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- 1. Nova Launcher Prime: Import backup from [N4]Color-Wheel.zip
- 2. Install Multi Live wallpaper: I have included transparent PNG files if you want to change the background color. Works well in black too.
- 3. Add apps as needed
- 4. Invisible icons: Hold on app folder then select edit. I use the app "simple text" to apply an icon with no text which makes it invisible.
- 5. Location widget is Zooper widget
- 6. Power widget is Widgetsoid
- 7. Favorites font is minimalistic text using Wayward font to match location widget. Is included in zip file.
A love the clean white designs by so many talented people I've seen on MCS. This is my first post.
I created everything in Photoshop and made my own icons for everything. The wheel functions well if you like to have a single screen with folders, but I always have a few fav's that need to be added to a secondary screen. I also add a calendar page along with a calculator widget to one screen when I need it.
Nice work man! Could you upload a black background version of this? I don't have Photoshop. Is it possible with Galaxy Note 2? Thank you!
If you apply the color-wheel-trans.png as your home screen then change the common settings in Multi Live wallpaper to black it will show up.
Thanks you man! Would it go with Apex launcher?
Great theme, thanks
Yes I would work with Apex as well, but I like Nova better.
@nekyl That would be awsome in black and in the Note II
Am I retarded, where can I download? :P
Click up on the right side where it lists the widgets. The wallpapers and files are located in the list if you click on view more. The icon pack has a Nova backup along with all the images and a Photoshop file if needed.
Download link please!<3
Hi, I`m new here…how do I get it, I just love this one :-)
Thanks. You will need to download the various wallpapers as well as all the widgets listed at the top of this page. Just click the "View More" button to expand the menu and get the files. Once you have them there are instructions listed as to how to do the install in the tutorial section.
Very nice work here!
:-) Thanks
New to this… but love how this looks. Could you please tell me how to import the backup from the zip-file? In the Import section in Nova I am only able to choose import from TouchWiz. This is on a galaxy III. Thanks!
How to import the zip file? And how to make the favourite text with minimalistic app, this is only a clock app om my telephone…
You need to unzip the file, then install Nova Launcher, then copy the files to your phone. Then import the Nova backup file.
You need to copy the walkway font to the "Font" folder in the root directory in order to use that font. You can also do it with Zooper widget as the font comes with it.
I've updated my icons with a bunch of new colors and styles. You can get them here http://ppl.ug/PT7OJt6KaRU/
I will update them routinely if you like them. Cheers.
Love the colour wheel! Amazing job! How would I go about layering it on a picture I have instead of a white/black screen – is it even possible?
If you use the color-wheel-trans.png file you should be able to place the image into MultiLive wallpaper for your page then use the photo in your common settings. The png file is transparent so it will allow you to use any picture behind it.
Thanks – I'll give it a try. Cheers.

subset: commoncrawl


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GRE Tutoring in Abu Dhabi
GRE Private Tutoring
GRE Tutoring Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates | $150.00 (per hour) | ||
GRE Tutoring Online | $150.00 (per hour) |
GRE Private Course
GRE Private Course Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates | $1,580.00 | ||
GRE Private Course Online | $1,580.00 |
I would like to let you know that I took the GRE on Monday, December 6th and earned a score of 1200 (600 verbal, 600 quantitative). I think that I did very well on the essay portion of the test as well but won't receive those scores in the mail for a couple weeks or so. I would like to thank my instructor (George S.) and Manhattan Review for helping me to increase my score so much (I got a 1050 the first time I took the GRE in 2002) Thank you very much.
- Tamara (This student took a GRE class)
Abu Dhabi
Sheraton Abu Dhabi Hotel & Resort
Corniche Road
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
NOTE: We do NOT typically have staff at the venue, so email us before visiting the venue.


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A former Russellville police sergeant indicted on allegations that he made inappropriate sexual advances toward female inmates has pleaded guilty to three misdemeanor charges, courthouse officials said Thursday.
They said Jeremy Shane Hall, 34, pleaded guilty to three counts of third-degree assault.
Records indicate he is sentenced to six months on each count. The sentence is suspended for two years as long as he does not have other criminal issues. Hall is on unsupervised probation during that two-year period.
Hall was indicted in October 2011 on seven counts of custodial sexual misconduct, authorities said.
Copyright 2013 WAFF. All rights reserved.


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The unmatched center LCR will sort of stick out when I get it, cherry LCR's are like great white buffalo's
I wonder if they will drop the price on the RC-10s any further.
It is better to not mix and match whenever possible. The Veritas has 5.25" woofers and 93 DB sensitivity. The RC-LCR has 5.5" woofers and 89 DB sensitivity. Big difference in my mind.
Actually, they're the same drivers. Energy listed them as 5.5" but now Klipsch lists them at 5.25", which is probably more realistic. The sensitivity may or may not have actually changed; Energy was conservative with their spec here, while Klipsch likes to exaggerate on this one. The LCR has two 2" mid-range speakers that will make voice much more audible to your ears. Something to cherish as you get older. Keep looking, I'm sure one will become available soon. |


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Ben1 June 12, 2012 10:28 AM I never thought he will be so close to Sykes in his only third weekend. Very impressive kid. And noteworthy that he hasn't crashed yet, his only dnf is a technical problem. Reply Report abuse 32 agree 0 disagree
assen03 June 12, 2012 10:35 AM Very unusual, nice, sensible, thing to do. Go for it next time! Reply Report abuse 2 agree 2 disagree


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WE MANUFACTURE EQUIPMENT for high speed, close tolerance cutting, end finishing and processing of steel bar and tubing.
Fully integrated systems with excellent technical support.
Capable of cutting small OD at 12,000 pieces/hour with unparalleled accuracy.
Competitive conditions demand continued increases in production efficiencies. If you process a million or more cut pieces/year, let us help you design an integrated system suited to your needs.
Copyright © 2008, Bar & Tube Cutting Solutions. All rights reserved. Site by FreeFrog Designs.


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- MeetingsSchedule a meeting
- Special EventsPlan a special event
- WeddingsPlan a weddingEnd of tab panel
OffersFeatured OffersEnd of tab panel
About DoubleTreeAbout DoubleTreeEnd of tab panel
From the North: Travel south onto the M5, take Junction 20 (Clevedon). Turn left at the first roundabout and turn left at second roundabout (B3133) and head for Congresbury. Travel for 4 miles, leave village of Yatton behind you and the hotel is on the left.
From the South: Travel north onto the M5, take Junction 21 (Weston S Mare). Follow the A370 to Congresbury. Follow the road through Congresbury to second set of traffic lights. Turn left for Yatton (B3133) pass Garden Centre and hotel is on the right.
Via Train: Yatton Train station is located 1.2 miles away from the hotel. There are direct lines from London Paddington, connecting trains are from Bristol Temple Meads.
We advise that should you require a taxi from the train station to the hotel that you contact directly, as there isn't a taxi rank at the station. Typical Charge is £8.
Type | Typical Minimum Charge |
Taxi | 18.00 GBP |


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The Next Wave of Interactive Augmented Reality Experiences
Augmented Reality is the medium for interactivity, animation and cool visuals. That's how you get engagement and that's what our new 4.0 release of the Layar Augmented Reality Browser for Android is focused on. Today we've announced the next wave of interactive Augmented Reality experiences.
In the spirit of sharing the new capabilities of this release, we've listed several amazing layers below. These layers show the new interaction and interface capabilities of the new release of the platform and the browser. A special thanks to the Layar Partner Network members who created these. You can update to the latest version through the Android Market and view the layers mentioned below (iPhone version will follow soon).
ARcade by HPSC 2010 is the 30th anniversary of the legendary PAC-MAN game is the inspiration of the ARcade game on Layar. In this game players run after blinky cubes in a retro-arcade decor. The line of cubes is generated for the player, who gets points for every cubes he goes through. Players must register to play and see leaderboards of the day and the week.
Direct link to open the game on your phone http://m.layar.com/open/arcade
Woomba by Superimpose and Hoppala The Woombas escaped! Circus director Zambarini needs your help to catch them again. But watch out for the Wookies who disguise as Woombas and try to get you. Score points by catching different game characters, leading you on a fun trail.
Direct link to open the game on your phone http://m.layar.com/open/woombamania
Other showcases:
The easiest way to add Augmented Reality in your app.As more people enhance their world through Augmented Reality, we are continuously looking for new ways to help developers easily offer this experience within their own apps. At this moment adding Augmented Reality in your own app is a real hassle. White label solutions are in most cases very costly. Free open tools don't give you the features, support nor the desired experience you want. Until now. Enter the Layar Player. We are introducing a simple line of code that can help developers easily build an augmented reality experience into their own iPhone app. The Layar Player simply plays your published layer right in your iPhone app. This solution is by far the easiest way to get augmented reality in your iPhone app. To kick things off, we are supporting 10 developers with their ideas during our beta program. See below for details on how to enter and get started. What does the player do? What does it cost? How do I get it to work in my iPhone app? Unfortunately, you're no longer able to register for this beta program. Popular AR content nearby now easy to discover with latest Layar release for iPhoneA challenge for users is to discover popular Augmented Reality content which is located around them. The latest iPhone release of the Layar Reality Browser solves this. From now on the Layar app starts with a list of nearby popular augmented spots. From this list users can select a spot they like and play the associated layer in Augmented Reality. Other changes are a new navigation tab bar. The tab bar is used to quickly switch between Nearby, Layers, Search and Yours. Also we updated the search functionality. It now searches both spots and layers. This latest version of the Layar Reality Browser is available now for download in the App store. More Relevance Android users have had the nearby augmented reality search ability since June. The Android release has shown that users discover more local content and are no longer confronted with layers that don't contain content around their location. Layer owners like brands, publishers and agencies now can be sure that their content will be shown when it is relevant: when the user is nearby. How the new nearby screen works Each spot in the list has a category icon like Games, Fun or Food & Drink. Next to that, the title of the listed spot is shown as well as the layer title. Also the distance to the spot is displayed. On the right-side of each list item there is a "play" icon which opens the layer with the spot in focus. When a list item is tapped more information of the specific spot is shown. Slide a spot to the left or to the right to see other options. A spot can be seen on the map, saved or you can select to hide content from this layer from your nearby view. This hide option comes in handy when for example during a concert you want to hide all tweets which most likely will fill up the list at that specific moment. You can find your hidden layers in the your filter settings (top left corner). Other filters are amongst others a custom search range which can be enlarged when in a rural area. The list is refreshed by pulling the complte list down. The list starts with 10 spots. More popular spots can be loaded by taping "load more items" at the bottom of the list. Meet Layar at Google Zeitgeist, Appnation, Where Summit and World Economic ForumMeet up with the Layar co-founders in California or China next week, Sunday September 12th till Friday September 17th. Raimo van de Klein will be at Google Zeitgeist on Sunday and Monday. Meet him there to see a kick-&^% demo. Tuesday Raimo will be in San Fransisco to lead a panel on Augmented Reality at Appnation. Wednesday he will be at the Where Location Business Summit in San Jose. Let him know if you want to meet up. Maarten Lens-FitzGerald will be at the World Economic Forum "Summer Davos" event in Tianjin, China. Layar's main Chinese developer, Anjuke, made a demo layer for him to use and you to see. Search for Anjuke in your Layar browser. Maarten will participate in several sessions, amongst others: Looking into the Future of Mixed Reality and Live from China, about online video. Let him know if you want to meet up. Important announcement for developers.Two weeks ago we announced that we merge the developer and publisher environment in one environment that fits all. The migration of these two environments is scheduled for September. On the 16th of September we will organize a webinar to talk you through this new environment and explain you all the basics. After the webinar there will be room for questions. So don't miss this one! Date: Thursday, September 16, 2010 After registering you will receive a confirmation email containing information about joining the webinar. |


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photon - 8:19 pm on Jul 19, 2004 (gmt 0)
It takes a bit of a paradigm shift to get used to M2. I sort of liked it, but I haven't put in enough time to fully acquaint myself with its advantages. There's one small thing that's a stumbling block for me: (perceived?) lack of options for filtered mail actions. It's one of those dumb fun things: I have Eudora set up to play different sounds for different types of mail (special people get special sounds :) ). I haven't figured out if Opera's M2 will let me do that. I haven't written it off yet; there's a part of me that wants to make the switch. But I feel like I have to get to know it better before I'm ready to cut the strings to Eudora.
I started experimenting with it about two months ago. I made sure that it left the mail on the server so that I could still run my default email (Eudora) in tandem.


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Forums → Forum Games
Posted Jun 17, '13 at 2:17am
346 posts
Time line 2095- Japan declares war on China 2097- Japan makes a massive strike almost crippling china 2099- Russia sends troops into china 2104- Japan pushed back onto there main isles. 2105- Japan surrenders, but Russia attacks. 2106- UN forces move into the base of Japan to stop the conflict 2107- Republic of Europe formed all countries (besides Italy) join the Republic through signing over, or being forced into. 2108- Space craft fitted to war 2110- No more Japan despite UN forces Russia conquers it. 2111- All asain countries declare war on Russia, and China. 2119- Asia is now Purly Russian, and Chinese. 2120-Space frigates formed entering a major new step in space conflict 2121- All out war is declared World War 3 is here the war for earth has begin
Character sheet Name: Country:(UN, America, Canada, China, Russia, Republic of Europe.
Posted Jun 17, '13 at 2:28am
30 posts
What? What is this even?
Posted Jun 17, '13 at 2:36am
Oh god forgot to finish character sheet (Fighting for control of the Earth in WWIII)
Posted Jun 17, '13 at 2:38am
Character sheet Name: Rank: Country:(UN, America, Canada, China, Russia, Republic of Europe) Inventory: Money: Allies:
Posted Jun 17, '13 at 11:38am
38 posts
Well, i don't think this is a good RPG. Now why would they be attacking eachother? There must always be a reason. Personally, i think the leaders would have take the diplomatic actions over war.
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Huntsville Police responded to a call Tuesday about shots fired at the 6300 block of Rime Village.
A woman reported gunfire at 4:30 a.m. Officers arrived at the scene and found several bullet holes in one of the buildings.
There were no injuries. Police said the investigation is ongoing.
Copyright 2013 WAFF. All Rights Reserved.


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19 November 2012
PwC office, Moscow,
10 Butyrsky Val, White Square Office Center, (Find on map)
Room 1011ab
On 19 November 2012 PwC held the seminar on recent trends in disclosing beneficial ownership information and exchanging data with regulatory bodies.
Leading professionals from PwC and Rothschild Trust Group shared their insights on these and other issues, during the seminar.
PwC Russia is a Partner of the XXII Olympic Winter Games and XI Paralympic Winter Games to be held in the city of Sochi in 2014 Learn more |
PwC Russia is a Partner of the XXVII World Summer Universiade 2013 in Kazan Learn more |


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Mosey along the Middlewood Way
Monday 26th August at 10.30am This is what time the ride will set off. It's best to get to the starting point at least 15 minutes beforehand to avoid missing the start.
Cycling time | Ride distance | Suitable for | Distance from me | Ride level |
80 Mins | 8 Miles | Women only Not all rides are suitable for everyone. This will tell you if the ride is suitable for you and/or your friends and family. | ? Miles |
If you're fairly confident on your bike and ready to broaden your cycling horizons, Steady rides are ideal. At a comfortable pace, and possibly with some modest hills along the way, rides take place on mainly quiet roads with plenty of sights along the way.
- Starting Point & Postcode
- Rose Hill (Marple) Railway Station, Off Stockport Road SK6 6EE
- Overall Duration On a long ride, it's sometimes good to have a little break in the middle, or maybe a catch up at the beginning or end to keep it sociable. This means that the overall ride duration may be longer than the actual cycling time.
- 1 hours 40 mins (1 hours 20 mins cycling)
Breeze Bike Rides in Stockport
The ride follows part of the Middlewood Way, a disused railway line from Marple to Macclesfield and cuts through the beautiful Cheshire countryside. We will only cycle part of the trail out to just past the Lyme Road bridge. This is about 5 miles out and then after a break we will cycle back the way we came.
The trail is flat and totally traffic free so this ride is suitable for beginners. There will be a very short road section to get to one of the cafes but we can push our bikes along here if you prefer.
We will be stopping at the half way point to go to a local cafe, either the 'The Coffee Tavern' or 'Trading Post' for a well-deserved break. Both are just off the main trail, we can decide on the way. Please bring a bike lock with you (if you have one) to secure your bike while we stop for a drink.
Please ensure that your bike is roadworthy before you come on the ride. The route is most suitable for bikes with wider tyres as wet weather can make the trail muddy and uneven.
Please bring and wear lots of layers to keep you warm, we are cycling in November and these rides are supposed to be fun. It is always better to be able to take a layer off than feel cold, there is nothing worse to ruin a fun ride. It's a good idea to bring a drink and snack with you to keep you going.
Wearing a helmet is advisable; if you don't have one please do not to worry you can still take part. If you enjoy the bike ride and would like to come again perhaps you could look to buy one then.
As with all Breeze Network rides, we will ride at the speed of the slowest cyclist. You will not be left behind so there is no need to worry!
See you there!!
Briony x
- Starting Point
- Rose Hill (Marple) Railway Station, Off Stockport Road
- Starting Postcode
Meet the Champions
- Briony Farrell
Similar events you might like
Event Name | Date/Time | Ride Level | |
Mosey along the Middlewood Way | Saturday 15th March at 10.00am | Women Only | Read More |
Alexandra Park Easyrider | Saturday 15th March at 10.30am | Women and Children | Read More |
Tale of Two Parks | Saturday 15th March at 10.30am | Women Only | Read More |


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- Home
- Jpop
- Okazaki Ritsuko
- Lucky&Happy
Win $10 in the Anime Wallpapers.Com August 2013 Wallpaper Contest or Origami Sticky Notes! Lucky&HappyAlbum / Collection: Ritzberry Fields Track # 10 Description: Wedding Peach IN Cover
Transliterated by LinaMayu Translated by Hinamawari |
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text: Home: Teaching Resources Teaching ResourcesArticles:8 Reasons to Go to Mass - Thomas Lickona"Mass is boring." "I don't get anything out of Mass why should I go?" "Why can't I just pray alone?" These are common feelings, especially among young people but among many adults as well. How should we respond. Popular Read more... AIDS and the Churches: Getting the Story Right - Edward C. Green and Allison Herling RuarkWhat the churches are called to do by their theology turns out to be what works best in AIDS prevention. Read more... An Imaginary Confession: The aborted Child and redemptive Love - Father Antoninus Wall, O.P.Women who have had abortions often struggle with overwhelming sadness and guilt. In this compassionate and theologically sound pamphlet, Fr. Wall recounts the imaginary confession of such a mother and shows, through the priests response, how she can find peace. This pamphlet has brought relief and healing to countless post-abortive women. Read more... Examination of Conscience — for teenagers - Deacon Douglas McManamanAn examination of conscience especially pertinent to teenagers. Read more... How to say stop - Jason EvertQ. If you're on a date and things are going too far, how do you stop suddenly and tell him "no"? Read more... Pornography - Jason EvertQ. What's wrong with looking at pornography? It's not like you are getting a girl pregnant or spreading STDs. A. The problem with using porn is that it emasculates men, degrades women, destroys marriages, and offends the Lord. Read more... Teenagers and Truth - Dennis BuonafedeIf teenagers do not enter their adult years already convinced of the reality of Objective Truth, knowable by human reason, they will be increasingly enslaved by the idea that there is no common universal truth. Read more... The Art of Living: Patience and Perseverance - Edward P. SriHow do you respond when "bad things" happen to you? When you experience disappointment or setbacks? When you are hurt by something someone said? Read more... The Neglected Heart: The Emotional Dangers of Premature Sexual Involvement - Thomas LickonaIn discussions of teen sex, much is said about the dangers of pregnancy and disease but far less about the emotional hazards. Read more... The Pope's New Feminism - Mary Ann GlendonThe Catholic Church has been a vigorous proponent in international settings of social and economic justice for women. Without glossing over the criticisms, this article provides evidence of an enviable historical record of concern for women by the Church. Read more... What Is Chastity & How Can I Be Chaste? - Thomas & Judy Lickona with William Boudreau, M.D.Strongly rooted in Catholic tradition, Sex, Love and You promotes the value of chastity and tell you how your life will be better if you refrain from sexual activity until marriage. Read more... Pages Updated On: Wed Nov 27 2013 - 03:00:55


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I will bring pics of Capricon. We will also discuss the dangers of human-animal hybrids at conventions.
Stop spamming this thread. Spam means bumps, posts not on topic, and bickering. The forum is not so active that it won't stay on page one until the 4th. It does not have to be the very top thread. If I catch another spam post in here I will ban that person, that goes for everyone. EDIT: For future reference, if you PM me or Mirax80 we can put a header up announcing a meeting, make a thread a sticky, and/or post things on the TFN main page.
I will be there QCJO 4 LIFE Wait a minute that sounds bad qcjo 4 as long as you do it yeah that works fhqwagads


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Children need a nurturing household and social environment in order to grow into economically active, productive adults with the ability to participate effectively in the social, cultural, and political activities in society. In a nurturing household, a child receives not only adequate and nutritious food for normal and healthy physical growth, but also appropriate health care, affection, and intellectual stimulation. A nurturing and caring society would ensure that each child receives education at least up to the primary level and has opportunities for healthy social interaction. In such societies few, if any, school-age children would be working and not in school.
However, hundreds of millions of children around the world are engaged in some work, many of them for long hours and in hazardous conditions. According to estimates for 2002 from the International Labour Organization (ILO) (2002b) there are about 246 million child laborers (aged 5-17) in the world, 180 million of whom are working in what are referred to as the worst forms of child labor, often involving hazardous conditions. Of these, 8 million children are working in the "unconditional worst forms" of child labor, which include armed conflict, forced and bonded labor, prostitution, pornography, drug trafficking, and other illicit activities.1
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
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Monitoring International Labor Standards: Techniques and Sources of Information
Child Labor
Children need a nurturing household and social environment in order to grow into economically active, productive adults with the ability to participate effectively in the social, cultural, and political activities in society. In a nurturing household, a child receives not only adequate and nutritious food for normal and healthy physical growth, but also appropriate health care, affection, and intellectual stimulation. A nurturing and caring society would ensure that each child receives education at least up to the primary level and has opportunities for healthy social interaction. In such societies few, if any, school-age children would be working and not in school.
However, hundreds of millions of children around the world are engaged in some work, many of them for long hours and in hazardous conditions. According to estimates for 2002 from the International Labour Organization (ILO) (2002b) there are about 246 million child laborers (aged 5-17) in the world, 180 million of whom are working in what are referred to as the worst forms of child labor, often involving hazardous conditions. Of these, 8 million children are working in the "unconditional worst forms" of child labor, which include armed conflict, forced and bonded labor, prostitution, pornography, drug trafficking, and other illicit activities.1
As we discuss below, all estimates of child labor, including those of the ILO, are subject to potentially serious measurement errors and biases: this caution has to be kept in mind throughout this chapter.
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Some limited amount of work by children during off-school hours may be desirable for their healthy growth into adulthood. However, most of the children at work in the world are engaged in activities and for lengths of time in each day that are detrimental to their healthy physical and intellectual development, their education, and their productivity or earning capacity in adulthood. Child labor not only harms the child, but also perpetuates poverty and compromises economic growth and equitable development. In this chapter and the report, we follow the ILO usage and use the term "child labor" to mean work that is hazardous to the emotional and physical development of children below a specified minimum age, as distinguished from "child work," which is not automatically considered problematic.
This chapter offers a framework for assessing the progress toward the elimination of child labor, identifying the problems encountered, and suggesting effective means for accelerating progress. A realistic assessment of the cost, in terms of both lost family income and the private and social cost of providing education to the children who are removed from the labor market, and an acceptable scheme for raising the resources from domestic and external sources for meeting the costs, are important parts of an effective plan to eliminate child labor.
Many conceptual and practical problems arise in monitoring the extent of child labor and the progress toward eliminating it. The next section discusses background and contextual factors to set the stage for the rest of the chapter. The section covers definitional issues as well as data quality and availability problems. The next three sections follow the structure of the previous chapters on core labor standards: assessing compliance; the available data sources from the perspectives of coverage, quality, reliability, and possible biases; and our conclusions and recommendations.
Understanding the reasons for child labor is essential for assessing and monitoring progress toward reaching the goal of eliminating child labor and for developing appropriate indicators for this purpose. Both supply and demand for child workers are important to developing such an understanding. On the supply side, the most common reason for parents to put their children to work is extreme poverty. Very poor parents cannot afford to forgo the income that a child worker brings to the family, let alone meet the out-of-pocket costs of sending the child to school, even though they
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realize that depriving the child of an education will most likely condemn her or him to a life in poverty as an adult. In this sense, as the ILO has noted, child labor is both a cause and a consequence of poverty, contributing to a perpetuation of household poverty across generations.
A large proportion of child labor occurs in poor rural areas: nearly 70 percent of the economically active children in developing countries in 2002 worked in rural areas, mostly on family subsistence farms. In many developing countries, poverty is largely, though not wholly, a rural phenomenon, and most of the rural poor are marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. In these areas, schooling may be inaccessible and of poor quality, as well as costly.
Another reason for child labor is that when faced with a loss of income from temporary shocks, such as a failed harvest or an illness that keeps the breadwinning parent from work, poor parents take their children out of school and put them to work to compensate in part for the lost income. Even though parents understand the long-term deleterious consequences of interrupted schooling, they do not have savings or access to credit in order to smooth over temporary shocks to household income. Opportunities to borrow, other than from friends and relatives, are limited in developing countries because they do not have functioning financial systems, either microcredit institutions or more traditional banks. Friends and relatives may not be in a position to lend because they themselves may be facing adverse shocks (for example, harvest failures) at the same time.
Some children are forced into working because they have no living parents or other close relatives who can provide for them. HIV/AIDS and armed conflict in certain regions have been a major cause of increased orphanhood in recent years. Others work because their home environment was so hostile that they ran away from home to work. Whatever the reason for children's working the conditions in which they work are often injurious to their health and growth.
Turning to demand for child workers, most often it is cheaper to use child workers than adults for the same work. Households find it cheaper to use children than to hire adult wage laborers as household help and in their farms and enterprises. Nonhousehold-based enterprises also hire children for the same reason in certain sectors. Apart from being deprived of education, child workers are exploited by employers, who take advantage of the poverty and hence the weak bargaining position of parents. Often, children are bonded to work with employers from whom their parents have borrowed. Since both child workers and their parents are often illiterate, em-
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ployers are able to manipulate the amount they deduct from wages of children toward debt service and thus keep children in bonded labor for a long time (Human Rights Watch, 2003). Also, the occupations in which children are valued as workers because of their dexterity (e.g., carpet making) often involve unhealthy working conditions and long working hours. Lastly, the fact that children as workers are in no position to organize collectively means that they are more vulnerable to being exploited by their employers in wages, benefits, and conditions of work.
Almost all countries have formally recognized that child labor is injurious to the healthy development of children to become productive adults and to future economic development. This recognition has led to domestic legislation that, in most cases, sets a minimum age for the employment of children and prohibits the employment of children in hazardous activities.
At the international level, many countries have signed and ratified the two key ILO conventions relating to child labor, Conventions No. 138 and No. 182, on establishing a minimum age for employment and on the elimination of worst forms of child labor.
The enactment of domestic laws and the ratification of international conventions are certainly indicative of laudable intentions, not just to eliminate child labor, but also to ensure that children who are not working get an effective education and other help to grow to be productive adults. However, the extent to which domestic laws are enforced and international conventions are observed depends on many factors, including the availability of resources and the level of priority for enforcement by the government. Therefore, it is important to understand the realities of enforcement capabilities and availability of resources to avoid a narrow legalistic approach to eliminating child labor. It is also crucial to provide developing country governments with both technical assistance and resources to make a successful transition away from child labor. In this context, historical experience from developed countries of their success in eradicating child labor and the role of laws in it is useful.
In his review of the history of labor standards, Engerman (2003) finds that the first laws were designed to protect children, followed soon afterwards by laws protecting adult women and only much later by laws protecting adult males. English labor standards were approved over the course of the nineteenth century in the context of the industrial revolution, urbanization, rising incomes, growing international trade, and increasing literacy rates. These laws were often extended to British colonies around the world and set the model for European and U.S. laws. It is important to
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distinguish laws that regulate employment of children through minimum age and maximum hours of employment and so on from laws relating to schooling, health (e.g., immunization), and other aspects of child welfare: from the perspective of child labor core labor standards, the former have a direct bearing while the latter have an indirect bearing.
Although an early English law, approved in 1788, established a minimum age of eight for chimney sweeps, Engerman traced the origins of British child labor laws to an 1802 law applying only to pauper apprentices and to the Factory Act of 1819, which prohibited children under age nine from working in cotton mills. Over the following decades, limits on child labor were gradually extended to other industries, and the age of work was increased, while legal requirements for education were introduced. By the turn of the century, children under the age of 12 were prohibited from working in all factories and workshops. In the United States, first in the northeastern states, and later in the southern and western states, legal prohibitions were placed on child labor in the late nineteenth century. By 1913, most states prohibited children under age 14 from factory work, although a few southern states had established a minimum age of 12, and a handful of states (e.g., Wyoming) had no child labor laws in place. The Fair Labor Standards Act, the first national law restricting child labor, was not approved until 1938.
Engerman (2003, p. 60) found: "It seems clear that in the period after the introduction of labor standards, there have been reductions in hours worked in affected sectors, increases in wages, reductions in child labor along with substantial increases in education and child literacy…". However, while history clearly shows a correlation between laws and enforcement restricting child labor and requiring compulsory schooling and actual declines in the number of children working, the causes of those declines has been long debated. That debate still continues. There are several factors besides laws, such as trends in poverty, returns to education (in economic terms), and employment opportunities that affect the trend in child labor. There is absolutely no reason to think that the relative importance of each factor in explaining the trend would be the same in every country or every time. Moreover, as econometricians have cautioned, estimating the relative contribution of each factor from the available data is difficult (see, e.g., Brown et al., 2003; Fishback, 1998). Some of the differences in empirical findings can be attributed to differences in econometric methodologies. This has to be kept in mind in judging them.
Some retrospective studies of child labor in England and the United
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States indicate that child labor and compulsory schooling laws have had their intended effect, reducing the incidence of child labor. For example, Bolin-Hort (1989) found that legal restrictions played a substantial role in the removal of child workers from the cotton mills in Manchester, England, during the industrial revolution. Brown et al. (1992) found that U.S. laws restricting child labor and requiring school attendance played a role in reducing the proportion of children employed in fruit and vegetable canning in the early 1900s. Adriana Lleras-Muney (2001) estimates the effect of several laws on educational attainment for individuals who were 14 years old between 1915 and 1939. The results show that legally requiring a child to attend school for one more year, either by increasing the age required to obtain a work permit or by lowering the entrance age, increased educational attainment by about 5 percent. The effect was similar for white males and females, but there was no effect for blacks. Continuation school laws, which required working children to attend school on a part-time basis, were effective for white males only, and these laws increased the education only of those in the lower percentiles of the distribution of education. Nardinelli (1990) reinterprets the British industrial revolution and concludes that child labor laws were not the principal reason for the decline of child labor. A comprehensive comparison of several countries (Austria, England, Germany, Japan, the United States, and several developing countries) by Weiner (1991) led him to conclude that compulsory education is necessary for the elimination of child labor. Angrist and Krueger (1991) examined more recent census data from 1960 and 1970 and found that state laws requiring young people to stay in school until age 17 or 18 were effective. Acemoglu and Angrist (1999) used the same census data and methods to analyze state child labor laws and found that child labor laws effectively increased boys' school attendance. Margo and Finegan (1996) applied the same methods retrospectively to census data from 1900 and found that compulsory schooling laws had a positive effect on schooling.
In contrast, however, many historical studies have found that child labor and compulsory school laws followed declines in child labor, rather than causing them. Landes and Solmon (1972) found that nineteenth-century compulsory school laws had little effect. Scholliers (1995) found that the proportion of children under 12 working in Belgian factories had declined substantially by the middle of the nineteenth century without any legal restrictions on child labor. Moehling (1999) conducted a detailed statistical analysis of work and schooling patterns among U.S. 13- and 14-year-olds in the early 1900s, when most states had established 14 as the
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minimum age for factory work: she concluded that child labor legislation usually followed, rather than led, the large declines in levels of child labor between 1900 and 1910. In a summary of several studies, Fishback (1998) concluded that U.S. factory managers' demand for child labor fell during that period because of changes in technology, massive immigration of unskilled adult labor, and rising real wages.
It is evident that the relative importance of laws and their enforcement and other factors related to the decline in child labor are hard to assess, and the findings of historical research are ambiguous. However, it is clear that it took several decades before child labor was effectively eradicated in developed countries. Although this does not mean that an equally long time would be needed in contemporary developing countries, since the world economy today is very different, the historical evidence provides a cautionary perspective.
Children perform different types of work under a variety of conditions and for a variety of reasons. Therefore, in assessing child labor, the types and conditions of work, the age of the children who perform the work, and the developmental level of the country must all be taken into account. Because not all child work is considered to be detrimental to the growth and well-being of children, it is particularly important to distinguish among the different terms that are used in the literature. This section provides an overview of the ILO standards as codified in the Minimum Age Convention (No. 138) and the Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor (No. 182) and the proxy measure most often used to measure child labor, "economically active children."
Minimum Age and Worst Forms of Child Labor
ILO Conventions No. 138 and No. 182 distinguish between unacceptable "child labor" that is to be abolished and "child work" that may contribute to a child's healthy development. The Minimum Age Convention (No. 138) stipulates, "national legislation should fix a minimum age or ages at which children can enter into different types of work" (International Labour Organization, 2002b). Although the convention states that the general minimum age should not be less than the age for completing compulsory schooling and in any event should not be less than 15 years of age—
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the ultimate aspiration being 16 years—it offers some flexibility for developing nations that are unable to meet this target by allowing them to set a minimum age of 14 until they are able to comply fully with the convention. Light work may be allowed for children 12 and older, and nonhazardous work is allowed for children 15 and older. Hazardous work and the worst forms of child labor are never allowed for children.
The ILO defines light work as work that is not likely to be harmful to children's health or development and not likely to be detrimental to their attendance at school or vocational training. In determining whether work is likely to be harmful, the ILO takes into consideration the duration of work, the conditions under which the work is done, and the effects on school attendance, among other factors. However, the ILO does not provide any operational guidance for assessing these factors and determining whether any given form of work would qualify as light work. Hazardous work includes "work which by its very nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out is likely to jeopardize the health, safety or morals of young persons" (International Labour Organization, 1973). It is left up to individual governments to determine which types of work fall under the rubric of light or hazardous.
The Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor (No. 182) was adopted unanimously in 1999 and has already been ratified by 132 countries. It provides further limits to the kinds of work children may do. It identifies the following kinds of labor that are to be categorically abolished:
all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage, and serfdom and forced or compulsory labor; including forced recruitment into the armed forces;
the use, procuring, or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography, or for pornographic performances;
the use, procuring, or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs as defined in the relevant international treaties; and
work, which by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety, or morals of children.
The first three fall into the category of the "unconditional worst forms" of child labor that are absolutely prohibited. According to the ILO, about 8.4 million children aged 5-17 are engaged in this category of labor. The fourth type of work falls under the category of hazardous, as defined by national
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legislation. Hazardous work may be carried out in legitimate sectors of the economy but is not acceptable work for children (International Labour Organization, 2002b).
With respect to certain elements in the definition of child labor, the ILO has deliberately built in a large degree of national discretion, both in defining different categories of work (e.g., light or hazardous work) and in setting minimum ages for employment of children (which may vary with the level of development and with the ages of compulsory schooling). Although it is understandable and appropriate to allow national discretion in setting standards, variations across nations in standards make cross-country comparisons quite difficult. And the variability of national laws can also yield a seemingly odd result in terms of measuring progress. Countries that set higher or more ambitious standards for themselves may appear to be making less progress than countries that set lower standards. For example, if in one country some activities are declared as hazardous to children, but not in another country, even if the same proportion of children are found to be working in these activities, the former country would seem to be making less progress in meeting its own standards than the latter.
Collecting reliable data for measuring progress toward meeting child labor standards presents another problem. The problem arises in part from the fact that conventional data collection instruments, such as labor force surveys, are poorly designed to reflect in their questionnaires or protocols the nuances in the ILO definition of child labor, such as the distinction between acceptable and unacceptable forms of work for children. It also arises in part from the fact that the sample frame for household surveys, by definition, does not include children who are not part of any households (e.g., street children). It is also extraordinarily difficult to elicit truthful answers from respondents about children engaged in illegal activities (e.g., drug trade, pornography, and prostitution).
Economic Activity as a Proxy for Child Labor
Although the ILO distinguishes between child labor (defined as harmful to children's emotional and physical development) and child work, most readily available data on child labor actually measure another, simpler, but less satisfactory concept: whether or not a person (child or adult) is engaged in "economic activity." The economically active population is commonly defined as persons who "furnish the supply of labor for the production of economic goods and services as defined by the U.N. Systems of National
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Accounts and Balances during a specified time-reference period" (International Labour Organization, 2000). The definition includes paid and unpaid employment, unemployment, and activity for household consumption (for a full discussion of "economic activity," see Ritualo, 2002).
Many countries have undertaken labor force surveys that define participation in the labor force as being engaged in "economic activity." Such surveys do not adequately capture the participation in economic, but illegal, activity and work that is unpaid and undertaken in household enterprises and whose product is mainly for household consumption. Also, some activities, while certainly involving work, are not deemed "economic" and are therefore excluded from the survey. While many of these problems arise in canvassing information about adults as well as children, they are particularly severe in canvassing information about the work of children.
An economically active child may or may not be engaged in child labor by ILO definitions. For example, a 14-year-old child working in a family shop after school is considered economically active but is probably not engaged in child labor, because this work may be categorized as light work appropriate for children over 12, since it is not physically or emotionally harmful and does not interfere with the child's education, or a child kept home from school to do unpaid heavy household work for long hours may be engaged in child labor but might not be considered economically active.
Another serious problem involves children who are neither classified as economically active nor as students enrolled in or attending schools. In India, for example, this category of "nowhere children" accounted for 45.2 percent of all children in the age group of 5-14 in India in 1991, while the economically active children accounted for only 5.4 percent of that age group (Government of India, 2002). In parts of Africa where "child fostering" is prevalent, it is often difficult to determine whether this is in fact disguised child labor. As such, economic activity as a proxy for child labor could understate the number of working children.
As in other chapters, the committee proposes indicators for assessing compliance in three categories: (A) legal framework, (B) government performance, and (C) overall outcomes. In addition, for this subject, we include a fourth category of associated factors that are important in evaluating the prevalence of child labor and its causes but do not directly measure it.
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In suggesting the following indicators, we are aware that data on some of them may be unavailable for many countries. Even when available, they may be biased, subject to serious measurement errors, and noncomparable over time and across countries. Nonetheless, we list them to encourage the collection of more and more reliable and comparable data in the future, perhaps with assistance from the international community.
Legal Framework
The indicators on legal framework start with whether the country has ratified the conventions on minimum age and worst forms of child labor. Nonratification does not necessarily mean that a country is not working toward the abolition of child labor. In fact, many nonratifying countries have domestic laws that conform to the conventions. Nor does ratification mean that a country has the resources, capability, or even the will to enforce the conventions. Nonetheless, ratification signals some political will for making progress toward the abolition of child labor, as ratification requires submission of country reports for review by the ILO Committee on the Application of Standards and opens a country for technical assistance.
The second level of analysis is to look at the laws of a country to determine whether they conform with the ILO's standards regarding minimum age and worst forms of child labor. Since developing countries may have different minimum ages of schooling and admission to work as allowed by the minimum age convention, it is not necessary to find that countries' laws are fixed at the goal of age 16 for minimum compulsory schooling. However, the age for compulsory schooling should not fall below the lowest allowable by Convention No. 138, which is 12 years. Also, the laws should comport with the convention's requirement with regard to minimum age for admission into work. That is, children should not be allowed to work while they are still under the minimum compulsory schooling age.
With regard to the worst forms of child labor, the first three categories (slavery, prostitution and pornography, and other illegal activities, including drug trafficking) should be categorically outlawed. If these activities are not illegal, the country is not adhering to the convention. For the last category of worst forms of child labor, hazardous work, careful attention must be paid to the country's definition of what is hazardous and at what ages this kind of work can be undertaken.
The two additional indicators that need some explanation are whether child labor is included in a country's constitution or in bilateral or other
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about the working lives of children and what interventions would be appropriate.
The rapid assessments carried out by the ILO have been conducted by research institutions, universities, NGOs, and in one case, a trade union. The teams of researchers that conduct them are generally comprised of persons with high-level technical and analytical capacities, as well as persons familiar with working children. The latter group includes social workers, psychologists, child labor experts, statisticians, and people with a deep knowledge of the local community, culture, and worst forms of child labor. In many cases, the researchers partner with local NGOs to help locate and reach the working children and help the children feel at ease with the researchers. In order to ensure that the children feel as comfortable and as safe as possible when they are being interviewed, members of the community who speak the local dialect are involved in the study and gender sensitivities are taken into consideration.
The great difficulty in obtaining quality information on the worst forms of child labor arises for a number of reasons. First, many of them (e.g., use of children in drug production and trafficking, prostitution, and pornography) are illegal in most countries, making it difficult to locate the children exploited by criminal activities. Even if the children are located alone, they may refuse to talk to the interviewers for fear of being further harmed. If the employers, parents, or guardians are present during the interviews, the children may be afraid to answer the questions truthfully. Furthermore, children may not want to participate in the data collection efforts because they can lose time and money by forgoing earnings during the time taken by the interview. In other cases, children may have been interviewed previously by a researcher promising changes in their lives and now be unwilling as their circumstances did not change.
In the rapid assessment of child domestic workers in Nepal, for example, employers were present during most of the interviews. In 14 cases, participants were dropped from the study after their employers refused to continue with the interviews. In the rapid assessment on child porters in Nepal, "adult porters were often present and influenced [the] responses" of the children being interviewed (Ritualo, 2002).
The rapid assessment methodology is not designed to extrapolate figures or make generalizations. The number of respondents is on average only a little more than 100 children. The selection of the respondents varies greatly from study to study. In some cases, the children are contacted through the rehabilitation programs they are involved in or through the
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knowledge of other key informants. In other cases, the interviewers take to the streets and interview any child they find working in the particular worst form of child labor being studied. In others, households are selected and interviewed. Rapid assessments can be important precursors to SIMPOC and provide background information in creating targeted programs, but as noted, they are not designed to gather statistical data and cannot be used to make generalizations beyond those children interviewed.
Other Sources of Evidence on Child Labor
U.S. Department of Labor Reports
The U.S. Department of Labor's International Child Labor Program has produced several congressionally mandated reports on various aspects of child labor, including the use of child labor in such U.S. imports as manufacture and mining, agriculture, and the apparel industry; specific topic areas such as consumer labels and child prostitution; and broad topics such as the efforts to eliminate child labor and the economic considerations of child labor. The other reports in the series are similar to most academic research reports that provide an overview of the field and the progress that has been made in answering specific research questions, for instance, An Economic Consideration of Child Labor (U.S. Department of Labor, 2000).
The Department of Labor's case study methodology consists of holding a public hearing to gather information from a wide range of stakeholders, including U.S. trade unions, consumer groups, corporations, human rights groups, and trade associations; foreign governments and NGOs; and international organizations. The department then conducts field visits during which staff meets with government officials, trade unionists, journalists, and human rights groups. It also visits production facilities. Finally, other reports and sources of information are taken into consideration.
In 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Trade and Development Act of 2000 (TDA) (P.L. 106-200). The TDA requires the Secretary of Labor to submit an annual report on the progress of countries that are beneficiaries of the U.S. Generalized System of Preferences in the implementation of international commitments to eliminate the worst forms of child labor (U.S. Department of Labor, 2002).
In accordance with this legislation, in 2002 the Department of Labor released a comprehensive report on the worst forms of child labor. The report provides a broad overview of child labor in 138 countries and terri-
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tories. It draws on data gathered by the U.S. Department of State and on reports and materials from foreign countries, the ILO, and the World Bank (U.S. Department of Labor, 2002). It also provides an overview of government initiatives that combat the worst forms of child labor, the incidence and nature of child labor in each country, and child labor laws and enforcement.
These Department of Labor reports do not generally provide new data; however, the information gathered from site visits is helpful in providing a context for statistical data. The 2001 report provides a useful overview, particularly on the worst forms of child labor. However, it is not designed as an in-depth study of the problem of child labor in any particular country.
National Governments
Some national governments publish their own data and reports on child labor. However, many countries conduct surveys and report on child labor in conjunction with either the ILO (SIMPOC) or the World Bank, as described above. Some state reports are listed on the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCR) website for the Committee on the Rights of the Child and the Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, but these reports do not always address child labor.
Reports from Nongovernmental Organizations
Numerous NGOs, both at the national and international level, have taken up the cause of child labor and have begun to produce reports of their own. Of the international NGOs, the most noteworthy is the Global March Against Child Labour, headquartered in New Delhi, India. It is a coalition of more than 1,400 social organizations and people—including national NGOs, trade unions, religious groups, government ministries, schools, and individuals from 144 countries—that seeks to eradicate child labor globally.
The Global March produces the Global Report on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (updated November 2001) with data from a wide variety of sources, ranging from ILO studies and government reports to newspaper articles. These sources are not evaluated or screened for reliability. An interest in providing "complete" information has resulted in the inclusion of some data that the organization itself considers unreliable. Because there are no controls on the quality of the data presented, the usefulness of the
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report is limited to providing a broad and sometimes anecdotal outline of the child labor problem, particularly in countries for which no other data exist.
Other NGOs whose reports are incorporated in the Global March's reports fall prey to similar problems in evaluation and screening of data. Most of these reports rely on ILO reports and statistics and do not offer competing primary sources; as a result, they may only add new analysis to the mix of available information.5 We note some of the more prominent NGO sources and reports as examples. Most of these reports are on individual countries and specific industries or sectors, mostly for a particular year. Given the diversity in their approaches to gathering information and data and the difficulty in assessing their representativeness, these reports could at best be used as a starting point for a more scientifically based inquiry.
The Children's Rights Division of Human Rights Watch has largely focused its efforts on forced and bonded child labor. It has published several reports on child labor in individual countries, as well as globally. Its recent publications include Child Labor in Agriculture (Human Rights Watch, 2000b) and a section on "Children's Rights: Child Labor" in its World Report 2002. Individual country reports include Small Change: Bonded Child Labor in India's Silk Industry (Human Rights Watch, 2003), Child Labor in Egypt's Cotton Fields (Human Rights Watch, 2001), Child Farm Workers in the U.S.A. (Human Rights Watch, 2000a), Bonded Child Labor in India (Human Rights Watch, 1996), Trafficking in Nepali Girls and Women to India's Brothels (1995b), Street Children and Child Soldiers in Sudan (Human Rights Watch, 1995a), and Trafficking of Burmese Women and Girls into Thailand's Brothels (Human Rights Watch, 1993).
Anti-Slavery International was set up with the specific objective of ending slavery throughout the world. The organization has produced several publications on child labor, child trafficking, and child slavery. Some of these publications are country-specific, while others are more general treatments of a particular subject matter. For example, publications on child labor include The Impact of Discrimination on Working Children and on the Phenomenon of Child Labour (Anti-Slavery International, 2002), Child
There are some exceptions, for example, a survey of cocoa plantations that used survey methodology to collect data funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). However, these studies are generally single-year surveys and do not provide the time-series data that are necessary to measure changes in child labor.
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Labour in Nepal (Sattaur, 1993), Children in Bondage: Slaves of the Subcontinent (Anti-Slavery International, 1991), and Kashmiri Carpet Children: Exploited Village Weavers (Cross, 1991).
Education to Combat Abusive Child Labor, an activity of Creative Associates International, Inc., based in Washington, D.C., has developed a database of information related to child labor by country. The database includes a country overview of child labor, child development indicators, child labor by sector, USAID activities, other child labor program activities, and ratification status on international conventions.
Other NGOs that are also engaged in work to eliminate child labor are Defense for Children International, Free the Children, International Save the Children Alliance, and World Vision International. Like those mentioned above, these NGOs periodically publish newsletters, articles, and other materials that provide information on the child labor situation in a particular country or sector.
Certain NGOs work in several countries to eliminate child labor in a particular sector of the economy. RUGMARK Foundation, for instance, is a global NGO working to eliminate child labor in the carpet industry. Similarly, the Clean Clothes Campaign focuses on the garment industry and issues reports and news regarding child labor in that sector specifically.
There are several umbrella organizations that bring together NGOs working in the child labor field. Child Workers in Asia and End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT) International are examples of such networks. Child Workers in Asia produces a few publications; however, its main focus is in "mapping" the NGOs that work locally in Asian countries. ECPAT International is a network of organizations and individuals focused on the elimination of child prostitution, child pornography, and trafficking of children for sexual purposes. It maintains a searchable database that provides information by country or category on implementing actions and a profile of commercial sexual exploitation of children. It also provides information on the organizations working on these issues within the country.
Trade unions are also a source of information on child labor. The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) has launched a worldwide campaign to stop child labor. The ICFTU provides annual reports on labor rights violations by country, including child labor (see discussion in Chapter 2). Finally, there are several organizations that provide news, online libraries, or compilation of secondary sources related to child labor. Some examples are Child Slave Labor News, Child Rights Information Network, and Childwatch International Research Network.
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Legal Evidence
In determining whether national laws comply with the ILO. Conventions No. 138 and No. 182, there are two main sources of information. The NATLEX database lists national laws, which can help determine whether a country's laws comply with the ILO child labor conventions. ILOLEX provides information gathered by the ILO's supervisory process and documents compliance issues for those countries that have ratified the two conventions Beyond the existence of laws, an assessment of the adequacy of the laws and the rigor of enforcement requires research on a country-by-country basis. Our proposed government performance indicators are designed to assist this process.
The University of Chicago's Foreign Law: Legal Resources on the Internet6 provides data on laws on child refugees, child prostitution and sexual exploitation, children in armed conflict, child slavery, and child labor. The University of Iowa's Center for Human Rights has a Child Labor Research Initiative funded by the U.S. Department of Labor to collect, translate, and establish a database of national laws dealing with the worst forms of child labor in 25 countries.
Academic and Other Research
The economics of child labor has attracted a lot of analytical attention from economists, economic historians, and other social scientists. A recent literature survey on child labor in South Asia (Srivastava, 2003) lists more than 20 papers and books, not including papers reporting on surveys and statistics. Brown et al. (2003) provide a comprehensive analysis of child labor research and policy. Levison (1998) is a valuable, but as yet unpublished, source.
The ILO, World Bank, and UNICEF initiated a joint interagency research program entitled Understanding Children's Work and its Impact in December 2000. The project, based at the Innocent Research Centre in Florence, Italy, is aimed at providing more and better data on child labor. The project website provides access to child labor statistics, interventions to combat child labor, and research papers.7
Available at http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/~llou/foreignlaw.html [October 15, 2003].
See http://www.ucw-project.org [October 15, 2003].
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Many serious research gaps that remain were identified at the Global Network Meeting of Child Labor Researchers organized by IPEC in Geneva on December 5-6, 2002. These gaps relate to every aspect of child labor, including its economics, worst forms, interaction with education, and public policies. The difficulties for researchers caused by alternative definitions and lack of data were found to be serious. The researchers also noted that very little research on child labor is available on large parts of the globe, including China, sub-Saharan Africa, and Islamic and postcommunist countries. Researchers also noted that work by social scientists other than economists needs to be given more weight than it has received in the debates on child labor. The meeting stressed the importance of interdisciplinary exchange and research. To facilitate this exchange, IPEC plans to maintain an interactive web-based database where researchers will be able to share information about child labor projects. One of the goals of this online exchange is to identify areas where gaps exist.
Much of the information available on child labor is subject to serious limitations because the data collection methods are not focused specifically on child labor. A system that generates data periodically and is focused primarily on child labor is essential in monitoring the implementation of child labor conventions and in assessing the progress of countries toward its elimination. In our judgment, ILO's SIMPOC survey seems to be the best effort thus far.
The committee recognizes that mounting SIMPOC-like surveys on an adequate scale in many countries would involve significant resource costs. IPEC researchers estimate that the unit cost per household of a SIMPOC survey ranges from $6 to $30, not including the fixed cost for overhead. The average unit cost for a modular survey per household (implemented in conjunction with an ongoing national survey) is $11, and it is $23 for a stand-alone survey. Even at a modest cost of $15 per household, a survey of a minimum of 10,000 households would cost $150,000 per year just for data collection. We encourage governments and the international organizations to allocate the necessary funds to improve the available data in this important area. In addition, compensating parents for lost income from labor of their children and providing adequate schooling for children taken out of child labor would also involve substantial resource cost. Where feasible, these programs have potential to help ease the transi-
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tion away from child labor to a more socially responsible and healthy labor market situation.
While the private and social benefits from educating children are likely to be significant, several factors can nonetheless contribute to the perpetuation of child labor, including the poverty of parents. First, even if there are long-term benefits to a family of keeping children in school and out of the workforce, households may be forced to look only at short-term costs and benefits as a matter of survival. Second, household heads may misjudge the costs and benefits of child labor (possibly due to cultural bias against schooling girls, for example) and thus make decisions that are not economically rational, even on private terms. In other cases, the private costs of keeping children in school may exceed the benefits: in these cases, households are unlikely to invest in their children's education unless their costs are subsidized or they are compensated in other ways. Of course, given the social benefits, governments ought to find it worthwhile to subsidize or compensate for education, provided that they have the resources to do so. Although the fiscal situation of many developing countries and their current budgetary priorities leave little resources for subsidizing education, there is often room for reallocating resources and raising more. Developing countries and the broader international community can work together to address the causes of child labor, including through the promotion of economic and social development, the enforcement of appropriate laws, and raising resources to fund effective enforcement and education programs to realize the goals of eliminating child labor and providing access to quality education.
Further study needs to be done on programs that have removed children from work and provided their parents with compensation in order to assess whether these programs can be replicated on a broader basis and to determine the costs of such programs. In this regard, the experience with taking children out of work by the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers Exporters Association (BGMEA) and the RUGMARK Foundation in Nepal would be worth studying. At the National Academies forum in Sri Lanka on March 5-6, 2003, BGMEA reported setting a milestone in the history of child labor by removing children from a large number of BGMEA factories and placing them in special schools jointly administered by BGMEA, the ILO, and UNICEF. The first Memorandum of Understanding between BGMEA, ILO, and UNICEF was signed in July 1995 with a view to achieving this objective. As part of this project, a joint survey identified 10,546 child workers under the age of 14 in the garment manufac-
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turing sector in Bangladesh. Initially, more than 9,500 children were enrolled in 336 schools. BGMEA has spent over $600,000 for the project. Following the success of this first initiative, BGMEA signed a second Memorandum of Understanding with the same partners in June 2000. A recent ILO report indicates that BGMEA member factories are virtually free of child labor at the present time.
The RUGMARK Foundation reported successful outcomes for its child labor rehabilitation project at the same forum in Sri Lanka. RUGMARK reported that 497 children (342 boys and 155 girls) have been rescued. The cost of rehabilitation, including schooling at the primary level per child, was estimated at $500 per child. These costs are expected to go down over time, given that RUGMARK is involved in additional activities related to child labor. Even if the replication of such initiatives is possible, it should be undertaken simultaneously with SIMPOC or SIMPOC-like surveys, so that baseline data are available to assess their impact.
6-1 The committee recommends that national and international agencies cooperate in creating a system of data generation focused primarily on child labor, such as the ILO's SIMPOC surveys.
6-2 The committee recommends that research be done on the scalability and cost-effectiveness of successful pilot programs (e.g., RUGMARK Foundation in Nepal, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association, and PROGRESA in Mexico) that have removed children from work, rehabilitating and educating them and involving their parents.
Acemoglu, D., and Angrist, J. (1999). How large are the social returns to education: Evidence from compulsory schooling laws. (NBER Working Paper No. 7444). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Angrist, J., and Kreuger, A. (1991). Does compulsory schooling affect schooling and earnings? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(4), 979-1014.
Anti-Slavery International. (1991). Children in bondage: Slaves of the subcontinent. London: Author.
Anti-Slavery International. (2002). The impact of discrimination on working children and on the phenomenon of child labour. London: Author.
Ashagrie, K. (2001). Current progress in implementing new methods and conducting innovative surveys for measuring exploitation of children. Statistical Journal of the United Nations ECE, 18, 187-203.
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Bolin-Hort, P. (1989). Work, family, and the state: Child labor and the organization of production in the British cotton industry, 1780-1920. Lund, Sweden: Lund University Press.
Brachman, S. (2002). Child labor: Theory, evidence, and policy. In K. Basu, H. Horn, L. Roman, and J. Shapiro (Eds.), International labor standards: History, theory, and policy options (pp. 195-247). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Brown, D.K., Deardorff, A.V., and Stern, R.M. (2003) Child labor: Theory, evidence, and policy. In K. Basu, H. Horn, L. Roman, and J. Shapiro (Eds.), International labor standards: History, theory, and policy options (pp. 195-247). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Brown, M., Christiansen, J., and Phillips, P. (1992). The decline of child labor in the U.S. fruit and vegetable canning industry: Law or economics. Business History Review, 66(4), 723-770.
Cross, P. (1991). Kashmiri carpet children: Exploited village weavers. London: Anti-Slavery International.
Engerman, S. (2003). The history and political economy of international labor standards. In K. Basu, H. Horn, L. Roman, and J. Shapiro (Eds.), International labor standards: History, theory, and policy options. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Fishback, P. (1998). Operations of "unfettered" labor markets: Exit and voice in American labor markets at the turn of the century. Journal of Economic Literature, 36(June), 722-765.
Government of India. (2002). National human development report. New Delhi: Author, Planning Commission.
Grimsrud, B. (2001, October). Measuring and analyzing child labor: Methodological issues. (Social Protection Discussion Paper No. 0123). Washington, DC: World Bank.
Human Rights Watch. (1993). Trafficking of Burmese women and girls into Thailand's brothels. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (1995a). Street children and child soldiers in Sudan. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (1995b). Trafficking in Nepali girls and women to India's brothels. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (1996). Bonded child labor in India. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (2000a). Child farm workers in the U.S.A. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (2000b). Child labor in agriculture. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (2001). Child labor in Egypt's cotton fields. New York, NY: Author.
Human Rights Watch. (2003). Small change: Bonded child labor in India's silk industry. New York, NY: Author.
International Labour Organization. (1973). C138, Minimum age convention, 58th Session of the conference. Available: http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm [November 20, 2003].
International Labour Organization. (1998, October). Report to the conference: Sixteenth international conference of labour statisticians. Geneva: International Labour Office.
International Labour Organization. (2000). Current international recommendations on labour statistics: 2000 edition. Geneva: International Labour Office.
International Labour Organization. (2002a). A future without child labour: Global report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: International Labour Office.
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International Labour Organization. (2002b). Every child counts: New global estimates on child labour. Geneva: International Labour Office.
Landes, W., and Solmon, L. (1972). Compulsory schooling legislation: An economic analysis of law and social change in the nineteenth century. Journal of Economic History, 32(March), 54-91.
Levison, D. (1998). Child labor annotated bibliography. University of Minnesota, unpublished paper.
Lleras-Muney, A. (2001). Were compulsory attendance and child labor laws effective? An analysis from 1915 to 1939. (NBER Working Paper No. 8563). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Margo, R., and Finegan, T. (1996). Compulsory schooling legislation and school attendance in turn-of-the-century America: A "natural experiment" approach. Economic Letters, 53(1), 103-110.
Mehran, F. (2000). ILO labour force participation rates for 10-14 years old versus UNESCO school enrollment ratios. ILO Bulletin of Labour Statistics. Available: http://www.laborsta.org [October 2003].
Moehling, C.M. (1999). State child labor laws and the decline of child labor. Explorations in Economic History, 36, 72-106.
Nardinelli, C. (1990). Child labor and the industrial revolution. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Ritualo, A. (2002, July). Measuring child labour. Paper prepared for the National Research Council Workshop on International Labor Standards: Quality of Information and Measures of Progress. Washington, DC. Available: http://www7.nationalacademies.org/internationallabor/DQworkshop.html [October 23, 2003].
Sattaur, O. (1993). Child labour in Nepal. London: Anti-Slavery International.
Scholliers, P. (1995). Grown-ups, boys and girls in the Ghent cotton industry: The Voortman Mills, 1835-1914. Social History, 20(2), 201-218.
Sephiri, T., and Groenningsaeter, A. (2003, March). Working conditions in Southern Africa: Child labor and collective bargaining. Presentation for the Forum on Monitoring International Labor Standards. Pretoria, South Africa.
Srivastava, J. (2003). South Asia annual report. Jaipur, India: Centre for International Trade, Economics and Environment.
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U.S. Department of Labor. (2002). The U.S. Department of Labor's 2001 findings on the worst forms of child labor. Washington, DC: Bureau of International Labor Affairs.
Weiner, M. (1991). The child and the state in India: Child labor and education policy in comparative perspective. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.


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Product Code: Digital Price Scale 40kg
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Digital Price Computing Scale!
Reads Weight up to 40kg's!
This scale is an accurate measuring piece of equipment most suitable for Super Markets, Grocery Stores, and other retail outlets. It is a versatile machine because it also runs on rechargeable battery in case of lack of a power failure. The scale will also automatically switch off when it is not in use in order to save barttery power.This scale has digital displays on the front and rear of the scale. This is great for a Fish Market, Meat Market, Cafeteria, Grocery, Restaurant and more.This scale is very lightweight and has a durable stainless steel top for easy cleaning. So you and your customer can see the price of what is being bought. * Stainless Steel Platform * 5-digit Readout for Weight & Unit Price, 6-digit Readout for Total Price * Highly Accurate & Reliable Reading * Fuse Protected for Safety * Rechargeable Battery or Directly Plug-in 110V Power CordMain Functions: (description may be different for each scale) * Dual LCD Display: front LCD display ( for owners ) & back LCD display ( for customers ) * Tare Function: measure the net weight of the items * Zero Key: resets the readouts * Accumulation Operation: sum up the total price for different items with different prices, up to 99 times accumulation calculations * Unit Price Memorizing: 8 buttons (M1 - M8 - can vary and be different for each scale) for memorizing unit price most frequently used * Overloading Indicator: "Full" will be displayed in Weight Pane and "----" in Unit Price Pane and alarming when overloaded * Sleep-mode: item will automatically switch to sleep-mode when idle.Capacity 40kg


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Uniform Construction Codes? Can anyone help?
by DeeDeeRaff, Window Shopper
- Created: March 1, 2009, 11:11 am
Hello, my name is Diane & my husband & I have just opened a new business. We have spent every thing we've had on construction of the building but now after it's all said & done our township supervisor has slapped us with an order to vacate claiming that the building is not up to code for a commercial building. What I don't understand is that there is no zoning in my township, so how can they hold me to commmercial codes when there is no commercial zoning? To tell the truth the building is stronger than my home which sits next to it and was built in 1850. We have complied with all the permit requirments that we were told by the same supervisor we needed. I strongly feel that we're being shafted, are my feelings right? and how can we fight this? They have warned us that we will face a $1000.00 a day fine if we continue to operate. We are facing losing everything if we cannot run this business. Does anyone out there have any advise?


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Table of Contents:
- AMD 8 core 8120 FX Processor Review
- 8120 FX Features
- 8120 FX Performance
- 8120 FX Conclusion
This really isn't easy for me. Here at Motherboards.Org I have the reputation for being a bit of an AMD fan boy when it comes to their processors. I've always favored NVIDIA because of their design and the fact that they are generally quieter than AMD's graphics cards. This review has been very difficult for me to do. My expectations for this processor were very high and to realize that my current Phenom II 955 is actually a better processor than this one is very difficult to understand. I do have my processor overclocked to 3.8 GHz, but I'd be afraid to overclock this at the temperatures that we were seeing.
The truth is that the only thing this processor has going for it is that it's the first commercially available 8 core, desktop processor on the market. Aside from that it really doesn't measure up at all. This isn't a matter of opinion; this is a cold, hard fact. These processors were released before they were ready for prime time. It's just that simple. AMD should have made sure that these were going to perform on the level that they were meant to, before they released them. I've always said that with the money that you save by going with an AMD based platform, you can buy yourself a better video card. That isn't the case anymore. Intel's processors are priced very competitively against AMD's so there isn't any money to save. When you look at how much the boards are that support the two brands of processors, there isn't very much difference there either. Intel boards do cost a little bit more, but not enough really to look at AMD instead.
On a personal note, I've been building systems for about five years now and AMD has been my processor of choice. My main reason for this has been cost versus performance. That reasoning just doesn't pan out anymore. Intel has AMD beat in every conceivable category. Intel is the new price versus performance champs and they've been the performance kings for several years now. For the average user and the gamer the choice is pretty obvious right now. Intel is the way to go and AMD needs to go back to the drawing board. For the extreme user and enthusiast the choice is the same as it's been for a few years now. Intel wins again. Our benchmark scores speak for themselves and there really isn't anything that AMD brings to the table to change that.
I am hopeful that AMD will tweak their new architecture and release a processor that this was meant to be. The only problem is that this may take quite a while before it happens. Until then those of us that have new 990FX motherboards are stuck with Phenom IIs for the time being. We do have the option to abandon AMD altogether and go with Intel. I'm beginning to lean in that direction myself. This has been one of the biggest let down from a manufacturer that we've had here for quite some time. I think this processor is a total waste of money and that if you are still using at least a quad core Phenom II, you are better off keeping what you've got than going with a new Bulldozer. Don't get me wrong. I still think AMD has a place in this market. That place just happens to be a few rungs lower now with the release of their Bulldozer processors.


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NY Rangers Blog:
WENN.com reports that Brad Richards former girlfriend Olivia Munn is now dating new Robocop star Joel Kinnaman.Munn broke up with Richards back in January, which seemed to coincide with a prolonged slump for the Rangers center....just when things were going great for Richards, she had to go and do this. Seriously, is Munn a Penguins fan? Let's hope the Rangers organization keeps all tabloid newspapers away from Richards....h/t to Puck Daddy.Remember to follow me on Twitter & Facebook or e-mail me at email@example.com.
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Tag Archives: BCS Standings
Dan Wetzel – Four-Team Playoff Demand
Dan Wetzel of Y! Sports, discusses quick demand of college football's four-team playoff, and how the BCS playoff atmosphere plays off now that Alabama has been beaten by Texas A&M.
Posted in College FB Audio Archives, Tim Brando
Tagged BCS Bowl Games, BCS Standings, CBS Sports, Dan Wetzel, death to the bcs, Tim Brando, Yahoo Sports Radio, Yahoo! Sports
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Frank Schwab – Irish Dramatics
Frank Schwab of Y! Sports' Dr. Saturday Blog joins Fred Faour to discuss Notre Dame's 29-26 triple overtime win over Pittsburgh in South Bend. Schwab says Brian Kelly deserves a lot of credit for the Irish's success and thinks that … Continue reading


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We have the official press release from the National Football League. As mentioned in the previous post, this lasts nine years through the 2022 season.
Here are some highlights of the deal, some announced, some not:
- CBS, Fox and NBC keep their respective packages, AFC, NFC and Sunday Night Football.
- Each will get a total of three Super Bowls each, NBC resumes where the rotation under which the current contract ends with Fox and Super Bowl XLVIII.
- CBS will air the milestone Super Bowl L (50) in 2016.
- NBC will begin airing the Thanksgiving Night game starting in 2012.
- NBC gives up its Wild Card Playoff doubleheader in exchange for one Divisional Playoff game.
- ESPN will most likely receive the Wild Card Playoff game given up by NBC.
- Flex scheduling expands to allow CBS and Fox to trade games for the 4:15 p.m. national window.
- Thursday Night Football will expand to additional games, as many as 10-12 games next season.
The press release.
NFL TO REMAIN ON BROADCAST TVCBS, FOX & NBC Sunday packages extended through 2022 season –
longest-ever NFL agreements with over-air broadcast partnersThe National Football League has agreed to nine-year extensions of its Sunday broadcast television packages with CBS, FOX and NBC that will keep NFL games on free, over-the-air television, Commissioner Roger Goodell announced today. The nine-year terms are the longest for NFL television agreements with over-the-air broadcast partners, surpassing the eight-year deals signed with CBS, FOX and ABC from 1998-2005.
The new agreements run through the 2022 season. The NFL's current television agreements expire following the 2013 season.
The agreements also enable the NFL to expand its Thursday night package of games on NFL Network beginning next year. The number of additional Thursday night games has not been determined.
The NFL is the only sports league that delivers all of its games – regular-season and playoffs – on free, over-the-air television. (ESPN's Monday night and NFL Network's Thursday night cable games are required by contract to be carried on over-the-air, broadcast stations in the cities of the participating teams, subject to local blackout rules).
CBS will televise the American Football Conference package of Sunday afternoon games that it acquired in 1998. CBS first began televising NFL games in 1956 and carried the NFC package from 1970 through 1993.
FOX will continue with the National Football Conference package of Sunday afternoon games that it acquired in 1994.
NBC will again carry the Sunday Night Football package of primetime games that it acquired in 2006. NBC will continue to televise the Thursday night NFL season Kickoff game to open each season and will add the annual Thanksgiving primetime game starting in 2012.
Flexible scheduling – which ensures quality matchups in all NFL Sunday time slots and gives teams a chance to play their way onto primetime on NBC and into the late-afternoon 4:15 PM ET time slot on CBS and FOX – remains a viewer-friendly element of the network broadcast agreements. It will be expanded in 2014, including the ability to move games between CBS and FOX to bring regional games to wider audiences. Further details on enhanced flexible scheduling will be developed with the networks.
CBS, FOX and NBC will each televise three Super Bowls during the term of the agreements, continuing the current rotation. NBC will carry Super Bowl XLIX (49) in Glendale, Arizona in 2015, Super Bowl LII (52) in 2018 and Super Bowl LV (55) in 2021. CBS will broadcast Super Bowl L (50) in 2016, Super Bowl LIII (53) in 2019 and Super Bowl LVI (56) in 2022. FOX will televise Super Bowl LI (51) in 2017, Super Bowl LIV (54) in 2020 and Super Bowl LVII (57) in 2023.
"These agreements underscore the NFL's unique commitment to broadcast television that no other sport has," Commissioner Goodell said. "The agreements would not have been possible without our new 10-year labor agreement and the players deserve great credit. Long-term labor peace is allowing the NFL to continue to grow and the biggest beneficiaries are the players and fans."
Commissioner Goodell said NFL fans should expect ongoing innovation from the NFL and its TV partners.
"CBS, FOX and NBC have served NFL fans with the highest-quality television production," Commissioner Goodell said. "The networks will continue their outstanding coverage of the NFL while also helping to deliver more football to more fans using the best and most current technology."
Earlier this season, the NFL and ESPN reached an eight-year extension to keep Monday Night Football on ESPN through the 2021 season.
NFL games are 23 of the 25 most-watched programs among all television shows this fall and draw more than twice as many average viewers as broadcast primetime shows.
We have the press releases from the networks announcing the new deals. They're coming up.