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Ear worm in my head right now… While everybody else is getting out of bed I'm usually getting in it I'm not in it to win it And there's a thousand ways you can skin it… I confess you are … Continue reading →... Read More
Every day, hundreds of entrepreneurs launch crowdfunding campaigns on Indiegogo to raise money and awareness for their businesses. As CEO of Indiegogo, I have been in touch with potential entrepreneurs from all over the world with a wide variety of business ideas. Across this wide spectrum, I have realized that many entrepreneurs are misguided by the same myths, time and time again.
Here are the five most common myths about starting a business — and how we've seen them get blown out of the water at Indiegogo:
Myth #1: There's a "right" time to start.... Read More
Taking care of your body is an essential part of any exercise program. And yet it is one of the things we are most likely to skip. Everyone knows they should stretch before and/or after exercise, and that it is a good habit to have just as a part of daily living. But really...how often do YOU do it?
Stretching keeps you flexible, prepares your muscles for exercise and helps your body heal after a tough workout. Besides being good for you, it has the extra benefit of feeling GOOD (usually).
Don't know how to start? Start by taking a look at the stretch chart in your Mama Bootcamp binder, and look for the ones that stretch the areas on your body that are tight or sore.
Your challenge this week: Spend 5 minutes at the end of your day stretching... Read More
Oh to be 12 years younger! The things I would (and most definitely would not) do. But one can not go back in time…can they? My darling husband early this morning ran in Dell Osso's 2nd Annual Mud Run on … Continue reading →... Read More
At a 7-11 near you: Is that your son? Um, no. This is my brother. Now I realize that among a certain ethnic population here in the Central Valley it is not uncommon at all for a girl like my … Continue reading →... Read More
Every home eventually ends up with fingerprints on walls and doors. In some homes these are concentrated around doorknobs, light switches and thermostats, but in homes with children, they can be just about anywhere! Therefore the question is always asked, "How do you remove fingerprints from a wall?"
Unfortunately, some paints are not washable, and even a light scrubbing will remove the paint sooner than the actual fingerprint. If your door, trim, cabinets or walls are painted with a gloss or semi-gloss paint, they will likely stand up to a mild scrubbing from time to time and shine like new. Eggshell paints can endure some scrubbing but are similar to satin and flat paints which are not easily cleaned... Read More
The Board Room
Premier Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram
Haggin Museum


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Bushbabies Monkey Sanctuary, North West
Did you know?
Monkeys eat fruit and tree sap, as well as beetles, moths and even birds and bats.
Being primates ourselves, we have a fascination with monkeys. And such fascination sometimes leads to people keeping monkeys as pets – often a recipe for disaster.
Bushbabies Monkey Sanctuary in the Magaliesberg mountains, near Johannesburg and Pretoria, provides a free-roaming home for former captive monkeys.
It is 1 of only 8 free-release primate sanctuaries in the world.
The capuchins, lemurs, squirrel monkeys, spider monkeys and bushbabies at the sanctuary were all either pets or bred for the pet trade, or came from zoos. Here they can shake off their former lives in confined spaces and leap from tree to tree, socialise with their own kind (and breed) and learn how to be true monkeys again.
Their home is a 7ha sanctuary with gorges, waterfalls and natural streams – a perfect place for primates.
Bushbabies is a privately run establishment near Hartbeespoort Dam, right next door to a sister organisation, the Elephant Sanctuary Hartbeespoort Dam.
Visitors will be taken on a guided tour through the thickly wooded area on elevated walkways. Guides will point out the monkeys, which live in similar circumstances to their original homes in South America, Central America and Madagascar.
The indigenous bushbabies only rise at sunset, so they're the only animals you are unlikely to see during the day.
And if you arrive early enough, you may find the ring-tailed lemurs in their favourite meditative pose, warming themselves in the morning sun.
Visitors may not feed the monkeys as they are being 'de-humanised', or 're-wilded', so that they learn to socialise with each other naturally. (There are 12 feeding stations scattered throughout the property.)
Travel tips & Planning info
Who to contact
Bushbabies Monkey Sanctuary
Tel: +27 (0) 12 258 9908
Cell: +27 (0) 71 791 7712
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com

subset: commoncrawl


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Understanding your climate zone can help you determine the best energy-saving landscaping strategies for your home. Learn more about landscaping for energy-efficient homes.
Solar heat absorbed through windows and roofs can increase cooling costs, and incorporating shade from landscaping elements can help reduce this solar heat gain.
A well-designed landscape not only can add beauty to your home but it also can reduce your heating and cooling costs.


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Product description
Tradition coarsing through every single detail
Like the White Full Lace series, simpler in design but every bit as elegant, the White Half Lace design was created by Arnold Krog, the artistic director for two golden decades between 1895 and 1916. Originally created for the Blue Fluted Lace service, this design was restored in 1987 – Royal Copenhagen tradition ingrained in every feature.
- Item No.:
- 1128604
- Capacity:
- 21 cm.
- Main material:
- Porcelain
- Design by:
- Arnold Krog
- Production start:
- 1888


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Your shopping cart is empty!
From The Earth To Your Skin
Begin and end your day with the soothing aroma of Organic Fiji's Lavender nourishing cleanser. This certified organic soap is made with few ingredients to provide pure skin care that not only cleanses and treats your skin but also awakens your senses. Let the refreshing aroma of Lavender relax your spirit while soothing your skin.
Product Information | |
Size | 7 Ounce |


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Mr. Jack Smith, age 70, of Hartsville, TN died Friday, February 1, 2013 at Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN.
Funeral services were held in the chapel of Anthony Funeral Home at 2 PM Tuesday, February 5, 2013 conducted by Bro. J.C. Cox. Pallbearers: Terry Gregory, Brian Satterfield, Carlos West, Jamie Woodard, Roger Gregory, Joe Welker, Tommy Thompson and Ronnie Shrum. Interment was in the Hartsville Memorial Gardens.
In lieu of flowers, donations may be made to the American Cancer Society.
He was preceded in death by: Grandson, Logan Blake Smith.
He was survived by: Wife, Mrs. Thelma Smith-Hartsville, TN; Two Sons, Mr. Roger (Tracy) Smith-Lebanon, TN, Mr. Joey (Tonya) Smith-Lafayette, TN; Daughter, Mrs. Lois (Charlie) Woodard-Lafayette, TN; Five Grandchildren, Dalton Cole Smith, Joseph & Matthew Woodard, Tyler & Brayden Smith; Great Grandchild, Kenzi Woodard; Two Brothers, Mr. Alex (Ruth) Smith-Hendersonville, TN, Mr. Jim Smith-Hartsville, TN; Sister, Mrs. Sue (Olie) Allan-Gallatin, TN.


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Overview of Washington Bible College-Capital Bible Seminary |
Washington Bible College/Capital Bible Seminary exists as an evangelical Christian, multi-denominational, and multi-ethnic educational community dedicated to preparing men and women for local and worldwide service to God and humanity. College and Seminary programs equip students with a biblical worldview and prepare them for effective vocational service and lay ministry. The educational climate emphasizes biblical content and applications, academic excellence, intellectual and spiritual maturity, leadership development, and the ability to function as productive members of a multi-cultural society.
Also at http://www.bible.edu/index.cfm?PAGE_ID=752
Religious affiliation: | Undenominational |
Institution Type: | Private not-for-profit |
Campus Setting: | Large suburb |
Highest Degree Offered: | Master's |
Level of Institution: | Four or more years |
Calendar: | Semester |
"great students. attentive faculty. quiet campus close to the nation's capital.…"
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Date:Wednesday, October 20, 2010 from 6:00 PM – 8:00 PM (ET)
CIGNA Insurance Building
Liberty Two
1601 Chestnut Street, 3rd Floor
Philadelphia, PA 19192
This event is free, but space is limited to 70 attendees. They are looking for college juniors and seniors in the IT profession. There will be 12 company representatives who will be sitting at round tables to provide more personal networking before and after the panel. There will be eight IT Managers/HR Recruiters on the panel who will answer my targeted questions.
At this event you will hear from panelists from Merck, Quest Diagnostic, NextGen, CIGNA, Oracle, City of Philadelphia, Comcast, FBI, and Technodyne, etc. speak about skills needed, interview and job search tips as well as career advice.
Registration required: http://bdpaphillyrecruitersroundtable.eventbrite.com
Please contact Sally McNamara, VP of Education for more details at firstname.lastname@example.com


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by Matt Walsh
You know those awful kids in your neighborhood who, on a hot summer's day, would find an ant hill and roast the little suckers inside with their grandmother's magnifying glass, or push rocks and sticks in the hole in an attempt to starve the inhabitants? That's how raiding the Heart of Fear feels for me sometime. It's a hive of six-legged-pants-wetting terror and we're just adding onto the troubles of those poor insects. It's a little cruel, really — kicking them when they're down.
Incidentally, you know what class that awful kid grew up to play? A warrior; it's a fact of behavioral science. (OK, probably a rogue. But I have to get my shots in.)
Anyway, when it comes to demolishing your way through piles and piles of exoskeleton-clad fanatics and extremists, sworn to protect the only female they have ever known, you'll need every tool and trick at your disposal. Much like in Mogu'shan Vaults, this expansion's iteration of talents and glyphs gives us a wide amount of latitude in how we approach a fight, and can provide some decisive advantages. Let's talk about how!
Read the rest of this entry »


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I have tried but since it takes 3-12 months..it is hard to......down to about 5 in rotation now...
I have tried but since it takes 3-12 months..it is hard to......down to about 5 in rotation now...
Absolutely NO!
One of the greatest pleasures of wet shaving is to choose, every morning, one of your favourite creams or soaps in your rotation!
Only one is so boring!
Marco, Old School Wet Shaver
Steward in the B&B Shave Clinic & Newbie Check-In forum
My Wiki
"Because a real Gentleman shaves, every morning" (My grandfather)
does not compute
Of course it's dark, it's a suicide note.
I've only used VDH soap so far. I have some CO Bigelow cream ready to go though. Not sure if I'll wait or not.
I'm still learnin', and I used one entire puck of Prarie Creations, followed by one entire tube of Proraso...I'm thinking that creams are more to my liking now that I've tried face lathering...
I always use Proraso when I away from home (a tube goes in my wash-kit easier than a tub and I like the Menthol buzz as when I stay away from home I usually wake up either tired or hungover... or both. Proraso is just what the doctor ordered in those situations).
Because i use Proraso exclusively when I am away from home (and it is something to look forward to) I never use it at home and so that does not count in the tally. Instead I limit myself to two other creams to use at home. These vary depending on the season and what I fancy trying. I will only buy a new tub of cream when one is finished (currently TOBS Lime & Lemon and DR Harris Arlington)
However, I also have a puck of Trumper's Rose soap, but again that does not count towards the tally because I bought it for the gf's legs (I always whip her up a batch of rose lather at the weekends after I have a shave whilst she'd in the bath). If I ever choose to use it it feels like stealing and that has it's own little naughty feeling but of course it is not my soap so you can't count that!
So, I would of course, never dream of increasing my soap tally to more than 2
Call it creative accounting!
In a word, no.
Thus far i've tried a variety such as proraso, kmf, trumpers, palmolive and muhle to name a few and want to get some mama bears too, I like having to think about which cream.soap to use in the morning.
Knowledge is only power when used with experience
When I first started out on the wet shaving journey, I stumbled upon the Body Shop (original formula, not the Macca Root) shave cream and drained it down to the last drop without touching another cream.
I've since developed a penchant for all shaving creams in the Taylor of Old Bond Street range and can't help rotating my way through a nucleus of three/four firm favourites. Incidentally, I still have a stock of 5 tubs of the original body shop stuff which are gathering dust in my spare room
Lang may you're lum reek
I could and did at least before I met you yahoos! Now I'm stocked to the gills with potions, lotions, creams, and soaps.
What with all the fantastic options, not only can't I use one alone until it's finished, but when I DO finish one I go out and REBUY the very same one so as not to be deprived of one of my favorite potions, creams, lotions, soaps, etc.
--Bryan Le Grelot 6/8 3/4 hollow cocobolo scales, Dovo Prima Silver Steel Ebenholz
I used to only use one soap at a time because I only had my shaving mug (currently Williams in the mug). Then I bought a bowl and soap from the AOS store in Las Vegas when I was there on business several years ago. (It now holds a puck of TOBS Lavender.) That brought me up to two. About a year ago, I was in Carmel and bought a bowl of GFT Rose, making it three. Later, I bought a puck of Provance Sante Green Tea soap, and used it the little green bowl that comes with a VDH kit. So, now I have four soaps in rotation. There is probably no going back to just one.
My mileage does vary.
Say what???
Cheers, Paul
Yes, well I'm working on it. I am totally in love with Proraso cream. But, I have a tube of Boots to finish first. So I have rationed my Proraso usage, to one Proraso shave to three Boots shaves. When the Boots is finished I am sticking with Proraso for good. Or at least until I have been shaving for at least another year. I'm fairly new DE shaving. I have my lathering skills set and whilst I get nice BBS shaves I really want to get my technique honed. I think I have wasted a lot of time and money as a learner, chopping and changing products. I wasn't getting the same shave twice and when I did get a bad shave I had no way of pinpointing the problem as there were too many variables, I need consistency. So I am going to have a single blade, single cream, single brush and single razor, when I am shaving like a seasoned master I will begin to play with products again.
I have far too much stuff to even begin to list it here...
Sure do... only use one brand of soap
Let's leave Politics at the door ... and out of B&B !!!!!!
Member of the B&B 2011 Rudy Vey LE Brush Buy (#3)Member of the B&B 2012 Rudy Vey LE Brush Buy (#3)
Member of the B&B LE 2011 Edison Glenmont Pen Buy (#1)
Member of the B&B LE 2012 Edison Herald Grande Pen Buy (#1)
Member of the B&B ? buy
There is nothing like a Jinhou.
This is a great way for a beginner to truly learn to shave with a DE. 1 razor, 1 brush, 1 brand of blades and 1 soap or cream for at least 3 months. Exception being that you change the brand of blades if they really are irritating you and you are sure it's not your technique to blame. Another exception would be that you are sure your badger or boar is causing irritation and need to try something else.
I started with CO Bigelow cream, a VDH boar brush and my Mach 3 for about a month or so before I got my first DE (feather portable). Since I was comfortable with the brush and cream by the time I got the DE I was able to play around a little more with creams and soaps without worrying if my lather was good or not. I did stick with Dorco blades and the feather portable for a full 3 months though and I really feel that it helped nail my technique down a lot faster.
Garry's Sample Shop - Shaving Samples Galore!
Just to keep the thread on topic though I really am trying to nail it down to less than 10 creams and soaps in rotation. Using 1 product to completion is not an option at this point in time
Current rotation:
Valobra shave stick.
Irisch Moos.
Cade soap.
Provence Sante.
CO Bigelow.
Garry's Sample Shop - Shaving Samples Galore!


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NFL Preseason - Fantasy football thoughts: Week 1
August 15, 2012 @ 00:22:55 PDT
Fantasy football players start to become anxious with the kickoff of NFL preseason games. Which players will stand out? Which players will suffer a potentially cheat-sheet altering injury? Which players will simply look fat, out of shape or rusty? The next few weeks will answer a lot of those questions, some of which will change the fantasy football landscape from where we know it today. Each week during the preseason, I'll be going through each game with an eye - even two at times - on a variety of players and key situations that impact fantasy value entering your fantasy football league draft. The first week of NFL preseason, unless you ask Ryan Mathews, is typically meaningless. Starters only see a few series, while players recovering from injury often don't even suit up. There are, however, some things worth taking away from the games. I'm buying
Yes, that's drool on my chin. Julio Jones is the reason why. Matt Ryan loves him, which is clear on the field. Jones quickly posted a 6-109-1 stat line Thursday. IF he can stay healthy, he has WR1 written all over him. If Jones plays like that this season, Ryan is going to have no problems being a top-10 fantasy football quarterback. Tough to not like his ADP of 79th overall, too. I may never become accustomed to seeing Peyton Manning in a Denver Broncos uniform, but he looked a lot like the Manning we're used to seeing. In limited snaps, he hit 4 of 7 passes for 44 yards and was picked once, which came from a great defensive effort more than a Manning error. His arm strength appeared fine. He's back. Don't be surprised to see him start climbing draft boards because of it. Manning's replacement with the Indianapolis Colts, rookie Andrew Luck, did not disappoint in the slightest. His first pass was a dump off to running back Donald Brown, who took it 63 yards to the house. Luck finished with 188 yards and two scores, while hitting 10 of his 16 attempts. He showed some veteran poise, looking off the safety on his second touchdown pass (Austin Collie came up with it). A weak running game and poor defense should lead to plenty of Luck showing off his arm this year. Even with more than a few grains of salt thrown in, Luck looks to be every bit the part he was billed at. Can't count on him as a QB1 by any means, but he should have a fine rookie campaign worth of backup fantasy value and spot starts. I was already high on wide receiver Randall Cobb going into the preseason. I liked seeing him lead the Green Bay Packers with four catches for 58 yards and one score. He saw a lot of time with the second-string offense, though. He's a reserve player on draft day, ideally no higher than your fourth receiver taken. I expect the Pack to find ways to get him on the field often, which could lead to making him an interesting flex play with some pop this year. Willis McGahee is poised for a big year. He looks stronger than he has in awhile and having Manning keeping defenses honest won't hurt. Definite RB2 material; he has the potential to be even better than that. I'm quietly buying on the Law Firm. BenJarvus Green-Ellis is going to rush for 1,200 yards with the Cincinnati Bengals this year. You can take it to the bank. Loved the aggression he ran with Friday; clipping along seven times for 22 yards and catching one pass for another 18 yards. Snag him as your third RB and he'll be a weekly flex option. San Diego Chargers tight end Antonio Gates looks like a slimmer, quicker version of his old self. If he stays healthy, he's in for a huge season. Great high-end tight end potential you can snag in the middle rounds this year. He had two catches for 29 yards, including a 23-yard score. Rashad Jennings looked sharp for the Jacksonville Jaguars, who remain without Maurice Jones-Drew at tailback. His 56 yards on 12 carries was a nice outing. If he keeps it up, we may see a regular role this year for him even when MJD returns to action. If Ben Roethlisberger is injured, he didn't show it Thursday. He hit all but one of his eight attempts; but only threw for 49 yards. The offense clearly missed wide receiver Mike Wallace. Either way, Big Ben is coming at a bargain rate in fantasy football drafts. I'd still prefer him as a backup over starting option. The chip on LeGarrette Blount's shoulder is almost as big as he is. He rushed seven times for 30 yards, including a short touchdown. Rookie Doug Martin had 21 yards on seven totes, as well as a short touchdown run, too. It's early in the battle for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, but don't dismiss Blount on draft day. I love him as a fourth running back; and his late-round value provides plenty of value. New York Giants rookie David Wilson showed some of the spark he has shown in training camp, ripping off a 26-yard run. He finished with seven carries for 43 yards while adding two receptions for 26 yards. Ahmad Bradshaw, based off history, won't make it the full season. Tuck Wilson away for future glory as a RB4. The Kansas City Chiefs are going to have a dominating running game this year. Major props to Peyton Hillis, who I was down on a lot last year; he ran with authority on his four carries and 41 yards, with one touchdown. Jamaal Charles, the sparkplug, looked like he's very close to full speed in his recovery from last year's ACL injury. He only had three carries for 12 yards, but he took a big hit on his previously injured knee and didn't seem to have any issues with it. If you draft Adrian Peterson this year, you're a fool if you don't handcuff Toby Gerhart to him. I'll go on record now saying Gerhart leads the Minnesota Vikings in rushing yards this year. He piled up 31 yards on five carries against the vaunted San Francisco 49ers defense. About Ryan R. BoniniFounding KFFL in 1996, Bonini serves as VP of technology for KFFL's parent company, USA TODAY SPORTS. Bonini was named the 2009 Fantasy Football Writer of the Year by the FSWA and received honors with the Best Fantasy Football Series in '10. His work has been found in USA TODAY Sports, Yahoo! Sports, FOX Sports, CBS Sports, NFL.com, and many others. He has also been featured on numerous radio programs around the country. Bonini is a member of the PFWA, FSWA and FSTA. Follow @RyanBonini Don't miss these great reports....
Recent KFFL releasesFantasy Sports Trade Association experts draft Fantasy Baseball Diamond Market: Kyle Blanks, Mike Carp, more Fantasy Baseball Articles of Configuration: ADP does not equal MVP Fantasy baseball closer depth charts - AL |


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Baruch Spinoza
Born | Amsterdam, Dutch Republic |
24 November 1632
Died | 21 February 1677 The Hague, Dutch Republic |
(aged 44)
Residence | Netherlands |
Nationality | Dutch |
Era | 17th-century philosophy |
Region | Western Philosophy |
School | Rationalism, founder of Spinozism |
Main interests | Ethics, Epistemology, Metaphysics |
Notable ideas | Pantheism, Determinism, neutral monism, intellectual and religious freedom / separation of church and state, Criticism of Mosaic authorship of some books of the Hebrew Bible, Political society derived from power, not contract |
Influenced by
Baruch Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) — later Benedict de Spinoza — was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher.[1] The breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment[2] and modern biblical criticism,[3] including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe,[4] he came to be considered one of the great rationalists[3] of 17th-century philosophy. His magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes's mind–body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important thinkers. In the Ethics, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely."[5] Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all contemporary philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."[6]
Spinoza's given name in different languages is Hebrew: ברוך שפינוזה Baruch Spinoza, Portuguese: Benedito or Bento de Espinosa and Latin: Benedictus de Spinoza; in all these languages, the given name means "the Blessed". Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish religious authorities issued a cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication) against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.
Spinoza lived quietly as a lens grinder, turning down rewards and honors throughout his life, including prestigious teaching positions, and gave his family inheritance to his sister. Spinoza's philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers" (meaning the "first" of "modern materialist" philosophers).[7]
Spinoza died at the age of 44 allegedly of a lung illness, perhaps tuberculosis or silicosis exacerbated by fine glass dust inhaled while grinding optical lenses. Spinoza is buried in the churchyard of the Christian Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague.[8]
Contents |
Family and community origins[edit]
Spinoza's ancestors were of Sephardic Jewish descent, and were a part of the community of Portuguese Jews that grew in the city of Amsterdam after the Alhambra Decree in Spain (1492) and the Portuguese Inquisition (1536) had led to forced conversions and expulsions from the Iberian peninsula.[9]
Attracted by the Decree of Toleration issued in 1579 by the Union of Utrecht, Portuguese "conversos" first sailed to Amsterdam in 1593 and promptly reconverted to Judaism.[10] In 1598 permission was granted to build a synagogue, and in 1615 an ordinance for the admission and government of the Jews was passed.[11] As a community of exiles, the Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam were highly jealous of their identity.[11]
Some historians argue the Spinoza family ("Espinosa" in Portuguese) had its origins in Espinosa de los Monteros, near Burgos, Spain.[12] Others claim they were Portuguese Jews who had moved to Spain and then were expelled back to their home country in 1492, only to be forcibly converted to Catholicism in 1498.[citation needed]
Spinoza's father was born roughly a century after this forced conversion in the small Portuguese city of Vidigueira, near Beja in Alentejo. When Spinoza's father was still a child, Spinoza's grandfather, Isaac de Spinoza (who was from Lisbon), took his family to Nantes in France. They were expelled in 1615 and moved to Rotterdam, where Isaac died in 1627.
Spinoza's father, Miguel (Michael), and his uncle, Manuel, then moved to Amsterdam where they resumed practicing Judaism. Miguel was a successful merchant and became a warden of the synagogue and of the Amsterdam Jewish school.[11] He buried three wives, however, and three of his six children died before reaching adulthood.[13]
17th century Holland[edit]
Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important cosmopolitan centers where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. This hustle and bustle ensured, as in the Mediterranean region during the Renaissance, some possibility of free thought and shelter from the crushing hand of ecclesiastical authority.[citation needed] Spinoza may have had access to a circle of friends who were unconventional in terms of social tradition. One of the people he may have known was Niels Stensen, a brilliant Danish student in Leiden; others included Coenraad van Beuningen and his cousin Albert Burgh, with whom Spinoza is known to have corresponded.[citation needed]
Early life[edit]
Baruch de Espinoza was born on 24 November 1632 in the Jodenbuurt in Amsterdam, Netherlands. He was the second son of Miguel de Espinoza, a successful, although not wealthy, Portuguese Sephardic Jewish merchant in Amsterdam.[16] His mother, Ana Débora, Miguel's second wife, died when Baruch was only six years old.[17] Spinoza's mother tongue was Spanish, although he also knew Hebrew, Portuguese, Dutch, perhaps French, and later Latin.[18] Although he wrote in Latin, Spinoza learned Latin late in his youth.
Spinoza had a traditional Jewish upbringing, attending the Keter Torah yeshiva of the Amsterdam Talmud Torah congregation headed by the learned and traditional senior Rabbi Saul Levi Morteira. His teachers also included the less traditional Rabbi Manasseh ben Israel, "a man of wide learning and secular interests, a friend of Vossius, Grotius, and Rembrandt,"[19] whose home was a center for Jewish scholars in Amsterdam[6][page needed] and who later took a leading part in promoting the readmission of Jews to England.[20] While presumably a star pupil, and perhaps considered as a potential rabbi, Spinoza never reached the advanced study of the Torah in the upper levels of the curriculum.[21] Instead, at the age of 17, after the death of his elder brother, Isaac, he cut short his formal studies in order to begin working in the family importing business.[21]
In 1653, at age 20, Spinoza began studying Latin with Frances van den Enden (Franciscus van den Enden), a notorious free thinker, former Jesuit, and radical democrat who likely introduced Spinoza to scholastic and modern philosophy, including that of Descartes.[22] (A decade later, in the early 1660s, Van den Enden was considered to be a Cartesian and atheist,[23] and his books were put on the Catholic Index of banned books.)
Spinoza's father, Miguel, died in 1654 when Spinoza was 21. He duly recited Kaddish, the Jewish prayer of mourning, for eleven months as required by Jewish law.[24] When his sister Rebekah disputed his inheritance, he took her to court to establish his claim, and then renounced it in her favor.[25]
Spinoza adopted the Latin name Benedictus de Spinoza,[26] began boarding with Van den Enden, and began teaching in his school.[27] He is said to have fallen in love with his teacher's daughter, Clara, but she rejected him for a richer student (although this story has also been discounted on the basis that Clara Maria van den Enden was born in 1643 and would have been no more than about 18 years old at the time Spinoza left Amsterdam.[18] In 1671 she married Dirck Kerckring.)
During this period Spinoza also became acquainted with the Collegiants, an anti-clerical sect of Remonstrants with tendencies towards rationalism, and with the Mennonites who had existed for a century but were close to the Remonstrants.[28] Many of his friends belonged to dissident Christian groups which met regularly as discussion groups and which typically rejected the authority of established churches as well as traditional dogmas.[1]
Questioned by two members of the synagogue, Spinoza at this time apparently responded that God has a body and nothing in scripture says otherwise.[29] He was later attacked on the steps of the synagogue by a knife-wielding assailant shouting "Heretic!" He was apparently quite shaken by this attack and for years kept (and wore) his torn cloak, unmended, as a souvenir.[30]
After his father's death in 1654, Spinoza ran the family importing business along with his younger brother Gabriel (Abraham).[24] The business ran into serious financial difficulties, however, perhaps as a result of the First Anglo-Dutch War. In March 1656, Spinoza filed suit with the Amsterdam municipal authorities to be declared an orphan in order to escape his father's business debts, so that he could inherit his mother's estate (which his father had inherited in trust for him) without it being subject to his father's creditors.[31] In addition, after having made substantial contributions to the Talmud Torah synagogue in 1654 and 1655, he reduced his December 1655 contribution and his March 1656 pledge to nominal amounts (and the March 1656 pledge was never paid).[32]
Spinoza was eventually able to relinquish responsibility for the business and its debts to his younger brother, Gabriel, and devote himself to philosophy and optics.
Expulsion from the Jewish community[edit]
On 27 July 1656, the Talmud Torah congregation of Amsterdam issued a writ of cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication) against the 23 year old Spinoza.[33] The following document translates the official record of the cherem:[34]
The Lords of the ma'amad, having long known of the evil opinions and acts of Baruch de Espinoza, have endeavord by various means and promises, to turn him from his evil ways. But having failed to make him mend his wicked ways, and, on the contrary, daily receiving more and more serious information about the abominable heresies which he practiced and taught and about his monstrous deeds, and having for this numerous trustworthy witnesses who have deposed and born witness to this effect in the presence of the said Espinoza, they became convinced of the truth of the matter; and after all of this has been investigated in the presence of the honorable chachamin, they have decided, with their consent, that the said Espinoza should be excommunicated and expelled from the people of Israel. By the decree of the angels, and by the command of the holy men, we excommunicate, expel, curse and damn Baruch de Espinoza, with the consent of God, Blessed be He, and with the consent of all the Holy Congregation, in front of these holy Scrolls with the six-hundred-and-thirteen precepts which are written therein, with the excommunication with which Joshua banned Jericho, with the curse with which Elisha cursed the boys, and with all the curses which are written in the Book of the Law. Cursed be he by day and cursed be he by night; cursed be he when he lies down, and cursed be he when he rises up; cursed be he when he goes out, and cursed be he when he comes in. The Lord will not spare him; the anger and wrath of the Lord will rage against this man, and bring upon him all the curses which are written in this book, and the Lord will blot out his name from under heaven, and the Lord will separate him to his injury from all the tribes of Israel with all the curses of the covenant, which are written in the Book of the Law. But you who cleave unto the Lord God are all alive this day. We order that no one should communicate with him orally or in writing, or show him any favor, or stay with him under the same roof, or within four ells of him, or read anything composed or written by him.
The Talmud Torah congregation issued cherem routinely, on matters great and small, so such an edict was not unusual[35]
The language of Spinoza's cherem is unusually harsh, however, and does not appear in any other cherem known to have been issued by the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.[36] The exact reason for expelling Spinoza is not stated.[37] The cherem refers only to the "abominable heresies that he practiced and taught," to his "monstrous deeds," and to the testimony of witnesses "in the presence of the said Espinoza." There is no record of such testimony, but there appear to have been several likely reasons for the issuance of the cherem.
First, there were Spinoza's radical theological views that he was apparently expressing in public. As philosopher and Spinoza biographer Steven Nadler puts it: "No doubt he was giving utterance to just those ideas that would soon appear in his philosophical treatises. In those works, Spinoza denies the immortality of the soul; strongly rejects the notion of a providential God—the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; and claims that the Law was neither literally given by God nor any longer binding on Jews. Can there be any mystery as to why one of history's boldest and most radical thinkers was sanctioned by an orthodox Jewish community?"[38]
Second, there is ample basis to assume that the Amsterdam Jewish community, largely comprising former "conversos" having within the last century fled from the Portuguese Inquisition (and their children and grandchildren), must have been concerned to protect its reputation from any association with Spinoza lest his controversial views provide the basis for their own possible persecution or expulsion.[39] There is little or no evidence that the Amsterdam municipal authorities were directly involved in Spinoza's cherem itself. But "in 1619, the town council expressly ordered [the Portuguese Jewish community] to regulate their conduct and ensure that the members of the community kept to a strict observance of Jewish law";[40] and other evidence, such as bans adopted by the synagogue itself on public wedding or funeral processions and on discussing religious matters with Christians, lest such activity might "disturb the liberty we enjoy,"[41] makes it clear that the danger of upsetting the civil authorities was never far from mind. Thus, the issuance of Spinoza's cherem was almost certainly, in part, an exercise in self-censorship by the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam.[42]
Third, it appears likely that Spinoza himself had already taken the initiative to separate himself from the Talmud Torah congregation and was vocally expressing his hostility to Judaism itself. He had probably stopped attending services at the synagogue either after the lawsuit with his sister or after the knife attack on its steps. He might already have been voicing the view expressed later, in his Theological-Political Treatise, that the civil authorities should suppress Judaism as harmful to the Jews themselves. Either for financial or other reasons,[43] he had in any case effectively stopped contributing to the synagogue by March 1656. And he had committed the "monstrous deed," contrary the regulations of the synagogue and the views of certain rabbinical authorities (including Maimonides), of filing suit in a civil court rather than with the synagogue authorities[44]—to renounce his father's heritage, no less. Upon being notified of the issuance of the cherem, he is reported to have said: "Very well; this does not force me to do anything that I would not have done of my own accord, had I not been afraid of a scandal."[45] Thus, unlike most of the cherem issued routinely by the Amsterdam congregation to discipline its members, the cherem issued against Spinoza did not lead to repentance and so was never withdrawn.
After the cherem, Spinoza is said to have addressed an "Apology" (defense), written in Spanish, to the elders of the synagogue, "in which he defended his views as orthodox, and condemned the rabbis for accusing him of 'horrible practices and other enormities' merely because he had neglected ceremonial observances."[46] This "Apology" does not survive, but some of its contents may later have been included in his Theological-Political Treatise.[47]
The most remarkable aspect of the cherem may be not so much its issuance, or even Spinoza's refusal to submit, but the fact that Spinoza's expulsion from the Jewish community did not lead to his conversion to Christianity.[48] Spinoza kept the Latin (and so implicitly Christian) name Benedict de Spinoza, maintained a close association with the Collegiants, a Christian sect, even moved to a town near the Collegiants' headquarters, and was buried in a Christian graveyard—but there is no evidence or suggestion that he ever accepted baptism or participated in a Christian mass. Thus, by default, Baruch de Espinoza became the first secular Jew of modern Europe.[48]
The philosopher Richard Popkin questions the historical veracity of the cherem, which Popkin claims emerged close to 300 years after Spinoza's death.[49][why?]
Later life and career[edit]
Spinoza spent his remaining 21 years writing and studying as a private scholar.[1]
After the cherem, the Amsterdam municipal authorities, "responding to the appeals of the rabbis, and also of the Calvinist clergy, who had been vicariously offended by the existence of a free thinker in the synagogue,"[50] promptly expelled Spinoza from Amsterdam. He spent a brief time in or near the village of Ouderkerk aan de Amstel, but returned soon afterwards to Amsterdam and lived there quietly for several years, giving private philosophy lessons and grinding lenses, before leaving the city in 1660 or 1661.[51]
During this time in Amsterdam, Spinoza wrote his Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being, "of which two Dutch translations survive, discovered about 1810."[52]
Spinoza moved around 1660 or 1661 from Amsterdam to Rijnsburg, (near Leiden), the headquarters of the Collegiants.[53] In Rijnsburg he began work on his Descartes's "Principles of Philosophy" as well as on his masterpiece, the Ethics. In 1663 he returned briefly to Amsterdam, where he finished and published Descartes's "Principles of Philosophy" (the only work published in his lifetime under his own name), and then moved the same year to Voorburg.[54]
In Voorburg, Spinoza continued work on the Ethics and corresponded with scientists, philosophers, and theologians across Europe.[55] He also wrote and in 1670 published his Theological Political Treatise in defense of secular and constitutional government—and in support of Jan de Witt, the Grand Pensionary of the Netherlands, against the Stadholder, the Prince of Orange.[56] Leibniz, who visited Spinoza, claimed that Spinoza's life was in danger when supporters of the Prince of Orange murdered de Witt in 1672.[57] While published anonymously, the work did not long remain so, and de Witt's enemies characterized it as "forged in Hell by a renegade Jew and the Devil, and issued with the knowledge of Jan de Witt."[58] It was condemned in 1673 by the Synod of the Reformed Church and formally banned in 1674.[59]
Lens grinding and optics[edit]
Spinoza earned a modest living from lens-grinding and instrument making, yet while living in Voorburg through correspondence and friendships with scientist Christiaan Huygens and mathematician Johannes Hudde he was involved in important optical investigations of the day including debate over microscope design with Huygens, favoring small objectives[60] and collaborating on calculations for a prospective 40 ft telescope which would have been one of the largest in Europe at the time[61] The quality of Spinoza's lenses was much praised by Christiaan Huygens among others[62] in fact his technique and instruments were so esteemed Constantijn Huygens in 1687 ground a "clear and bright" 42 ft. telescope lens from one of Spinoza's grinding dishes 10 years after his death[63] The exact type of lenses Spinoza made are not known, but very likely included lenses for both the microscope and telescope. He was said by anatomist Theodor Kerckring to have produced an "excellent" microscope, the quality of which was the foundation of Kerckring's anatomy claims.[64] During his time as a lens and instrument maker he was also supported by small, but regular, donations from close friends.[1]
The Hague[edit]
In 1670 Spinoza moved to The Hague, where he lived on a small pension from Jan de Witt and a small annuity from the brother of his dead friend, Simon de Vries.[65] He worked on the Ethics, wrote an unfinished Hebrew grammar, began his Political Treatise, wrote two scientific essays ("On the Rainbow" and "On the Calculation of Chances"), and began a Dutch translation (that he later destroyed) of the Bible.[66]
Spinoza chose the Latin word "caute" (be cautious), inscribed beneath a rose, itself a symbol of secrecy, as his device.[5] "For, having chosen to write in a language that was so widely intelligible, he was compelled to hide what he had written."[5]
In 1676, Spinoza met with Leibniz at The Hague for a discussion of his principal philosophical work, Ethics, which had been completed in 1676. This meeting was described in Matthew Stewart's The Courtier and the Heretic.[67] Spinoza never married nor fathered any children. When he died, he was considered a saint by the general Christian population and was buried in holy ground.[citation needed]
Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, and he died on 20 February 1677, at the age of 45.[68] His premature death was said to be due to lung illness, possibly silicosis as a result of breathing in glass dust from the lenses he ground. Later, a shrine was made of his home in The Hague.[2]
Textbooks and encyclopedias often depict Spinoza as a solitary soul who eked out a living as a lens grinder; in reality, he had many friends but kept his needs to a minimum.[1] He preached a philosophy of tolerance and benevolence. Anthony Gottlieb described him as living "a saintly life."[1] The reviewer M. Stuart Phelps noted "No one has ever come nearer to the ideal life of the philosopher than Spinoza."[69] Another reviewer, Harold Bloom, wrote: "As a teacher of reality, he practiced his own wisdom, and was surely one of the most exemplary human beings ever to have lived."[70] According to the New York Times "In outward appearance he was unpretending, but not careless. His way of living was exceedingly modest and retired; often he did not leave his room for many days together. He was likewise almost incredibly frugal; his expenses sometimes amounted only to a few pence a day."[71] According to Harold Bloom and the Chicago Tribune "He appears to have had no sexual life."[70][72] Spinoza also corresponded with Peter Serrarius, a radical Protestant and millennarian merchant. Serrarius is believed to have been a patron of Spinoza at some point after his conversion.[citation needed] By the beginning of the 1660s, Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually Gottfried Leibniz[67] and Henry Oldenburg paid him visits, as stated in Matthew Stewart's The Courtier and the Heretic.[67] Spinoza corresponded with Oldenburg for the rest of his short life.
Writings and correspondence[edit]
The writings of René Descartes have been described as "Spinoza's starting point."[70] Spinoza's first publication was his geometric exposition (proofs using the geometric method on the model of Euclid with definitions, axioms, etc.) of Descartes's Parts I and II of Principles of Philosophy (1663). Spinoza has been associated with Leibniz and Descartes as "rationalists" in contrast to "empiricists".[73]
From December 1664 to June 1665, Spinoza engaged in correspondence with Willem van Blijenbergh, an amateur Calvinist theologian, who questioned Spinoza on the definition of evil. Later in 1665, Spinoza notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the Theologico-Political Treatise, published in 1670. Leibniz disagreed harshly with Spinoza in Leibniz's own published Refutation of Spinoza, but he is also known to have met with Spinoza on at least one occasion[67][73] (as mentioned above), and his own work bears some striking resemblances to specific important parts of Spinoza's philosophy (see: Monadology).
When the public reactions to the anonymously published Theologico-Political Treatise were extremely unfavourable to his brand of Cartesianism, Spinoza was compelled to abstain from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a signet ring engraved with his initials, a rose,[citation needed] and the word "caute" (Latin for "cautiously").
The Ethics and all other works, apart from the Descartes' Principles of Philosophy and the Theologico-Political Treatise, were published after his death, in the Opera Posthuma edited by his friends in secrecy to avoid confiscation and destruction of manuscripts. The Ethics contains many still-unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modeled on Euclid's geometry[1] and has been described as a "superbly cryptic masterwork."[70]
Substance, attributes and modes[edit]
These are the fundamental concepts with which Spinoza sets forth a vision of Being, illuminated by his awareness of God. They may seem strange at first sight. To the question "What is?" he replies: "Substance, its attributes, and modes".
Spinoza believed God exists and is abstract and impersonal.[1] Spinoza's system imparted order and unity to the tradition of radical thought, offering powerful weapons for prevailing against "received authority." As a youth he first subscribed to Descartes's dualistic belief that body and mind are two separate substances, but later changed his view and asserted that they were not separate, being a single identity. He contended that everything that exists in Nature (i.e., everything in the Universe) is one Reality (substance) and there is only one set of rules governing the whole of the reality which surrounds us and of which we are part. Spinoza viewed God and Nature as two names for the same reality,[70] namely the single substance (meaning "that which stands beneath" rather than "matter") that is the basis of the universe and of which all lesser "entities" are actually modes or modifications, that all things are determined by Nature to exist and cause effects, and that the complex chain of cause and effect is understood only in part. His identification of God with nature was more fully explained in his posthumously published Ethics.[1] That humans presume themselves to have free will, he argues, is a result of their awareness of appetites while being unable to understand the reasons why they want and act as they do. Spinoza has been described by one writer as an "Epicurean materialist."[70]
Spinoza contends that "Deus sive Natura" ("God or Nature") is a being of infinitely many attributes, of which thought and extension are two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the physical and mental worlds as one and the same. The universal substance consists of both body and mind, there being no difference between these aspects. This formulation is a historically significant solution to the mind-body problem known as neutral monism. Spinoza's system also envisages a God that does not rule over the universe by providence, but a God which itself is the deterministic system of which everything in nature is a part. Thus, according to this understanding of Spinoza's system, God would be the natural world and have no personality.
In addition to substance, the other two fundamental concepts Spinoza presents and develops in the Ethics are attribute – that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of substance, and mode – the modifications of substance, or that which exists in, and is conceived through, something other than itself.
Spinoza was a thoroughgoing determinist who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of necessity. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand why we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say "no" to what happens to us but the possibility to say "yes" and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way. By forming more "adequate" ideas about what we do and our emotions or affections, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity). This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. 49, Part II. However, Spinoza also held that everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, humans have no free will. They believe, however, that their will is free. This illusionary perception of freedom stems from our human consciousness, experience and our indifference to prior natural causes. Humans think they are free but they ″dream with their eyes open″. For Spinoza, our actions are guided entirely by natural impulses. In his letter to G. H. Schuller (Letter 58), he wrote: "men are conscious of their desire and unaware of the causes by which [their desires] are determined."[75]
This picture of Spinoza's determinism is ever more illuminated through reading this famous quote in Ethics: ″the infant believes that it is by free will that it seeks the breast; the angry boy believes that by free will he wishes vengeance; the timid man thinks it is with free will he seeks flight; the drunkard believes that by a free command of his mind he speaks the things which when sober he wishes he had left unsaid. ... All believe that they speak by a free command of the mind, whilst, in truth, they have no power to restrain the impulse which they have to speak.″[76] Thus for Spinoza morality and ethical judgement like choice is predicated on an illusion. For Spinoza, ″Blame″ and ″Praise″ are non existent human ideals only fathomable in the mind because we are so acclimatized to human consciousness interlinking with our experience that we have a false ideal of choice predicated upon this.
Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with Stoicism inasmuch as both philosophies sought to fulfill a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness. However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that reason could defeat emotion. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can only be displaced or overcome by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.[77]
Ethical philosophy[edit]
Encapsulated at the start in his Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding (Tractatus de intellectus emendatione) is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held good and evil to be relative concepts, claiming that nothing is intrinsically good or bad except relative to a particularity. Things that had classically been seen as good or evil, Spinoza argued, were simply good or bad for humans. Spinoza believes in a deterministic universe in which "All things in nature proceed from certain [definite] necessity and with the utmost perfection." Nothing happens by chance in Spinoza's world, and nothing is contingent.
Spinoza's Ethics[edit]
In the universe anything that happens comes from the essential nature of objects, or of God/Nature. According to Spinoza, reality is perfection. If circumstances are seen as unfortunate it is only because of our inadequate conception of reality. While components of the chain of cause and effect are not beyond the understanding of human reason, human grasp of the infinitely complex whole is limited because of the limits of science to empirically take account of the whole sequence. Spinoza also asserted that sense perception, though practical and useful for rhetoric, is inadequate for discovering universal truth; Spinoza's mathematical and logical approach to metaphysics, and therefore ethics, concluded that emotion is formed from inadequate understanding. His concept of "conatus" states that human beings' natural inclination is to strive toward preserving an essential being and an assertion that virtue/human power is defined by success in this preservation of being by the guidance of reason as one's central ethical doctrine. According to Spinoza, the highest virtue is the intellectual love or knowledge of God/Nature/Universe.
In the final part of the "Ethics", his concern with the meaning of "true blessedness", and his explanation of how emotions must be detached from external cause and so master them, foreshadow psychological techniques developed in the 1900s. His concept of three types of knowledge – opinion, reason, intuition – and his assertion that intuitive knowledge provides the greatest satisfaction of mind, lead to his proposition that the more we are conscious of ourselves and Nature/Universe, the more perfect and blessed we are (in reality) and that only intuitive knowledge is eternal. His unique contribution to understanding the workings of mind is extraordinary, even during this time of radical philosophical developments, in that his views provide a bridge between religions' mystical past and psychology of the present day.
Given Spinoza's insistence on a completely ordered world where "necessity" reigns, Good and Evil have no absolute meaning. The world as it exists looks imperfect only because of our limited perception.
History of reception[edit]
Panentheist, pantheist, or atheist?[edit]
- On this same topic as it relates to Spinoza's philosophy, see also Pantheism controversy.
It is a widespread belief that Spinoza equated God with the material universe. He has therefore been called the "prophet"[78] and "prince"[79] of pantheism. However, in a letter to Henry Oldenburg he states that: "as to the view of certain people that I identify god with nature (taken as a kind of mass or corporeal matter), they are quite mistaken".[80] For Spinoza, our universe (cosmos) is a mode under two attributes of Thought and Extension. God has infinitely many other attributes which are not present in our world. According to German philosopher Karl Jaspers, when Spinoza wrote "Deus sive Natura" (God or Nature) Spinoza meant God was Natura naturans not Natura naturata, and Jaspers believed that Spinoza, in his philosophical system, did not mean to say that God and Nature are interchangeable terms, but rather that God's transcendence was attested by his infinitely many attributes, and that two attributes known by humans, namely Thought and Extension, signified God's immanence.[81] Even God under the attributes of thought and extension cannot be identified strictly with our world. That world is of course "divisible"; it has parts. But Spinoza insists that "no attribute of a substance can be truly conceived from which it follows that the substance can be divided" (Which means that one cannot conceive an attribute in a way that leads to division of substance), and that "a substance which is absolutely infinite is indivisible" (Ethics, Part I, Propositions 12 and 13).[82] Following this logic, our world should be considered as a mode under two attributes of thought and extension. Therefore the pantheist formula "One and All" would apply to Spinoza only if the "One" preserves its transcendence and the "All" were not interpreted as the totality of finite things.[81]
Martial Guéroult suggested the term "Panentheism", rather than "Pantheism" to describe Spinoza's view of the relation between God and the world. The world is not God, but it is, in a strong sense, "in" God. Not only do finite things have God as their cause; they cannot be conceived without God.[82] In other words, the world is a subset of God. However, American panentheist philosopher Charles Hartshorne insisted on the term Classical Pantheism to describe Spinoza's view.[83]
In 1785, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi published a condemnation of Spinoza's pantheism, after Lessing was thought to have confessed on his deathbed to being a "Spinozist", which was the equivalent in his time of being called an atheist. Jacobi claimed that Spinoza's doctrine was pure materialism, because all Nature and God are said to be nothing but extended substance. This, for Jacobi, was the result of Enlightenment rationalism and it would finally end in absolute atheism. Moses Mendelssohn disagreed with Jacobi, saying that there is no actual difference between theism and pantheism. The issue became a major intellectual and religious concern for European civilization at the time.
The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy to late 18th-century Europeans was that it provided an alternative to materialism, atheism, and deism. Three of Spinoza's ideas strongly appealed to them:
- the unity of all that exists;
- the regularity of all that happens; and
- the identity of spirit and nature.
Spinoza's "God or Nature" (Deus sive Natura) provided a living, natural God, in contrast to the Newtonian mechanical "First Cause" or the dead mechanism of the French "Man Machine". Coleridge and Shelley saw in Spinoza's philosophy a religion of nature.[1] Novalis called him the "God-intoxicated man".[70][84] Spinoza inspired the poet Shelley to write his essay "The Necessity of Atheism".[70]
Spinoza was considered to be an atheist because he used the word "God" (Deus) to signify a concept that was different from that of traditional Judeo–Christian monotheism. "Spinoza expressly denies personality and consciousness to God; he has neither intelligence, feeling, nor will; he does not act according to purpose, but everything follows necessarily from his nature, according to law...."[85] Thus, Spinoza's cool, indifferent God[86] is the antithesis to the concept of an anthropomorphic, fatherly God who cares about humanity.
According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Spinoza's God is an "infinite intellect", (Ethics 2p11c) all knowing, (2p3) and capable of loving both himself—and us, insofar as we are part of his perfection. (5p35c) And if the mark of a personal being is that it is one towards which we can entertain personal attitudes, then we should note too that Spinoza recommends amor intellectualist dei (the intellectual love of God) as the supreme good for man. (5p33) However, the matter is complex. Spinoza's God does not have free will (1p32c1), he does not have purposes or intentions (1apendix), and Spinoza insists that "neither intellect nor will pertain to the nature of God" (1p17s1). Moreover, while we may love God, we need to remember that God is really not the kind of being who could ever love us back. "He who loves God cannot strive that God should love him in return," says Spinoza (5p19).[87]
Steven Nadler suggests that settling the question of Spinoza's atheism or pantheism depends on an analysis of attitudes. If pantheism is associated with religiosity, then Spinoza is not a pantheist, since Spinoza believes that the proper stance to take towards God is not one of reverence or religious awe, but instead one of objective study and reason, since taking the religious stance would leave one open to the possibility of error and superstition.[88]
Comparison to Eastern philosophies[edit]
Similarities between Spinoza's philosophy and Eastern philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities. The 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstücker was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between Spinoza's religious conceptions and the Vedanta tradition of India, writing that Spinoza's thought was "... a western system of philosophy which occupies a foremost rank amongst the philosophies of all nations and ages, and which is so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines... We mean the philosophy of Spinoza, a man whose very life is a picture of that moral purity and intellectual indifference to the transitory charms of this world, which is the constant longing of the true Vedanta philosopher... comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy."[89][90]
Max Muller, in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying "the Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."[91] Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical Society also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay "As to Spinoza's Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct outflowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple."[92]
Spinoza's political theory[edit]
Late 20th century Europe demonstrated a greater philosophical interest in Spinoza, often from a left-wing or Marxist perspective. Karl Marx liked his materialistic account of the universe.[1] Notable philosophers Louis Althusser, Gilles Deleuze, Antonio Negri, Étienne Balibar and Marilena Chaui have each drawn upon Spinoza's philosophy. Deleuze's doctoral thesis, published in 1968, refers to him as "the prince of philosophers."[93] Other philosophers heavily influenced by Spinoza include Constantin Brunner and John David Garcia. Stuart Hampshire wrote a major English language study of Spinoza, though H. H. Joachim's work is equally valuable. Unlike most philosophers, Spinoza was highly regarded by Nietzsche.
Spinoza was an important philosophical inspiration for George Santayana. When Santayana graduated from college, he published an essay, "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", in The Harvard Monthly.[94] Later, he wrote an introduction to Spinoza's Ethics and 'De intellectus emendatione'.[95] In 1932, Santayana was invited to present an essay (published as "Ultimate Religion")[96] at a meeting at The Hague celebrating the tricentennial of Spinoza's birth. In Santayana's autobiography, he characterized Spinoza as his "master and model" in understanding the naturalistic basis of morality.[97]
Spinoza's religious criticism and its effect on the philosophy of language[edit]
Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein evoked Spinoza with the title (suggested to him by G. E. Moore) of the English translation of his first definitive philosophical work, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, an allusion to Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. Elsewhere, Wittgenstein deliberately borrowed the expression sub specie aeternitatis from Spinoza (Notebooks, 1914-16, p. 83). The structure of his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus does have some structural affinities with Spinoza's Ethics (though, admittedly, not with the latter's own Tractatus) in erecting complex philosophical arguments upon basic logical assertions and principles. Furthermore, in propositions 6.4311 and 6.45 he alludes to a Spinozian understanding of eternity and interpretation of the religious concept of eternal life, stating that "If by eternity is understood not eternal temporal duration, but timelessness, then he lives eternally who lives in the present." (6.4311) "The contemplation of the world sub specie aeterni is its contemplation as a limited whole." (6.45)
Leo Strauss dedicated his first book ("Spinoza's Critique of Religion") to an examination of the latter's ideas. In the book, Strauss identified Spinoza as part of the tradition of Enlightenment rationalism that eventually produced Modernity. Moreover, he identifies Spinoza and his works as the beginning of Jewish Modernity.[70] More recently Jonathan Israel, Professor of Modern European History at The Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, has made a detailed case that from 1650 to 1750 Spinoza was "the chief challenger of the fundamentals of revealed religion, received ideas, tradition, morality, and what was everywhere regarded, in absolutist and non-absolutist states alike, as divinely constituted political authority."[98]
Spinoza in literature and popular culture[edit]
Spinoza has had influence beyond the confines of philosophy. The 19th century novelist George Eliot produced her own translation of the Ethics, the first known English translation of it. Eliot liked Spinoza's vehement attacks on superstition.[1] In his autobiography "From My Life: Poetry and Truth", Goethe recounts the way in which Spinoza's Ethics calmed the sometimes unbearable emotional turbulence of his youth. Goethe later displayed his grasp of Spinoza's metaphysics in a fragmentary elucidation of some Spinozist ontological principles entitled Study After Spinoza.[99] Moreover, he cited Spinoza alongside Shakespeare and Carl Linnaeus as one of the three strongest influences on his life and work.[100] The 20th century novelist W. Somerset Maugham alluded to one of Spinoza's central concepts with the title of his novel Of Human Bondage. Albert Einstein named Spinoza as the philosopher who exerted the most influence on his world view (Weltanschauung). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, consistent with Einstein's belief in an impersonal deity. In 1929, Einstein was asked in a telegram by Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein whether he believed in God. Einstein responded by telegram: "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings."[101][102] Spinoza's pantheism has also influenced environmental theory; Arne Næss, the father of the deep ecology movement, acknowledged Spinoza as an important inspiration.
Moreover, the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was greatly influenced by Spinoza's world view. Borges makes allusions to the philosopher's work in many of his poems and short stories, as does Isaac Bashevis Singer in his short story The Spinoza of Market Street.[103] The title character of Hoffman's Hunger, the fifth novel by the Dutch novelist Leon de Winter, reads and comments upon the Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione over the course of the novel. Spinoza has been the subject of numerous biographies and scholarly treatises.[84][104][105][106]
Spinoza is an important historical figure in the Netherlands, where his portrait was featured prominently on the Dutch 1000-guilder banknote, legal tender until the euro was introduced in 2002. The highest and most prestigious scientific award of the Netherlands is named the Spinozaprijs (Spinoza prize). Spinoza was included in a 50 theme canon that attempts to summarise the history of the Netherlands.[107]
Spinoza's life has been honored by educators.[49]
The 2008 play "New Jerusalem," by David Ives, is based on the cherem (ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion or excommunication) issued against Spinoza by the Talmud Torah congregation in Amsterdam in 1656, and events leading to it.[108]
See also[edit]
- Criticism of Judaism
- Philosophy of Spinoza for an overview based on the Ethics.
- Plane of immanence
- Pantheism
- Spinozism
By Spinoza[edit]
- c. 1660. Korte Verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelvs welstand (A Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being).
- 1662. Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione (On the Improvement of the Understanding).
- 1663. Principia philosophiae cartesianae (The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy, translated by Samuel Shirley, with an Introduction and Notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Rice, Indianapolis, 1998). Gallica (in Latin).
- 1670. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (A Theologico-Political Treatise).
- 1675/76 Tractatus Politicus (Unfinished) Pdf Version
- 1677. Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata (The Ethics)
- 1677. Compendium grammatices linguae hebraeae (Hebrew Grammar).[109]
- Morgan, Michael L. (ed.), 2002. Spinoza: Complete Works, (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company). ISBN 978-0-87220-620-5.
- Spruit, Leen 2011. The Vatican Manuscript of Spinoza's Ethica, Leiden: Brill 2011.
About Spinoza[edit]
- Albiac, Gabriel, 1987. La sinagoga vacía: un estudio de las fuentes marranas del espinosismo. Madrid: Hiperión D.L. ISBN 978-84-7517-214-9
- Balibar, Étienne, 1985. Spinoza et la politique ("Spinoza and politics") Paris: PUF.
- Boucher, Wayne I., 1999. Spinoza in English: A Bibliography from the Seventeenth Century to the Present. 2nd edn. Thoemmes Press.
- Boucher, Wayne I., ed., 1999. Spinoza: Eighteenth and Nineteenth-Century Discussions. 6 vols. Thoemmes Press.
- Carlisle, Claire. "Questioning Transcendence, Teleology and Truth" in Kierkegaard and the Renaissance and Modern Traditions (ed. Jon Stewart. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2009).
- Damásio, António, 2003. Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, Harvest Books,ISBN 978-0-15-602871-4
- Deleuze, Gilles, 1968. Spinoza et le problème de l'expression. Trans. "Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza" Martin Joughin (New York: Zone Books).
- ———, 1970. Spinoza - Philosophie pratique. Transl. "Spinoza: Practical Philosophy".
- ———, 1990. Negotiations trans. Martin Joughin (New York: Columbia University Press).
- Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509562-3
- Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. Cambridge Uni. Press.
- Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. Collective imaginings : Spinoza, past and present. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16570-9, ISBN 978-0-415-16571-6
- Goldstein, Rebecca, 2006. Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity. Schocken. ISBN 978-0-8052-1159-7
- Goode, Francis, 2012. Life of Spinoza. Smashwords edition. ISBN 978-1-4661-3399-0
- Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-05046-3
- Hampshire, Stuart, 1951. Spinoza and Spinozism, OUP, 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-927954-8
- Hardt, Michael, trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available here.[110]
- Israel, Jonathan, 2001. The Radical Enlightenment, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ———, 2006. Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752, (ISBN 978-0-19-927922-7 hardback)
- Ives 2009: Ives, David, "New Jerusalem: The Interrogation of Baruch de Spinoza at Talmud Torah Congregation: Amsterdam, July 27, 1656," 2009 (Dramatists Play Service, Inc., New York, ISBN 9870822223856).
- Kasher, Asa, and Shlomo Biderman. "Why Was Baruch de Spinoza Excommunicated?"
- Kayser, Rudolf, 1946, with an introduction by Albert Einstein. Spinoza: Portrait of a Spiritual Hero. New York: The Philosophical Library.
- Lloyd, Genevieve, 1996. Spinoza and the Ethics. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-10781-5, ISBN 978-0-415-10782-2
- LeBuffe, Michael. 2010. Spinoza and Human Freedom. Oxford University Press.
- Lucas, P. G., 1960. "Some Speculative and Critical Philosophers", in I. Levine (ed.), Philosophy (London: Odhams)
- Lovejoy, Arthur O., 1936. "Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza" in his The Great Chain of Being. Harvard University Press: 144-82 (ISBN 978-0-674-36153-9). Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays. Anchor Books.
- Macherey, Pierre, 1977. Hegel ou Spinoza, Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004).
- ———, 1994-98. Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza. Paris: PUF.
- Magnusson 1990: Magnusson, M (ed.), Spinoza, Baruch, Chambers Biographical Dictionary, Chambers 1990, ISBN 978-0-550-16041-6.
- Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. Individu et communauté chez Spinoza, Paris: Minuit.
- Montag, Warren. Bodies, Masses, Power: Spinoza and his Contemporaries. (London: Verso, 2002).
- Moreau, Pierre-François, 2003, Spinoza et le spinozisme, PUF (Presses Universitaires de France)
- Nadler 1999: Nadler, Steven, Spinoza: A Life, 1999 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge England, ISBN 978-0-521-55210-3).
- Nadler 2001: Nadler, Steven, Spinoza's Heresy: Immortality and the Jewish Mind, 2001 (Oxford University Press, Oxford England, New York NY, reprinted 2004, ISBN 0-19-926887-8).
- Nadler 2006: Nadler, Steven, Spinoza's Ethics: An Introduction, 2006 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge England, ISBN 978-0-521-83620-3).
- Nadler 2011: Nadler, Steven, A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza's Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age, 2011 (Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, ISBN 978-0-691-13989-0).
- Negri, Antonio, 1991. The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics.
- ———, 2004. Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations).
- Popkin, R. H., 2004. Spinoza (Oxford: One World Publications)
- Prokhovnik, Raia, Spinoza and Republicanism (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
- Ratner, Joseph, 1927. The Philosophy of Spinoza (The Modern Library: Random House)
- Scruton 1986: Scruton, Roger, Spinoza: A Very Short Introduction, 1986 (Oxford University Press, Oxford England), 2002 (reprinted as A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford England, ISBN 0-19-280316-6).
- Stewart, Matthew. The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza and the Fate of God.2006. W.W. Norton[73]
- Stolze, Ted and Warren Montag (eds.), The New Spinoza; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.
- Strauss, Leo. Persecution and the Art of Writing. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952. Reprint. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
- ———ch. 5, "How to Study Spinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus;" reprinted in Strauss, Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, ed. Kenneth Hart Green (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1997), 181-233.
- ———Spinoza's Critique of Religion. New York: Schocken Books, 1965. Reprint. University of Chicago Press, 1996.
- ———, "Preface to the English Translation" reprinted as "Preface to Spinoza's Critique of Religion," in Strauss, Liberalism Ancient and Modern (New York: Basic Books, 1968, 224-59; also in Strauss, Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 137-77).
- Smilevski, Goce. Conversation with SPINOZA. Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 2006.
- Williams, David Lay. 2010. "Spinoza and the General Will," The Journal of Politics, Vol. 72 (April): 341-56.
- Wolfson, Henry A. "The Philosophy of Spinoza". 2 vols. Harvard University Press.[105]
- Yovel, Yirmiyahu, "Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 1: The Marrano of Reason." Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989.
- Yovel, Yirmiyahu, "Spinoza and Other Heretics, Vol. 2: The Adventures of Immanence." Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1989.
- Vinciguerra, Lorenzo Spinoza in French Philosophy Today. Philosophy Today, Vol. 53, No. 4, Winter 2009.
This article has an unclear citation style. (May 2010) |
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Anthony Gottlieb. "God Exists, Philosophically (review of "Spinoza: A Life" by Steven Nadler)". The New York Times, Books. 18 July 1999. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
- ^ a b "The Spinoza Problem,' by Irvin Yalom)". The Washington Post. 21 February 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
- ^ a b "Play shows the price of Spinoza's ideas -- (David Ives' play "New Jerusalem: The Interrogation of Baruch de Spinoza at Talmud Torah Congregation.")". The Boston Globe. 14 January 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2009.[dead link]; Ives 2009.
- ^ "Destroyer and Builder )". The New Republic. 3 May 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2013.
- ^ a b c Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.32.
- ^ a b Hegel's History of Philosophy. Google Books. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ quoted in the translator's preface of Deleuze Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (1990).
- ^ de Spinoza, Benedictus; Hessing, Siegfried (1977). Speculum Spinozanum, 1677-1977. Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 828., Snipped view of page 828
- ^ Magnusson 1990.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.15.
- ^ a b c Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.19.
- ^ Javier Muguerza in his Desde la perplejidad
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.20. (Scruton states that only Baruch and Rebekah reached adulthood, but Baruch's younger brother Gabriel apparently did as well.)
- ^ Historische Gids van Amsterdam, opnieuw bewerkt door Mr H.F. Wijnman, p. 205; Vaz Dias A.M. & W.G. van der Tak (1932) Spinoza, Merchant & autodidact, p. 140, 174-175. Reprint in: Studia Resenthaliana. Vol. XVI, number 2, 1982.
- ^ Die Lebensgeschichte Spinozas. Zweite, stark erweiterte und vollständig neu kommentierte Auflage der Ausgabe von Jakob Freudenthal 1899. M. e. Bibliographie hg. v. Manfred Walther unter Mitarbeit v. Michael Czelinski. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Bad Canstatt: frommann-holzboog, 2006. (Specula 4,1 – 4,2.) Erläuterungen. S. 98, 119.
- ^ See Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.1.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.23 (his mother's death when he was six years old).
- ^ a b Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.31.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.20.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.20.
- ^ a b See Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.1
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, pp.20-21; Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.27, n.27, p.189.
- ^ Frank Mertens, Ghent University (30 June 2009). "Franciscus van den Enden/Biography". Retrieved 7 October 2011.
- ^ a b Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.1.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.21.
- ^ Strathern, Paul (25 September 1998). Spinoza in 90 Minutes. Ivan R. Dee. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-56663-215-7.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.21; Nadler 2001 ch.2 p.27, n.27, p.189.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.20.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.21.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.21.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.25.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.2, pp.26-27.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.21.
- ^ Steven Nadler, Spinoza: A Life, Cambridge University Press; 1 edition (23 April 2001), ISBN 978-0-521-00293-6, Page: 120
- ^ Yitzhak Melamed, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University, speaking at an Artistic Director's Roundtable, Theater J, Washington D.C., 18 March 2012. See also Nadler 2001, ch. 1, p.7.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.1, p.2.
- ^ Steven B. Smith, Spinoza's book of life: freedom and redemption in the Ethics, Yale University Press (1 December 2003), p.xx/Introduction google books
- ^ Steven Nadler, Baruch Spinoza, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, First published Fri 29 June 2001; substantive revision Mon 1 December 2008, plato.standord.eu
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch. 2, pp. 17–22.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.19.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.20.
- ^ See Nadler 2001, ch.2, pp.19-21.
- ^ See Nadler 2001, ch.2, p.28, n.28, p.189.
- ^ Nadler 2001, ch.2, pp.25-25.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.
- ^ a b Yitzhak Melamed, Associate Professor of Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University, speaking at an Artistic Director's Roundtable, Theater J, Washington D.C., 18 March 2012.
- ^ a b Richard H. Popkin (2004). "Spinoza".
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch.1, p.22.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.23.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.24.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.25.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.25-26.
- ^ "…he [Spinoza] told me [Leibniz] he had a strong desire, on the day of the massacre of Mess. De Witt, to sally forth at night, and put up somewhere, near the place of the massacre, a paper with the words Ultimi barbarorum [ultimate barbarity]. But his host had shut the house to prevent his going out, for he would have run the risk of being torn to pieces." (A Refutation Recently Discovered of Spinoza by Leibnitz, "Remarks on the Unpublished Refutation of Spinoza by Leibnitz," Edinburg: Thomas Constable and Company, 1855. Page 70. Available on Google Books
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.
- ^ Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres completes, Letter No. 1638, 11 Maj 1668
- ^ Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres completes, letter to his brother 23 September 1667
- ^ Stephen Nadler, Spinoza: A Life (2001) p.183
- ^ Christiaan Huygens, Oeuvres completes vol. XXII, p. 732, footnote
- ^ Theodore Kerckring, "Spicilegium Anatomicum" Observatio XCIII (1670)
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.26.
- ^ a b c d Lucas, 1960.
- ^ Scruton 1986 (2002 ed.), ch. 1, p.29.
- ^ Phelps, M. Stuart (21 February 1877). "Spinoza. Oration by M. Ernest Renan, delivered at the Hague, February 21, 1877 by Translated by M. Stuart Phelps [pp. 763-776]". New Englander and Yale Review Volume 0037 Issue 147 (November 1878). Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Harold Bloom (book reviewer) (16 June 2006). "Deciphering Spinoza, the Great Original -- Book review of "Betraying Spinoza. The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity." By Rebecca Goldstein". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ "How Spinoza lived". The New York Times. 17 March 1878. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ "New Light on Spinoza -- Joseph Freudenthal's Book, Published in German, Gives Facts.". The Chicago Tribune. 19 November 1899. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ a b c Lisa Montanarelli (book reviewer) (8 January 2006). "Spinoza stymies 'God's attorney' -- Stewart argues the secular world was at stake in Leibniz face off". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ Spinoza, Karl Jaspers p.9
- ^ Ethics, Pt. I, Prop. XXXVI, Appendix: "[M]en think themselves free inasmuch as they are conscious of their volitions and desires, and never even dream, in their ignorance, of the causes which have disposed them so to wish and desire."
- ^ Ethics
- ^ Roger Scruton, Spinoza, A very Short Introduction, p.86
- ^ Picton, J. Allanson, "Pantheism: Its Story and Significance", 1905
- ^ Fraser, Alexander Campbell "Philosophy of Theism", William Blackwood and Sons, 1895, p 163
- ^ Correspondence of Benedict de Spinoza, Wilder Publications (26 March 2009), ISBN 978-1-60459-156-9, letter 73
- ^ a b Karl Jaspers, Spinoza (Great Philosophers), Harvest Books (23 October 1974), ISBN 978-0-15-684730-8, Pages: 14 and 95
- ^ a b Genevieve Lloyd, Routledge Philosophy GuideBook to Spinoza and The Ethics (Routledge Philosophy Guidebooks), Routledge; 1 edition (2 October 1996), ISBN 978-0-415-10782-2, Page: 40
- ^ Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God," Humanity Books, 1953 ch 4
- ^ a b Hutchison, Percy (20 November 1932). "Spinoza, "God-Intoxicated Man"; Three Books Which Mark the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosopher's Birth Blessed Spinoza. A Biography. By Lewis Browne. 319 pp. New York: The Macmillan Company. $4. Spinoza . Liberator of God and Man. By Benjamin De Casseres, 145pp. New York: E. Wickham Sweetland. $2. Spinoza the Biospher Pinoza. By Frederick Kettner. Introduc- tion by Nicholas Roerich, New Era Library. 255 pp. New York: Roerich Museum Press. $2.50. Spinoza". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ Frank Thilly, A History of Philosophy, § 47, Holt & Co., New York, 1914
- ^ "I believe in Spinoza's God who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings." These words were spoken by Albert Einstein, upon being asked if he believed in God by Rabbi Herbert Goldstein of the Institutional Synagogue, New York, 24 April 1921, published in the New York Times, 25 April 1929; from Einstein: The Life and Times Ronald W. Clark, New York: World Publishing Co., 1971, p. 413; also cited as a telegram to a Jewish newspaper, 1929, Einstein Archive 33-272, from Alice Calaprice, ed., The Expanded Quotable Einstein, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
- ^ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pantheism/#Per
- ^ "Baruch Spinoza (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
- ^ Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.
- ^ The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862
- ^ Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123
- ^ H.P Blavatsky's Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages 308-310. Quest Books
- ^ Deleuze, 1968.
- ^ George Santayana, "The Ethical Doctrine of Spinoza", The Harvard Monthly, 2 (June 1886: 144–52)
- '^ George Santayana, "Introduction", in Spinoza's Ethics and 'De intellectus emendatione(London: Dent, 1910, vii–xxii)
- ^ George Santayana, "Ultimate Religion", in Obiter Scripta, eds. Justus Buchler and Benjamin Schwartz (New York and London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936) 280-297.
- ^ George Santayana, Persons and Places (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1986) 233–36.
- ^ Israel, J. (2001) Radical Enlightenment; Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750, Oxford, Oxford University Press, p159.
- ^ "Goethe: Studie nach Spinoza - Aufsätze und Rezensionen". Textlog.de. 30 October 2007. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ "Linné on line - What people have said about Linnaeus". Linnaeus.uu.se. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ "Einstein believes in "Spinoza's God"; Scientist Defines His Faith in Reply, to Cablegram From Rabbi Here. Sees a Divine Order But Says Its Ruler Is Not Concerned "Wit Fates and Actions of Human Beings."". The New York Times. 25 April 1929. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ "Einstein's Third Paradise, by Gerald Holton". Aip.org. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ Spinoza of Market Street and Other ... - Google Books. Google Books. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ "Spinoza's First Biography Is Recovered; The oldest biography of Spinoza. Edited with Translations, Introduction, Annotations, &c., by A. Wolf. 196 pp. New York: Lincoln Macveagh. The Dial Press.". The New York Times. 11 December 1927. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ a b Irwin Edman (22 July 1934). "The Unique and Powerful Vision of Baruch Spinoza; Professor Wolfson's Long-Awaited Book Is a Work of Illuminating Scholarship. (Book review) The Philosophy of Spinoza. By Henry Austryn Wolfson". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ Cummings, M E (8 September 1929). "Roth Evaluates Spinoza". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
- ^ "Entoen.nu". Entoen.nu. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ Ives 2009.
- ^ See G. Licata, "Spinoza e la cognitio universalis dell'ebraico. Demistificazione e speculazione grammaticale nel Compendio di grammatica ebraica", Giornale di Metafisica, 3 (2009), pp. 625–661.
- ^ "Multitudes Web - 01. Préface à L'Anomalie sauvage de Negri". Multitudes.samizdat.net. Archived from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Baruch Spinoza |
Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Baruch de Spinoza |
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
- "Spinoza" by Steven Nadler.
- "Spinoza's Psychological Theory" by Michael LeBuffe.
- "Spinoza's Physical Theory" by Richard Manning.
- "Spinoza's Political Philosophy" by Justin Steinberg.
- Benedict De Spinoza entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Blake Dutton
- Susan James on Spinoza on the Passions, Philosophy Bites podcast
- Spinoza and Spinozism - BDSweb
- Spinoza, the Moral Heretic by Matthew J. Kisner
- Immortality in Spinoza
- BBC Radio 4 In Our Time programme on Spinoza
- Spinoza: Mind of the Modern - audio from Radio Opensource
- Infography about Baruch Spinoza
- Spinoza Csack's Website (with pdf files of Spinoza's works)
- Spinoza's grave in The Hague
- The Escamoth stating Spinoza's excommunication
- Gilles Deleuze's lectures about Spinoza (1978-1981)
- Spinoza in the Jewish Encyclopedia
- Works
- Works by Baruch Spinoza at Project Gutenberg
- Refutation of Spinoza by Leibniz In full at Google Books
- More easily readable versions of Ethics Demonstrated in Geometrical Order and Treatise on Theology and Politics
- EthicaDB Hypertextual and multilingual publication of Ethics
- A Theologico-Political Treatise - English Translation
- Theological-Political Treatise - English Translation
- A letter from Spinoza to Albert Burgh
- Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata et in quinque partes distincta, in quibus agetur
- Opera posthuma Amsterdam 1677. Complete photographic reproduction, ed. by F. Mignini (Quodlibet publishing house website)
- 1632 births
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Edited by: Nicole Pohl and Betty A. Schellenberg Category: Literature Format: 294 pages, paper, 7 x 10 Release Date: 2005-01-13 ISBN: 978-0-87328-212-3 Price: $26.95 About this Book The Bluestockings were learned English women and men who gathered during the second half of the eighteenth century at the London salons hosted by Elizabeth Montagu and her friend Elizabeth Vesey. The ten essays in this volume, first published in 2003, explore the Bluestockings' social, economic, and intellectual achievements, including the publication of fiction and criticism, their plans for a utopian community, their charitable enterprises, and the management of a large coal-mining concern. The Bluestockings enlarged the boundaries of what women could think, write, and do, less by overt political action than by their exemplary pursuit of intellectual improvement and their commitment to civic virtue in the context of polite sociability.
Reviews of Reconsidering the Bluestockings:
"The collection is made more useful, especially for beginners, by a description of the Huntington's collection, a set of brief biographies of the principal Bluestocking women, and an extensive bibliography of primary and secondary works. Some essays report on solid biographical findings; others are more provocative and critical; all are readable, even for undergraduates. The volume is also both attractive and pleasingly inexpensive, making it within reach of individuals as well as libraries."—Choice"Building upon Sylvia Harcstark Myers' 1990 The Bluestocking Circle, Pohl and Schellenberg seek to complicate scholarly understanding of the Bluestockings' place in eighteenth-century England. The editors accomplish this goal, for reading the essays together creates nuances that might otherwise be lost if one were to read them out of context from the others. . . . By packaging several perspectives together, Reconsidering the Bluestockings creates a more thorough context for future scholarship. The book is, in short, the most valuable kind of scholarship: it provokes questions rather than answers them."—New Perspectives on the Eighteenth Century
"Reconsidering the Bluestockings... underscores the sociable nature of female intellectual pursuit in the latter half of the eighteenth-century…displaying the significance and breadth of intellectual sociability among the Bluestockings – not only in London but in the provinces – and unfolding the politics, religious sensibility, aesthetics, and feminist character of its major writers. The historiographical review by the editors, Mary Robertson's description of the rich Huntington Library archive of the letters of Elizabeth Robinson Montagu, the biographical sketches of its major figures, and the Bluestocking bibliography make this volume a good starting point for exploring this strand of eighteenth-century intellectual life." – Studies in English Literature


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Councillors banned from CCG boards as new rules set
The government is set to impose further requirements on clinical commissioning groups' governing bodies, HSJ has learned.
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Home » Products » Ingredients » Wild Flavors Introduces Vegeceuticals Nutraceutical Vegetable Line
Wild Flavors Introduces Vegeceuticals Nutraceutical Vegetable Line
Wild Flavors recently introduced its Vegeceuticals Nutraceutical Vegetable line. According to the company, Vegeceuticals are nutraceuticals from vegetables that can be used in a variety of foods and beverages because of their clean taste and solubility.Vegeceuticals can be used in a wide range of food and beverages, without a consumer having to consume the vegetable itself. There are two varieties of Vegeceuticals: a red and orange blend, both available in liquid and dry form.
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Company Information
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