text:
- posted by: Ravi Kumar
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- - The Technique:
- - The time factor:
- - Consulting dictionaries, glossaries:
- - The place:
- - Mastery of the working languages
- - Good general knowledge
- - Oratorical skills
- - Analytical skills
- - Communication skills, both to understand what the speaker is saying as well as to convey those thoughts to the listeners
- - Knowledge of various cultures
- posted by: Ravi Kumar
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By Ravi Kumar, Founder, Modlingua Learning
Heilbron and Sapiro (2007:93-107) in their paper, "Outline for a Sociology of translation: Current issues and future prospects", criticize the interpretive approach to translation that either deals with the "hermeneutic movement" (Steiner 1975), the understanding of texts and comparison of translation with the source text and the creative deviation from the original; or studies translation through the cultural perspective where focus is on "the various modes of appropriating texts, on the instability of their meaning and on the mutual permeability of cultures" (p.94). The writers are of the view that both the approaches ignore the 'plurality' of the agents involved in the translation process and that there is a need to study the relationship between the agents (translators, various mediators and the readership) and their historical and social spaces of reception. Similarly, they also present their concern over using the economic approach to translation that only focuses on the economic factors and ignores the cultural values, "the symbolic goods" (Bourdieu 1977, 1993).
They recognize the works of Holmes, Lambert and Lefevere 1978; Even-Zohar 1990 and Toury 1995, who attempted to deal with the functioning of translations in their contexts of production and reception but did not explain the roles of translators and various other agencies involved in the translation process as social agents. Heilbron and Sapiro place the production and reception of translation within the realm of cultural transfers and call for an investigation of the roles of individuals as well as institutions involved in these exchanges between the countries and explain the transnational cultural transfers in the context of following three factors: international field, principles of differentiation and agents of intermediation.
While discussing "international field", based on the program proposed by Pierre Bourdieu (2002) on the social conditions of international circulation of cultural goods, both the writers place transnational transfer of translation within the space of nation states and language groups and analyze translation as embedded within the power relations of national sates and their languages (p.95). They further explain that within the power relations (political, economic and cultural), the means of political, economic and cultural are unequally distributed; therefore, cultural exchanges take place unequally and express relations of domination. They explain that within the global system of translations, English, German and French enjoy a central position while, the others hold a semi-peripheral or peripheral position respectively. Accordingly, through a careful study of statistics related to production of translated books, they demonstrate that "translation flows are highly uneven, flowing from the center towards the periphery rather than the reverse" (p96).
On the "principles of differentiation", Heilbron and Saprio identify political relations between the countries and political orientation of respective governments, economic relations and cultural exchanges as the key factors that influence the circulation of texts between the countries. They further explain that in relation to political and economic factors the degree of protection of market and degree to which culture fulfills an ideological purpose, one finds a series of possible configurations, especially with liberalization and GATT agreement of 1986 and its Uruguay Round of negotiations, TRIPS adopted in 1994 within the framework of WTO.
On "the agents of intermediation", Heilbron and Saprio explain that international exchange of cultural goods takes place through intervention and mediation of individual agents coming from various fields representing political, economic and cultural areas that are interlinked through highly hierarchized relations. They further explain that with the development of the market of cultural goods and liberalization of cultural exchange, the official decision-making power of government run agencies like embassies, cultural institutes, translation institutes and journals has been greatly reduced as there is emergence of specialized agents like literary agents, book importers-exporters and independent bodies. Similarly, with the professionalization of specialized agents and emergence of professional associations, the global system of translation saw a new breed of translators (social agents) in the system characterized by strong individualism and division in terms of gender, ideology, political and social affiliations and that they also compete with each other.
It is also important to note that on one hand, Heilbron and Sapiro derive their theoretical framework of studying translation beyond national boundaries from the works of Pascale Casanova who imported the economic theories of globalization in the literary universe and "rediscovers a lost transnational dimension of literature that for two hundred years has been reduced to the political and linguistic boundaries of nations" (2004:i). On the other hand, they effectively aligned their thoughts with the concept of 'social turn' currently discussed in translation studies that derives its theoretical basis in the comprehensive theory of society proposed by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002). Bourdieu describes power relations between various actors in the society using key concepts like an individual's habitus, the fields in which various actors interact and the struggle for economic, social, cultural and symbolic power to gain supremacy over others (Jenkins 2002).
By looking at translators within the global framework and studying the power relations of the various agents involved, Heilbron and Sapiro give us the scope to study and analyze the position of the translator in the society. The possibility to study these relations opens new horizons in translation studies. This coincides with the massive growth in the production and circulation of content through the World Wide Web that has created huge opportunities for translators to play different roles in the supply chain of content management processes. Within this context, the study of a translator's relations with various actors in the supply chain would help in understanding the position of the translator in the given work place as well as within the society where he/she interacts.
Also, by initiating a study of the consumption pattern of translated books and identifying the central and peripheral languages, Heilbron and Sapiro help us in developing an overall understanding of existing power relations between the languages. An in-depth study in this direction would help the respective governments of the countries in developing language policies for promoting their cultures beyond the national boundaries, thus foster the growth of multilingualism and multiculturalism across the globe, and increase profile of translation.
Similarly, it would also help in understating various roles of intermediation played by the translators in the society in translating all possible forms of communication at local, national as well as international level. Nyongwa (2010:54) describes, "by introducing foreign elements into national cultures (literature, terms, etc.), translators become agents of cultural transformation. By always working on the edge of several cultures, translators appear either as cultural facilitators or as agents of cultural expansionism". Studying the translator's roles in this direction would further help in addressing the problems of translators (in) visibility discussed by Venuti (1995) or in understating the voluntary servitude of translators as discussed by Simeoni (Munday 2012:235).
It should also be taken into consideration that while studying translators as agents in the literary exchange of any form, we also need to discuss the relationship of the translator with the text (form, content, style) and interpret the social conditions behind translation activities. Heilbron and Sapiro rather develop their theoretical framework in opposition to such interpretation and ignore various translation practices, the most fundamental aspects of study of translation; they explain the social structures of translation and the institutional arrangements but they fail to explain their effects on the translation practices.
Within this context, I find a possible solution in the cultural turn initiated by Bassnett and Lefevere (1990:12) that deals with "the text embedded within its network of both source and target cultural signs" and gives the possibility of studying the interaction of translation with the culture; by incorporating the study of translation and various agencies involved in the translation process as agents of social change within the theoretical framework of cultural turn, perhaps it would be possible to bridge the gap between the two approaches. In this context, Wolf (2007:6) explains that "society and culture are interwoven with each other, and emphasizes on the need to combine the cultural as well as social perspectives of studying translation in order to avoid dichotomization and transcend traditional deterministic views". The study of points where culture and social meet would further help us know more about translation and translators.
Heilbron, J. &Sapiro, G. (2007) "Outline for a sociology of Translation" in Wolf &Fukari (eds) Constructing a Sociology of Translation. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Steiner, George (2002 [1975]198), "The Hermeneutic Motion", in Lawrence Venuti (ed.), The Translation Studies Reader, London: Routledge, pp. 193-198.
Casanova, Pascale (2004), The World Republic of Letters, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Jenkins, Richard (1992, 2002), Pierre Bourdieu, New York-London, Routledge.
Nyongwa, Moses (2012) "Translation and Nation Building: What a difficult couple" in Kumar (ed.) Role of Translation in Nation Building, New Delhi: Modlingua.
Venuti, L. (1995). The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation, London/New York:Routledge.
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere (eds) (1990) Translation, History and Culture, London and New York: Pinter.
Wolf, Michaela (2007) "Introduction" in Wolf &Fukari (eds) Constructing a Sociology of Translation. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
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By Ravi Kumar, Founder Modlingu Group and President, Indian Translators Association
Nation Building" has always been linked to national integration and the creation of national identity. For a country like India, it is a very delicate and challenging matter to deal with the national identity that derives its strength from multiple layers of social, political, religious, economic, cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity. However, the communication gap which inevitably arises out of such a diversity of boundaries is constantly being bridged by the people themselves, whose day to day reality is, for the majority, living in a multi-cultural society and interacting in a multilingual manner.
We should not forget that the concept of the nation-state is not an ancient or indigenous one but a notion imported relatively recently from Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. The United Kingdom only became "united" through the Act of Union in 1702 when England (and Wales) and Scotland merged politically. We should acknowledge that when America famously declared independence from Britain in 1776, this fledgling state initially contained only a tiny fraction of the area it has today. Similarly, Italy and Germany were not unified until the middle of the 19th century.
In India, the impact of this colonial myth has been that many educated people accept that the idea of India as a nation is a British creation. However, a detailed study of linguistic history reveals that Bhartiyata (Indianness) is not by any means a recent phenomenon; it is deeply rooted in its citizens across the country since ancient times.
It was, we might argue, the existence and subsequent translation of the great Indian classics that acted as a catalyst in creating a pan-Indian ethos. Epics – especially the Ramayana and the Mahabharata - have been translated into almost all regional languages. Cutting across religious beliefs, the legends of Rama and Krishna have stirred the minds of Indians living in almost all corners of India. These myths, whose nature is patently nationalistic, were made available to the Indian population through translation, without which it is inconceivable that the deeply entrenched cultural and linguistic boundaries within India could have been bridged.
It is very difficult to ascertain the dates of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, most of the historians seem to have concluded that Ramayana existed before Mahabharata. Historians and experts believe that verses of Ramayana existed in India in various layers and spans which passed from one generation to another for thousands of years through oral traditions, and that it was Maharishi Valmiki who compiled seven volumes of it consisting of 24,000 verses in Sanskrit that tell the story of Rama (an incarnation of the Hindu God Vishnu), whose wife Sita was abducted by the demon King of Lanka, Ravana.
Thematically, the epic explores the tenets of human existence and the concept of dharma. It contains the teachings of ancient Hindu sages and presents them in narrative allegories with philosophical and devotional elements interspersed. The characters like Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India, i.e. the epic became so popular and universal that it crossed over the boundaries of Brahminical temples and got embedded in the psyche of Indian population cutting across all strata and layers of caste system that even today remain deeply rooted in India.
It is very important to note that in the ancient period the purpose of translation was totally different than what we perceive today. In most of the times Sanskrit text used to be changed in the form (rupantar) into several languages (bhashantar) or they were called anuvad (coming after or following after). This meant less emphasis on maintaining originality of source text, therefore, a translator may not be faithful to the original text at all.
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. Ramayana has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably the Kambaramayanam by the Tamil poet Kambar of the 13th century, the Telugu-language Molla Ramayana, 14th century Kannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayan, Kotha Ramayana in Assamese by the 14th century poet Madhava Kandali and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version (near Hindi), Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas. Similarly, Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include Oriya version by Balarama Das in the 16th century, in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century, etc.
It is very interesting to note that Ramayana narrated in North India differs in important aspects from the one preserved in South India and the rest of South-East Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, and Maldives. Father Kamil Bulke, the author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana.
There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahi Ravana / Mahi Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi/Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave to be sacrificed to Goddess Kali.
Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep—has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as Mappila Ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the next orally. In Mappila Ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has been changed into that of a Sultan and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama which is `Laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the Mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.
The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian Diaspora.
Parallel with Ramayana, Mahabharata is another equally important great epic first written in Sanskrit by Ved Vyas that has reached almost all corners and veins of India. Besides its epic narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, the Mahabharata contains much philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or purusharthas. The latter are enumerated as dharma (right action), artha (purpose), kama (pleasure) and moksha (liberation). Mahabharata has enjoyed references on a continuous basis both in literary and popular culture of India, since ancient times. Several stories within the Mahabharata have been debated so intensely that they have taken separate identities of their own. For instance, Abhijñānashākuntala by the renowned Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa (ca. 400 CE), believed to have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the Mahabharata.
Bhagavad Gita, the integral part of Mahabharta needs a special mention for its message to the mankind. The message of Bhagavad Gita is that either you can perform your actions with attachment thinking that you are the doer or you can perform the same without attachment by thinking that God/Nature is performing the actions. This unattached performance of actions has been called Yagya or Karma Yog in the Gita. Those who perform their actions for the sake of Yagya or by way of Karma Yog will be freed from the bonds of actions. They will be freed from the attributes of Sattav, Rajas and Tamas (purity, passion and delusion) and attain the supreme Bhava of God, which will make them imperishable beings. They will be freed from sorrow, old age and death and will attain immortality. This unattached performance of actions is the true Karma which will not only fulfill all desires but will also transform us and make us one with God. This thought that perhaps originated 5000 years before has relevance even in today's modern world, and that is the reason why its universality has been maintained through various ages and in various languages.
At a much later stage when Jainism and Buddhism started flourishing in India, say around 600 B.C. onwards, the religious texts and teachings first reached in different corners of India in Pali-Sanskrit which was simultaneously translated and appropriated in various Indian languages (bhasha).
In 230 B.C. during Maurya rule, Buddhism received a great impetus when King Ashoka after having won various wars underwent untold sufferings, especially after his victory over Kalinga, and then embraced Buddhism after renouncing war forever. Ashoka's patronage of Buddhism played a great role in having a profound influence on the Indian subcontinent and beyond. It began with his practical approach towards the humane ideals. In his zeal to propagate peace, he dispatched Buddhist emissaries to Burma, Ceylon, Afghanistan, Nepal, Mesopotamia, Syria, China, Tibet, Egypt, Persia and Macedonia. Moreover, he is said to have sent his son Mahindra's daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon to spread Buddhism. During this period, the Buddhist scriptures were widely translated into Indian Bhashas and languages of neighbouring countries as well. The popularity of Buddhism under the Mauryas led to the establishment of many Buddhist centres at places like the present day Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Varanasi, Orissa, Mysore and Karnataka.
Ashoka's policy of Dhamma, which encapsulated all the moral and social virtues for the common good and his direct patronage were responsible for the widespread popularity of Buddhism. Assuming the title "Devanampriya" (Beloved of the Gods), several rock and pillar edicts of his Dhamma or the law of piety issued by Ashoka were erected. These included the co-existence and toleration of all walks of life and also very clear indication of nationhood and national identity. Also, the spread of Buddhism under this Mauryan Emperor is believed to have greatly influenced the religious history of South-east Asia. The spread of Buddhism beyond the borders of Indian subcontinent during the Mauryan period ensured its survival even after Buddhism lost hold after the Muslim conquest and the revival of Hinduism.
Whatever may be the purpose or practice of translation, call it rupantar, bhashantar or anuvad, it is important to note that this activity has been going on in India since ages and that it has always helped the Indian population to maintain unity in diversity. Indianness may not only be looked through unity of geographical locations which already exists in the Indian subcontinent by default, it may also be looked through the spiritual space that has been binding it as a nation where geographical locations work as body and the spiritual space as soul.
To understand this unity that may be equated with nationhood or supra-nationhood in the Indian case, if we take into account the details given by foreign travellers of that time, who were translators and the real ambassadors who helped in translation and dissemination of information from one language to another, one culture to another, one nation to another; it becomes easier to understand that today's Indian sub-continent was already united as one nation consisting of several mini nations.
Megasthenese (c. 350 BC-290 BC) was a Greek traveler and geographer, a friend and companion of Seleucus Nicator, the Greek Monarch who sent him as an ambassador to Sandracottus (Chandragupta), King of Prasii, whose capital was Palibothra (Patataliptra), a town near the confluence of Ganges and Sone in the neighbourhood of the modern Patna. Megasthenese was the first westerner to provide an eyewitness description of the Gangetic plains and the people of India, the time when Chandragupta's power was at its zenith, and much later whose grandson Ashoka expanded the Mauryan empire to a much larger area than before.
Fa-Hien (c.399–414 AD), a Chinese Buddhist monk who initiated relations with India in 399 AD, eager to learn about his religion at its source, spent a decade visiting the major Buddhist shrines and seats of learning, especially sites in eastern India, including Kapilavastu, Bodh Gaya, and Pataliputra. He deepened his knowledge by conversing with monks and gathered sacred texts that had not yet been translated into Chinese. He returned to China by sea in 412, after spending two years in Sri Lanka. His Record of Buddhist Kingdoms contains valuable information about Indian Buddhism as well as Indian political and cultural scenario of this era.
Huen–Tsang (c.602–664), was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period. Like Fa-Hien, he too was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist scriptures that reached China. He decided to go west to India, the cradle and thriving center of Buddhism itself where he spent 17 years traveling, visiting places associated with the Buddha's life, learning Sanskrit and studying with Buddhist masters, most notably at the famous Nalanda University. He gathered hundreds of Sanskrit texts (sutras) in order to bring them back with him. Many of them got destroyed en route but he still managed to bring back 657 books. Upon his return and for the remaining 19 years of his life, Huen–Tsang worked with a team of linguist monks to translate many of the 657 books and wrote a commentary on them. He also published an account of his travels which is now a precious historical record and which provided the inspiration for the epic novel Journey to the West.
The map in the next paragraph explains the extent of 03 great empires of Indian span into three different time zones. The Mauryan empire at around 250 B.C, the Gupta Empire at around 400 AD, and the Mughal empire from 1600 to 1700 AD.
In medieval period specially during the Mughal Period which was established in north India in the 16th century brought about tremendous literary activity. Languages like Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi and Urdu saw tremendous creative activity as did many vernacular languages. The contributions of the Mughals can be divided into three categories: historical works, translations, poetry and novels. The important historical works written in this time were Ain-i-Akbari, and Akbarnama by Abul Fazl, the Ta'rikh-i-'Alfi by Mulla Daud. Akbar, though not educated in any formal educational institution, could contribute much to literature. Jehangir possessed a keen interest in literature, and his autobiography is one of the finest amongst the Mughal emperors. During his reign, important historical works like Ma'asir-i-Jahangir, Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangiri and Zubud-ut-Tawaikh were written. Many important works in translation were also written during this period, with the translation of the epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana taking place. Many of the Vedas were also translated and several previous historical books were also translated. All this translation added to the wealth of Indian literature and spread ancient knowledge to a greater audience. This renewed interest in Indian literature would be an important tool used by the social reformers of the eighteenth century to educate the people about what the ancient texts really said as opposed to the distorted interpretations that were being followed. One of the fine Hindu works composed during this time was Ramcharitmanasa (the life of Rama) by Tulsidasa, which was a simplified version of the Ramayana.
Travellers who generally used to travel in the quest of knowledge from one corner to another corner of country have contributed a lot to translation activities. Many times they used to cross boundaries of their country (or linguistic regions) to learn new language(s) and used to contribute towards democratization of information through translation. Out of many such travellers, Ibn Battuta is one of the world's greatest travelers, traveled an enormous distance of 75,000 miles after having left Tangier, Morocco with the intention of performing Hajj (the pilgrimage) to Mecca only to return thirty years later at the court of Sultan Abu 'Inan and dictated accounts of his journeys, known as the famous Travels (Rihla) of Ibn Battuta covering several adventures in African deserts, Indian countries (states) and islands in far east and China. He spent seven years at the court of Mohammed Bin Tughluk as a judge and finally as ambassador to China. He has given a wonderful record of socio-religious life of the places he visited which includes coastal Karnataka and southern part of India.
Ibn Battuta was the only medieval traveler who is known to have visited the lands of every Muslim ruler of his time. He also traveled to Ceylon (present Sri Lanka), China and Byzantium and South Russia. The mere extent of his travels is estimated at no less than 75,000 miles, a figure which is not likely to have been surpassed before the age of steam.
Some of the non religious books have also played major role in creating common psyche of the masses. The book Panchtantra is one of them which is known for its universal message. It was originally written in Sanskrit, probably in Kashmir, sometime in the 4th century A.D. Two hundred years later, a Persian Shah got it translated into Pehlavi, a form of Old Persian and liked it so much that he enshrined the translation in a special room of his palace. Three hundred years later, after the Muslim conquest of Persia and the Near East, a Persian convert to Islam named Ibn al-Mukaffa' chanced upon the Pehlavi version and translated it into Arabic as Kalila wa Dimna in a style so lucid that it is still considered a model of Arabic prose. It was so entertaining, however, that it proved popular with all classes, entered the folklore of the Muslim world and was carried by the Arabs to Spain. There it was translated into Old Spanish in the 13th century. In Italy, it was one of the first books to appear after the invention of printing. Later, it was also translated into Greek and then into Latin, Old Church Slavic, German and other languages. The Arabic version was translated into Ethiopic, Syriac, Persian, Turkish, Malay, Javanese, Laotian and Siamese. In the 19th century it was translated into Hindustani, thus completing the circle that began 1,700 years before in Kashmir. Not all versions were simple translations. The book was expanded, abridged, versified, disfigured and enhanced by a seemingly endless series of translators.
Bhakti movement in India also played important role in creating oneness. The Bhakti movement in India took place as an effort to inculcate loving devotion and belief in God. It aimed at the principle of monotheism, i.e. existence of one God. It started in the south of India and slowly spread to north India during the later half of the medieval period in the history of India (800-1700 A.D). The real essence of Bhakti is found in great epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Vedic scriptures also talk about the concept of pure devotion of God. Many saints and devotional preachers led the Bhakti movement in different parts of the country. They believed in the fact that true knowledge can be achieved only through selfless devotion and worship of the Supreme Power. The Bhakti movement of the Vaishnavaites and that of the Shaiva were simultaneous and started almost together.
The Bhakti movements started then, have left an indelible mark in human beliefs and faiths. This movement started the trend of elaborate rituals in worship places. Devotional hymns in Temples, Qawalli in Mosques, Gurbani in Gurudwaras, etc. all came from the Bhakti movement. Chanting or taking the name of God was considered essential by many saints including the great Adi Shankaracharya. The significance of Bhakti movement was that it could be accessed by anyone, since all it needed was to remember God with full devotion and love. The esteemed philosophical schools only changed the thoughts, but the Bhakti movement changed the entire perspective of a human being. It went beyond artificial beliefs and rituals and encouraged people to have complete faith in the Almighty. The Bhakti movement in India produced a rich collection of literature based on devotion, spirituality, faith and incorporated numerous devotional hymns and chants.
As per the thoughts of R.S Pathak "the poets of the Bhakti period in India were translators in a different and loose sense, as they strove to translate Indian knowledge and wisdom manifested in different treatises through Sanskrit by appropriating it in various Indian Bhashas". In words of G.N. Devy medieval translation aimed at liberating the society. (Devy, 1993)
The post Bhakti Movement of Indian literature took a sharp turn in the latter Mughal era in India classified as 'Reeti Kaal" or a style-oriented period in which poets and laurels put much emphasis on style of expression than on the purity of content. Naturally, this also impacted the trend of translation. Krishna and Radha became the centre of romantic and, sometimes even sensual, poesy and expressions. Such literature even reached South India and further countries like Iran and Afghanistan through Persian translations.
The dying Mughal empire could not add much to maintain oneness of national geographical boundaries, however, the translators and intellectuals continued to play crucial role in maintaining religious beliefs, and universal legends and ethos whose nature was always nationalistic.
Upon arrival of British in India, the role of literature and translation took a U turn. The British period took away even the 'stylish' approach of translation and made it a tool for administration and imperialism. English language was introduced to bring ideas and thoughts from west, and it was imposed as language of the administrative class. The concept of ruptantar or bhastantar slowly faded into administrative translation that served the British interests. New legal terms and administrative glossaries evolved which became part and parcel of the British law and order. The British period was also the period of the great Industrial Revolution that started from England and soon enveloped the entire globe. New machines were made and it was the beginning of an age that we term today as 'globalization'. The markets spread, consumer-oriented services bloomed and the language had to assume a new role – to cater to the socio-economic needs of multitudes of people.
- References
1. Kumar, Ravi, Language and Translation Industry of India: A Historical and Cultural Perspective, Shanghai, XVIII FIT world Congress, 2008
- 2. Kumar, Ravi, The life of a Translator in India, London, ITI Bulletin, the Journal of the Institute of Translation & Interpreting, 2010
- 3. Kumar, Ravi, The Translator as an Entrepreneur: An Indian Perspective, Salt Lake City, USA, American Journal of Translation Studies, 2010
- 4. Das, Binay Kumar, A handbook of Translation Studies. New Delhi, Atlantic Publishers, 2005
- 5. Oustinoff, Michaël, Translation Matters: India as a model for Europe, during International Conference on Role of Translation in nation building and supra nationalism, Indian Translators Association, New Delhi 2010
- 6. Devy, G.N. Devy, "Translation Theory: An Indian Perspective," Into Another Tongue. Madras: Mac Millian, 1993
- 7. Vasandani, Nirupama Rastogi, The translation initiative: Teaching and Training, Hyderabad, Central Institute of English and Foreign Language, 2000
- 8. Mahapragya, Acharya and Abdul Kalam, A.P.J, The Family and the Nation, New Delhi, Harper Collins Publishers, 2008
- 9. Nijhawan, Shobna, Nationalism in the Vernacular, Ranikhet, 2010
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Conceptually and in practice, the term hints of no stereotypical model. Yet it has its root in the French word 'entreprendre' which literally means to undertake – indicating the minimum characteristics of an entrepreneur.
From the perspective of economic functions, three crucial characteristics of entrepreneurial activity are: risk taking, innovation and venturing into new business activities for profit. (David Kirby, Entrepreneurship, 2003 McCraw Hill).
National Knowledge Commission (NKC), the core advisory body to the Prime Minister of India, which focuses on creating knowledge capital, has recognized entrepreneurship as one of the key factors of wealth creation and employment generation. As per NKC, 'Entrepreneurship is the professional application of knowledge, skills and competencies and / or of monetizing a new idea by an individual or a set of people by launching an enterprise de novo or diversifying from an existing one (distinct from seeking self employment as in a profession or trade), thus to pursue growth while generating wealth, employment and social good'.
Entrepreneurship in India
Entrepreneurship has been 'embedded in the Indian genius and is a part of its tradition'[1]. To quote the renowned economist, T.N. Srinivasan, 'India has been an entrepreneurial society…we had the entrepreneurial skill but suppressed it for too long a time…and now it is thriving. The entrepreneurial spirit is an ongoing characteristic of India's history, particularly visible in a number of communities engaged primarily in trading.[2] Traditionally, the Entrepreneurship of such communities is facilitated principally by the successful use of informal 'entrepreneurial ecosystems' and interdependent business networks. Further, there is also a rich tradition within the Indian Diaspora, spanning the past several hundred years, whose spirit of enterprise is legion.
Entrepreneurship in India occurs in 'far more encompassing and far reaching ways than in developed countries', and could, therefore, be far more complex,' for there is so much more that needs to be done.[3] Commentators today celebrate the ubiquitous Indian attitude of 'jugaad' (a Hindi word roughly translated as 'creative improvisation…a tool to some how find a solution based on a refusal to accept defeat, and calling on initiative, quick thinking, cunning and resolve…to quickly fulfill market demands at the lowest possible prices[4]') as an entrepreneurial trait that has been as much a part of everyday Indian living as its rich tradition of philosophy and speculation.
The salience of Entrepreneurship in India has intensified in recent times, particularly with the rise in knowledge-intensive Services. New entrepreneurs who do not belong to traditional business communities have begun to emerge in large numbers; Entrepreneurship has grown rapidly, visibly so, creating wealth and generating employment especially in the past twenty years. Crucial efforts initiated after economic liberalization – including systematic attempts to reduce the 'licence raj', greater efforts to make finance more easily accessible to entrepreneurs and other institutional support to 'techno-preneurs'- have helped improve the climate for Entrepreneurship.
The Translator as an entrepreneur
After several years of struggle, in many countries Translation has evolved as a professional activity and its practitioners have been able to get a professional status. However, it is important to note that India, in spite of having recognized and documented the presence of 1635 rationalized mother tongues, classified into 234 mother tongues and grouped under 122 languages, has failed to achieve professional status for its translators. Translation is an activity that not only helps bridge communication gap, rather it facilitates the whole set of business activity in terms of localization and globalization thus generating employment. An individual translator not only generates employment for himself/herself but also facilitates multiple activities and thus multiple employment activities ranging from DTP, advertising, education etc. to development and facilitation of high-end software and products. A translator applies his knowledge, skills and competencies and consistently evolves and applies new ideas at the individual level or collectively and in most of the cases, he/she is one person enterprise that generates employment and wealth and contributes to the economic development of the country.
It is also notable that most of the translators in India are forced to orient their profession and tune it as per the language demand of the industry by being restricted to the roles of language teacher, BPO employee, tele caller, etc. Those who remain loyal to their professional orientation as translator become freelance translators and often slowly grow into translation agencies. Unlike big business houses, translation businesses are usually run from home or from sparsely-furnished small offices, have limited resources and often the owners don't know where the next penny is coming from to keep the operation going. Most of the time, such translators or agencies work in isolation and lead lonely existences as few can empathize with their troubles.
Socio- Cultural situation of translators in India
Bilinguals have always been respected in India as persons with superior qualifications, and they have played a pivotal role in social and cultural change. Slowly, bilingualism has become so widespread that it is complementary in nature. For example, an individual may use a particular language at home, another in the neighborhood and the bazaar, and still another in certain formal domains such as education, administration, and the like. In addition, the languages of national and international communication, Hindi and English, are also part of the linguistic repertoire of a sizeable number of Indians. In India, linguistic diversity is not by accident, but is inherited in the process of acquiring the composite culture of India.
Economic Situation of a translator in India
On the one hand, bilingualism/ multilingualism have played a pivotal role in shaping the diverse society of India, and even UNESCO has appreciated India's situation on maintaining its linguistic diversity. On the other hand, Indian translators face challenges that are byproducts of the bilingualism / multilingualism inherent in Indian society. For example, it is very common to equate a translator with a bilingual neighbor, friend, relative or office colleague who are readily available for help or extend their services either at a very low price or, many times, even for free. I define these actions as part of the entrepreneurship attitude inherent in almost every Indian who tries to make best use of available resources and economizes his/ her efforts by making use of available resources. In this case, the resources are readily available bilinguals or multilinguals. These challenges become tougher when a Project Manager, knowingly or unknowingly equates the service cost of a professional translator with that of his in-house bilingual colleague whose services he / she has been availing of, free of charge. The challenge becomes stiffer when a translator has to explain to the Project Manager or the Indian Businessman (who still insists on using online freeware like Babelfish, Google or Systran) the difference between a machine translation and a professional translation, while trying to bid for an international project. This further confirms the resolve of an Indian businessman to prove his entrepreneurship skill which finally leads to a fiasco.
Making of a translator in India
As explained above, in spite of India's very rich and continuing diversity of languages, there are only a few universities that offer translation courses in their curriculum, and these find it difficult to sustain themselves because of lack of infrastructure, lack of trained faculty, lack of well formulated course curriculum and, above and all, public lack of awareness and government apathy.
In this situation, it becomes very challenging for a translator to evolve as a professional, and those who evolve as professionals can be easily put into the category of entrepreneurs as they develop the ability to create and build something from practically nothing, and they practice this process of building wealth daily and continue to face all odds with a hope that one day they would be established translators.
External challenges faced by the translator entrepreneur
Once a professional translator starts interacting with the Industry, external challenges multiply. The translator goes on to face many other issues, including payment issues with clients followed by lack of continuity of work, government apathy towards professional recognition, lack of established standards, lack of certification, lack of funds for up gradation of skills, etc.
Global challenges faced by the translator entrepreneur
Many of the leading portals have developed a strong foothold in India. It is true that they have given good opportunities to many of the translators to get in touch with domestic as well as International agencies and that this has resulted in an increase in income. However, it is important to note that most of these portals are operated from outside India and they follow their own rules. Many times, Indian translators are cheated and then, to add insult to injury, blamed for bad quality. This kind of situation arises because of a mismatch of expectations, lack of documented guidelines and supports that agencies or clients must offer translators. Outsourcing is a good phenomenon, but service takers as well as service providers need to develop trust and culture sensitive relationships that is so often lacking in these web portals.
Competition from International agencies
It is true that the majority of Indian translators still follow the translation approach of translation – many times translations are handwritten, followed by typing, re-checking – and final delivery; this translation approach has its own importance, but it results in delivery delay and lack of quality control, making the whole affair vulnerable to stiff competition.
On the other hand, International agencies who maintain in-house teams of translators are sophisticated. They make use of trained translators who are well versed with computer applications and CAT tools (Computer Aided Translation Tools). Unless Indian translators also upgrade themselves with this modern translation approach, they will continue to suffer the snobbery of a select privileged few. Also, there are a few MNCs who have already made their presence in the Indian market, and, as a matter of practice, with their organizational strength and economic power, it would be easy for them to develop an economically competitive process that would be a big challenge to Indian translators entrepreneurs who are still struggling for their identity. By the time they realize their weaknesses, it would be too late to start competing with these translation houses.
Internal challenges faced by the translator entrepreneur
An individual, after having gone through the hurdles involved in evolving as a translator, faces the next stage of problems and challenges that many times originate from his / her own self:
1) Translation activities have been treated as a very personal and private affair by individual language professionals. Many times, even best friends do not share information between themselves about their translation projects.
2) Translators suffer from an identity crisis - Let us say, an Indian language professional refers to himself as a translator in a gathering of friends or acquaintances who otherwise have no other association with the translation industry. The response the professional's statement would commonly receive would simply be, "Okay, this is what you do. But what is your profession?" This underlines the very simple fact that the translation industry generally has very little professional recognition in the perception of the masses. This does affect the credibility and the position of a professional translator in the eyes of his social peers. This is what we translators refer to as an Identity Crisis.
3) Ego clashes - identity crisis makes an individual more sensitive to issues that have been making him suffer, any new initiative is regarded with suspicion - once suspicion comes - questions are asked, many times resulting in absurd questions offending egos and ultimately, failure of any collective initiatives for professional development.
4) If at all logic prevails - the established translators start fearing loosing their business which they have established since years, making personal efforts - but very privately. Under no circumstances do they want to come to a common platform and discuss relations or issues related to their clients. But this thought is not expressed directly (part of identity crisis), rather it is expressed in terms of pin-pointing personal or professional or organizational weaknesses of the individual who has taken the initiative.
Successful translators and diversification
In spite of all the odds mentioned above, there are quite a good number of translators in India who face these challenges and overcome all hurdles to finally make a living and contribute to the economic and cultural growth of the country. In addition, there are a few who grow enough to launch small and medium sized translation enterprises which further add value to translation as a profession.
Need for collaborative efforts
With the collaborative efforts of a few like minded professional translators, the Indian Translators Association was established in December 2007. It seeks to unite the widespread translator and interpreter community of India on a common platform to address issues for the betterment of the industry and take steps to ensure that its members provide services meeting the professional standards of the industry. Its integration with the International Federation of Translators (FIT) in July 2008 and its subsequent collaboration with Termnet Austria prove its commitment towards achieving its objectives and goal of developing a vibrant platform for the translator's community of India.
Networking as a Possible Solution
To counter external as well as internal challenges a translator needs to take into consideration the phenomenon of globalization that has brought tremendous dynamism into market forces. The world is evolving towards finding innovative ways of achieving customer satisfaction that is based on N =1 (one consumer experience at a time) and R = G (resource from multiple vendors and often from around the globe). [5] To achieve competitiveness and provide unique, personalized experiences to consumers the firm needs to create a system that involves individual customers in co-creating a product / service that provides a unique experience. No firm is big enough in scope and size to satisfy the experiences of one consumer at a time. Therefore, all firms will access resources from a wide variety of other big and small firms – a global ecosystem. The focus is on access to resources, not ownership of resources. Not to go too deeply into the logistics of this innovative thought, it is very important to understand that even the biggest companies do not own all the necessary resources to cater to the needs of their customer, nor do they have complete production in-house as the new dynamics of market demands inter-dependency on internal and external sources.
The above thoughts are very encouraging for an entrepreneur and especially for the translator who depends heavily on external sources and who does not have enough funds to own resources. As explained above, nor do the big business houses have the complete ownership of resources. The idea is to have fast access to these resources. A translator entrepreneur needs to be connected to fellow translators within his own country as well as outside the country to have access to information and knowledge and develop teams for the execution of a project through available resources and provide services and achieve customer satisfaction. For developing connectivity and networking, there are already various online systems in place that allow free access to their platform and offer options to develop connectivity and develop social or professional networks that further helps individual members to build on relationships, share knowledge and help in the overall growth of a complete social or cultural system thus allowing the creator of the system to benefit from the presence of a large number of human networks connected to its server. Amongst many other networks, I find Google, LinkedIn, Face Book, Hotmail, Groupsite and Twitter to be examples of the N=1 and R=G phenomenon.
Even for translators, there are well known networks that work wonders, and a translator must tune himself / herself to changing dynamics and bring competitiveness through using these networks (for example, Termium Canada, Terment Austria or even Termtruk and various other initiatives). In the Indian context, although there has not been a very visible network of translators, empowered by big business houses, however many personal initiatives are in place (for example, www.modlingua.com) and it is expected that in times to come when better understating of the market comes, translators would start networking in an organized way and such private initiatives would become part of a collective initiative covering a considerable number of translators.
All that remains to be said in conclusion is that, while Indian translators as entrepreneurs are slowly evolving, in spite of many obstacles, they are yet to explore their fullest potential by adopting a common platform. On the one hand, this, and the other hurdles and set backs can be attributed, to a large extent, to vestigial colonial mind sets on all sides (the colonizer and the colonized) which have so far endured past their expiry dates yet continue to exert influence. Perhaps the time has come for change and, given the shared impacts of events, East or West, North or South, salvation for all lies in sharing knowledge, experience and resources. The future of translation as a profession lies in the "networking" of entrepreneurs to economize processes and sustain growth by using all available resources and infrastructure. All that this requires is the investment of goodwill across the globe.
- posted by: Ravi Kumar
Hits: 1450
Itamar Even-Zohar, born 1939, is an Israeli culture researcher and professor at Tel Aviv University. Even-Zohar is a pioneer of polysystem theory and the theory of cultural repertoires.
Structuralist Approach
Since the early 1970s Even-Zohar has been working on developing theoretical tools and research methodology for dealing with the complexity and interdependency of socio-cultural 'systems,' which he views as heterogeneous, versatile and dynamic networks. In 1972, he proposed a multi-layered structural theory of text, but soon became one of the first critics of "Static Structuralism".
Note: Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure is known to have worked on Structural Linguistics. His book "Course in General Linguistics", published posthumously in 1916, stressed examining language as a static system of interconnected units. He is thus known as a father of modern linguistics for bringing about the shift from diachronic (historical) to synchronic (non-historical) analysis, as well as for introducing several basic dimensions of semiotic analysis that are still important today, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis (or 'associations' as Saussure was still calling them).
Even-Zohar (1978) noticed structuralist agenda as a rigid and 'sterile' interpretation of Saussure's notions of structure and 'linguistic system'.
Poly-system theory
In 1978, Itmar Even Zohar constructed a research program that dealt with literary systems rather than text. It allowed researchers to break away from the normative notion of "literature" and "culture" as limited sets of highbrow products and explore a multi-layered interplay between "center" and "periphery", and "canonized" and "non-canonized."
Zohar emphasized that translated literature operates as a system:
1. In the way the TL selects work for translation.
2. In the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems
Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:176) follows: The polysystem is conceived as a heterogeneous, hierarchized conglomerate (or system) of systems which interact to bring about an ongoing dynamic process of evaluation within the poly-system as a whole.
Dynamic process of evaluation is vital to the polysystem. Broadly there are two types of systems: 1) Innovatory System 2) Conservative system. Both the systems are in constant state of flux and competition. Because of this flux the position of translated literature is not fixed either. It may occupy a primary or a secondary position in the polysystem.
Primary (Innovatory)
It participates actively in shaping the center of the polysystem. It is likely to be innovatory and linked to major events of literary history as they are taking place. Often, leading writers produce the most important translations and translations are a leading factor in the formation of the new models of for the target culture, introducing new poetics, techniques and so on. Zohar gives three major cases where translated literature occupies the primary position.
1. When a young literature is being established and looks initially to older ones for ready –made models.
2. When a literature is peripheral or weak, and imports those literary types which it is lacking. This can happen when a smaller nation is dominated by the culture of a larger one, or this can happen within a nation where various levels of literary canons exist. Eg. Within Spain, Galicia imports many translations from the dominant Spanish form Castillian, on the other hand, Spain itself imports canonized and non-canonized literature from English speaking world.
3. When there is a critical turning point in the literary history at which the established models are no longer considered sufficient, or when there is a vacuum in the literature of the country. Where no type holds sway, it is easier for foreign models to assume primacy.
Secondary (Conservative)
It represents a peripheral system within the polysystem. It has no major influence over the central system and even becomes a conservative element, preserving conventional forms and conforming to the literary norms of the target system. Secondary position is normal one for translated literature, however, translated literature itself is stratified.
Translation Strategy
Position occupied by translated literature in the polysystem conditions the translation strategy.
If it is primary, translators do not tend to follow target literature models and are more prepared to break conventions, they thus produce a TT that is close match in terms of adequacy, reproducing the textual relations of the ST. This itself may, then lead to new SL models.
If it is secondary, translators tend to use existing target –culture models for the TT and produce more non–adequate translations.
Genztler sums up, polysystem theory as per the following
1. Literature itself is studied alongside the social, historical, and cultural forces.
2. Even-Zohar moves away from the isolated study of individual texts towards the study of translation within the cultural and literary systems in which it functions.
3. The non-prescriptive definition of equivalence and adequacy allows for variation according to cultural and historical situation of the text.The last point helped theorist to escape from the constant use of concept of equivalence in 1960's and 1970's.
Critique by Gentzler
1. Overgeneralization to universal laws of translation based on relatively little evidence
2. Over reliance on formalist model of 1920's, Zohar later evolved it, thus contradictory to its own theory, and might be inappropriate for translated texts in the 1970s.
3. the tendency to focus on the abstract model rather than the real-life constraints placed on texts and translators.
4. How far the supposed scientific model is objective ?
- posted by: Ravi Kumar
Hits: 655
An overall assessment of the book "The never cold call again Online Playbook" Written by Writer: Frank J.Rumbauskas Jr.
1. Purpose of the book
"The never cold call again online playbook" is an informative book that shows how to create a targeted, web-based sales and marketing strategy that fits small as well as well large enterprises. It systematically deals with all important aspects of creating a platform, its branding and marketing that involves increase of online presence through e-mail campaign, building buzz online, social media marketing and search engine optimization, traffic generation, website planning in order to turn traffic into sales and generation of back-end profits etc.
1.1 Author's goal
The author in a very simple language explains the facts and strategies that he applies to his own online business. He shares his experience and how his business turned out to be one of the well known success stories of present time. Through this book, he aims to impart knowledge related to online marketing strategies involving creation of an online business platform, its branding and marketing. Before entering into details of the strategies that he has developed over a period of time through his own involvement in an internet based business, he warns the reader not to expect overnight results by simply creating a website. He further explains that good profit and results can be achieved only through a well-planned strategy and consistent online efforts through branding, building buzz online, generating highly targeted high value traffic, turning traffic into sales and getting backend profits.
1.2 Target readers
The book deals with a variety of subject matters related to online marketing, branding, media coverage, buzz building through blogging, podcasting, vodcasting, tweeting, use of social network, traffic generation, e-mail marketing, use of craiglists and other internet classified sites, youtube, affiliate programs and joint ventures, creation of viral effects and website planning and development with a view to increase profit and sales and make use of online identity to generate offline income. Therefore, it serves as a reference book for students, academicians, practitioners, business managers, entrepreneurs as well as knowledge seekers with interest in the internet and online marketing.
1.3 Content
Although the book is not specifically designed to be used as a text book, it contains considerable amount of usable information. The book has been written in a narrative and story-telling form and its simple language makes it more readable and easy to understand. The use of "you" to explain the facts and figures not only makes the language more informal, but also helps the reader to quickly understand the given explanations and relate them with his or her own realities. The reader is easily able to understand that only creating a website is not enough, it is rather the first step towards the intended goal of achieving larger sales and profit. After creation of a well-planned website, it becomes mandatory on the part of the owner to design and develop online marketing strategies, build trustworthy online followers, build a durable brand over a period of time through continuous online marketing while using mass mails, traffic generation, back linking, effective use of various social media channels like Google, Facebook, Youtube, Itunes etc.
1.4 Organization
The content of the book is divided into six sections/areas, namely:
1. Online marketing today
2. Building a brand online
3. Building buzz online
4. Generating highly targeted, high-value traffic
5. Turning traffic into sales
6. Unlock hidden back-end profits.
Each section is further divided into respective chapters that systematically explain the situation, define problem areas, and suggest solutions through examples followed by case studies of success and failures that the author has encountered while trying to build his online enterprise.
This strategy of dealing with practical issues by citing real examples renders the book useful.
2. Strong Points
The book is written in an easy language. It is systematic and covers all topics defined in the proposed course namely:
a) Online marketing
b) Bulk e-mailing and spam filters
c) Social media marketing
d) Search engine optimization (SEO)
In addition, the book also covers the strategies to turn traffic into sales and maximize profits. Further, the author also explains how to monetize through affiliate promotion while building online brand. In addition, it is of great interest to know that the online identity can generate offline income. The author has explained these aspects in detail thus, providing valuable additional information and knowledge to the reader.
A person with very limited knowledge related to information technology can easily understand the basic fundamentals of online marketing as the description has been presented in a graded manner. The author initially defines simple issues followed by more complex issues which helps the reader fully understand the importance of creating a solid platform, durable branding followed by online marketing to finally increase sales and profits.
All major areas related to internet based activities have been explained through examples of real issues, encountered by the author, on his way to creating a successful online venture. For example, while trying to explain the importance of online marketing, the author explains how cold calling is dead, and it annoys people and is frequently illegal.
3. Weak points
The informal writing style and the manner of presentation clearly demonstrate that the book is not specifically designed as a teaching manual. Although the book has been divided into six broad sections followed by specific chapters within respective sections, they neither clearly define the specific learning objectives, nor the general learning objectives.
The book does not give an opportunity to solve problems, as it does not have any exercises where the student can learn through problem-based learning activities. The book provides only surface learning experience to students and as a result, it fails to motivate students who are yet to enter the professional world. It demands a teacher's intervention to provide additional inputs and make use of teaching strategies in order to motivate students for achieving intended learning outcomes through cognitive activities.
Also, it is important to mention that the book does not provide any supplemental materials in the form of task based activities. This absence may become a hindrance in developing self-directed learning skills of students.
The book does not cover the mass mailer called "sendblaster", an integral part of the proposed course.
Moreover, many times, the author ends up self-praising his success without giving any concrete proof and data.
4. Overall assessment
4.1 Quality
Although the book is quite informative, its simplicity of language and detailed description of internet marketing and social media in a systematic and progressive manner has given considerable commercial success to the book and world fame to the author, it cannot be used as a standalone course manual.
The author's main focus is to give factual as well as conceptual knowledge. The book fails to provide procedural as well as meta-cognitive knowledge. Therefore, the absence of these may act as a hindrance in developing the self-directed learning skills of students. It becomes mandatory for the teacher to provide supplemental materials for cognitive activities and deep learning process. The absence of problem-based learning exercises, further poses a challenge to the teacher as well as the students in developing self-directed learning skills.
4.2 Usefulness
In the absence of course materials specifically designed for translators on the given course module, "Information Technology Integration: Online Marketing and Social Media", the identified book, "The Never Cold Call Again Online Playbook", serves as a ready reference for teachers as well as students. The book is concise and informative that broadly covers all aspects of the course content. However, at the same time, it certainly also demands a careful approach to achieve a general objective, a specific objective and an intended outcome learning defined in the course module.
5. Conclusion
This book can further help in developing a customized course manual for professional development of translators by specifying cases related to translation profession. The development of problem-based learning course manual is very important to develop self-directed learning skills, especially when translators are ready to enter into the professional world.


text:
Commercial vehicles are defined as vehicles that are over 8,500 lb. in gross weight. These vehicles include heavy trucks and light commercial vehicles (LCVs), such as pickup trucks and vans. Internal combustion engines (ICE) propel most conventional commercial vehicles. However, recent emphasis on preserving the environment coupled with the need to explore and promote fuel-efficient energy sources has pushed manufacturers to explore fuel-efficient propulsion technologies. Hybrid engines represent one such technology.
A hybrid commercial vehicle combines two energy sources: mechanical (ICE) and electrical. The engine in a hybrid vehicle is smaller than that in a traditional vehicle. The combination of the two power sources helps the vehicle achieve better fuel economy and on-road performance. Hybrid commercial vehicles use efficient technologies (such as regenerative braking) to charge the battery by converting kinetic energy into electric energy.
The analysts forecast global hybrid commercial vehicle market to grow at a CAGR of 17.37% during the period 2016-2020.
Covered in this report
The report covers the present scenario and the growth prospects of the global hybrid commercial vehicle market for 2016-2020. To calculate the market size, the report considers the unit production of light and medium-duty trucks, heavy-duty trucks, and hybrid buses across regions.
The market is divided into the following segments based on geography:
- Americas
The report, Global Hybrid Commercial Vehicle Market 2016-2020, has been prepared based on an in-depth market analysis with inputs from industry experts. The report covers the market landscape and its growth prospects over the coming years. The report also includes a discussion of the Key vendors operating in this market.
Key vendors
- Daimler AG
- Hino Motors Ltd.
- PACCAR Inc.
- AB Volvo
Other prominent vendors
Market driver
- Benefits of low fuel consumption and low cost of ownership
- For a full, detailed list, view our report
Market challenge
- High initial investments
- For a full, detailed list, view our report
Market trend
- Growing adoption of Li-ion batteries
- For a full, detailed list, view our report
Key questions answered in this report
- What will the market size be in 2020 and what will the growth rate be?
- What are the key market trends?
- What is driving this market?
- What are the challenges to market growth?
- Who are the Key vendors in this market space?
- What are the market opportunities and threats faced by the key vendors?
- What are the strengths and weaknesses of the key vendors?

subset: commoncrawl


text:
I've got some backlogged projects is what I'm saying, and I have already taken pictures of some of them even. So let's get rolling. Today I bring you a throw pillow for the rocking chair in Quinn's room. I made this way back in March, back when my baby still occasionally let me rock him before bed, back when he was only at a 10 on the squirmy wormy ball of energy scale. Now he has turned the dial up to 11 and the chair goes untouched. But hey, at least it's got a pillow on it, am I right?
I hand drew the Q, and I'm quite pleased with it. My appliqueing skills are not stellar, but I tried to really take my time and I think it turned out okay. My decision to use some leftover baby-wale corduroy with a bit of stretch, on the other had, turned out less okay. At least, that's what I'm blaming for the rather ill-fitting nature of the cover. Although, now that I think of it, the pillow cover I made for Adelaide's room back in the day didn't fit that well or snugly either, so maybe I just have problems.
Anyway: Pillow cover! Sewn! Photographed! And bloggily delivered to you with love!
I hope to be back very soon with some summer pajamas for Adelaide (already have photographs, so that should be easy enough one would think) and a blouse for myself (that I have already worn out into the world twice but have not yet photographed*).
*This may very well be the first time since I started blogging that I've gone about wearing something (or, heaven forbid, allowed the children to wear something) before photographing it. I mean, I am a mess. I just cannot be trusted to wear something without ruining it. BUT. I actually need some new summery shirts and it takes me ages to get photographs of myself wearing anything. Because it is the worst. Adam is a good sport and will happily snap away any time, any place, so I've got that going for me. But the rest of the process is me scrambling to find some clean pants that aren't ill-fitting and that at least kind of go with the top I made, me trying to decide whether my unwashed hair is too unwashed, children sitting at our feet (best-case scenario) fussing about the lack of attention they are getting for FIFTEEN WHOLE MINUTES OH MY GOD THE HORROR, and the supreme awkwardness of feeling like the neighbors are watching the whole thing and wondering what the hell I am doing with my life. So, yeah, I kind of procrastinate the photo shoot a bit.


text:
A 39-year-old New Jersey man was charged with leaving an explosive device inside the Port Authority Bus Terminal, police said on Thursday.
Officers with the Port Authority Police Department first found the device inside a briefcase at Deli Plus, which is in the south wing of the main concourse, just before 5:20 p.m. on Wednesday.
When police opened the briefcase, they found a knife, bolt cutters, screwdrivers and a stun grenade refill cartridge, which was composed of a cardboard tube with a fuse assembly and black powder. The device, described as a possible "flash bang grenade," was not assembled at the time, a police source said.
Arsenio Mason, from Jersey City, was allegedly seen on video leaving the briefcase on a chair inside the deli, according to the criminal complaint. But Mason then apparently returned to get the bag.
"I'm looking for my briefcase, I left over there," Mason allegedly said, pointing to the chair, according to the complaint.
Mason was charged him with reckless endangerment, criminal possession of a weapon, possession of burglary tools and criminal possession of a controlled substance.
A pipe, which contained methamphetamine residue, was also found in the right pocket of Mason's jacket, according to the complaint.
"Sorry it's a meth pipe," Mason allegedly said.
Mason was held in lieu of $500,000 bail for these charges, according to the Manhattan District Attorney's Office. His next court appearance is scheduled for March 21.
Mason was also arraigned on a separate California warrant and remanded for that case.
An attorney for Mason did not immediately respond to a request for comment.
The device was taken to the NYPD's Rodman's Neck facilities in the Bronx for further analysis. Heat was applied to the device and it was detonated, according to the complaint.


text:
GraphicRiver Business Standards Grunge Keynote Presentation 2582151
Presentation Template \ Keynote Templates \ Business
Presentation \ Corporate \ Business \ Grunge \ Keynote \ Standards \ Themes
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text:
Boston Garage Equipment Ltd | United Kingdom
Boston Garage Equipment Ltd is a wholly owned subsidiary of Analize (UK) Ltd. Established in the 1980's, we have successfully grown to become leading suppliers of a superb range of vehicle workshop equipment.
We are long term members of the UK Garage Equipment Association, the leading representative body which control standards and equipment approvals in conjunction with the UK government department VOSA. We currently have an elected member from Boston on the GEA executive committee.
Qingdao Pipeking Machinery Co.Ltd |
Professional Hundert |
High-quality lubricants producer from Germany.
Saudi Filters Industry Co | Saudi Arabia
Saudi Filters Industry Co., SFICO, is a leading manufacturer & supplier of Oil, Air, Fuel ,Hydraulic Transmission & Coolant Filters to meet the need of passenger cars, light and heavy trucks, off-road and industrial applications for both the original equipment manufacturers (OEM) and the replacement parts markets.
About 80% of SFICO filters are sold in the local and the outside automotive aftermarket, with the other 20% sold to original equipment manufacturers in Europe.
Consumers all over the world know and trust the Purex name. SFICO strengthens and builds on the strong brand name recognition with National advertising campaigns that let consumers know that Purex is "The first name in filters"
Officine Meccaniche Srl | Italy
Incorporated in 1970, OMM was the brainchild of Agostino Marchetti - a product of his enduring passion for mechanical engineering and the graphic arts.
From its beginnings as a manufacturer of items for the printing industry and accessories for graphic art, OMM today is the European leader in the production of pre-press and binding equipment. After the first few years of activity, the company began developing the first paper drills and stapling machines, bring it up to its current standing as the manufacturer of the world's most prestigious range of paper drills and one to four-head stapling machines


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Ghyll Industrial Estate, Heathfield, East Sussex, TN21 8AW, United Kingdom
TFC brings together an extensive range of fastener products and services, to fulfil all industry and manufacturing requirements across Europe. Our huge product range includes; Bearings, , Bolts, Cable clips, Connectors, Circlips, Clamps, Laminar Sealing Rings, Coil springs, Wave Springs, Spirolox Retaining Rings, Disc springs, Fixings, Supply Chain Assist, Heavy duty springs, Hose clamps, Lubricants, Moulded Fasteners, Nuts, Screws, O rings, Panel fasteners, Security Screws, Stud bolts, Thread forming screws, Sheet metal fasteners, brass inserts, electronic hardware, adhesives and much more.
Unit 3H, Sileby Road Industrial Estate, Barrow-upon-Soar, Leicestershire, LE12 8LP, United Kingdom
Bondrite offer adhesive and dispensing solutions for every type of adhesive application. Products include adhesives, adhesive dispensing equipment, anaerobic adhesives, contact adhesives, cyanoacrylates, glass bonding adhesives, hot melt adhesives, hot melt adhesive sticks, hot melt superdots, impact adhesives, PVA / EVA adhesives, structural epoxy, thread locking adhesives, water based adhesives and weld cement.
Technologies House, Wood Lane End, Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, HP2 4RQ, United Kingdom
Henkel industrial adhesive & sealants range from Loctite, Teroson and Bondrite include retainers, gasketing, threadlocking, adhesives, structural bonding, wearing compounds, hot-melt adhesives, windscreen sealant, soundproofing, underbody coatings and plastic padding.
Levington Park, Bridge Road, Levington, Ipswich, Suffolk, IP10 OJE, United Kingdom
BDK the precision die-cutting specialists, and leading distributor of adhesive tapes.
Unit 12, Block 2, Wednesbury Trading Estate, Wednesbury, West Midlands, WS10 7JN, United Kingdom
As the UK's largest independent converter of protection tapes and films, Avanti Tapes are part of the growing INDASOL Group focussed on delivering high quality products manufactured to ISO 9001 standards.


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Police appeal after man (85) hit by car in Belfast
Police have appealed for witnesses after an elderly man was hit by a car in east Belfast.
The incident happened at around 5.30pm on Thursday on Bloomfield Avenue.
The 85-year-old was knocked down by a Silver Renault Clio, police said.
He suffered minor injuries, a PSNI spokesman added.
Belfast Telegraph Digital


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26 October 1818 – 13 August 1878) was an American author, well known for her hymn "More Love to Thee, O Christ" and the religious novel Stepping Heavenward (1869. Daughter of the famous Edward Payson. The influences of New England Christianity, consisting of the inherited Puritan foundation that was evident in the Payson family.
A rare opportunity to own a classic that is still read by sincere young christian women today.
An early edition published by George Routledge and Sons, London.(part of the Ruby series)
Decorative cloth, very good condition.
Circa 1850's slight wear, binding tight. 6.75 x 4.75
"How dreadfully old I'm getting! Sixteen!" writes Katherine in her new journal on January 15, 1831. Follow her poignant journey from sweet 16 to adulthood as she struggles to become obedient to God's will. Her discovery that true happiness comes from giving oneself to others will immeasurably enrich your own spiritual walk


text: Report Processing Error "The expression contains object 'Item' that is not defined in the current context." when binding to an list/array of objects Image Rendering Incorrect paging of Table items that contain large items that span on multiple vertical pages. Incorrect paging of nested Table items. Silverlight Report Viewer Missing API reference No parameter UI when the report contains single parameter and no default value. Parameter values are not applied for print and export Report Viewer does not work with SSL Report viewer shows hidden parameters (Visible=False) Report Service Missing API reference Web Report Viewer Incorrect behavior when assigning 'null' to the Report property of the viewer Incorrect message when the viewer has no report Incorrect vertical alignment of the Export toolbar group


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"Great service"
About: Hinchingbrooke Hospital Hinchingbrooke Hospital Huntingdon PE29 6NT
Posted via NHS Choices
I have been coming to this treatment centre for over 5 years now and I have had nothing but great service. The staff are very friendly and the centre is very clean. Waiting times can be a problem but this is understandable due to the amount of people they have to see. I am always happy to see the staff giving the circumstances of my visit.
Response from Hinchingbrooke Hospital 2 years ago
Thank you so much for taking the time to leave feedback - we are very pleased to hear that you are happy with the service you have received.
We will pass on your thanks to the staff concerned.
If you do need advice or assistance in the future, please don't hesitate to contact our PALS service on 01480 428964 or email: email@example.com.
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Toms River, NJ (PressExposure) June 07, 2008 -- Terry Weber of Originals By Weber announces immediate availability of their new MRI Safe Eye Cover examination mask; it is specifically designed for use during MRI and Radiology examinations of patients. The mask, made of disposable lightweight, non-toxic black foam with an adjustable elastic strap,(one size fits all) is comfortable to wear and low in cost.
Mask can be used once and discarded or, with an optional Tissue Liner inserted between inside of mask and patient's face, basic mask can be re-used by many patients by simply replacing the used tissues with a new Tissue Pack (5-tissues in each pack). These Tissue Liners make the mask re-usable because they keep the inside of the mask always clean, fresh and sanitary.
When asked what makes this eye cover different Weber replied: " In the past most eye masks, blindfolds and sleep masks were made with metal fasteners attached to the elastic straps. When I realized metal was a problem during MRI and Radiology examinations, I decided to find a way to eliminate all metal from my new eye cover masks. The result of my research is this new MRI Safe Eye Cover mask that has plastic instead of metal parts. Then to make the masks more economical and re-usable, I added the (optional) Tissue Liner feature."
MRI and Radiology examiners find these new MRI Safe Eye Cover masks to be exactly what they have needed for a long time. The low cost and prompt delivery of these specialized, disposable MRI and Radiology masks is another benefit appreciated by the staffs at many MRI and Radiology clinics across the country.
Specifications:The material is soft, strong black foam about 1/8" thick (2mm thick, PVC, Acid and latex free) with an adjustable elastic head band to keep it firmly and comfortably in place. Contents: carbonate, zinc, ethylene, a cross linking agent, steric acid, and a blowing agent. Also, It is non-toxic and has passed tests for use by children and adults.
MRI Safe Eye Cover masks (Cat.# ODSM-4) are priced at $2.35 each. (Plus s/h) When ordering: 25, 50, 100 or more masks, there are quantity discounts available.
To place an order or to get more information you can write to: Originals By Weber, 338 Alabama Avenue, Toms River, NJ 08753. Or go to the website: [http://www.yrret.stirsite.com/page/page/3461664.htm] Toll Free phone: 877-309-8382. Email: email@example.com


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GraphicRiver Labels 5072384
Stock Vector \ Objects
Labels \ Vector \ Textile \ Textured \ Animal \ Prints \ Included \ Striped \ Spotted
Stock Vector - Labels 5072384 by mart_m @ GraphicRiver
Stock Vector \ Objects
4 labels with animal skin prints. Eps 10 and Ai CS 3 included.
Layered: No; Graphics Files Included: Vector EPS, AI Illustrator; Minimum Adobe CS Version: CS3.
Easter Seamless Pattern; Beer Emblems; Beer Emblems; Aluminum Beer Cans; Set of Old Paper Banners; Poker Combinations; Hand Drawn Banners.
Keywords: animals, backgrounds, blank, cheetah, collection, fashion, fur, giraffe, illustration, label, leopard, merchandise, nature, pattern, price, retail, rope, safari, sale, set, skin, spotted, striped, tag, textile, textured, tiger, vector, wild, zebra.
Download Link


text: The pedigree is good, but will the movie hold up? I think so, but will it do any business? Seabiscut may have been a Big Deal back in the olden days , but how many people will care now? Seabiscuit is directed by Gary Ross, whose first movie was the very good Pleasantville. It's based on a book by Laura Hillenbrand (which I haven't read yet). It stars Tobey Maguire, Jeff Bridges, Chris Cooper and William H. Macy. I'll see it just for that cast. In any case, it'll be better than this wretched movie I'm watching now, 1949's The Story of Seabiscuit. I'm only watching it because it features one of Shirley Temple's last performances before she gave up acting, and because it shows some actual races the real Seabiscut ran, but man, is it stinky. (An aside: Are they going to be able to show the beatings the horses took-still probably take-to get them to run fast? If they leave that part out, how "truthful" can the movie be?)


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From monday to friday: 9h00 - 18h00 (non-stop)
Saturday: 9h00 - 16h00 (non-stop)
There are some things in life that are great to share. Important personal or company documents are not amongst them. You would not pass your personal photo album or business documents to the person sitting next to you in an airport or on a plane.
Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of all information contained herein. e-nitiative shall not be liable for any changes resulting in wrong product description, tax code and/or price. The shown information (specifications, prices, taxes) should be considered as an indication and can be changed at any moment and without any prior notice.
From monday to friday: 9h00 - 18h00 (non-stop)
Saturday: 9h00 - 16h00 (non-stop)
Open on ALL working days,
Open on days between holidays and weekend.
Closed only on Sundays and holidays.
Tel. 02/5122332
Fax. 02/5139668
Design and development by :


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Commercial Identity Theft: How to Prevent It
- Caitlin Soper
- 06 Sep 2012
- Uncategorized
- 0
This is one of the fastest growing identity theft crimes in the United States and the internet makes it easier to commit this type of identity theft. Although it is not totally possible to prevent commercial identity theft, there are steps you can take to make your company less vulnerable. There are different measures that companies can use to help minimize the risk of becoming a victim of commercial identity theft. This type of theft not only affects your business but also your employees.
One way you can help minimize your company's risk is by developing a privacy policy. You will need to make sure that your company trains all employees about the privacy policy and that they abide by it. You should also make sure that your company closely monitors this policy and that your company is in compliance with it. To take care of this you might consider hiring or appointing someone from your company to be a privacy and security coordinator for the company.
Make sure that your company only stores data that you really need. For example, you will probably need to keep a database of address and purchase information, but there is no reason to keep a database of payment information such as someone's credit or debit information. Once you have the payment marked down, you should remove the data to help reduce the risk of your company being a victim of commercial identity theft.
You should also make sure that your payment system deletes the temporary data files with the payment records and if your company outsources to another party, make sure that they also have strict privacy and security polices in place. Your company needs to make sure that the employees who have access to the payment systems or sensitive data are monitored by doing spot checks to verify they are working within their job capacity. You should make sure that you only employ the minimal number of employees that are needed to have access to these areas.
If the unthinkable happens and you have a loss of computer systems or a security data breach, report it to the police immediately so they can investigate to see if there is a possibility of commercial identity theft.


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The Sergeant's Halberd is often seen as a ceremonial item, carried as a badge of rank by officers and NCOs alike in the 18th and 19th Century, it was a much feared weapon of war as well. Cold Steels interpretation of the Sergeant's Halberd is representative of the battlefield incarnation of this historical tool. Fully sharpened and surprisingly rugged and durable, it can be used as a spear for thrusting, a hook to catch, trap and entangle and as a cutting tool to chop, cut and slice!
The Sergeant's Halberd is a perfect addition to the collection of any historical re-enactor or Western Martial Artist and it makes a terrifically effective emergency self-defense tool when your life is on the line.


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Torroba - Luisa Fernanda
Release Date: 05 March 2007 | Certificate: Exempt
£18.99 includes FREE UK Postage (other delivery options available)
Shipping Destinations for this item
UK - Shipping Included
United Kingdom
Europe Zone 1 - £1.29
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland
Europe Zone 2 - £1.49
Andorra, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Norway, Poland, Sweden
Europe Zone 3 - £1.69
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Faroe Islands, Gibraltar, Greece, Greenland, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Montenegro, Portugal, Romania, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Vatican City
North America - £1.69
Canada, USA
Australia and Far East Asia - £1.69
Australia, Israel, New Zealand, Taiwan
Japan - £1.69
Others - £1.79
Falkland Islands
You Save: £6.00
The legendary Placido Domingo leads the cast in a production of Federico Moreno Torrobas opera from the Teatro Real in Madrid.
Release Date: 05 March 2007
Certificate: E - Exempt from Certification
Region 0
Aspect Ratio: 16:9 Anamorphic\1.78 Anamorphic Wide Screen
Sound: DTS Surround\LPCM Stereo
Running Time: 105 minutes
Main Language: Spanish
Subtitles: Spanish\Italian\French\German\English
For more information and our Delivery Policy see here.
For more information and our Returns Policy see here.
Catalogue No: OA0969D


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- Please select a date to see the proper prices!
Description of the accommodation:
Rooms, services Take a few-days trip to Crawley and enjoy the hospitality of Copper Beech House Crawley. The guesthouse is offering six tasfefully furnished, nice rooms for those looking for a place to stay at in Crawley. In the safe your valuables can be the safely secured. The exact list of services available at Copper Beech House Crawley (including those for an extra fee) and the exact list of equipment in a room can be found on the information sheet below.
Payment Advance payment by credit card or providing credit card guarantee may be necessary for finalizing the reservation, depending on the chosen date, room and price.
Arrival, opening hours The earliest time of check-in is 17:00, the latest time of check-out is 10:00. The personnel can communicate with you in English.
Copper Beech House Crawley rooms Rooms
- Please select a date to see the proper prices!
Accommodation services
Safe deposit box
Hairdryer, Tea/coffee-maker


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Gorgeous ethnic shemale Mariana Fenix is a truly nasty cumslut! At the beginning of this clip, porn star Rico treats her like a real lady, sucking on her big tits and then lowering his head down towards her throbbing dick. However, Mariana is quite submissive, and prefers to be the one sucking the dick rather than having her penis blown by her man. Rico returns his oral attentions towards her anus, licking it to make it slippery and ramming his dick right inside. He holds the babe upside down, slamming her anally in piledriver while she jerks off all over herself. Once his lady has ejaculating, Rico blows his load in her ass.
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It's so funny when I look at old bios I wrote for myself for this blog. I first started it back in 2006, and I have changed so much in terms of where I am in my life and what I'm like as a person. Back in 2006 I still felt like a girl. I… read all
This weekend you may notice a surplus of extra fabulous, beautifully made up men and women in the downtown Chicago area. The Makeup Show Chicago is HERE and its my favorite time of year! Sunday and Monday at the Bridgeport Art Center, there will be informative seminars by some of the makeup industry's top artists,… read all
For 40 years, women of color have known and loved Fashion Fair Cosmetics. The venerable beauty brand based in Chicago was a staple in my formative years and I know I'm not the only one who remembers that familiar pink marbleized compact being on their mother's dresser. The brand has been through so many… read all
Several years ago, a good friend in the beauty industry told me something that I didn't quite believe. She said that brown eyeshadow made you look glamorous and wealthy, and took her beauty game up a whole nother level. This good friend is a woman of color with a fabulous, deep chocolate complexion. I didn't… read all
I didn't realize how subdued my personal fashion palette had become, until this Easter weekend. The first warm holiday weekend in Chicago, and I had THE hardest time finding the right springtime pop of color for the occasion! I haven't yet turned my winter wardrobe over to spring, but I'm all about spring… read all
Quick – off the top of your head, name an eye makeup look besides a smoky eye or cat eye. Did you come up with anything immediately? Kinda challenging, right? The smoky eye has become THE look for both makeup newbies and makeup junkies. It can be intense and sexy when paired with a red… read all
If you've noticed me posting a bit more slowly over here, it's because I'm learning to adjust my schedule! As the latest contributing editor for Glam.com, I'm writing weekly posts on beauty, fashion, hair, and more! Click to check out some of my latest posts over at Glam.com. Naughty or Nice? MAC and Urban… read all
The sun is out and the sky is blue, and I'm hoping it stays like this long enough to melt all the snow in Chicago! I'm SO over this winter thing. Snow on the ground and grey skies have been killing my mojo and my joie de vivre. I'm ready for leaves on the trees… read all
Because of my history as one of the chosen ones for the 2011 Bloggers Obsession collection, I'm asked about MAC Cosmetics often. Mainly it's two questions. This post will aim to answer both of them, with a little help from an expert! Question #1 – will they EVER bring back All Of… read all
Bellas, last night was SO MUCH FUN! Thank you all for joining into the @PGBeauty Style United GRAMMY Glam Twitter party with me – together with Galtime and The Makeup Girl, we were trending! WOW! SO major. Thank you all for joining and congrats to the Twitter giveaway winners! I absolutely loved the… read all