text:
Alastair W. Green Noble Capitalism: An Analysis of the Prosperity of The Murid Tãriqa in Senegal Nnamdi Azikiwe African Studies Prize (African Studies Center) Over the past fifty years, Senegal´s Murid brotherhood–one of the country's largest Sufi Islamic groups–has become very politically and economically influential. In particular, many Murid merchants have grown strikingly prosperous in Senegal´s informal economy. This paper attributes the Murids' commercial success to three main factors. First, it describes how the Murids' spiritual orientation toward hard work grooms members to become businessmen from an early age. Second, it suggests how Murid social institutions help build social capital that provides economic benefits. Third, it explains how Murid adherence to orthodox Islamic forms of money lending allows members to access and pool capital for investments. This paper also discusses the challenges that the brotherhood faces in adapting its institutions for members who enter the formal sector. Introduction The Dawn of the Murid Tãriqa The Murid Sufi movement was founded by Sheikh Amadu Bamba (1850-1927) in West-Central Senegal in 1887. The scholarly and charismatic son of a Muslim scholar and Qur'aanic teacher, Bamba attracted an increasing mass of followers over the course of his lifetime. The explosive growth of the Murid movement has been attributed to a combination of two main factors. The first of those factors is Bamba's saintly charisma. Bamba is reported to have been visited by angels who granted him mystical powers, such as the power to heal the sick. The second factor was the role the French colonial powers played in dissolving the local Wolof society and its caste system. The destruction of the Wolof kingdoms and the absence of the old systems of patronage created a power vacuum. This vacuum granted additional influence to the Muslim tãriqa1 among the newly dispossessed lower castes and created the opportunity for families of marabouts,2 or Islamic holymen, to exercise greater political influence in Senegal.3 The Murid movement was able to grow in both size and prominence during this period of intense conquest and social upheaval. After his initial revelation, Bamba began preaching to a growing band of followers. He developed a system of spirituality that hinged on the concept of tarbiyya, or the combined process of religious study, work, and prayer. Bamba was a prolific religious scholar and wrote large volumes of poetry as well as re- interpretations of the Qur'aan that applied to the Black African experience. In particular, he emphasized the importance of leading a productive existence, and his writings described piety and prosperity as the path to righteousness in the eyes of God. While the mystic led the brotherhood in the spiritual realm, his closest disciples worked to carry out his wishes on earth. Scholars have noted the role that the founder's associates such as Shaykh Ibra Fall and other zealots have played in the rise of Muridism in Senegal and in the construction of its economic institutions. Under Fall's direction, the Murids established peanut farms in central Senegal and trade posts in St. Louis and Dakar. Even during his seven years of exile in Gabon, Bamba's following expanded under the aggressive recruitment and ostentatious displays of faith made by his disciples. By Bamba's death in 1927, the Murid brotherhood had established itself as one of the dominant features of the Senegalese political and social landscape. In the 1930's, at a site in the brush lands of Western Senegal–the location of the founder's divine revelation–his disciples constructed a mosque and established a small colony of several hundred followers named Touba. Muridism Today. Less than a century after its founder's death, the Murid movement is now a dominant feature in the Senegalese social and economic landscape. Currently, the Murids number an estimated 3 million of Senegal's population of fewer than 10 million. In April of 2003, thousands of bush taxis and rickety charter buses sped towards Touba for the annual Grand Magal held in celebration of the founder's exile. In 2003, the event drew an estimated 3 million pilgrims to the tãriqa's holy city, including both local masses of worshippers and a large number of nationals living overseas. The city of Touba itself, which 90 years prior was a plot of scrubland with some 500 settlers,4 is now Senegal's largest urban area5 second only to its capital, Dakar. Touba is at once imposingly holy and impressively modern. While the city is organized around the gigantic Grand Mosquée at its center, the Khalife-General offers free running water and Touba boasts the highest percentage of cellular phone usage and Internet connection per capita in West Africa. Outside of Touba, the Murids are a dominant force in Senegal's economy. Indeed, the presence of Murid merchants in Senegal's major cities is one of the foreigner's first observations. In every corner of Dakar, one sees shops proudly displaying names such as ‗Touba Bakery,' ‗Touba Auto parts,' ‗Touba Merchandise,' and ‗Touba Food.' It is informally estimated that Dakar's Sandaga market, the bustling mercantile hub of the capital, counts roughly 90% Murid among its merchants. Many followers of the Tijan brotherhood, Senegal's most populous tãriqa, complain about the Murids' position of privilege in the state's eyes. Even the president of the Republic, Abdoulaye Wade, is a devout Murid. In short, the Murid presence and influence is felt in every corner of Senegal, and in each aspect of daily and civic life. The Urban Years In recent years, the Murid movement has moved out of its rural origins and into more urban environments. As late as 1955, there were less than 30,000 recorded Murids in Dakar.6 Today, Murids are over 20 times as numerous in the nation's capital. The shift toward urban environments among the Murids is partly due to periods of excessive drought between 1968 and 1973. These droughts made peanut farming considerably more difficult and drove many Murids into the cities. According to many Murid informants, this economic motivation was coupled with the desire of Murid marabouts to establish a strong presence in Senegalese cities in order to spread their ideologies across all of Senegal. The disciples adapted rapidly to urban life and Murid institutions grew. As many scholars have noted in their studies of urban Murid dahiras,7 Murids have been outstandingly successful at expanding both their economic and religious presence in urban environments.8 In the 1970's, rising wealth and economic mobility allowed Murid academics and merchants to travel beyond West Africa and establish themselves abroad. Today, Murid communities flourish in European locations, such as Turin, Paris, and Marseille, as well as, American cities, such as New York, Washington, and Philadelphia. The ambulatory Murid merchant, with his characteristic dress and ornate satchel, is now a familiar sight on the street corners of cities around the world. The Murid Question The Murids have been the subject of a far greater number of academic studies and analyses than the other Senegalese brotherhoods. The unique nature of the tãriqa, the fascinating trajectory of its rise to influence, and the economic growth of its followers have all contributed to the intense academic scrutiny of the Murids of Senegal. The first generation of studies on Muridism was conducted under colonial direction. These studies primarily assessed the Murids' theological and religious components and how they might influence French colonization projects.9 A second wave of research conducted from the 1940's to the 1970's focused on the anthropological, sociological, and economic aspects of the brotherhood and its structures.10 The most recent studies have begun to examine a broader range of issues related to Muridism, such as international migration, the transplantation of culture, urban Murid institutions, and commercial techniques. The focus of this paper will be to analyze the factors of Murid society that have contributed to the economic and commercial success of its urban brothers. This paper will develop the idea that the success of urban Murids in Senegal stems from factors related to their spiritual beliefs, including their ideological orientation to hard work and their access to social support institutions. The institutional perspective has been explored before. For instance, a number of past studies have focused heavily on the peanut-Murid coupling and the related economic system, while many recent studies have focused on case studies of Murids abroad in New York or Turin. This paper will not discuss the fascinating agricultural or international aspects of Muridism. The vast majority of research and interviews conducted for this paper focused on obtaining an understanding of the Murid commerce based in major Senegalese cities, namely, Dakar, Thies, and St. Louis. This paper will examine the question ―How does the Murid tãriqa contribute to the economic success of its members?‖ I would like to begin by answering the question: What led me, a student of economics, to pursue this particular topic? In fact, there are actually several different areas that interested me over the course of my research. First, studying urban Murid economics and its particular institutions helps to explainhow a social and religious organization can provide its members with socialcapital, which translates into real economic benefits. I contend that the social qualities of the Murid tãriqa and, in particular, the urban institutions of the movement, account to a large extent for Murid commercial success. Murid institutions promote a heavy orientation towards commercial activities, and offer a network of support to groom the businessperson in his or her early years. Second, the Murid question is also interesting from the perspective of economic development. A current issue in developmental economics is the challenge of wealth creation among the ‗very poor,' those individuals whose wealth falls into the lowest half of incomes below the country's poverty line. Studies show that cycles of extreme poverty are due, in large part, to the exclusion of the very poor from financing advantages and opportunity to become independent merchants.11 The Murid solution to this problem seems to offer highly accessible financing and support for even the poorest of its urban members. Redistributions of wealth within the Murid system can divert funds towards the needy or other individuals caught in crisis. This paper will address the question of how ‗inclusive' models of solidarity can help the very poor to grow in wealth. Finally, this paper explores the ‗noble capitalism' of the Murids as a viable model for conducting business and the potential benefits of a business community hinged on common morals, solidarity, and networks of support. Methodology and Research Design Background Sources The background information for this paper came from three main sources. First, I used academic writing and published journal articles that focused on the Murids. These resources were particularly useful in orienting my study, filling in holes in my analysis at the beginning of the research, and allowing me to check ‗facts' which I gleaned from later interviews. These articles also presented me with several different perspectives on the reason for the Murids' success. I also drew heavily on the undergraduate theses of students at the Université Gaston-Berger in Sanar (St. Louis) and other local government and journalist documents in Senegal to provide further background information, to gain a better understanding of the methodological techniques suited to this research, and to learn more about tangentially related current issues on Muridism. Finally, I am grateful for the support of many professors and students at the Université Gaston-Berger, as well as several research institutions which introduced me to contacts, reviewed my findings, suggested different approaches to the research, and recommended appropriate reading materials. Fieldwork I conducted the bulk of my research through organized and informal interviews with both Murid and non-Murid individuals in Senegal. Within the Murid community, I worked primarily with Murid businessmen, religious leaders, university students, and key members of the ‗entourage' of the marabouts. Among Murid businessmen, my interviewees ranged from Senegal's most wealthy businessmen, to workshop bosses in Dakar's informal sector, to ambulatory cellular phone repairmen. This helped to provide a full range of information in order to better understand the broader Murid economic landscape. I interviewed a small number of religious leaders in order to gain a better understanding of the theological components of the ‗Murid secret' and as an added perspective. The students interviewed came from the Université Shaykh Anta Diop in Dakar and the Université Gaston- Berger. These students offered an interesting perspective from faithful Murids pursuing the academic walk of life. I spoke with many members of maraboutic ‗entourages' who worked closely to support the activities of prominent Murid marabouts and had a strong understanding of the Murid leaders' specific duties in regards to their taalibés.12 I conducted 20 formal interviews with recorded answers. I conducted 10 interviews in French, 4 in Wolof, with the help of an interpreter and cultural guide, and 6 in Wolof and French without an interpreter. Outside the Murid community, I met with both academics and developmental economists. These non-Murid academics provided a greatly needed counterbalance to the ideologically biased and often boastful accounts provided by many Murid merchants, and helped me to consider new aspects and avenues of my research. I worked with two developmental economists at the ‗Bureau Régional du Développement (St. Louis)–the local regional development office–who helped me to examine the role of Murids from the perspective of developing Senegal. The Murid Secret: A Recipe for Wealth When I described my research project to Senegalese friends–telling them that I was looking for the explanation behind the Murids' commercial success–they invariably (as I learned the Senegalese tend to do) offered me an unsolicited answer to my question. Amongst these friends, two main explanations continued to resurface. First was the spiritual ideology of the brotherhood, established by Shayhk Amadu Bamba in his writings and teachings. The holiness of hard work is regarded by Murids as one of the fundamental pillars of their faith and daily life. Certainly, the writings of the founder contributed greatly to the impressive work ethic and commercial aggressiveness of modern Murids. Therefore, the brotherhood's ideology will be examined later in this paper. Second, many people hypothesized that the values of urban Murid merchants aided their success: mutual trust, organization, cooperation, adaptability, and solidarity. Many of these qualities, in fact, are anchored in or centered on Murid institutions, such as the mosquée, the dahira, the working daara,13 and relationships with spiritual leaders. For this reason, the important role of the Murid structural organization in individuals' economic success will also be considered later in this paper. As I believe that both of these explanations contribute to the overall success of the Murids, I examine both of these questions extremely closely. Finally, there is also a third important ingredient in the recipe of the Murids' success. Over the course of my research, it became clear that a valuable aspect of Murid economics was the ease of access to financing provided to urban merchants by wealthier peers. The vast majority of Murids are unable to seek loans from the formal banking sector and instead borrow and lend in a highly fluid, unrecorded, and fast-moving system. Financing methods are tightly integrated into the daily lives of Murid merchants in the larger cities. For this reason, I have also focused on the beneficial role of Murid finance. Ideology of the Brotherhood: The Exaltation of Work The economic and spiritual ideologies of the brotherhood are firmly intertwined. The exaltation of work, a fundamental tenet of Murid values, guides the working fervor characteristic of Murid merchants. The manner in which the Murid work ethic and ideological orientation define the economic strategies of the movement's members remains an important contributing factor to their commercial success. As Max Weber postulated that the Anglo- Saxon Protestant work ethic serves as the fountainhead of Western-style capitalism and the free market system, so too have many scholars studying the Murids attempted to explain Murid economics by using their spiritual beliefs.14 It seems that the particular religious beliefs and views related to work have significantly shaped the Murid economic arena. Apart from this fact, however, is the question of whether Murid economics have created a genuinely new and ‗impure' form of capitalism. Far from focusing on the acquisition of wealth for its own means, work and business form one segment of both the founder's spiritual ideology and the aspirations of wealthy Murids. Hopefully, a thorough examination of the Murid work ethic will shed light on this question. The Murid Religious Cycle: jàng, ligeey, ak julli As one informant explained it, the teachings of Shaykh Amadu Bamba hinge on a three-part cycle of learning, work, and charity. Bamba's philosophy establishes that the first responsibility of a Murid is to inform himself, learn the Qur'aan, and educate himself to be useful at work. This step of education forms the basis for subsequent achievement, for without awareness and knowledge, work has neither value nor any direction in its efforts. This step corresponds to the Wolof word jàng (study) and the Arabic concept of 'adab, although lacking a simple analog in English, refers to a state of general culture and education. As he becomes an adult, the cultured and educated Murid focuses his energy entirely on productive work: the Wolof concept of work, ligeey, is a foremost social and spiritual responsibility, and a complement to devotion to God. In Qur'aanic thought, the notion of productive labor as a pillar of a spiritual existence is known as 'amar. This stage of the Murid spiritual cycle brings the young man into his full productive capacity, whether by serving his marabout in a peanut farm or operating a business in the city. The Murid spiritual cycle hinges on prayer and spiritual devotion; the notion of julli, or prayer, is that each Murid must devote himself to his spiritual duties. The parallel to spiritual devotion in the community is the Arabic notion of khitma, or offering one's wealth to the poor and the community. A wealthy Murid, having earned his wealth through hard work and perseverance, is expected, both through regular haDiyas (homonies) to his marabout and through larger community works, to contribute back to the community. This generosity reinforces the cyclicality of the Murid's spiritual life: as my informant explained, the concept of khitma ensures that one individual's wealth serves the community and provides others with the opportunities to complete their own studies and follow the Murid way. This notion of cyclicality, that the older, wealthier Murids can foster community initiatives and help younger brothers to learn and begin their own path, was shared by many Murid informants. Serigne Mourtalla, the youngest brother of the current Khalife- Général, founded Al-Azhar enterprises in the hopes of generating enough profits to open a modern Qur'aanic school. As his business flourished, he opened a fleet of charter buses running to and from Dakar, a number of small industrial factories, textile workshops, and wholesale stores. As his grandson, who directs the transport arm of the business, explained, these business initiatives were conceived with a community goal in mind: providing a modern education and Qur'aanic instruction to young pupils. Today, more than 200 Al- Azhar schools can be found both in Senegal and overseas. One member of Serigne Mourtalla's entourage, who operates several small hotels and owns a number of properties, described some of the community efforts he has recently undertaken: the construction of several wells in nearby communities and support for the construction of a Qur'aanic daara in a local suburb. He explained that community works for the needy reflect adherence to the pillars of Islam, and form an important element of Murid ideology, which seeks to redistribute wealth to the community. The practice of charity–through alms to the poor, contributions to one's marabout, or the pooling of funds to build a large Murid project–serves as a strong redistribution method for directing the funds of wealthy Murids (often through the hands of marabouts) to the disposition of the local community. In Touba, the contributions of taalibés helped build a Murid university that offers advanced Arabic, Qur'aanic and secular instruction. The Righteousness of Financial Independence All Murids would acknowledge that hard work is an important component of faith and a core recommendation of the founder. A number of Murids explained the common opinion in the brotherhood that financial independence is a prerequisite to true prayer and adoration of Allah, the Prophet, and the Holy Qur'aan. As one member of a marabout's entourage explained, the faithful who works and spends his free time praying is closer to Allah than the faithful who spends all his time praying and lives off the work of others. The first, he insisted, produced his own keep and thus no one could impose conditions of faith or influence his beliefs; the second, however, was dependent on the charity of others and could thus be swayed in his faith by his economic masters. This anecdote reflects the widely held Murid belief that economic self-sufficiency is a necessary criterion for spirituality and highlights the spiritual underpinnings of the Murid's economic existence. The Structural Organization of the Brotherhood The ideological and spiritual orientation of the brotherhood helps explain the tendency of the brothers to pursue careers in business. Beyond this, Muridism also offers economic benefits to its members through its institutions. The Murids are characterized, relative to other Senegalese religious groups, by a high level of organization, solidarity, and a willingness to cooperate. These qualities, reinforced and emphasized among Murids in both their social and spiritual environment, are also peremptory norms of their behavior in the Senegalese marketplace. Since Murid doctrine approves heavily of hard labor performed as a component of prayer, work has always been an integral component of organized spiritual life for Murids. For instance, rural daaras formed the base of organization for young men in the movement, especially during its early growth. ‗Wednesday fields,' in which a marabout's disciples work his fields one day a week, continue to serve as an expression of faith and symbol of hard work. Many scholars, since the earliest colonial studies on the Murids, have proposed the Marxist-influenced model of the tãriqa's institutionalized work as a system of exploitation. Proponents of this view suggest that the arrival of the French collapsed the traditional Wolof caste system and created a power vacuum that was quickly replaced by the Senegalese turuq as the Murids. They maintain that the old caste-patronage relationships were transferred into exploitative marabout-taalibé relations. The marabouts, imbued with allegedly hereditary mystical powers, would guarantee the salvation of their taalibés, who would sacrifice their immediate wealth in the material world to their saintly spiritual guide. Some academics have even proposed that the Murid religious hierarchy was little more than an Islamicized resurrection of Wolof slavery.15 Indeed, the view that the Murid brotherhood resurrected many of the traditional Wolof institutions has been popular. Behrman's studies on Senegalese brotherhoods concluded that the hierarchical system of the Murid marabouts supplanted that of the old Wolof ceddo (Wolof, ‗feudal lords').16 Many non-Murid informants in Senegal echoed this perspective, noting that the fervent devotion of a Murid taalibé to his marabout was more rigid than that of the other Sufi sects and reflected the highly stratified class relationships of old Wolof society. In counterbalance to the literature that paints Murid institutions and work arrangements as either a system of exploitation or as a ‗resurrection' of the Wolof kingdoms, there are many defensive works, produced mainly by Murid academics, which cast a more positive light on the Murid tãriqa. These works emphasize the orthodoxy of Murid Islam, debunk the myth of economic exploitation, or clarify the benefits of Muridism to its followers. Many of these studies, however, particularly those produced by Senegalese scholars in recent years, are ideologically biased and fail to question the accuracy of claims made by Murid merchants and marabouts. There are many reasons why the majority of Murid-focused literature, with its Marxist-derived perspectives, offers an incomplete framework with which to examine the brotherhood. First, many of the Marxist approaches have examined only the obvious economic relationships institutionalized in the Murid movement. These relationships include: the ritual contributions of manual labor, homonies from taalibé to marabout, and the years-long participation of young men in their daara of their shaykh. While these examples do stand out as evidence of economic inequality between taalibé and marabouts and also highlight the vertical dependencies found among rural Murids and their marabouts, such a Marxist, primarily economic analysis of the movement neglects the spiritual dimensions of Murid life. As one Murid academic pointed out, Marx believed in a godless world. Derivatives of his approach, which are unable to effectively include benefits such as those offered by organized faith, tend to focus disproportionately on economic systems and exploitation. While much of the institutionalized work in Murid practices does involve transfers of wealth or labor from taalibé to marabout, the benefits of spiritual affiliation offer the Murid disciple non-economic benefits. According to Murid scholars, these benefits include: the assurance of access to Paradise, strong Qur'aan schooling, and the introduction of Islam to non-believers.17 As one prominent Dakar businessman stated regarding his adherence to the Murid tãriqa, faith and religious devotion offer emotional security, the knowledge that one's actions are leading towards paradise and increased spiritual protection from powerful marabouts. A Murid student explained that, as a follower of the tãriqa, he was always aware of the unmoving center of his spiritual and mundane life–his faith–and supported by the solidarity and a tight network of his coreligionaries at the University. The purely ‗spiritual' benefits of Muridism to the average taalibé, then, are an important component of the Murid system and should not be understated relative to economic analyses. In the economic domain, as in the spiritual, the tãriqa offers very real economic and social benefits to the taalibé, both from the generosity of his articular marabout and from the organization of the system as a whole. As Donal Cruise O'Brien has noted, there are significant material benefits which the saints of the brotherhood and its institutions generate for the Murid taalibé.18 The first type of material contributions–those from the marabouts to their taalibés–takes many forms: financial assistance for medical emergencies or weddings, grants of plots of land to young men, and support for acquiring visas for overseas travel. Many Murid merchants interviewed explained that their marabouts had assisted them with material contributions during their own times of need. Some marabouts explicitly stated that they felt a strong sense of responsibility towards their taalibés and that they held an important role in helping their followers, particularly young men, with money or land issues. The second form of economic advantages to Murid taalibés–those created by the institutions of the movement in general–also takes many forms. These benefits may include community solidarity, reciprocal assistance, and access to cheap financing, which will be examined later in this paper. In sum, for Murid taalibés, there are real economic benefits that accompany the spiritual and emotional advantages of brotherhood. As Roch has noted, ―[T]he moral and metaphysical aims of Muridism are just as real motivations as the economic practices that they accompany.‖19 The Tãriqa as Social Capital The economic advantages of belonging to the Murid tãriqa can be explained by an examination of its ‗social capital,' a concept that has been examined much in literature of recent years. Social capital has often been defined as the structure of relationships between and among social actors, which encourage productive activity and can be measured in real economic benefits.20 This concept evolved out of the recognition that organizational structures and networks of social relationships often contribute to the well being of their members, in terms of spirituality, economic security, and social mobility.21 As a construct, social capital implies equivalence with classical, or economic, capital, and attempts to examine the role in which specifically non-economic roles, structures and relationships can definitively produce material results. Unlike traditional forms of capital, however, social capital is a moral resource that increases through use, and diminishes if not utilized regularly.22 A further distinction between social and classical capital is that social capital describes the opportunity to draw on resources in an independent social network, as opposed to an object that can be used independent of the social setting. Social capital can generate economic capital or wealth either by providing individuals with new sources of income–new business opportunities, financing, or information–or by reducing the transactions costs of conducting business– lengthy haggling, paperwork, or communicating via a third party. Because it hinges on close-knit relationships between individuals and groups, social capital has generally been examined in the context of local communities, or in subcultures and groups within greater communities. On the local level, businesspeople with institutionally enforced social relationships–for instance, members of a common religious affiliation in a small town–can eliminate repetition and costly negotiation in their business on a daily basis.23 A well-known example of social capital is the web of kinship and ethnic ties of Jewish diamond merchants in New York city, whose tightly knit community offers individual dealers higher levels of trust with associates, shared information about the marketplace, the ability to fix prices, and access to financing between dealers on friendly terms. Social capital is a useful framework for examining the way in which membership in the Murid movement, an organization spiritual in nature, can offer real material benefits to its taalibés. Material pursuits are never the explicit purpose of any Murid religious institution, and more than one of my earlier informants bristled at the suggestions that dahiras and maraboutic relations were focused on business rather than devout prayer and brotherhood. While not the explicit purpose of Muridism, the economic benefits of membership into the urban Murid society are essentially the positive externalities of the morals and values enforced and maintained by urban Murid institutions. To demonstrate that the tãriqa does create wealth for its members, we must first determine how this social capital translates into meaningful and measurable economic benefits. Next, this paper will examine how its institutions constitute or provide social capital to its followers. Social capital can take many forms, such as: relations of trust, reciprocity and exchanges, common rules, norms and sanctions, connectedness, and networks and groups24. Social capital can assume all of these forms in any community interaction, although they will typically vary in importance among different groups. Although there are examples of each of these categories in urban Murid relations, trust and social connectedness serve the most important roles for urban merchants. Trust is a vital asset to urban Murid merchants. Trust saves such Murid merchants time and money. It eliminates the need to actively monitor business associates and it creates a level of comfort with sharing resources, such as transport or information. Senegalese negotiation, or waxale (Wolof, ‗bargaining') as anyone who has visited one of Senegal's markets will attest, is a lengthy and thus costly process of haggling and discussion. Murids who share a sense of mutual trust with their brothers are often spared much of this process. A small-time merchant in Dakar explained that when he buys goods from Murid brothers before reselling them in the street, he can trust his supplier's price and complete the transaction more rapidly. This means that he has more time to pursue clients and, therefore, makes more profit. Trust also allows merchants to share joint resources freely with other business associates. A Murid taxi driver outside of St. Louis said that because he trusts his fellow Murids, he allows them to operate his taxi at night and knows that he will be given a fair share of the profits without being cheated. High levels of trust also encourage merchants to engage in joint business ventures more readily and offer loans to friends with lower risk. These conditions permit the Murids more flexibility in running their businesses. For example, a shopkeeper might ask his Murid neighbor to manage his stall while he leaves to negotiate a deal, thus preventing him from losing sales. Social connectedness is a valuable form of social capital, providing Murids with established connections to potential business partners and extending the merchant's awareness of rumors, local happenings, and business opportunities. Social connectedness has been recognized as an important economic asset, particularly to entrepreneurs in the urban informal economy,25 where they rely on word-of-mouth to communicate information about business opportunities.26 In other areas of sub-Saharan Africa, this view has been confirmed by Rowley, who has noted that well-connected individuals in large social networks tend to be wealthier than their less-connected peers.27 While the importance of a well-connected ‗personal' network is familiar to Western businesspeople, the informal and highly social nature of conducting business in Senegalese cities amplifies the necessity of having a large number of associates who are themselves well connected. Relations of trust and social connectedness are noticeable characteristics of urban Murid culture and social interaction. These features may reflect both a cultural tradition of the movement that stems from religious values, as well as greater solidarity among the Murid arising from their prior minority status in Senegalese cities. Nonetheless, high trust and stronger connectedness are reinforced by specific Murid institutions. This paper will now examine how each of the most important Murid institutions generates social capital for the urban Murid businessman. The Dahira The literature has noted a pronounced trend in recent years towards urbanization and international migration among the Murids. This rural exodus and shift towards the cities among Murids can be explained by a combination of factors. First, poor agricultural and economic conditions made farming considerably more difficult between 1945 and 1960. Before and during this period, demographic expansion and population growth in Murid farming communities, combined with soil exhaustion and the lack of new lands, prompted migration out of traditional peanut farming villages into more lucrative environments. The economic focus of the brotherhood, during this period, shifted away from the rural to the urban, leaving a Senegalese government report to note that the city, rather than the village or daara, was the principal focus of Murid movement efforts since 194528. Although the economic conditions at the time favored a migration towards the city centers, the movement as a whole advanced into the urban zones to proselytize and promote its religious beliefs among other Senegalese peoples. According to one Murid ideologue and educator, the economic rationale for domestic urban and international migration simply facilitated the broader Murid objective of sharing its beliefs and ideals outside of its own community. This combination of ideological and economic factors opened a new urban environment to the movement, a new social situation that offered rich economic opportunities while posing new challenges to Murid cohesion and organization. The Murids have long been perceived as intimately linked to the peanut basin and rural agricultural production, and this perception has, in fact, often glossed over the other economic arenas in which the brotherhood plays a central role.29 Many scholars have questioned the ability of the movement to adapt successfully from its roots in farming to a possible future in the urban economy. In the early 1970's, Donal Cruise O'Brien proposed the idea that urbanization could weaken the faith of Murid followers. He suggested that the Murid-dominated agricultural helped to surround Murids by those of the same faith, and that a transition to more cosmopolitan urban environments would present spiritual alternatives. This proposition does not seem to have manifested itself. Rather than eroding the strength of the brotherhood, urbanization has modernized and increased the wealth of Murid brothers. Although urban migration has demanded an innovative shift in Murid institutions, it has allowed the growth of the movement across the country. This positive transition has been greatly facilitated and encouraged by the adaptability of the movement and, in particular, participation in the dahiras,which have become the structural core of urban Muridiyya. The dahira is a relatively new and innovative social structure. As one scholar notes, the Murids have developed new structural institutions to each arising socio-historical situation and have flourished as a result of this ability to innovate.30 As the working daara corresponds to the Murid rural peanut farming community, so does the dahira reflect a Murid adaptation to the social environment of Senegalese cities. The term dahira is derived from dawa'ir (Arabic, ‗circle') and dates back to 1928, when the first urban dahira was implemented in the Tijan brotherhood at Tivaouane. Shaykh Mbacké implemented the first Murid dahira in Dakar in 1940 in response to the growing need for Murid organization in Senegal's capital. The dahira, as an institution, has evolved considerably since then. There are hundreds of dahiras in Dakar and dozens in other major Senegalese cities. These organizations play a dual role. They combine explicit spiritual and religious objectives, while providing social capital that translates into economic benefits for individual Murids. Although the spiritual function of urban dahiras is important, this paper will focus on the social and economic benefits stemming from participation in the organization, with an emphasis on how such participation has contributed to Murid economic success. For the Murid trader, recently arrived from his native village to one of the larger cities of Senegal, the dahira offers the immediate opportunity to forge lucrative connections beyond the few family ties he may already possess. As many Murids noted, in the urban centers, business arrangements, joint ventures, and informal lending take place with great frequency along either family or religious lines, and the spiritual relationships forged singing xassayds31 in the dahira often become important business contacts. Knowing and being known by older and more established Murid merchants offers a valuable starting point.32 The meeting place of the dahira, as the hub of urban activities, serves as a substitute for the traditional pillars of Murid culture and solidarity from the movement's rural past.33 It reinforces the sense of community among Murids and serves as an urban-adapted link to the spiritual core of the brotherhood, which is more geographically isolated. A vital social advantage of the dahira is that is reinforces key Murid values, such as trust, social connectedness, and cooperation. One Murid real estate owner replied very clearly to a question about the secret to his urban brothers' success: ―[S]olidarity binds us together and makes a family out of us. Our solidarity means that there is never competition between Murids and that we can make the most of our numbersand our strength.‖ He went on to specify how such solidarity is a key business asset: ―When I go to buy my supplies for my business or look for a deal, I always approach my Murid brothers first. We are part of the same family, and we look to help each other out.‖ The dahira thus helps reinforce mutual trust and social connectedness among urban brothers. Outside of these functions, the dahira serves as an important component of the Murid urban community of informal merchants. To the extent that urban brotherhood members maintain relationships with the dahira, they are brought into contact with the practicing religious community, encouraged to offer charitable contributions to the Shaykh, and included in a highly organized system whose benefits extend beyond the walls of the dahira's compound. The Murid Religious Hierarchy Previous literature has noted that the Murid tãriqa, since its formation, includes many of the rigid vertical relationship roles of pre-colonialism Wolof society. Cruise O'Brien has noted that the level of absolute devotion of a Murid taalibé to his Shaykh was, both in invocations of submission and in practical terms, far beyond that of other Sufi sects. Several Murid academics explained the notion that the tãriqa is a collection of the faithful aligned along the path established by the Founder. The model for religious devotion to which many Murids aspire is that of faithful devotion to one's religious leader. As one rural dahira explained, ―The truth is in love for one´s shaykh…since the teachings of the shaykh are inviolable.‖34 Both the Senegalese and foreign academics have noted that Murid faithful tend to display a much greater level of allegiance and submission to their marabouts that Muslim of other brotherhoods.35 At the same time, many Murids have noted that the rigidity and complexity of marabout-taalibé relations have gradually softened and loosened as the movement has become implanted in urban environments. For young Murid merchants, the traditional marabout-taalibé relations have equivalent commercial relationships. Many wealthier Murid merchants take younger merchants under their wing, providing them with financing or merchandise, guidance in the market, and with access to the patron's network of connections. To many Murids, this act of patronage is a responsibility to help younger Murids flourish and provide them with the support necessary todevelop their own independence as a merchant. Gérard Salem has noted this distinctively Murid mechanism at work in the case of Paris' most prominent Baol-Baol, who had taken dozens of young, itinerant Senegalese under hiswing and offered them material support. This vertical relationship of patronprotégé is an adaptation of the traditional rural hierarchy between saint and follower. This Murid tendency towards mentoring or patronage relationships provides social capital to urban brothers by providing a ‗vertical' bond of solidarity across generations that complements the ‗horizontal' solidarity among peers reinforced by the dahiras. This concept of vertical solidarity is prevalent in Murid ideology: the notion that the wealthy merchants have a responsibility to train younger merchants. These protégés, of course, profit from support in their early years in the marketplace, and can grow their businesses more rapidly with easy access to merchandise, a share in the patron's enterprises, or rapidly garnered loans. The more experienced Murids, in turn, further establish their position in the community and grow their base of employees and network of contacts, in addition to the potential benefits of assisting a younger merchant to a position of greater wealth. The Murid Financial System This paper has already described two ingredients to the economic success of urban Murids: the religious practices of Murid disciples and the social capital generated by their institutions. Another important factor of success for urban Murids is their access to, and use of, financing for their business ventures. The merchants' use of loans, joint ventures, and other forms of financing allow for much more rapid business growth and help them jump beyond wealth barriers that often lock micro entrepreneurs into marginal profits in informal sector work. The forms of financing used regularly by the Murid merchant differ significantly from ‗Western' banking, the formal, institutionalized financial system familiar to businessmen in the developed West. We will examine this valuable financial and investment system from several perspectives. First, although it is influenced by Senegalese social values, the financing used by Murids approaches the practices of Islamic banking, common in the Middle East and supported by Islamic juridical thought. Islamic banking differs significantly from Western banking in terms of its guiding principles and core financial tools, offering more flexible and less risky options to small informal sector businesspeople. Next, after outlining the recommended forms of financing from Islamic banking, we will examine how flexible financing is used by Murids to advance their businesses more rapidly and with reduced risk. Murid financing, in fact, builds on the beneficial social capital generated by the tãriqa's institutions and allows for greater risk-taking and collaboration among merchants. Finally, we will see that financing, as practiced by the majority of Murids, is highly inclusive and allows micro entrepreneurs at almost any age or level of wealth access to needed capital in line with their business needs. We will also see how this effect reinforces the role of the Murids as a social and economic development tool for its members. Muslim Economics Like the Murid movement itself–orthodox Muslim doctrine infused with local tribal values–the financing familiar to the urban brothers is linked to that advocated by Islamic thought and to local Wolof culture. The Murid's aversion to institutionalized banking is nearly total: none of the informants interviewed working in the informal sector had ever sought loans or opened an account at a financial institution. While this is perhaps a logical trend given the low quality of Senegalese banks, it reflects the Murid reliance on informal sources of finance. An academic informant explained that one reason for the unwillingness to work with Western-model banks was the Islamic prohibition against doing so. While it restricts certain forms of financing–above all, any lending on interest, the central financial product for most Western moneylending institutions–the Qur'aan and Islamic thought define and recommend different financing models. Equality is the overarching principle in Islamic contract law and financing mechanisms. Islamic banking prohibits any forms of transactions or business agreements that lead to istighlaal (Arabic, ‗unfair exploitation'). A contract is deemed exploitative when there is either unfair distribution of profits, of obligations and financial burdens, or a disproportionate share of any type of risk to one party.36 Islamic financial laws, in general, hinge on the prohibition of ribaa (Arabic, ‗excess' or ‗usury'). The Qur'aan explicitly forbids the practice of usury in business or financial transactions; the earliest verse says: ‗That which you lay out for increase through the property of [other] people will have no increase with God; but that which you lay out for charity, seeking the countenance of God, will increase; it is these who get a recompense multiplied.'37 The Qur'aan prohibits ribaa in two forms: ribaa al-fadl and ribaa al-nasii'ah. The first form of prohibited usury refers to any form of exchange in which one party receives a greater profit from an exchange, such as lending on interest. The second form, ribaa al-nasii'ah, relates roughly to the modern financial concept of the time value of money. Any forms of delayed payment or loans given in exchange for goods at a later date are prohibited by Islamic thought in this category. These two broader categories of definitions clearly prohibit participation in any form with loans on interest or debt financing. The Islamic banking prohibitions against ribaa, however, have allowed considerable room in the Muslim world for financial institutions, a variety of means of financing business ventures, avenues for investment, and a banking market. Since Islamic banking hinges on principles of equality and the prohibition of usury, the financing products available in the Muslim world are primarily shared-risk financing mechanisms. The two principal financing categories available to businessmen in the Islamic banking system are mudaaraba, a form of lender-risked equity financing, and mushaaraka, which includes variations on joint ventures and shared partnerships as means of financially supporting a business. The first notion, mudaaraba, is also known as PLS—Profit and Loss Sharing.38 In mudaaraba, the lender offers an amount of capital to the borrower, called the mudaarib. This exchange is made on the understanding that the borrower will act within his power to bring the investment to fruition. Accordingly, the lender is unable to place restrictions on the borrower to whom he has offered his capital in good faith, and the buyer is expected to pursue the business arrangement responsibly. In the event of a business loss, the lender effectively assumes the entirety of the financial loss, while in the event of a profitable investment, the lender and borrower split the profits on a fixed ratio established before the capital was given. This form of financing is far more flexible and less risky to the businessperson (typically the borrower) because it amounts to equity financing of the same genus as the familiar venture capital financing often used by small business startups in the West. The second Islamic banking mechanism, mushaaraka, is a process of joint venture financing and suited to business collaboration. In this model of financing, multiple investors pool their funds and take equity ownership to the business or project proportionate to their contribution – there are no fixed amounts or numbers of investors in this mechanism. One of the contributors is charged with the task of operating the business and should be unconstrained from supervision and interference from the other investors. A profitable venture would distribute profits proportionately among the equity holders. This financial mechanism allows for relatively small businesspeople to pool their funds and pursue larger investment opportunities, and is fully acceptable in even orthodox Muslim doctrine. Murid Financing For the most part, the financing used by urban Murids conforms to orthodox Islamic banking principles; few merchants make use of banks or lending on interest, and most receive loans from associates in the form of mudaaraba or collaborate with other through mushaaraka. Mudaaraba is, according to many informants, the most prevalent form of financing used by informal sector merchants. The youngest Murid merchants make exclusive use of this mechanism, often borrowing merchandise or money from elders, selling products, and returning a predetermined percentage to the patron. On many street corners in Sandaga Market in Dakar, elderly Murids will offer large sums of financing to well-trusted colleagues with the goal of removing containers from an ocean liner to sell the contents; following the sale, the Murid financer would receive a set percentage of the profits in addition to his original investment. Because mudaaraba is equivalent to equity financing, the risk of lending (at least in immediate financial terms) lies solely on the financer, although the costs to the reputation and community respect of the borrower may be equally real in the event of a failed investment. Such financing hinges on the social connection and interconnectedness between the financer and the borrower; no Murid financer would ever offer his money to a borrower who was presumed untrustworthy or unlikely to succeed in his venture. Mudaaraba financing, for this reason, tends to operate along lines of solidarity and social connectedness, while at the same time reinforcing the mutual interest and trust of Murid brothers. Another benefit of this mechanism is that, unlike in Western banking, where debt lenders have no vested interest in the success of their clients, Murid financers share the borrower's pursuit of a profitable venture and thus have an incentive to support the venture where possible. This concept of shared interest takes place frequently in the markets of Dakar; one wealthier informant financed a younger cousin to purchase a large shipment of clothing, and subsequently arranged for selling space and transportation with other business associates, with the aim of supporting their mutual investment. Mushaaraka, or joint venture investing, is also a common means of pursuing a business venture among urban brothers, particularly for shipping products, releasing them from customs, or establishing business in a new area. Joint venture investing is a highly flexible means of investing and coincides well with Murid cooperativeness and solidarity, since among brothers, each individual can contribute what he is able and reap the benefits proportionately, without expending time and resources on monitoring his associates with whom he is spiritually and institutionally linked. The benefits of the shared-risk forms of financing to urban brothers are clearly manifold. First, they allow businessmen to aggressively pursue opportunities in the market without conforming to overly rigid debt financing. Second, the use of equity-style financing aligns the interest of financer and borrower and opens opportunities for further mutual support and collaboration. Third, shared-risk financing operates along, and further strengthens, social networks and lines of solidarity among fellow Murids, creating interdependence and trust among the merchant community. Finally, as we will explore below, shared-risk, Islamic-style financing as used by the Murids offers a means to offer very poor members of the business community access to finance. Inclusive Financing We have already examined solidarity as a dominant value among urban Murids, particularly those whose social networks are reinforced by connections to a common dahira, marabout, or family member. The inclusiveness of the Murids appeared to apply equally to the merchants' financing strategies; budding merchants, often at a very young age, receive financing in cash or in kind from family members to sell snacks or facial tissues on city streets. Given that the youth repays the funds allotted to him, the donor will typically award him another sum of money to peddle his wares on a slighter larger scale. This process continues as the young merchant grows up and many young men in Dakar and Thies proudly man small roadside boutiques or pushcarts laden with simmering meat for sale. Amadou Diagne, a lively repairer of cellular phone in Dakar's Ponty area, explained that he began his business with small sums of cash–‗help', as he termed it–from older friends, which allowed him to grow his funds and develop business acumen. The informal nature of Murid financing discussed above, high levels of solidarity within the community, along with obvious willingness to lend in small sums to even poor and inexperienced businessmen, means that the overwhelming majority of Murids have access to funds which will enable them to build their businesses. The inclusivity of Murid financing demonstrates the ability of this system to surpass even institutional microfinance in offering funds to a majority of the poor. Although access to business capital has been acknowledged as a vital component of economic growth among the poor, formal development programs have found producing real growth among marginalized groups a challenge. The development literature in Africa has noted the polarizing impact of formal microfinance development schemes, which often close out poor, illiterate, or inexperienced entrepreneurs in practical terms. Studies conducted in Zambia's copperbelt region have suggested that even sophisticated lending programs to the poor are systematically unable to support economic growth among the poorest of the poor.39 By contrast, Murid financing, as evidenced by the examples above, are almost wholly inclusive since urban merchants can draw on funds, albeit commensurate to their status as a successful businessman, from a large number of community members. Murid financing forms an integral element of the brotherhood's economic activity, supporting the dynamism of its merchants. Its characteristics reflect its origins in both orthodox Muslim banking principles and in distinctly West African and Murid elements. The modalities of the movement's financing promote risk sharing among financers and businessmen– behavior at once reliant on, and supportive of, community solidarity and shared goals. At the same time, Murid financing allows access to funds among the great majority of both established entrepreneurs and budding businessmen, helping to redistribute wealth and opportunity among the community. The Economic Future of the Brotherhood Thirty years ago, much of the literature on the tãriqa questioned the success of the Murid advance into Senegal's cities given the increasing geographical and ideological separation from the movement's spiritual center. Today, it is apparent that the movement has done more than merely weather the transition; rather, the Murids appear to have flourished, particularly in economic terms, in the urban informal sector. Even as the Senegalese informal economy – now Murid dominated – grows, new challenges present themselves: the creation of industrial production, the development of Senegalese multinationals, and the transition into the formal economy. At a conference held in Dakar by the Senegalese government in May, titled the ‗Conference on Planning Senegalese Development,' Prime Minister Idrissa Seck noted that the nation's economic success required a combination of formal sector growth and informal sector dynamism. He underlined the need for Senegal's leading businesspeople to develop their informal networks into modern multinationals prepared to compete in the new global economy. His words underscored a recurring theme over the course of the conference: that the wealthier 1merchants needed to build large industrial businesses as a form of wealth creation in Senegal. As the executive director of a development resource center for the region of St. Louis insisted, Senegal has a thriving informal sector, largely run by Murid merchants. What is lacking in the country's development trajectory, he noted, was large-scale industrial production and well-organized business to make, rather than simply re-distribute, products. The creation of big business and more widespread industrial production is therefore a necessary step in Senegalese development, and a step in which Murids could play a central role. The movement does indeed seem poised (at least, judging by its wealthy members) to undertake the challenge to enter the highly profitable world of big business. This possibility is a relatively new phenomenon; until many Murids migrated out of the brush into their urban environments, building the necessary level of wealth to engage in anything beyond small businesses of reselling goods was out of reach for most. Since the successful implantation in city centers in Senegal and overseas, many Murids have the means to invest in large-scale industrial production or fund larger, formalized businesses. In Dakar, Serigne Mboup directs CCBM, a large multi- sector firm founded by his father, which owns electronics assembly plants, a large cement plant in Rufisque and Dakar's first Western-style mall. His commercial empire was one of the first large enterprises to emerge from the Murid system in Senegal. His father, who created the family business, began as a street vendor in Dakar before building his way up to holdings in the formal sector. In St. Louis, Shaykh Sourang operates a large fleet of cargo trucks transporting cement from Rufisque to Western Mali and tomatoes from the frontier region to the docks of Dakar. He built up his business from a loan from his father, which allowed him to purchase a taxi. Certainly there are dozens of examples of wealthy Murids whose experience and opportunities in the urban informal sector have allowed a level of wealth and capital accumulation that would permit individuals (or small groups) to install industrial facilities. Nonetheless, the challenges of transition to the formal economy, if this is indeed the next step for wealthy urban merchants, will test the adaptability of Murid institutions and social advantages considerably. The successful transition to the formal sector places new demands on business owners – particularly in the area of sound, educated, management for small and medium-sized businesses.40 In addition, accounting standards, necessarily more structured business hierarchies, greater financing needs and a shift from selling to production, may be factors in which the Murid work ethic and social institutions cannot offer the same advantages in the business arena. Standard Murid practices such as borrowing and loaning money, often unrecorded and spontaneous, will be forced to adapt to the more rigorous standards of a formal business environment, nor will likely be able to accommodate the larger capital demands of industrial production. There will be a needed shift towards banking institutions or more organized methods of financing. Another significant challenge will be the increasing requirement for business owner education and management training. At present, many highly successful urban Murids have very low levels of literacy, and an acquired, rather than instructed, form of management and leadership training, often built up over years in the marketplace. The Murid business owner who undertakes the leap to the formal sector must, as did previous generations of the movement, adapt to a challenging environment in the hopes of greater levels of prominence and profitability. The role of managing a modern enterprise competing in the global economy may fall to the newest generation of Murid youth, sent abroad to be educated by parents wealthy by Senegalese standards. These individuals, said many Senegalese, are the next wave of Murids capable of taking on the challenge of managing businesses in the formal sector. Yet the movement's jump into formal sector commerce, increasing migration and infiltration of foreign markets, and the geographic distancing of Murid intellectual and social elites from the spiritual core of Touba threaten to fray the bonds that currently hold the brotherhood together. Conclusion The Murid movement has shown a remarkable level of adaptation to the urban environment in which it has flourished. This paper has attempted to show that the Murids's success in the marketplace stems from three main factors. First, Murids owe much of their success to their theological and spiritual orientation towards hard work as well as to their movement´s culture, which reinforces this outlook. The glorification and encouragement of hard work as a key component of faith and access to salvation, and a tendency to choose business over other forms of work have both helped foster a higher level of wealth creation compared to Senegal's other religious groups. Next, the ability of Murid social structures to reinforce social capital between members plays a central role in the material success of individual brothers. The dahira, the tradition of religious hierarchy, renowned Murid solidarity, and flexible financial systems within the tãriqa generate social capital that is particularly beneficial to informal sector businessesmen. The relationship between Murid organization, solidarity, and spiritual institutions and the wealth and economic success of individual members demonstrates the considerable economic benefits that relationships based outside the marketplace can offer. This paper has also highlighted how the Murid movement's economic behavior is interesting from the perspective of economic development. The movement´s highly sophisticated business practices serve as tools, adapted to the African reality, that successfully replace Senegal's lack of functioning, modern institutions such as popularized banks and reliable property law. Although such informal economic networks were classically viewed as fundamentally inferior to ‗modern' formal institutions, economists adhering to New Institutional Economics maintain that the informal economic networks in developing countries have evolved to meet the real needs of the business community. Indeed, Ben-Porath has asserted that, in business environments lacking strong legal enforcement of contracts, fair adjudication, and the availability of modern finance, informal social networks, including family, ethnic, or religiously focused enterprises, fill an important role in the marketplace.41 Acknowledgements I am grateful for the many people who helped me select, evaluate and begin work on this research project. First, for the help of Dr. Baydallaye Kane at l'Université de Gaston-Berger in St. Louis, Senegal, for his knowledge of the impact of the Murid movement on topics from peanuts to emigration and his ongoing support for my research. For the advice and perspective of Professor Lee Cassanelli, his suggestions for pre-trip reading and his post-trip support, at Penn's African Studies Center. For the valuable perspectives offered by Assane Diallo at Dakar's Centre Baobab, his hints for doing good ‗Senegalese' research, and his help during numerous trips to the depth's of Dakar's informal economy. I would also like to thank Professor Ann Mayer in the Legal Studies department for her valuable perspective on ‗Muslim' forms of finance. I would also like to thank: Pape Laay Dial, sama jangalekatu wolof, for guiding me through the ‗real' way Wolof is spoken and helping me to make the most of my non- Francophone subjects; M. Cheikhou Diouf, whose thoughts as a counselor and scholar of Islam cleared up some of my misconceptions regarding the spiritual foundations of Muridism; Dr. Cheikh Babou at the University of Pennsylvania, for setting me on the right path to modern journal articles on Muridism. I would like to thank Ibrahima Sarr at UGB for his readily available advice on my research and his willingness to answer my questions, and the ‗toubabs' of the UW-UPenn St. Louis program, who were always there for moral support and a round or two of ataaya. Lastly, I would like to thank Erin for her constant support and willingness to edit my writing. Notes 1 Murid intellectuals refer to their movement as the tãriqa (Arabic, ‗way'). This word, they say, correctly captures the movement's collective direction established by the founder. ‗Brotherhood' is often used in academic writing to describe the Murids' organization. 2 ‗Marabout' is a term for Islamic holyman used throughout West Africa. In Sufi Islam, marabouts play the role of intermediary between the Muslim and Allah. In Senegalese Islam, marabouts are often believed to possess hereditary mystical powers. 3 Robert Arnaud. L'Islam et la Politique Musulmane Francaise en Afrique Occidentale Franciase: Renseignements Coloniaux et Documents (Paris: Publiees par le Comité de l'Afrique Française, 1912), 31. 4 Eric Ross ―Touba, A Spiritual Metropolis in the Modern World.‖ Canadian Journal of African Studies 29:2 (1995): 252. 5 Although it is Senegal's second largest urban grouping, Touba is still classified as a town rather than a city because it has no secular government institutions based there. Incidentally, Touba may be considered the world's largest ‗village' at 300,000 people. 6 O'Brien Cruise O'Brien and B. Donal. The Murids of Senegal. (Oxford: Clarendon Books, 1971), 242. 7 A dahira is the location of a community of individuals belonging to the same brotherhood. The term dahira is derived from dawa'ir (Arabic, ‗circle') and dates back to 1928, when the first urban dahira was implemented in the Tijan brotherhood at Tivaouane. Dahiras are typically affiliated directly with a marabout or with one of his representatives. 8 Gérard Salem, ―De la brousse Sénégalaise au Boul' Mich: le système commercial Murid en France.‖ (France: Cahiers d'Études Africaines 81-83 1988), 267. 9 Paul Marty's comprehensive works are the leading example of colonial era scholarship. 10 Better-known examples include: Jean Copans, Christian Coulon, Donal B. Cruise O'Brien, Adam Klein, Roger Pelissier, Fernand Dumont. 11 J. Rossiter. ed. Financial Exclusion: Can Mutuality Fill the Gap?. (London: New Policy Institute/UK Social Investment Forum, 1997). 12 The word taalibé (Wolof) is derived from Taalib (Arabic, ‗student'). It takes on a wide variety of meanings, often implying the young followers of a marabout. More generally, it is used to identify a disciple of one of Senegal's brotherhoods. 13 A daara (Wolof, ‗school') is the name for both urban Qur'aanic schools and rural work compounds. Rural daaras typically have large plots of land devoted to growing peanuts and a small center for Qur'aanic instructor under the care of a marabout or his representative. In the peanut growing regions near Touba, young men are often sent away from their families to toil in the fields of the daara for the marabout in exchange for education and the marabout's blessing. 14 Abdoulaye Wade. La Doctrine Économique du Mouridisme. (Dakar: Nouvelles Éditions Africaines, 1966), 8. 15 Afrique Occidentale Francaise, Territoire du Senegal. Amenagement de l'économie Agricole et Rurale du Senegal. Dakar, (Senegal: Mission R. Porteres, 1951), 108. 16 Lucy C. Behrman. Muslim Brotherhoods and Politics in Senegal. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), 104. 17 Cheikh Tidiane Sy. La Conferie Senegalaise des Murids. (Paris: Presence Africaine, 1969), 35. 18 O'Brien Cruise and B. Donal. Saints and Politicians. Cambridge. (UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 61. 19 Translated from J. Roch, son rapport annuel 1969, in B.L.S.H, n 13, mai 1970 – p 126 « les fins morals et metaphysiques sont des motivations aussi réelles que les pratiques économiques qui les accompagnent. » 20 J. Coleman. ―Social capital and the creation of human capital.‖ American Journal of Sociology 94 (1988): 97. 21 T. Benton. Sustainable development and the accumulation of capital: Reconciling the irreconcilable. (Mimeo.) (Colchester: University of Essex, 1998). 22 Robert D. Putnam. ―The Prosperous Community : Social Capital and Public Life." The American Prospect 13 (1993): 37. 23 D. Bromley. ―Common property as metaphor: Systems of knowledge, resources and the decline of individualism.‖ The Common Property Digest 27, 1993, 3. 24 Jules Pretty and Hugh Ward. ―Social Capital and the Environment.‖ World Development 29.2, 2001, 211. 25 A Xassayd is a Murid prayer song in which followers sing the poems of the founder loudly. The word is originally dervied from Qassidah (Arabic, ‗prayer song'). 26 Alejandro Portes. ―Economic Sociology and the Sociology of Immigration.‖ The economic sociology of immigration. Ed. Alejandro Portes. New York (1995): 29. 27 J. Rowley. Working with social capital. Department for International Development. (London: 1999), 31. 28 C.I.N.A.M, Annexe, La Région Arachidière. République du Sénégal, Rapport Général sur les Perspectives. 17.1 (1960): 2. 29 Jean Copans. Les Marabouts de l'Arachide (Paris: Gervais, 1977). 38. 30 Momar Coumba Diop. Fonctions et Activités des dahira Murids urbains (Sénégal) (Cahiers d'Études Africaines ,1988), 79. 31 Translation from Cheikh Amadou Bamba : ―La verite est dans l'amour pour son Shaykh...car la pensée du Shaykh est inattaquable.‖ ‗Celui qui eclaire les coeurs', verset 12, lignes 14-20, op. Cit P. 91. 32 Diop. Fonctions, 83. 33 Cheikh Anta Mbacké Babou,. ―Brotherhood solidarity, education and migration: The role of the Dahiras among the Murid muslim community of New York.‖ African Affairs 101, 2001, 155. 34 Al-Qur'aan, Verse 30.39 35 Sheldon Gellar. Senegal. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), 112. 36 S. E. Rayner. The Theory of Contracts in Islamic Law. (London: 1991), 255. 37 M. Ibrahima Diouf, Director of Small and Medium Business in the Senegalese government 38 Abdullah Saeed. Islamic Banking and Interest. (New York: EJ Brill, 1983), 51. 39 Richard L. Meyer. ―The Demand for Flexible Microfinance Products: Lessons from Bangladesh.‖ Journal of International Development 14, 2002, 352. 40 The informal economy is defined as the sum total of the income- earning activities that are unregulated by legal codes in an environment where similar activities are regulated. The term does not imply any type of illegal activity. 41 Yoram Ben-Porath., The F-Connection : Families, Friends and Firms in the Organization of Exchange,‖ 1980, 3.
Pages to are hidden for
"Alastair W"Please download to view full document


text:
Henry Crocker House
No availability found through our partners. Please contact the business directly or check some of our recommended alternatives.
TripAdvisor Reviews Henry Crocker House Barnstable
Travel Blogs from Barnstable
Pilgrim's, Jaws and home
... on the way. Provincetown is famous because it is the place where the pilgrims arrived on the Mayflower ship in 1620.
We visited the Pilgrim monument which is a monument to the pilgrims. Built in 1910 it is the tallest all granite structure in the United States at 252 feet tall. We walked the 116 steps to the top and there were amazing views. It was a sad as Brian and Denise were leaving the next ...
... tea and this act of defiance prompted the sending in of the troops. It's no surprise that there is a Tea Party today standing for low taxes. Well the troops arrived and set about bringing things under control in the Lexington area and especially collecting up any stashes of arms. The locals weren't going to have this so the likes of Paul Revere went galloping around the countryside gathering support. Pic 9. He especially stopped at taverns and no doubt had the odd pint or two ...
Ferry to Martha's Vineyard
"In Vineyard Haven, on MV, mostly I love the soft collision here of harbor and shore, the subtly haunting briny quality that all small towns have when they are situated on the sea."
-William Styron
After breakfast in the hotel, we began our full-day excursion to Martha's Vineyard which started with a fairly long bus ride to Woods Hole to catch the ferry. It was ...
Martha's Vineyard and Provincetown
... for $7 but to get out to the lighthouse, the furtherest point from where the ferry comes in, it would take numerous bus stops and multiple changes of bus. I decided to take the narrated bus trip out to the Gay Heads Cliffs and Lighthouse. Steve was not keen to do this so he stayed in the main town of Oak Bluffs. The bus took me through each of the six villages on the island. The most historic of these is Edgartown. The buildings in Main Street in Edgartown all have to ...
Thunderstorms USA style...
... the big city. There is this wonderful desolate beach off the headland where the sky is so big and changeable and the colours so subtle and soft that I revisited it today and did my first watercolour painting - I then duly fell asleep and woke up in a sea fog! I also visited a church where John F Kennedy would often go with his family when they stayed at their summer resort here in Hyannis. You ...
Other places to stay in Barnstable
Charles Hinckley HouseRte. 6A and Scudder Lane, Barnstable | B&Bfrom $119
Lamb and Lion Inn2504 Route 6A, Barnstable | 3 star b&bfrom $187
Beechwood Inn2839 Main St (Route 6A), Barnstable | 3 star b&bfrom $118

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Two Harbors Police Report: Jan. 7
Two Harbors Police Report for week of January 7, 2013
Monday, Jan. 7
12:22 a.m. Traffic stop for no license plate lights and no proof of insurance.
12:44 Officer assists Minnesota State Patrol and Lake County Sheriff's
Office with report of wrong direction driver.
4:00 Officer performs business check.
9:32 Traffic stop for seatbelt violation.
9:39 Traffic stop for seatbelt violation and following too close.
Are you a newspaper subscriber but you don't have a Digital Access account yet? https://secure.forumcomm.com/?publisher_ID=40&event=subscriber/lookup.
You will need your subscription account number and phone number. Not sure if you have an account? Email us at firstname.lastname@example.com and we can help you.


text:
Somehow, Human Centipede 3 Will Have a 500-Person Centipede
That's a whole lotta 'pede.READ MORE »
That's a whole lotta 'pede.READ MORE »
Even he's got standards.READ MORE »
Just in time for Oscar season.READ MORE »
A lot worse, according to gruesome new details!READ MORE »
From Emerson College.READ MORE »
It's too early in the morning for this, but it's probably always too early in the morning for this.READ MORE »
Ugh.READ MORE »
Or, you know, don't play it.READ MORE »
A.O. Scott and Manohla Dargis both wussed out.READ MORE »
Spoiler alert: It won't be easy.READ MORE »
Chef Shames 'Insulting,' 'Entitled' Customers on Instagram After They Threaten Nasty Yelp Reviews
18 Women on What Contractions Really Feel Like
That Time the Avengers Battled Scientology
When Is a Penis Too Good to Break Up With?
10 Women on Their Female Bosses
What It's Like to Be a Woman in a Field That's Still 99 Percent Male
The Life and Crimes of Robert Durst: A Timeline
Saturday Night Live Recap: Dwayne 'The Rock' Johnson Is SNL Viagra
Dwayne Johnson Crushes His Republican Foes as The Rock Obama on SNL
The Refreshing Bare Beauty of Tel Aviv


text:
Beach FC is proud to announce the "BEach PREPARED" Summer Camp Series. Our Directors of Coaching have designed some exciting camp opportunities for this summer. Included are specialized camps for strikers/keepers, preseason soccer specific fitness, and technically focused camps as well as "Kickstart" camps for our youngest players. To see the entire summer program selection and registration information please click here.
Register before May 15 to receive Early Bird pricing!!
Beach FC couldn't be prouder of alum Eric Bird on his recent signing with Philadelphia Union! Eric played his entire youth career with Beach FC. We're looking forward to watching him play at the professional level!
Read more here >>
Congratulations to Beach FC 01G Black (U13G) on winning their President's Cup Championship in a hard-fought win which extended through overtime and PKs!! The final four was played at the River City Complex (AKA Sports Quest) in Richmond on Saturday, October 25th and Sunday, October 26th. 01G Black is coached by Dwayne James. CONGRATULATIONS ON YOUR CHAMPIONSHIP LADIES!
Beach FC is proud to announce a partnership with the Virginia Beach office of First Command Financial Services. Founded by a retired Air Force officer in 1958 to improve the financial well-being of military members and their families, First Command now provides face-to-face financial coaching to almost 300,000 families in more than 170 offices across the country and overseas.


text:
Is there anything the Volkswagen Beetle can't do? It's been everywhere and done everything, including, apparently, becoming a desirable collectable. This 1972 Super Beetle... More
Sporty fun and practical! This has it all. Very well equipped with all wheel drive, automatic transmission and more. Inside you will find power... More
This is one fun, sporty car that is a rare find! This R-32 may look small but packs a fast Punch! Takeit for a... More
PRICE REDUCED!! This VW Bug is a cute, clean driver, that will turn heads wherever you go. The car was hit in the rear, and... More
Original rust free California car that's been restored to like new condition. Rare sunroof sedan model with a show quality finish in gorgeous arctic... More
Type 3 square back 2dr wagon, rare, nice solid body, good paint, nice original interior, new chrome wheels/tires, runs good. $7,950.00 Can deliver.... More
1961 Volkswagen Micro Bus Double Door Camper A ground-up restored camper with rare factory cargo doors on both sides. Has new paint, glass, chrome, rubber,... More
Estimate: $35,000 - $55,000 USOFFERED WITHOUT RESERVEFor the complete description or to view additional photos, please visit http://www.worldwide-auctioneers.com/... More
1970 VW Square Back Wagon, 37,xxx miles, nice paint and chrome, nice orig int, mag wheels, rare, runs... More
VOLKSWAGEN: 1977 Beetle, manual, 1.6 liter, dark blue exterior, tan interior, 77,000 original miles, garage kept, excellent condition, $9,000 obo. Paul, 703-909-0807, VA; [email]... More
VOLKSWAGEN: 1956 oval window sedan, archetypically same and unique, magical, VIN 224466, original in appearance yet modernized beneath the surface to be a daily... More
VOLKSWAGEN: 1970 street roadster, BF Meyers, Manx original, VIN 1426, rare, only 200 ever made, no engine, VDO gauges, roll bar, never damaged, long... More
VOLKSWAGEN: 1970 Type 3 fastback, restored, $16,000 invested, $12,000 obo. 732-277-4911, NJ.... More
VOLKSWAGEN: 1960 Beetle, standard, orig int, 15,000 miles, rebuilt 1600, runs, $10,950. 618-635-7056, IL; www.countryclassiccars.com... More
VW Scirocco, Golf NOS Abarth exhaust systems, still in wrapper, fit 1100, 1500, 1600cc engines, $275. 203-530-9013, CT; email: [email]... More


text:
Fort is in a great location to get views over the capital. We went on a 1/2 day tour that also included the market and I had a great time and took great photos. Inside the Fort there is not that much to see - apart from where the shot Mr Bishop plus a few old British canons..
If you own or manage Fort George, register now for free tools to enhance your listing, attract new reviews, and respond to reviewers.


text:
End of Day 2...still excited!
Day 2 has come and gone, more unopened boxes added to the kitchen, but more cabinets installed also. I am loving it so much!!
annkh, I work from home so my installers are stuck with my company every day whether they want to be or not. They are nice guys and don't see to mind the audience! I don't really know how long they expect to be here. They are also installing a new vanity and a cabinet in the mud room to house recycle bins and towels for the pool. There are tons of unopened boxes still!
kali, I can relate. We (I am being generous with the we..lol) DIY the demo, ripping down the dropped ceiling and getting rid of the lath and plaster and it was endless. I know my limits and I am fantastic at tearing down but I am not so great at putting back together. Hubby has no interest in either so leaves me to the tearing apart and gladly hires others to put it back together.


text:
Tech Helproom
It's free to register, to post a question or to start / join a discussion
acer lap top will not boot
Likes # 0
Posted August 5, 2011 at 2:00PM
I have an acer travel mate laptop that will not boot it when started up it goes to a blank screen saying please remove disk or any other media and press any key, their is no media cards or disks in.
Thanks Sean
Likes # 0
Posted August 5, 2011 at 2:16PM
What happens if you press a key?
looks as if it not finding your hard drive.
Do you know how to remove it? Take it out and refit it to remake the connections and retry to boot
Likes # 0
Posted August 5, 2011 at 2:49PM
itjust sticks in a loop saying remove media and press any key
Likes # 0
Posted August 5, 2011 at 3:30PM
This error occurs because the machine cannot find an operating system on your HDD or DVD drive.
What operating system XP? Vista? W7?
Reply to this topic
This thread has been locked.
Check out PC Advisor's other tech forums
Top 5 Most Popular
19 best new phones you should be most excited about in 2015: best new phones coming from Apple, Samsung, Sony, HTC, LG, Xiaomi and others
Dell XPS 13 9343 review: Dell is making laptops (and Windows) sexy again
iPhone 5S vs iPhone 5C comparison review: what's the difference between iPhone 5S and iPhone 5C?
HTC One M9 review: A gorgeous flagship Android phone but hardware hasn't moved on much for 2015
HTC One M9 vs HTC One M8 comparison: new HTC One M9 is HTC's best ever smartphone - here's why you should upgrade from HTC One M8 to HTC One M9


text:
St. Croix Corrections project in state's capital budget
The long wait may be over for the St. Croix Correctional Center in New Richmond.
When Gov. Scott Walker released his list of proposed capital projects for 2011-13 two weeks ago, one item caught the eye of Jo Skalski, superintendent of the local Correctional Center.
After years of requesting funding, the center was one of the funding priorities in the proposal. About $3.2 million was suggested so the facility could replace aging housing and educational space.


text:
Oral Sex Hooker How Long Does It Take To Test Positive For HIV
Here's a taste of what TheBody.com has to offer on this topic:
Ask the Experts
Known Positive, Though Undetectable Partner, Oral Sex Slip-up: Risky Encounter? (ORAL SEX AND HIV/STD RISK, 2010)A few weeks ago I hooked up with a guy I met online; he did not reveal his status on his profile. He told me later that, because of this, he assumed that I assumed he was positive - which in fact he was. I foolishly did not notice or ask. However, I...
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...virus (and other STDs as well).Cardinal Rule #2: Always remember Cardinal Rule #1!So you, in essence, broke both of my rules!Oral sex is considered to carry only a low risk for HIV transmission/acquisition. You can read much more about this in... Read more »
Truth about oral sex and hiv - mixed messages received from a test counselor (TRANSMISSION VIA ORAL SEX, 2010)I have been tested at 3 months, 6 months and a year all negative. I was told that I should test up... Read more »
Exposed to HIV via Oral SexHi Dr. Frascino-I just got back from vacation in provincetown, MA, and I am now freaking out about... Read more »
Oral Sex: What's the Real Risk for HIV?... Table of Contents Studies on the Risks of Oral Sex Tips for Safer Oral Sex Taking Care of Yourself The chances of HIV being transmitted from an HIV+ person to an HIV-negativeperson Read more »
HIV and Safer Sex...using a condom, oil-based lube can also be used. Avoid getting semen in the body by having the man pull out before cumming. Oral Sex A number of studies have demonstrated a low but definite level of risk associated with oral sex. To make it... Read more »
Did You Just Test HIV Positive?...Well Project for those seeking information on HIV or HIV Treatment: What Is HIV? HIV Transmission Safer Sex Oral Sex: What's the Real Risk? Women and HIV Pregnancy and HIV HIV Disclosure Considering HIV Treatment Read more »
HIV Testing 101...Docking Fingering Fisting Frottage or Rubbing Kissing Lap Dancing Male vs. Female Transmission Masturbation Menstruation Oral Sex (In general) Oral Sex (On a Woman) Oral Sex (Receptive vs. Insertive) Protected Sex With Pos Boyfriend ... Read more »
Connect With Others
Oral Sex causing HIV?
Posted by jinLA, 4 Replies...really ashamed to say that I am a medical professional when I look back on my recent behavior. I was in China and received oral sex from a massage girl who had what appeared to be a cold with sore throat (also vaginal sex with a condom). This... Read more »
HIV positive oral sex?
Posted by Anonymous, 3 Replies...Hi there, Basically I feel a little down right now cause a close friend of mine (ex gf) is being tested for HIV and I feel bad for her because she is so worried. She had unprotected sex with 2 long term partners no condoms. She is feeling Read more »
receiving oral sex and risk of Hiv
Posted by Anonymous, 1 Reply...Im very worried as I am a hyphochondriac, I am a male and I recently had a female perform unprotected oral sex to completion with ejaculation in her mouth and I was wondering what are the chances of getting Hiv trhis way? I did not notice Read more »
vaginal oral sex
Posted by Anonymous, 1 Reply...Im a 19 year old male who plans to have vaginal oral sex on a 39 year old woman in a few hours. What's the risk of contracting HIV. I have nu cuts whatsoever. Oh and I plan to wear Read more »
Resource Centers
Guides for People With HIV


text:
Department of Performing Arts
Department of Performing Arts News
The latest faculty, staff, and student news for the Department of Performing Arts. For College news and upcoming events, visit the News & Events section.
Beaty residency, civic engagement initiative announced
Emerson announced a three-year civic engagement program and artist-in-residency with award-winning writer/performer Daniel Beaty on March 25, following a special performance by the artist.
Basche '90 talks entertainment at Emerson LA
David Alan Basche '90, an actor on the TV Land show The Exes, recently spoke with students at Emerson College Los Angeles.
Four student a cappella groups unite
Emerson's four a cappella groups will unite for the first time ever Friday, March 28, on stage for a benefit concert to raise money for student and diversity scholarships.
Marlon Wayans visits Emerson students
Comedian Marlon Wayans visited Emerson on March 23 to talk with students about his career and how to get ahead in the film industry. The students got free passes to his latest movie, A Haunted House 2.
Student turns in a whale of a performance
Josephine Elwood '15 stars in The Whale at the award-winning SpeakEasy Stage Company of Boston through April 5.
Students' entrepreneurial ventures to be supported by new program
The Emerson Accelerator is an exciting new program that is designed to support the creation of student business ventures.
Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright is in residence
Emerson College will welcome actor, author, screenwriter, and Pulitzer Prize–winning playwright Ayad Akhtar on campus as senior artist-in-residence for the month of March.
Bensussen, Ben-Aharon '12, noted for 'Hard Love'
Performing Arts Chair Melia Bensussen and Guy Ben-Aharon '12 were featured in the Boston Globe for their directing roles in the play Hard Love.
Performing Arts alumnus Scott Sinclair '10 knows long hours. While at Emerson, he interned at the SpeakEasy Stage Company. The internship turned into a job. Now, Sinclair is directing his first major performance, Striking 12–a concert with three performers based on the holiday classic The Little Match Girl.
Joe Antoun, Artistic Director of NewFest & Part-Time Faculty in Performing Arts
Behind-the-Scenes of NewFest 2011
Learn about how Emerson turns a student-written show into a full-scale production each year. Watch the video »


text:
Motivating behavior change has long been one of the biggest challenges and opportunities in mobile health. One avenue for addressing that challenge is to take lessons from a field that doesn't suffer from any engagement problems: gaming.
For the first year, the mHealth Summit 2012 featured a Games for Health pavilion, focused on companies using games and the lessons learned from gaming to innovate mobile health. Games at the conference seem to fit into two broad categories: simulations that increase readiness and preparedness for medical events and gamified tracking and motivating apps.
A lot of the energy in gamification is focused on using game mechanics to motivate people to healthy behaviors, such as staying active. Ben Sawyer, co-founder of Games for Health, said this is a natural space for mobile gaming.
"There are some really uniquely mobile ideas," he said. "The [kind] of exercise that hits the largest part of the population is walking, so we see a lot of games built around that. This is something that really speaks to the 'health games for everyone' notion."
Via Andrew Spong


text:
Updated at 04:20 pm
Updated on Mar. 27, 2015
Updated on Mar. 26, 2015
Updated on Mar. 25, 2015
Updated at 07:09 pm
"This was the messiest contest I've ever done in my life," he says of the event that kicked off Knott's Berry Farm's festival.
Receive breaking news and newsletters