driving on the right side of the road again when we moved back.
He does have a point.
Does anyone else think the cop looks like Barney from Andy Griffith?
Like my husband says, when my nose is running, "You better go catch it.'. He was just running to catch his nose which was running %^D.


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Please advise me a jQuery carousel plugin that can make a carousel like the one on the image. I mean that, when the image item becomes active, it moves into the center and becomes large. Thanks.
Take the 2-minute tour
Stack Overflow is a question and answer site for professional and enthusiast programmers. It's 100% free, no registration required.
I think you want this: http://imageflow.finnrudolph.de/ Apparently, this is the original 'cover flow', even Apple has licensed this for iTunes. I've used this on projects before and even integrated it into Drupal (there is a module for this in Drupal, but it didn't work for my needs). I was also able to modify the code to fit my clients extended needs. Good luck! |


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by Mischalova at .The weirdest thing about this Aubrey O'Day nude photo?
8 Comments New Comment Subscribe
"Yes, Travis Barker has a fashion line." That sort of pissed me off. Like it's new or something? That line has been out forever. And whoever said "it's like no one knows about it" I disagree with that as well. Pacsun is a HUGE supporter and seller of the line and there's a Pacsun in almost every mall now.
Wow! I used to like Aubrey O'Day and even more, her friend and coworker Andrea even though they acted like hoes in the videos.
But this is too much. As THG says, she looks like a porn star.
She's not worth it. By the way, is she dating someone? 'Cos if I was her boyfriend I wouldn't be saying it out loud.


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A little gross, a little genius. iPhone Oil Paintings (by JK Keller via Gautam Ramdurai).
Boing Boing editor/partner and tech culture journalist Xeni Jardin hosts and produces Boing Boing's in-flight TV channel on Virgin America airlines (#10 on the dial), and writes about living with breast cancer. Diagnosed in 2011. @xeni on Twitter. email: email@example.com.
More at Boing Boing
9 Responses to "iPhone "oil paintings," animated GIFs of artful screen smudges"
Quiet Wyatt says:
Harsh crowd.
I'm amused by the "oil paintings," perhaps because I take them as implicit criticism of people who spend inordinately large percentages of their time with grotty germ-farms like these squelched up against their faces. But your fucks may vary.
avraamov says:
this was the first problem that occurred to me about the pattern unlock on my android phone. if it gets swiped-sans-wiped, then a thief has the pattern right there in sebum. the same problem persists when you get a plastic screen guard, since you get a cloudy image of your unlock pattern very quickly. i ended up deliberately rotating mine to make it illegible.
Jill says:
yeah, i do this all the time with my phone. you want to grid patterns from all angles and then you get the really cool effect when you move your phone around.
Shibi_SF says:
Their art makes me want to swipe the phones across my thigh and wipe the shmears off with my skirt.


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featured event planning article Graduation Party Tips Posted by phertlein An estimated 7 million students will be graduating from high schools, colleges and universities in 2014. If you have a graduate in your life, here are some tips to keep in mind as you plan the Graduation Party. Read More


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Montreal, QC (Sports Network) - The Montreal Canadiens signed forward Michael McCarron to a three-year, entry-level contract Thursday.
McCarron, the 25th overall pick in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft, posted 14 goals and 20 assists in 55 games with the USHL's US National Development Team last season.
The 18-year-old McCarron also represented Team USA at the 2013 IIHF U18 World Championship last April, tallying three goals and five points in seven contests.


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Nemurenu Chou
MT Rating: 33.0131 (Rank: 5268) |Series Added: 2008-08-03
Type: Manga
Artist(s): AYAHARA Sono
Status in Home Country: Complete - 1 Volumes
Scanslation Status: Complete ( on Manga Traders)
Summary Updated: 2012-02-21| Last File Added: 2008-12-09
Genre(s) : Drama, Romance, Shoujo
- 眠れぬ蝶
From Manga Abyss :
• Sleepless Butterfly
The Kinase village is being called "a village protected by god". Kaya and Rin were raised in a village that's surrounded by a deep forest. Although they are brother and sister they aren't related by blood. However, they get along well despite this. Although they are living together peacefully but there is a secret kept from everyone~!?
* Includes three other stories:
• Kaze ni Hana ni Kimi ni -
Erika meets Ryousuke, a boy from Tokyo that had a strong passion of swimming until he injured his shoulder, forcing him to abstain from swimming. Ryousuke, having loved the sea for a really long time, becomes really sad, and has lost all hope in finding another way to live. Erika wants to help him...
- Intercross
• Monochrome World -
Ever since a certain Christmas Day when she was little, Jun has seen the world as Black and White. Even after ten years, her eyes are still like that. She doesn't want to tell anyone about her secret because she's already been "betrayed" once by a friend. After that, they were separated. Little did she know of the suprises in store for her...
• Alice
Scan Groups : Manga Abyss
Forum Topic : No Topic Assigned
Members Following: 165
Times Favorited: 61
User Ratings: 9.34 (Weighted) 8.99 (Unweighted) (71 votes) View Graph
Other series you might be interested in: View More
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MT Rating (Rank) |
Ai Hime ~ Ai to Himegoto |
36.12 (364)
Really!? |
34.29 (985)
Why Do You Love Me? |
34.05 (1206)
Perfect Partner |
33.99 (1261)
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Horse Schools: The International Guide to Universities, Colleges, Preparatory and Secondary Schools, and Specialty Equine Programs THIRD EDITION is available from Amazon and Barnes and Noble. The online version can be found at www.HorseSchoolsOnline.com.
Horse Schools: What Do You Want To Be? by Angelia Almos.
Amazon, Barnes and Noble, Blio, Diesel, iTunes, Kobo, Smashwords, Sony.
A 1200 word article about choosing your horse career and finding the right college or specialty school to pursue that career. Original appeared in Young Rider magazine.
Horse Schools: Choosing the Best Equine College for You by Angelia Almos.
Amazon, Barnes and Noble, Blio, Diesel eBook Store, iTunes, Kobo, Smashwords, Sony.
A 1000 word article about evaluating and choosing a horse college to suit your needs. Originally appeared in Sidelines magazine.
Horse Schools: College vs. Specialty Equine Education by Angelia Almos.
A 950 word article about the basic differences between a college and specialty school equine education. Originally appeared in Horse Illustrated under the title "Go Equine U!"


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It's been awhile since I picked this movie up at the public library, but my memories are still pretty strong. I imagine most people would want to see it for the weirdness of seeing a grey haired Serling (an Ithaca resident and prof. at Ithaca College) as the "talent" for the student-like documentary film.As a plus you can learn a few things about the rise and fall of the silent movie industry in a small Upstate New York town. Sadly, nearly every film shot in Ithaca has been lost, so don't expect much archival footage.


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Designer girl's white broderie cardigan
Item No.2320208458
This white girl's cardigan from the designer K by Jasper Conran has a broderie body with plain short sleeves. It has button fastenings and a crew neck.
- 100% Cotton
- Machine Washable
Debenhams is happy to exchange or refund your purchase within 28 days providing the goods are in a fully resaleable condition (including tags) and not within the exclusion policy*. This policy does not affect your statutory rights. You can return unwanted items either by visiting your local store (the fastest way to get a refund), by arranging a courier collection or returning by post. Exclusions apply to selected products. For instructions on how to return products and information on Debenhams refund policy visit the returns and refunds section of the website.


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In response to:
I saw Soro's hand moving her lips.
I saw it.
It's easy to belittle Barack Obama for being a community organizer, but he's the one who got the last laugh on November 6, 2012. Community organizing is key to not only winning a campaign but changing a country, which is exactly what the Obama's plan to do moving forward. Today Michelle Obama helped launch President Obama's "Organizing for Action," a massive community organizing project geared towards pushing through Obama's second term agenda and changing how voters think about issues for the long term.
"Say you're in for the next phase of this grassroots movement."
- Quotes of the day Allahpundit 11 hours ago
- This HHS official's resignation letter says everything you've ever thought about bureaucracy Mary Katharine Ham 12 hours ago
- Venezuelan official: John Kerry is a "murderer" and these protests are pretty much all his fault Erika Johnsen 13 hours ago
- Sarah Palin to launch "Rogue TV" Allahpundit 13 hours ago
- Jay Carney leaving the White House? Allahpundit 14 hours ago
- Ramirez on Attkisson's departure Ed Morrissey 14 hours ago