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Evidence suggests that the nervous system controls motor tasks using a low-dimensional modular organization of muscle activation. However, it is not clear if such an organization applies to coordination of human walking, nor how nervous system injury may alter the organization of motor modules and their biomechanical outputs. We first tested the hypothesis that muscle activation patterns during walking are produced through the variable activation of a small set of motor modules. In 20 healthy control subjects, EMG signals from eight leg muscles were measured across a range of walking speeds. Four motor modules identified through nonnegative matrix factorization were sufficient to account for variability of muscle activation from step to step and across speeds. Next, consistent with the clinical notion of abnormal limb flexion-extension synergies post-stroke, we tested the hypothesis that subjects with post-stroke hemiparesis would have altered motor modules, leading to impaired walking performance. In post-stroke subjects (n = 55), a less complex coordination pattern was shown. Fewer modules were needed to account for muscle activation during walking at preferred speed compared with controls. Fewer modules resulted from merging of the modules observed in healthy controls, suggesting reduced independence of neural control signals. The number of modules was correlated to preferred walking speed, speed modulation, step length asymmetry, and propulsive asymmetry. Our results suggest a common modular organization of muscle coordination underlying walking in both healthy and post-stroke subjects. Identification of motor modules may lead to new insight into impaired locomotor coordination and the underlying neural systems.
Human movements exhibit considerable variability from trial to trial (Bernstein 1967) and are highly complex in terms of both neural activation and biomechanical output (Gottlieb 1998; Winter and Yack 1987). However, much evidence now indicates that a relatively low-dimensional organizational structure may underlie the rich complexity of neuromechanical output. Computer simulations have shown that modulating the timing and amplitude of a few sets of distinct muscle groupings is sufficient to produce pedaling at different cadences (Raasch and Zajac 1999) and pedaling backward (Neptune et al. 2000; Ting et al. 1999). Furthermore, these muscle groupings are shown to correspond to particular biomechanical functions critical to the propulsion and phase transitions during pedaling. Experimental studies using decomposition techniques have shown that muscle activation patterns during natural behaviors may in fact be organized in a similar modular fashion during locomotor and postural tasks in animal and humans (Bizzi et al. 2008; Ivanenko et al. 2004, 2005; Merkle et al. 1998; Olree and Vaughan 1995; Ting and Macpherson 2005; Ting and McKay 2007; Tresch et al. 1999). Moreover, a few experimental studies in postural control have shown direct correlations between the activity of motor modules (also referred to as muscle synergies) with kinetic and kinematic outputs (Krishnamoorthy et al. 2003; Ting and Macpherson 2005; Torres-Oviedo et al. 2006). Accordingly, these motor modules may reflect a neural strategy of coordinating muscles in a low-dimensional set of patterns that facilitate control of functional motor behaviors.
Although modular organization of muscle coordination during human walking has been proposed (Merkle et al. 1998; Olree and Vaughan 1995), the robustness of such an organization and the relationship to task-level goals is not well established. Prior work has shown consistent timing of motor patterns across various walking tasks but suggests that the coactivation of muscle varies considerably (Ivanenko et al. 2004). However, studies of different postural tasks suggest that stable modules do exist (Ting and Macpherson 2005; Torres-Oviedo et al. 2006), which is consistent with our simulations of pedaling and simulations of central pattern generator control of locomotor patterns (McCrea and Rybak 2008). There are clear repeatable characteristics of locomotor muscle activity from step to step that suggest stable modular organization is a feasible control solution. However, it is not known whether such an organization can account for the inherent variability that is also characteristic of repeated stepping or walking at different speeds.
If muscle modules are indeed mechanisms by which task-level biomechanical goals are implemented, we would hypothesize that impairments to the neural control and organization of such modules would directly result in impaired biomechanical outputs. Simulations have shown that independent activation of primary extensors and bifunctional leg muscles is necessary to allow for smooth flexion–extension transitions during pedaling. Indeed, in post-stroke subjects, abnormal coactivation of bifunctional thigh muscles with extensors and difficulty with flexion–extension transition phases is observed post-stroke along with reduced external mechanical work production. Although these results suggest a link between abnormal muscle coactivation and impaired biomechanical output, the degree to which such observations would apply to impaired walking (e.g., in persons with post-stroke hemiparesis) is unknown. Moreover, if motor modules do produce biomechanical functions, it would be critical to know whether patients have access to a subset of modules available to healthy subjects or whether the modules themselves are also impaired (Ting and McKay 2007).
The causal relationships between neuromotor impairments and locomotor performance post-stroke have yet to be shown. post-stroke motor impairment has traditionally been characterized in the clinic as being caused by "abnormal synergies," in reference to stereotypical patterns of limb flexion and extension, but the relationship of such observations to the muscle synergies/modules identified during walking through quantitative analysis of EMG is unknown. Additionally, motor impairments in persons post-stroke are typically evaluated during isolated voluntary movements (Fugl-Meyer et al. 1975), which may have limited relevance to motor coordination during walking (Bowden et al. 2009). Although post-stroke locomotor impairments are assumed to be caused by abnormal patterns of muscle coordination, prior studies typically focused on kinematic or spatiotemporal patterns (De Quervain et al. 1996; Mulroy et al. 2003) or on muscle activation magnitude and timing patterns in individual muscles (Den Otter et al. 2006; Knutsson and Richards 1979).
We hypothesized that walking is produced through the variable activation of a small set of motor modules in healthy subjects. Therefore we predicted that the step-by-step variability in muscle activation patterns and changes in muscle activity across different walking speeds could all be accounted for by the same set of motor modules identified through decomposition techniques. We further hypothesized that the changes in motor modules post-stroke underlies the specific motor deficits observed and the reduced complexity in the muscle activation signals. Accordingly, we predicted that differences in the modular organization between post-stroke and healthy persons would be associated with various measures of walking performance.
Participants in this study included 55 adults with post-stroke hemiparesis and 20 healthy adults (see Table 1 for demographic information). Inclusion criteria for persons post-stroke included hemiparesis secondary to a single unilateral stroke and absence of lower extremity joint pain, contractures, major sensory deficits, cardiovascular or respiratory symptoms contraindicative of walking, and any other significant non–stroke-related impairment affecting walking. All participants were capable of walking independently for 10 m on a level surface, showing that dynamic postural stability was largely intact and that our study was primarily addressing locomotor coordination. Study procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the Department of Veterans Affairs and the University of Florida. Participants provided informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Walking trials of 30-s duration were performed on an ADAL split-belt motor driven treadmill (Techmachine, Andrezieux Boutheon, France), and all subjects were secured by a safety harness to eliminate the risk of falling. No body weight unloading was provided, and participants did not hold onto a bar or use any other supporting devices. Participants with post-stroke hemiparesis walked at self-selected comfortable speed (SS, 3 separate trials) and at fastest comfortable speed (FC, 2 separate trials). Healthy participants walked at SS (3 trials), FC (2 trials), and six additional speeds (1 trial each) ranging from 0.3 to 1.8 m/s, which allowed us to test the robustness of our methodology across different walking speed conditions. In addition, overground walking at self-selected speed was assessed using a GAITRite walkway (CIR Systems, Havertown, PA). Bipolar Ag-AgCl surface electrodes were used to record EMG from the tibialis anterior (TA), soleus (SO), medial gastrocnemius (MG), vastus medialis (VM), rectus femoris (RF), medial hamstrings (MH), lateral hamstrings (LH), and gluteus medius (GM) of each leg using a telemetered EMG acquisition system (Konigsberg Instruments, Pasedana, CA). Each skin site was shaved and cleaned with alcohol before electrode placement (Perroto 1994). All data were measured at 2,000 Hz using Vicon Workstation v4.5 software and saved to disk for off-line analysis. Data were analyzed using Matlab 7.0 (The Mathworks, Natick, MA) and JMP statistical software (v. 7.0, SAS Institute, Cary, NC).
Data analysis
Muscle activation signals (EMGs) were high-pass filtered (40 Hz) with a zero lag fourth-order Butterworth filter, demeaned, rectified, and smoothed with a zero lag fourth-order low-pass (4 Hz) Butterworth filter. To facilitate comparisons between subjects and among different walking speeds, the EMG from each muscle was normalized to its peak value from self-selected walking and resampled at each 1% of the gait cycle. For each subject, leg, and walking speed, the EMGs were combined into an m × t matrix (EMGo), where m indicates the number of muscles and t is the time base (t = no. of strides × 101).
For each subject, an NNMF algorithm (Lee and Seung 1999; Ting and Macpherson 2005) was applied to the m × t matrix corresponding to all gait cycles from SS trials 1 and 2 (trial 3 was reserved for later analysis). A priori, the number of modules, n, is specified, and the NNMF algorithm finds the properties of the modules by populating two matrices: an m × n matrix, which specifies the relative weighting of a muscle in each module, with each muscle weight invariant across all gait cycles, and an n × t matrix, which specifies the activation timing of each module over each of the gait cycles.
When these two matrices are multiplied, an m × t matrix is produced that attempts to reconstruct the EMGs over all of the consecutive gait cycles. Notice that NNMF allows muscles to belong to more than one module and that a muscle's reconstructed EMG is the summed contributions from all the modules (Fig. 1). The m × t matrix of the reconstructed EMGs (EMGr) is compared with the original EMG matrix (EMGo) and the agreement quantified by calculating the sum of the squared errors: (EMGo – EMGr)2. Within this framework, the NNMF algorithm performed an iterative optimization until it converged on the muscle weights and the activation timings of the modules that minimized the error.
Determining the number of modules needed for EMG reconstruction
We made no a priori assumptions regarding the number of modules that would be required to adequately reconstruct the EMG signals. Therefore separate NNMF analyses were performed with the output constrained to one, two, three, four, and five modules. To determine the minimum number of modules needed to adequately reconstruct EMGo in each leg of each subject, we calculated the variability accounted for (VAF) as the ratio of the sum of the squared error values to the sum of the squared EMGo values [VAF = 1 − (EMGo–EMGr)2/EMGo2]. VAF was calculated for each muscle across all gait cycles. To ensure that EMG was adequately reconstructed within each region of the gait cycle, VAF was also calculated as the cumulative of all muscles within each of six regions for all gait cycles. The regions were defined as 1) first double support, 2) first half of ipsilateral single leg stance, 3) second half of ipsilateral single leg stance, 4) second double support, 5) first half of ipsilateral swing, and 6) second half of ipsilateral swing. The analysis for each subject began by assuming that only one module was needed for EMG reconstruction. If VAF was ≥90% for each of the eight muscles and six regions, it was concluded that additional modules were not needed. Otherwise, the number of modules assumed was increased until all muscles and regions achieved 90% VAF or until adding an additional module did not increase VAF by >5% for the muscle(s) and/or region(s) with the lowest VAF. This approach is conservative and ensures a strong agreement between the original and reconstructed EMG signals.
Robustness of module definitions across walking speeds
To determine the robustness of the SS module definitions across different SS trials and at other walking speeds, we performed an EMG reconstruction on walking data not originally used to define the modules (i.e., SS trial 3 and all fixed speed trials). This was accomplished by holding the muscle weightings of the modules (which were defined using SS trials 1 and 2) constant across all conditions while allowing the activation timing in each cycle to vary. This analysis was performed for each individual subject and leg, and the VAF of the reconstructed EMG was used to quantify the success of the original identified muscle weightings and the newly computed activation timings to reconstruct the EMGs.
Locomotor performance measures
To assess whether the number of modules accounting for the paretic leg EMGs was related to locomotor performance, we examined the self-selected overground walking speed (Perry et al. 1995), change in speed between self-selected and fastest comfortable walking (Jonkers et al. 2009), step length asymmetry (Balasubramanian et al. 2007), and forward propulsive asymmetry (Bowden et al. 2006). To quantify step length asymmetry, we first calculated the ratio of the paretic step length to the overall stride length. We then subtracted this paretic step ratio from 0.5 (which would indicate perfectly symmetrical step lengths) to determine the deviation from symmetry. A similar method was used for calculating forward propulsive asymmetry, where propulsion is defined as the integral of the anteriorly directed component of the horizontal ground reaction force (Bowden et al. 2006). The amount of paretic propulsion relative to the sum of paretic and nonparetic propulsion (Bowden et al. 2006) was computed and subtracted from 0.5 (where 0.5 indicates symmetrical propulsion) to determine the deviation from symmetry.
Activation characteristics contributing to reduced complexity
To further examine the characteristics of muscle activation responsible for reduced locomotor output complexity, we separated our post-stroke participants into groups based on the number of modules required for EMG reconstruction (2, 3, or 4 modules; see results). After establishing these post-stroke groups, we performed the NNMF analysis assuming four modules for all of the participants to assess how the muscle weightings differed among groups and how activation profiles differed among modules within the same group. The muscle weightings for each module were correlated across groups to quantify the similarity (i.e., module 1 across groups, module 2 across groups, etc.). High correlations indicate similar module composition. Within each group, correlations of activation timing profiles between modules were computed to assess whether modules are independently active. High correlations indicate a lack of independent module activation.
EMG magnitude
To assess the potential effect of the EMG magnitude on the number of modules identified, raw EMG in millivolts from each muscle was averaged by leg (i.e., paretic or nonparetic) over all the gait cycles for each participant. The values from all muscles were averaged together to obtain a single composite measure for each leg of each participant.
Group differences in the number of modules accounting for muscle activation during self-selected walking were assessed using a Pearson's χ2 test. The association between the number of modules and walking performance was assessed using a Spearman's correlation. A two-factor ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc analysis were used to compare EMG magnitude across control, paretic, and nonparetic legs with different levels of locomotor output complexity.
Modular organization of locomotor muscle activity in healthy individuals
In healthy participants, four modules were typically required to reconstruct unilateral lower extremity muscle activation during walking at self-selected speed (3.6 ± 0.6 modules for the right leg, 3.7 ± 0.7 for the left leg). Of the 40 healthy legs measured, 2.5% required two, 37.5% required three, 55% required four, and 5% required five modules (Fig. 2). The variability accounted for by any given number of modules was always lower in the control and nonparetic legs compared with the paretic legs, indicating less complexity in the patterned activity of the paretic leg during walking (Fig. 3).
To characterize typical module composition and timing in the healthy legs, we extracted four independent modules from all of the subjects from the two SS trials, regardless of the actual number of modules required to account for our minimum criterion of 90% of the variability of each muscle and each region of the gait cycle. Each module was phased to a particular region of the gait cycle, and the characteristics of each module were quite similar across the healthy participants (Fig. 4, A and B). Our results showed the following properties of each module.
Module C1 consisted mainly of extensor activity from the GM (hip extensor and abductor), VM (knee extensor), and to a lesser extent, RF (knee extensor and hip flexor). This module was active primarily in early stance and likely provides body support during weight acceptance (Neptune et al. 2009).
Module C2 consisted mainly of calf muscles SO (ankle plantarflexor) and MG (ankle plantarflexor and knee flexor) and was active during late stance. It likely contributes to body support, forward propulsion, and swing initiation (Neptune et al. 2009).
Module C3 primarily consisted of activity in the TA (ankle dorsiflexor) and RF during early stance, which likely provides dorsiflexion during and immediately after heel strike and early swing, where it likely contributes to ground clearance of the foot (Neptune et al. 2009).
Module C4 consisted mainly of medial and lateral hamstring (MH and LH; knee flexor and hip extensor) activation during late swing and early stance and may decelerate the leg at the end of swing and propel the body during early stance (Neptune et al. 2009).
For each subject, the same set of module weightings was able to reproduce muscle activity for a range of walking speeds between 0.3 and 1.8 m/s (85–98% of variability was accounted for in all muscles and regions of the gait cycle). As walking speed increased, the activation timing profile of each module increased in amplitude and showed more defined peaks (Fig. 4C).
Modular organization of locomotor muscle activity in persons post-stroke
Fewer modules were needed to account for walking muscle activity in the paretic leg of persons post-stroke (2.7 ± 0.8) relative to nonparetic (3.5 ± 0.7) and healthy control legs (3.6 and 3.7 for right and left legs, respectively; P < 0.001) The majority of nonparetic legs (58%) required four modules, which is comparable to the healthy controls. However, most paretic legs required just two (45%) or three (36%) modules (Fig. 2). Henceforth, we refer to the two-, three-, and four-module paretic subgroups as the low, moderate, and high complexity paretic subgroups, respectively, because the presence of more independent modules reflects greater locomotor output complexity. Participants requiring fewer modules had more muscle coactivation (Fig. 5, cf. unprocessed, processed, and reconstructed EMGs).
In the low complexity group, two modules with independent timing were found. One included strong representation of all of the muscles measured except for ankle dorsiflexor TA (module L1; Fig. 6A) and was active primarily in the stance phase. The other was dominated by TA and RF activity (module L2) and active primarily in the swing phase, similar to module C3 in healthy controls. However, the representation of other muscles within L2 was generally higher than in C3 in healthy control legs (cf. Fig. 4A, module C3, to Fig. 6A, module L2).
Within the moderate complexity subgroup, we observed two general categories of modular organization that were shared by a number of participants. Eight of 19 individuals (category a) had a module active throughout stance with strong representation of the ankle plantarflexors, as well as the more proximal extensor muscles (Fig. 6B, module M1a). This differed from the two separate modules (C1 and C2) observed in healthy controls with activation restricted to late and early stance, respectively. The remaining modules (Fig. 6B, modules M2a and M3a) were similar to healthy control modules C3 and C4, respectively. In four individuals (category b), a different modular organization was observed. The proximal extensors appeared in the same module as the hamstring muscles (Fig. 6C, module M3b), resembling a combination of healthy control modules C1 and C4. The remaining modules (Fig. 6C, modules M1b and M2b) resembled modules C2 and C3 in healthy controls. Seven individuals in the moderate complexity subgroup had more variable patterns that did not fall into an obvious classification, although it is notable that all maintained a distinct swing module dominated by TA activity.
Modules from the high complexity subgroup (Fig. 6D, modules H1–H4) appeared similar to those observed in the healthy controls in both the muscle weightings and activation timing profiles (cf. Figs. 4 and 6D).
Activation characteristics contributing to reduced complexity
Although four modules were not needed to account for the variability of activation in most paretic legs (as described earlier), we proceeded to run the NNMF analysis using four modules on all study participants to examine why merging of modules was observed in the paretic legs. The muscle weightings and activation timing profiles of each paretic subgroup were found to be very strongly associated with those of the healthy control group (Table 2, A and B, and cf. Fig. 7 to Fig. 4). When assessing the module characteristics within each subgroup, we found that the muscle weightings of each module were completely independent (Table 2C; Fig. 7) but the activation timing profiles became progressively more similar (stronger correlations between module timing) in the high, moderate, and low complexity paretic subgroups, respectively (Table 2D; Fig. 7). These findings indicate that, although modules with similar muscle weightings are present in both healthy and paretic legs, the ability to differentially activate the modules was compromised in many of the paretic legs and led to merging of module activation timing.
Locomotor output complexity and task performance
The level of locomotor output complexity in the paretic leg of persons post-stroke (i.e., the number of independent modules) predicted locomotor performance, including self-selected walking speed (Fig. 8A; ρ = 0.50, P = 0.0002), speed modulation between self-selected and fast walking (Fig. 8B; ρ = 0.47, P = 0.0008), propulsive asymmetry (Fig. 8C; ρ = −0.28, P = 0.04), and step length asymmetry (Fig. 8D; ρ = −0.32, P = 0.02). Even within the moderate complexity subgroup where the number of independent modules is three, differences in modular organization highlight functional consequences. When the distal and proximal extensors were not independently modulated (i.e., persons in category a), the ratio of propulsion generated by the paretic leg relative to the nonparetic leg was low (0.27 ± 0.16). In contrast, when the distal extensors were modulated independently (i.e., persons in category b), the ratio tended to be higher (0.52 ± 0.32), although this did not achieve statistical significance (P = 0.09).
EMG magnitude
A significant effect of group was found for the measure of composite muscle activation magnitude (P = 0.0004), but post hoc analysis showed only that the moderate complexity nonparetic subgroup had greater activation amplitude than the low and moderate complexity paretic subgroups. No significant difference was found between the low and high complexity subgroups for either the paretic or nonparetic legs or between the four-module controls and low complexity paretic and nonparetic subgroups (all P > 0.05; Table 3).
Our results support a common, low-dimensional modular organization of muscle coordination underlying walking in both healthy and post-stroke subjects with hemiparesis. Four independently timed modules generally accounted for cycle-by-cycle variability in muscle activation across a range of walking speeds in healthy persons, whereas in persons post-stroke, the number of independently timed modules was often less because of the coincident timing of some modules. Fewer modules correspond to an overall reduction in complexity of locomotor control, and this reduction in locomotor output complexity was associated with poorer walking performance. These results suggest that the modular organization of muscle activation serves as a quantitative indicator of complex changes in multiple muscle coordination and also underlies walking ability. Furthermore, this technique takes advantage of the inherent trial-to-trial variability that typically poses a problem for reliable clinical assessment, showing common low-dimensional structure underlying the variability. Taken together with both basic science and simulation studies, such an approach may prove promising for identifying and monitoring locomotor impairments in a range of patient populations.
Modular control of locomotion in healthy and neurologically impaired populations
Our data suggest that the fundamental modular organization of muscle coexcitation in healthy and post-stroke nervous systems is qualitatively similar but that the difference lies in the extent to which modules can be activated independently. Indeed, when the data for all post-stroke participants were analyzed using four modules (even when our VAF criteria could be met with fewer modules), we found that the module muscle weightings were remarkably similar between the healthy and post-stroke groups. A similar result has also been reported in a recent study that used NNMF to examine control of reaching in persons post-stroke (Cheung et al. 2009). The activation timing profiles of the four modules were relatively independent in the control and high complexity paretic groups, but less independent in the moderate and low complexity paretic subgroups. This lack of modular independence led to the identification of merged modules (and therefore reduced locomotor output complexity) in most of the post-stroke participants when the number of modules was determined according to our VAF criteria. Although reduced dimension modular organization of muscle activation in healthy persons may facilitate execution of the primary biomechanical subtasks of walking, impaired ability to independently control the modules post-stroke reduces locomotor output complexity to the degree that it may excessively constrain motor output and disrupt proper biomechanics.
Our results indicate that the level of locomotor output complexity in persons post-stroke is predictive of walking performance, because persons with fewer independently timed modules walk more slowly and have more asymmetrical step lengths and propulsion generation. Indeed, we have recently shown that locomotor output complexity is a superior predictor of walking performance than the Fugl-Meyer assessment (Bowden et al. 2009), which is generally considered the gold standard for assessing post-stroke motor impairment. Furthermore, within the moderate complexity paretic subgroup, we observed two distinct types of modular organization that yielded predictable biomechanical results. Poorer generation of propulsion resulted if the early and late stance modules were combined, because this indicates interference between the weight acceptance and propulsion subtasks. In contrast, better propulsion resulted when the late stance module remained independent. It is possible that such differences in modular organization may occur based on the neural pathways/systems affected by stroke. Conversely, specific behavioral deficits may provide insight to the neural pathways or systems affected by injury.
Our findings are consistent with the seminal work of Knuttson and Richards (1979), who established distinct classifications that qualitatively described the locomotor activation patterns of most of their post-stroke research participants. Each of their classifications were characterized by abnormal amplitude and/or timing of activation (e.g., coactivation of several limb muscles), although their classifications were based on observation of EMG data rather than a quantitative algorithm. Subsequently, other investigators have developed quantitative methods for detecting abnormal activation, but these approaches generally analyze one muscle at a time or compare pairs of muscles (Den Otter et al. 2006; Fung and Barbeau 1989). Decomposition analyses, such as the one use here, offer a more comprehensive methodology for dissociating the changes in coactivation and timing of a large number of muscles, providing insight to the underlying organization of the locomotor activation pattern.
The modules identified in our healthy control group are qualitatively very similar to the modular organization of muscle activation presented by earlier studies of human walking (Cappellini et al. 2006; Davis and Vaughan 1993; Ivanenko et al. 2004; Merkle et al. 1998; Wootten et al. 1990). This is despite the fact that these studies have recorded from a larger set of muscles and have used normalization and decomposition procedures that differ somewhat from ours. Ivanenko and colleagues have extensively studied control of human walking using decomposition procedures (Cappellini et al. 2006; Ivanenko et al. 2004, 2006), and our results in healthy controls compares favorably with their work. Like us, they showed an early stance component with high activity of the quadriceps group and gluteus medius, a late stance component with high activity in the triceps surae, an early swing component with high activity of ankle and hip flexors, and a late swing component with high activity in the hamstrings. The most notable discrepancy in the data is that they have identified five modules, whereas we identified four. This can be accounted for by the fact that we recorded from fewer muscles, because the additional component from their study contains high weightings for the erector spinae and iliopsoas muscles. Consistent with this finding, we recently performed a study in which the healthy modules were used to control a forward dynamics simulation of walking and showed that an additional (fifth) module comprised of iliopsoas activity contributed to walking during pre- and early swing (Neptune et al. 2009).
In persons with incomplete spinal cord injury, Ivanenko et al. (2003, 2004) found the same five muscle timing patterns that were observed in healthy persons. This is in contrast to our own results in which a number of individuals with incomplete spinal cord injury exhibited reduced locomotor output complexity much like our post-stroke subjects (Fox et al. 2009). Although the discrepancy in their results to ours may simply reflect differences between the participants in our respective studies, they are likely caused by differences in the ways that similar analysis techniques were used to test different hypotheses. We hypothesized that muscle groupings would remain constant and thus allowed the timing patterns to vary to identify common muscle modules. Ivanenko et al. hypothesized the timing patterns to remain the same, allowing muscle groupings to vary while identifying common timing patterns across conditions (equivalent to applying the decomposition to the transpose of the data matrix). Whereas our methodology shows that muscle groupings remain fixed despite cycle-by-cycle differences in timing, the use of averaged data (Ivanenko et al. 2004) may mask any observed variations in timing. Finally, our criterion for choosing the number of modules was to use the minimum number that accounted for ≥90% of the variability for each muscle and each region of the gait cycle. In contrast, their criterion was to accept any component that explained more than a particular amount of variability (generally 5% or more of the total variability), without the explicit goal of accounting for most of the variability in the data set (Ivanenko et al. 2003).
Modular control and biomechanical output
In the way that we and others have applied and interpreted the NNMF and similar decomposition techniques, fixed groupings of muscles are coactive to elicit a particular biomechanical function (Ting and Macpherson 2005; Tresch et al. 1999). Although we do not view muscle weightings as a fixed parameter over long time scales, we expect that weightings will remain relatively similar from stride to stride during steady-state walking or across different speeds when the biomechanical requirements remain similar. During postural responses, the number of modules used by a subject and the muscle weightings have been shown to constrain trial by trial variability in muscle activation patterns and to be consistent across days (Torres-Oviedo and Ting 2007). Similarly, we showed that the same muscle weightings can be used to account for the variability in the locomotor activation pattern across strides and across speeds in healthy individuals. However, if the biomechanical requirements change to a larger extent, we expect that the muscle weightings will also change. For example, it has been shown that if a person's weight is increased (i.e., by wearing a weighted belt) while a body weight support system offloads an equal amount of weight, the task mechanics require an increase of horizontally directed ground reaction force (i.e., propulsion) but unchanged vertically directed ground reaction force (i.e., body support) (McGowan et al. 2009). The contribution of the plantarflexor muscle group to these mechanical changes was shown to be dominated by enhanced activation of soleus, with considerably smaller changes in gastrocnemius activation. These changes in activation are consistent with their known biomechanical functions (Neptune et al. 2001) in that soleus contributes more to horizontal propulsion than does gastrocnemius. Thus variation occurred in the muscle activation space to best produce the biomechanical function (which likely is an effective way to reduce the variability in the performance of the biomechanical function in each task). The concept that variability in the activation space can be used to reduce variability in the output space is consistent with the use of the term "synergy" by Latash (Danna-Dos-Santos et al. 2009; Latash et al. 2007). During walking, modulation of modular organization on a step by step basis is facilitated by ongoing feedback (dynamic state of the system and environment) and feed-forward (task objectives) neural signals to yield a set of modules that performs well the biomechanical functions to produce successful walking.
Several simulation studies showed the feasibility of using low-dimensional modular muscle control in producing robust biomechanical outputs for movement. Using a computer simulation of healthy walking where muscles are excited using module control, we have previously shown that the timing and muscle composition of the experimentally identified healthy modules result in appropriate biomechanical output to meet the task requirements of steady-state walking (Neptune et al. 2009). The biomechanical role that we proposed for each module, which was confirmed by the simulation, are weight acceptance and/or body support for module C1, body support, propulsion and swing initiation for module C2, flexion/ground clearance for module C3, and leg deceleration for module C4 (Neptune et al. 2004, 2009; Zajac et al. 2003). This finding suggests that the modules represent a functional transformation between sensorimotor signals and biomechanical output. Similarly, in physiological tests in frogs, a small set of independently controlled motor modules rather than time-varying muscle synergies is competent to reproduce a wide range of limb trajectories (Kargo and Giszter 2008). Moreover, motor modules may be organized to capture the natural dynamics of the limb (Berniker et al. 2009). In simulations of force generation during postural control in cats, muscle synergy constraints for nominal postural configurations were shown to constrain force output direction when the postural configuration changed (McKay and Ting 2008). Together with experimentally measured correlation between motor module activity and biomechanical outputs (Ivanenko et al. 2007; Ting and Macpherson 2005; Torres-Oviedo et al. 2006), these studies suggest that complex biomechanical interactions during natural movements can be controlled by a small set of task-appropriate biomechanical components that both exploit and constrain the dynamics of the limb (Ting and McKay 2007). This premise concurs with the findings of Krouchev et al. (2006), who used cluster analysis and NNMF to examine modularity in the hindlimb of cats during walking. Although their cluster analysis identified seven synergies, some of these synergies were active during the same region of the gait cycle and were concluded to contribute to the same biomechanical function. Consistent with our findings in human walking, they identified four separate biomechanical functions with associated coactive muscle groupings. Furthermore, when they applied the NNMF algorithm using seven factors to their data, they found strong similarities with the synergies identified by their cluster analysis.
Neural basis for impaired modular control post-stroke
Although studies in animal locomotion suggest that the modular organization of muscle coordination is encoded in the spinal cord (Dietz 2003; Kargo and Giszter 2008; McCrea and Rybak 2008; Tresch et al. 1999), the impaired modular organization that we observed in the paretic leg of our post-stroke participants is likely related to changes in processes at multiple levels of the neural axis. Some of the most critical issues post-stroke that may disrupt the typical modular output are altered supraspinal drive (and its secondary consequences) and impaired sensory-motor control. Thus descending supraspinal input, spinal pattern generation, and processing of afferent information may all be impaired.
Increased reliance on supraspinal pathways other than corticospinal may contribute to the merged modules that we observed in persons post-stroke. Corticospinal drive (Canedo 1997) influences the overall level of muscle activity during normal walking (Petersen et al. 2001) and, at times, individual muscle activity (Pijnappels et al. 1998). Reduced corticospinal drive post-stroke could contribute to a reduced ability to activate paretic modules (Nielsen et al. 2008). Corticospinal pathways may also fractionate individual movement from more complex multijoint patterns (Lemon 2008). Compromised corticospinal control may lead to a reliance on other descending brain stem pathways that produce a more diffuse output. Thus loss of descending drive from corticospinal pathways to the interneurons and motoneuron pools responsible for generating the extensor phase modules may cause the propulsion and/or leg deceleration modules to no longer be independent from the weight acceptance module. Increased reliance on other descending brain stem pathways, such as reticulospinal and bulbospinal tracts (Dewald and Beer 2001; Lum et al. 2003), has been suggested to cause post-stroke abnormal coupling of torque generation (Cruz and Dhaher 2008).
Impaired sensory-motor integration likely induced changes in reflexes and afferent processing and may have also affected the organization of motor modules. Indeed, research of the hindlimb wiping reflex in frogs has shown that sensory feedback alters phasing of premotor primitives (Kargo and Giszter 2008) and that deafferentation leads to the loss of kinematic phases of limb movements and abnormal synchronization of muscle activation (Kargo and Giszter 2000). Although another study of frogs performing voluntary movements suggests that the contribution of sensory afferents to motor module organization is limited (Cheung et al. 2005), recent studies in human stroke patients showed that abnormalities in muscle cocontraction are observed in both reflex responses and voluntary arm movements (Trumbower et al. 2008). Similarly, dysfunction of excitatory Ia afferent projections and recurrent inhibition from the quadriceps to the soleus motoneurons (Dyer et al. 2009) could lead to coexcitation of plantarflexors and knee extensors and contribute to the merging of the support and propulsion modules that we observed. Similarly, impaired function of heteronymous (Gordon et al. 2009; Nichols et al. 2002), reciprocal (Finley et al. 2008) and afferent (Lewek et al. 2006) reflex pathways may lead to atypical coactivation, and these changes will be evident within the modular organization. The transition between the stance and swing phases of gait, which has been shown to be facilitated by stretch of the limb flexor muscles during late stance (Hiebert et al. 1996), may be adversely affected by diminished proprioception post-stroke. For example, the inability to advance the center of mass over the stance leg may reduce or eliminate the proprioceptive signal for flexion.
Methodological considerations
Although methodological factors may influence quantitative aspects of our analysis, it is unlikely that such differences would qualitatively alter our results. It is possible the slower walking speed in persons post-stroke contributed to the identification of fewer modules. However, we believe that this is not the case, because each subject in essence served as their own control with respect to this question, as their nonparetic leg required a greater number of modules than their paretic leg even at slow walking speeds. Thus walking speed was probably not a major determinant for fewer modules being identified in the paretic leg. It is possible that we may have identified additional modules had we collected from a larger set of muscles (Ivanenko et al. 2004) or from a more diverse set of motor tasks (Ivanenko et al. 2005). Although the identification of additional modules would have the benefit of improving the resolution for quantifying locomotor output complexity, it would not be expected to influence the finding that locomotor output complexity is reduced post-stroke and is related to locomotor performance. Another methodological consideration is the effect of EMG signal amplitude on the number of modules identified. Despite a possible reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio of EMG in persons post-stroke, we found that muscle activation magnitude was comparable across groups. Indeed, the overall activation magnitude (nonnormalized, rectified, and averaged across muscles) did not differ between the low and high complexity subgroups for either the paretic or nonparetic legs, or between the four-module control group and the low complexity paretic and nonparetic subgroups. Furthermore, the stringent criteria used for choosing the number of modules required the algorithm to account for subtleties in the activation signals that were independent of the effects of signal amplitude. Therefore activation magnitude does not seem to have a substantial influence on the number of modules needed to account for signal variability. Finally, it should be noted that the primary goal of NNMF is to identify general commonalities underlying a complex data set, and that small intersubject differences in these common elements are not necessarily crucial to the interpretation. Accordingly, it can be challenging to apply a rigorous statistical analysis to some aspects of the data set (e.g., module composition), particularly between participants who exhibit a different number of modules.
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants HD-46820 to S. A. Kautz and NS-053822 to L. H. Ting and the Department of Veterans Affairs Rehabilitation Research and Development Service (Merit Review B3983-R to S. A. Kautz, Career Development Award B4888M to D. J. Clark, and Brain Rehabilitation Research Center of Excellence Grant F2182C).
- Copyright © 2010 the American Physiological Society


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Two New Canaan police officers are getting promoted on Saturday, Feb. 8, Chief Leon Krolikowski announced Friday.
Sergeant Jason Ferraro is being promoted to lieutenant and Officer Kevin Casey is being promoted to sergeant.
Ferraro has served with the department more than 15 years, filling many roles — patrol officer, field training officer, bicycle patrol officer, dispatcher, and patrol sergeant. He has been a member of the department's Special Response Team since 2000. He was appointed the team leader in 2007. During his career he has received 30 letters of appreciation and/or commendations for exceptional performance of his duties, Krolikowski said.
Casey has served with the department for 20 years, acting in many roles — patrol officer, dispatcher, acting sergeant, department photographer and Crime scene video technician. Casey is also a Co-Chairman of the Fairfield county hazmat communications response team which responds to major incidents throughout the county and provides communication solutions for other responding agencies, Krolikowski said.
Casey is a former New York City Correction Officer assigned to Rikers Island where he received commendations for Bravery and Leadership. During his career he has received 8 letters of appreciation and/or commendations as well as 9 Department medals for exceptional performance of his duties. Specifically, Sergeant Casey received the Department's Exceptional Duty Medal, MADD award, NCVAC lifesaving award, 5 medical service awards for CPR and in 2006 Sergeant Casey received the American Red Cross Hero award for saving the life of his father-in-law, New Canaan resident, John Sandstrom.
Casey lives in Ridgefield with his wife Rosemary and their 4 children. Sergeant Casey and his wife are expecting their fifth child this summer.
Ferraro has an undergraduate degree in Human Relations and a Master's Degree of Professional Studies in Elementary Education and Special Education. Prior to serving with the Department, Lieutenant Ferraro was a Special Education teacher. He and his wife, Darleen, live in New Canaan and have four children.

subset: commoncrawl


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|Property type
|Minimum Stay
|3 nights
Beautiful log cabin located on the banks of Moose River with direct water access to Moosehead Lake only yards away. Private deep water dock - bring your own boat, or rent one at the local marina, only 1/4 mile away! We now have 3 kayaks for your use, or you can rent canoes, or sign up for a whitewater raft adventure.
Located in the center of Rockwood, heart of Moosehead Lake, this family home has everything you need for a family vacation or a romantic get-away. Three bedrooms, plus loft, and spacious great room. The private deck overlooks Moose River and deer and moose are common visitors to the property. The GAME ROOM is fully equipped with a pool table and darts.
Other activities in the area include: hiking, fishing, mountain biking, skiing and snowmobiling. The famous Birches Resort is located only two miles away with wonderful food and atmosphere. The cozy General Store can keep you stocked with all the food and supplies you would need and is a few minutes by foot. Head directly to the snowmobile trails from the back door in winter, or head down to the water from the front door in summer!
Guests continue to tell us that the pictures cannot fully capture the comforts of this home. The best of both worlds: natural living combined with modern comforts and conveniences!
Keywords: Log Cabin
Other Activities: snowmobiling, shopping, boating, wildlife viewing, mini golf
We had a fantastic time at the Duval's cabin and felt so at home! Kitchen was well supplied, plenty of firewood for the chilly mornings, and the pool table brought hours of fun! Having the dock on the river is a big benefit for less experience boaters (like us)- when the lake was windy and choppy, the river was still smooth. Everything we wanted for our vacation- many thanks!
Our family of 7 joined together to share a week of relaxation and togetherness at Moosehead Lake. The accommodations were cozy/clean and everyone quickly settled in. This was facilitated by the warm atmosphere of the home as well as what is provided within the setting which is quite a lot! We made quick use of the vessels and vests provided to enjoy the river and lake. While this location was private and quiet, it provided easy access to the town and surrounding areas. A bull moose even joined us on the premises one morning! We would have liked a better view of the river but all-in-all, this cabin/location provided an amazing vacation for our family.
This was our third snowmobiling trip to the same area. We had issues with snowmobile trail access last year at a different location but this location worked out great. When I originally booked there was eight people but we ended up with only four of us going. We had plenty of room with the four of us but eight people would have been comfortable as well. We liked having the wood stove (with plenty of wood) to keep the living room area warm after snowmobiling all day. The setup is perfect for snowmobiling with a large mudroom type area when you first enter the front door. We put all of our gear there and didn't have to worry about tracking snow through the house. There is wifi, cable, and plenty of DVD's to keep you entertained. The Birches and the Rockwood Bar and Grill are close by for food and gas and are both located on the trail system. We were able to snowmobile to the abandoned trains and make it down to Greenville one night which was our goal. We had a great time and we would all recommend this cabin!
We had the best time....First time was with a group of friends! Upon walking into the cabin you felt like you were at home. There was nothing we needed to bring except clothes and food because everything else was already there and in the best of condition. It felt like you were in a resort and could tell that Candace had put a lot of love and time into making the log cabin a home away from home for her guests. We rented a boat from down the road and had an amazing time on Moosehead lake exploring the many places you could dock and swim and even have a picnic. We had plenty to do even if we stayed at the cabin for the day...plenty of games, videos, pool table etc. to keep all interests busy and if you wanted to just relax and read a book you had the deck or loft to enjoy some time relaxing. We again spent the week after Christmas and New Years week 2016 and were able to get a different take on the cabin in the winter! They had a lovely place in town where we had great food and a band to listen to and did we have snow!! The cabin was plowed out for us when we arrived and also as the snow continued. Never a worry that we would not be able to get out and about. I would highly recommend this cabin for all...plenty to keep children entertained along with tons of outdoor adventures!! You definitely won't be disappointed!!!
This was our second trip to the Duval cabin. Everything about this home is wonderful. It is clean and comfortable and decorated beautifully. You have peace and privacy yet every modern convenience at your fingertips. You will want for nothing. We have been to the cabin with friends in the middle of the summer and still felt as though we had the entire lake to ourselves. We went for a week at New Year's this time and had snow the entire time we were there. We planned wonderful meals, played games, watched the dear venture through the yard and, with plenty of firewood left for us to burn, kept the fire going almost continuously as the snow fell outside. It was magical.
Candace was, as always, very accommodating and quick to answer any questions we had. I would highly recommend this cabin for a get-a-way in any season!
This log cabin is amazing! It is absolutely immaculate inside and beautifully decorated. We were very comfortable during our stay. We loved that we could bring our small dog with us and he absolutely enjoyed the dock and swimming in the river! We also loved that the owners allowed us to use their kayaks and took the two person kayak out exploring one full day. Anything major is about 20 mins away, which for us was not a problem, but there is a small gas station, grill/pub, and town store combination about 10 mins or less from the property if you need something desperately. Candace was a great communicator throughout and made our stay very easy. We thoroughly enjoyed eating at the Greenville Inn. Next time, we will book in advance (they say to make reservations one week in advance) at the The Blair Hill Inn as well. These were slightly more upscale dining areas. We saw many moose along Routes 6 + 15 at dusk which is both exciting and nerve wracking at night! We took a moose cruise from The Birches which was just okay. We saw the tail end of one moose only. However, it was a nice way to see the lake. I wish we could stay here longer. We will definitely book again. Thank you so much Candace. This place is a real gem. You should post more pictures.
|Refundable damage deposit
|Pet Fee


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Monthly Archives: May 2014
The 3 Basics of Successful Retail Leasing
Bob Young recently wrote an interesting piece in the Texas Real Estate Business magazine about how retail leasing is quickly evolving. While being highly respected in the industry, Young is Managing Director at The Weitzman Group and the 2009 President … Continue reading
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Featured Property: Retail Space for Lease in Prattville, Alabama
This week our featured property is a retail space available for lease at 2539 Cobbs Ford Road in Prattville, AL. Located right off exit 179 on I-65, near the Bass Pros Shop in Prattville, it makes for an excellent spot for retail … Continue reading
The New Trend of 2014: Wealthy Private Investors
By Blake Thomas, Associate Broker Institutional capital isn't the only capital driving investment sales up each year. Wealthy investors who typically invest in stocks and bonds seem to have a new outlook on commercial real estate. Private investors from families … Continue reading
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Southpace Brokers Complete Local April Transactions
Not only did Southpace broker, Greg Despinakis, represent the one and only Dorothy McDaniel's Flower Market in the purchase of their new location, but it looks like Fultondale, Alabama will be getting a new Bojangles' Famous Chicken 'n Biscuits. Take … Continue reading


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Madison, WI (SportsNetwork.com) - Wisconsin point guard Traevon Jackson suffered a fractured right foot on Sunday and is set to undergo surgery. Jackson was injured during Wisconsins shocking loss to Rutgers, its first in conference play and second of the season. The Badgers were also without preseason All-American Frank Kaminsky because of a concussion for that game, though the 7-footer is expected to be cleared going forward. Jackson was instrumental in Wisconsins run to the Final Four in 2014. The senior and three-year starter is averaging 9.4 points and 2.9 assists in his final season in Madison. I know my teammates will come together and be stronger because of this, said Jackson. Im looking forward to coming back mentally stronger than ever. The son of former Ohio State star and 14-year NBA wing Jim Jackson will have surgery on Thursday and is expected to begin rehab in 2-to-3 weeks. Packers Jerseys. PETERSBURG, Fla. Bart Starr Womens Jersey. - In about six minutes, the Memphis Grizzlies had allowed their 23-point lead to be cut to seven. http://www.packersshopfootball.com/customized/. Cavaliers shooting guard Craig Ehlo makes a solid play on the ball, but still Jordan hits the amazing shot. Ha Ha Clinton-Dix Jersey. The Flames are in the midst of a six-game slide (0-5-1), their longest losing streak since an 0-6-3 skid from Jan. 11-28, 2010. They havent won since Nov. 3 in Chicago and most recently went winless on a three-game homestand. Randall Cobb Jersey. Pikul Khueanpet scored early in the second half and Kanjana Sungngoen made it 2-0 in the 65th minute of the playoff. Tuyet Dong narrowed the margin with goal four minutes from time. The win gave Thailand fifth place at the Asian Cup and the last of the continents qualifying spots for the 2015 Womens World Cup in Canada.Madison, WI - Frank Kaminsky had 20 points, 15 rebounds and seven blocks as No. 3 Wisconsin rolled to an 84-60 win over Green Bay on Wednesday night. Nigel Hayes posted 25 points and 11 boards, while Sam Dekker netted 19 points for the Badgers (3-0), who have won their first three games by a combined 99 points. Keifer Sykes led the Horizon Leagues Phoenix (1-1) with 20 points. After Sykes layup pulled Green Bay within 26-24 with 5:57 to go in the first half, the Badgers went on a 12-3 run to seize control, with Hayes capping it with two free throws for a 38-27 advantage. Kenneth Lowes layup at the first half horn pulled tthe Phoenix within 38-29.dddddddddddd. Well, Green Bay is a really good team, make no mistake about that, said Kaminsky. They are a very athletic team, I would say more athletic than us. An elongated 27-13 Wisconsin run put the game away in the final 20 minutes. Kaminskys layup made it 67-43 midway through the frame and the hosts cruised the rest of the way, leading by as many as 27. Game Notes Wisconsin outrebounded Green Bay 46-31 ... The Badgers shot 51.9 percent from the floor (27-of-52), while the Phoenix finished at 35.4 percent from the field (23-of-65) ... Green Bay was 2-of-12 from beyond the arc. Wholesale Jerseys Cheap NFL Jerseys Wholesale Jerseys Authentic Jerseys From China Wholesale Jerseys Wholesale NFL Jerseys ' ' '
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Jaipur, India (PressExposure) October 03, 2009 -- For Immediate Release Recently Utsav upgraded its fashion blog with information on fashionable Indian dresses for all occasions.
Utsav provides information on Indian fashions suitable for particular occasions. It suggests dresses like traditional Onam festival sarees, Eid special sarees and dresses for Ganesh Chaturthi and etc. It also provides information about how they are using the traditional madhubani paintings on Indian ethnic dresses, which is a traditional culture from Bihar. The store has also introduced casual foot wears like mojaris also know as slip-ons at Utsav and many more.
Utsav informs dresses for traditional Onam festival, like kanchivaram silk sarees, garhwal silk, banarasi silk and some more. Likewise their website offers many more information on appropriate traditional dresses worn on specific occasion and also offers suggestion on presenting gifts to mothers for special occasions like mother's day and etc. It not only informs about women wear, but it also informs about men's wear for such special occasions. Utsav helps to follow the up-to-date style statement maintaining the Indian culture.


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Occupy Chicago Arrests
October 23, 2011 by staff
Occupy Chicago Arrests, Chicago police arrested about 130 protesters from Chicago Occupy 1 am today after the group returned to Grant Park for the second weekend of Saturday night and tried to maintain a camp in the park after the official closing time.
Police estimated the crowd that was presented to a meeting the night before reaching a peak of about 3,000 people by the time the protesters arrived in Congress Square Michigan Avenue and Congress Parkway after a march from Federal Plaza the Loop.
As the 23:00 park closing time approached, more than 100 people decided to stay in Congress Park Plaza hundreds more moved into a nearby sidewalk or across Michigan Avenue, in front of park district property. Police announced several times that someone still in the park would be arrested, and before midnight, about 100 people remained in the square, which had been cordoned off with police barricades.
The square was cleared by about 2:40 am, with about 130 detainees, said the commander of Central Police District. Christopher Kennedy. A few hundred people remained on the sidewalks in the east and west sides of Michigan Avenue for a short time after the arrests over, but most of those who leave at 3 am The detainees were taken into police vans and buses Sheriff's Department reserve police district stations.
Saturday night during an event at the Congress Plaza preceding the arrests, the protesters gave speeches talking about the case and declared their peaceful demonstration. Police filmed parts of the protest.
Police said 175 people were arrested after 1 am last Sunday, October 16, when some involved in Occupy Chicago refused to leave the square after police warnings. The arrests this morning repeats most of the same pattern, with some detainees, while other protesters were on a sidewalk nearby, singing while people were led to police vehicles.
The morning of Sunday, the protesters gathered in a tight group around a medical tent in the center of the square. They sang in a question-answer questions like "How do we get health care?" O "Fix schools," he replied with "Taxes, taxes, taxes on the rich." Later became the mockery of the police who surrounded them, chanting "You serve the 99 percent", "Whose park? Our park!" and "Why is the press? That the media!"
In the hour before the start of the arrests, police surrounded the square with barricades and protesters, said he would be arrested and could not leave the square, protesters said.
Earlier during the rally, speakers, who turned the steps in front of the statue on stage, said they have no intention of leaving. Some speakers did not give a name, only referred to themselves as "one of the 99 percent."
"When people ask me to leave, I will not go very far, and I'll be back," said a young man to loud applause. "The occupation is gone."
The protesters cited a variety of reasons for their participation, from a need to increase taxes on the rich war funding, and education. The signs range from "End the Fed" for calls to tax the rich.
"I've been waiting for a movement like this for a while," said University of 22-year-old graduate student from Chicago, Patrick Van Kessel.
Van Kessel, who was dressed in a suit and carried a sign saying "the separation of corporations and the state," said he was going to put pressure on politicians to limit government's financial influence.
Jim Krok, 34, said he was leaving because of what he feels is the lack of economic equality.
"I think this has been for a long time," he said while pulling a bike over the crowd.
Occupy Chicago is part of a larger movement that includes Wall Street Busy Busy and addresses what participants see as an undue influence on corporate governance. The group has continuously been protesting in front of the Chicago Federal Reserve in LaSalle Street and Jackson Boulevard from September 23.
The focus of the demonstrations away from LaSalle Street have been so far the Congress Plaza, beneath the statue of 1928 "The Bowman" by Croatian sculptor Ivan Metrovic. Tonight, the activists said the area of ??your "new home".
What the police estimated about 1,500 protesters were gathered shortly after 19:00 and began to march to Grant Park. By about 7:45, most of the demonstrators had gathered on the north side of Congress Square east of Michigan Avenue, joining a smaller contingent of people who had gathered there.
During the march, protesters key actors in the crowd and helped to keep the march route, said Kennedy.
On Saturday, the police decided they could not allow the protesters to spend the night in Grant Park, and it would be harder to bring them up and set a bad precedent for dealing with the protesters expected to come to Chicago during the summits G8 and NATO will be held in May, a police source said earlier this week.
Staff Rahm Emanuel, said this week that he consulted with the Police Superintendent Garry McCarthy before the arrests were made, and said he directed the city Department of Law to speak with the protesters "to see if we can find a way move forward so they can continue to express themselves … "
But take Chicago has demanded that the city drop charges against the protesters before the meetings take place because the protesters believe that the arrests violated their constitutional rights.
"The First Amendment guarantees the American people the right to assemble peacefully," the group said in a statement. "Today we are going to use that right. Occupy Chicago calls to all local citizens to stand up and join us in this fight."
The charges against those arrested October 16 are being prosecuted in court library in Cook County misdemeanor under a municipal ordinance that gives police the authority Chicago to enforce parts of the District's Code of Parks.
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Disclaimer: The views expressed on this site are that of the authors and not necessarily that of U.S.S.POST.


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How do you continue losing weight if the rate decreases?
sort by best latest
While exercising can certainly help, especially an anaerobic workout, you should look into why you hit a plateau in the first place.
The reason why people hit plateaus is simple. As humans we love our routines. The problem is, the human body is not built for routine, it is built for evolution (constant stress/change).
If you don't put a stress on your body, how can it change? I see examples of this all the time in the gyms. Women love to go on the elliptical for 30 minutes, then they follow through with their favorite machines for the next 30 minutes. Repeat 3-5x/week.
Then they wonder why they get no results.
Bottom line: keep changing things up and push hard. Stress your body so it can do what it is naturally built for, evolution.
Short answer: throw curve balls in your diet. Stop doing the same eating pattern every day. 1-2x/week you need to eat a very high-carb high-calorie meal. This will certainly jumpstart your weight loss again!
Good luck!
You can help the HubPages community highlight top quality content by ranking this answer up or down.
It is normal to hit a plateau as your body adjusts. The best thing to do to break through a plateau is step up the exercise program a bit. Don't drop calories. Your body will assume there is a famine and hang on to every fat cell.
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Tuesday 23 September 1980
It was Tuesday, under the sign of Libra. The US president was Jimmy Carter (Democratic).
Famous people born on this day include Hooligan and Syu .
In that special week of September people in US were listening to Upside Down by Diana Ross.
In UK Feels Like I'm In Love by Kelly Marie was in the top 5 hits.
Stardust Memories, directed by Woody Allen, was one of the most viewed movies released in 1980
while Men In Love by Nancy Friday was one of the best selling books.
On TV people were watching Yes You Can.
If you liked videogames you were probably playing Crazy Balloon or Space Monster (Videopac).
But much more happened that day: find out below..
You can also have a look at the whole 1980 or at September 23 across the years.
Old Newspapers
Have a look at the old newspapers from 23 September 1980 and get them!
TV Series
Which were the most popular TV series released in the last months ?
Which were the most popular movies released in the last months ?
Find out your future
Get a FREE Numerology report based on the digits of 23 September 1980!
Wish him/her..
Historical Events
Which were the important events of 23 September 1980 ?
- RC Saints - Feast day of Saint Adomnan of Iona, Saint Constantius, Saint Thecla.
- French Republican Calendar - Safran (Saffron) Day, second day in the Month of VendTmiaire
- Saudi Arabia - National Day (unification 1932)
- Japanese Autumnal equinox Day (????/Sh?bun no hi)
- Celebrate Bisexuality Day - September 23rd of every year is designated as Celebrate Bisexuality Day and celebrated by members of the bisexual community and their allies worldwide. Observed annually since 1999.
- Also see September 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- In ancient Latvia, the second day of Mikeli
- Astrology: Usually the first day of sun sign Libra in the tropical zodiac.
- Traditional New Year's Day in Constantinople and Eastern Orthodox churches ? because of the birthday of August, not because of the equinox.
Famous Birthdays:
- Hooligan : Maltese rapper.
- Syu : Japanese guitarist and songwriter (Galneryus and Animetal).
- Cameron Litvack: American screenwriter and producer.
- Matt White: American singer-songwriter and guitarist.
- Big Thunder Mountain Railroad opens
Featured Contents
Would you like to write an original contribution on a topic related to this specific date and get featured on Takemeback.to ? Send us your proposal!
Music Charts
Which were the top hits in that special week of September 1980 ?
Top #10 songs in the USA
- Diana Ross - Upside Down
- Air Supply - All Out Of Love
- Queen - Another One Bites The Dust
- George Benson - Give Me The Night
- Johnny Lee - Lookin' For Love
- Paul Simon - Late In The Evening
- Eddie Rabbitt - Drivin' My Life Away
- Irene Cara - Fame
- Larry Graham - One In A Million You
- Kenny Loggins - I'm Alright
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...and if 23 September 1980 was your Birth Date then Join our Birthday Club!
Make this date unforgettable
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Magazine Covers
What news were making the headlines those days in September 1980?
- Time: Toxic chemical wastes in lake water. 'The Poisoning of America.'
- SportsIllustrated: Sports Illustrated: no.8711
- Time: TIME Magazine Cover: The U.S. Voter -- Sep. 15, 1980
Which were the most popular books released in the last weeks ?
Remember when
What videogames would you be playing back in the days ?


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Kathe Hickey, Chair Person
Kathe Hickey is a Physical Therapist, and a National and International Paralympic Classifier for Track and Field and a Classification Reviewer for Wheelchair Basketball. Being active in FWWAA gives her an opportunity to give back to the community using her skills as a Physical Therapist. She believes that sports are especially important for disabled youth because it provides them with all the benefits that their able bodied counterparts get to experience – and there are limited opportunities for participation in traditional after school programs.
Contact Kathe at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Jillian deBar, Vice Chair – Sport and Program Development
Jillian deBar is a graduate of California State University Monterey Bay. She holds a Bachelors in Liberal Studies, a minor in Human Movement, and an Associates degree in Adapted Fitness Therapy. She is the newest elected board member, and has been volunteering her time with Far West's junior athletes since 2011. Jill is passionate about Therapeutic Recreation and the experiences and programs that Far West is able to offer athletes who have physical disabilities.
Contact Jillian at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Anna Ryan, Secretary/Treasurer
Anna Ryan is a college student, an adapted athlete, an owner trained service dog handler, and a member of the Spina Bifida Association's adult council. She has been involved with Far West since 1995, having been part of Wheels On Fire, social media, and Junior Sports Camp. She is extremely dedicated to Far West's vision for adapted athletes in the Bay Area, and has credited Far West as the inspiration for her future career in Recreational Therapy.
Contact Anna at email@example.com.
Advisory Board Members
- Dominique Pacolba, City of San Jose Parks, Recreation and Neighborhood Services
- Lauri Yarwasky, City of San Jose Parks, Recreation and Neighborhood Services
- Christy Matta, City of San Jose Parks, Recreation and Neighborhood Services
- Nancy Megginson, PhD, Professor of Kinesiology, Cal State University, San Jose
- Adam Elix, Adaptive PE Specialists, East Side Union High School District
- Bill Schaefer, Adaptive PE Specialists, East Side Union High School District
- Pamela J. Redding, Event Director, Valor Games Far West


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Bar stools can actually be quite a nice thing to have so make sure to browse through these offers. Then you will be able to pick the set of wooden bar stools that would fit into your house best. Now the most important question is which one do you like most?
Rocky Mountain 18" Bar Stool
It is a stool, which is made of wooden logs. Through the use of such material it refers to its appearance very raw interior. It will be very well suited to the rustic interior, to the rustic kitchen or kitchenette.
Simple, yet solid and comfortable, this 31" bar stool constitutes a perfect proposition for one's outdoors. Solid construction, shall resist unpleasant weather conditions. Foldable, lightweight construction allows easy assembly and transportation.
Bar stool for indoor and outdoor use. It is completely made of wood. Legs are arranged conically and reinforced with solid supports. Suitable for residential and commercial use.
Industrial bar stool with extra large base and rust-resistant metal construction for maximal sturdiness possible. Apart from pratical merits, this stool is undoubtedly highly decorative. Wooden round seat provides rough, yet enchanting look.
A good-looking pair of outdoor bar stools, entirely crafted out of plantation grown shorea wood in an easy-to-match teak finish. Attractive slatted design is fitting for a whole spectrum of decor styles.
These simple bar stools are very classic and useful. Due to footstool, you can used it as a chair. They are made of wood and take-down, so you can relocate them anytime. They will be fit perfectly to garden or terrace.
Traditional 29.75" Barstool
If you seek for simplicity and tradition to be incorporated in your decor, this bar stool is the best choice. It was constructed of durable polywood. Saddled seat and thick legs offer durability and no-nonsense style.
This barstool is a very solid and comfortable piece of furniture that is made of wood with a natural finish. This functional product is good for both indoor and outdoor use. Its overall size is 15.5Lx16.5Wx45H.
This high, simple shaped chair was crafted from sturdy and durable shorea wood in eucalyptus finish can be use both indoor and outdoor. It was design in classic style with a touch of modern look. Ladder seat and backrest.
Sutton Custom Outdoor Bar Stools DIY
Wooden bar stool. The furniture has been made of beautiful acacia/teak wood and can be used outdoor. The chair has been ergonomically designed and has a comfortable footrest at the bottom. The stool can be folded for transport or storage.
How to Turn Your Shed into Your Own Backyard Mini Bar!
Unfinished Wood 30" Bar Stool
A contemporary bar stool made of wood which is unfinished. This allows one to loosely paint it so it will match the desired room decor. It features two footrests to provide more convenience and an x-shaped backrest.
Callaway 29" Bar Stool
This element is a comfortable and stylish stool created for use in bar areas. It is made of materials that are ideal for outdoor applications. The seat is equipped with soft cushion, arms and backrest.
This is a solid and comfortable bar stool made of durable teak wood. It is resistant to water, low temperatures and other negative factors associated with an outdoor use. This armless and backless stool measures 15 1/2" W x 14" D x 28 1/4" H.
Celebrity Bar Stool
Unique bar stool stylized after movie directors chair. Features rigid foldable frame made of sturdy wood to provide ease of storage and transport , functional foot rest, and quality fabric seat and back for added comfort.
Piet Hein Eek - Scrapwood furniture #design /
We could make these, as a teambuilding exercise.
With this Bar Stool in Natural Teak Finish your outdoor area will rich a whole new level of functionality and style. Crafted from plantation grown shorea wood, the chair is sturdy and offers an eye-catching, slatted design of the seat and back.
With this Eucalyptus Bar Chair you have the chance to bring some functionality and style for your outdoor area. The chair is tall, durable, and made of sturdy wood to withstand weather conditions.
Designed in a joyful exotic holiday inspired style with X base and slatted footrest, this bar stool adds a bright accent to its ambiance. The wooden construction is well-adjusted for outdoor applications. The finish is natural.
This is made of Polywood lamber stool with a saddle-shaped seat in a sensational detail of your interior decor. Lovingly executed combines two shades through which is very impressive.
Bar cabinet in eucalyptus finish. This traditional U-shaped cabinet is made of shorea wood. The cabinet offers plenty of storage space with its utility drawer, adjustable shelf and open storage area. Great addition to your garden or patio.
Handsome wooden stool of bar height. It sports warm natural finish and saddled, slatted seat. Appropriate to be used outside with bars and islands. It is easy to assemble. It's design is ergonomic indeed.
Counter bar stool with simplistic, versatile design for casual living. It is sturdy and durable with solid wood legs and round seat with 29"height that ensures stability. Featuring crisp natural finish, it works anywhere.
Attractive contemporary swivel barstool with a quite tall frame of aluminium finished in brown. It has thin curved legs, a dashy footring, flat arms with S-curved fronts, a wide slatted up back. Its seat is a sling of woven vinyl in browns.
Traditional bar stool made of wood. Legs are arranged conically and reinforced with solid supports. Seat consists of horizontally arranged strips. Suitable for indoor and outdoor use. It is resistant to rust and harmful weather conditions.
It is a contemporary bar stool that is made of aluminum and is perfect for indoor and outdoor use. It fits to modern style and décor and it adds comfort to your home.
Simple style defines the charming look of this barstool with white four-legged base and saddled seat in sand finish. The piece is made of polywood that does not spliner, crack or peel, so the longevity is ensured.
Bertoia 29.25" Bar Stool
This 29.25-Inch Height Bar Stool in White Finish turns industrial material into a beautiful work of art. The bar stool stands on 4 tubular legs connected with a square footrest. The seat is characterized by a reticular design, with a contoured seat and back.
Prairie 18" Bar Stool
Bar stool in a natural style. The construction is made entirely from raw wood. The legs are arranged conical for greater stability. Designed for indoor and outdoor use.
Rocky Mountain 30" Bar Stool
Bar stool for any interior according to personal taste and needs. The construction is entirely made of wood and reinforced solid supports. The classic look and universal use.
Amelia 31" Bar Stool
It is a simple bar stool that is made of premium-quality eucalyptus wood and is unfinished. It fits to any style and decor décors perfect for dining room, kitchen and bar area.
Unfinished Wood 30" Bar Stool
This bar stool is a very simple product that saves plenty of space in a home bar. It is made of unfinished wood, so it provides a natural look. The whole construction is made of wood with horizontal supports. The seat has got a round shape.
Unfinished Wood 18" Bar Stool
Every cozy and stylish apartment need to have a bar stool. With comfy furnishings and tasteful color palette it creates an aesthetic, good-looking and inviting nook.
Ghost 18" Bar Stool
Very ingenious and at the same time elegant bar stool, which will become the perfect complement to any modern interior. It was made of transparent plastic. As a result, it makes a very interesting feeling.
Unfinished Wood 18" Bar Stool
It is an unfinished bar stool that has got a solid wood construction and it fits to any style and décor. It is an attractive addition to your dining room, kitchen and bar. It is a very good choice.
Unfinished Wood 24" Bar Stool
Classic bar stool for residential and commercial premises. Robust design is made of wood and reinforced support rails. Delicately fold the rear backrest for added convenience.
Masters Barstool
This striking bar stool has a contemporary inspired design that makes it a perfect choice for modern settings (also outdoor). Entirely black, it beg for attention with its sculptural backrest comprised of woven lines.
chic Rustic Outdoor Bar Stool with metal detail and the wood material ...
Kelsey 24" Bar Stool
Saddle Seat Bar Stool
wood. Eucalyptus is a hardwood that is excellent for outdoor ...
Wood Bar Stools with Contemporary Concept
28" Bar Stool (Set of 2)
A magnificent set of two bar stool made from high-quality, real bamboo. It features sturdy bamboo legs which hold the stool upright, while a bamboo bridge backing provides all the support you need to relax comfortably.
Imports Trembesi Outdoor Wooden Bar Stool Coordinate this wooden stool ...
Teak home bar table and bar stools, modern home bars furniture design ...
Zeitraum will exhibit the Morph stool at the upcoming 2010 IMM Cologne ...
Aria Wood Bar Stool
Fashionable bar stool. This wooden stool is a great choice for your bar or restaurant and has comfortable seat with removable Velcro. The chair features slightly curved backrest, steel frame and a chromed footrest.
32" Bar Stool


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LYNN HAVEN, Fla. -- Fallen TV evangelist Jim Bakker hopes to open a camp next year for inner-city youth in the rural Florida Panhandle where he now lives.
Bakker, 61, and second wife Lori Graham Bakker recently moved to Sunny Hills in neighboring Washington County and were given land nearby for the camp. The program would host street youths from an Atlanta ministry led by Jay Bakker, his son with former wife Tammy.
''Lori and I had been actively involved in an inner-city ministry in Los Angeles for a couple of years,'' Jim Bakker said at a book-signing. ''We're setting these camps for older inner-city kids who want to get out of the drug culture and get out of gangs.''
Divorce policy protest
LONDON -- Nineteen of the 44 dioceses in the Church of England have objected to a proposal to standardize the policy for divorced persons remarrying in church, the independent Church Times reported.
The church's bishops will discuss the reactions this month.
Only one diocese opposed remarriage in principle, while the others disputed particulars on how permission is to be granted. Two dioceses called the plan unworkable.
The church teaches that marriage is for life and frowns on remarriage while the former spouse is alive, but local priests have been free to conduct such weddings and many do so.
A bishops' panel last year recommended allowing remarriage if ''a reasonable time'' has passed, the divorced persons are honest about the previous marriage's failure, adequate child support is provided and the new relationship did not break up the previous marriage.
Mother of all canonizations
CALCUTTA, India -- A two-year inquiry into the miracles needed to declare Mother Teresa a saint will be completed by Aug. 15, Calcutta's Roman Catholic Archbishop Henry D'Souza announced.
The Vatican normally spends two or three years examining submitted evidence ''but for Mother Teresa the Vatican may take less time,'' he said.
Mother Teresa, hailed as a ''living saint'' during her decades in Calcutta's slums, died in 1997 at age 87. Pope John Paul II waived the customary five-year waiting period to start the process toward declaring her a saint.
Author leaves behind cash
LYNCHBURG, Va. -- The Rev. Tim LaHaye, co-author of the Christian ''Left Behind'' novels, and wife Beverly have donated $4.5 million to the Rev. Jerry Falwell's Liberty University.
The school said the gift and a matching offer would provide a student center with an Olympic-sized swimming pool, fitness center, arcade and theater.
Tim LaHaye's eight best sellers, about people left behind on Earth after God summons true believers in the final reckoning, have sold more than 20 million copies. Beverly LaHaye, founder of the conservative Concerned Women for America, is a university trustee.
Medical leave
SYOSSET, N.Y. -- The Orthodox Church in America, one of the nation's two major Orthodox denominations, said its leader, Metropolitan Theodosius, has been granted a total medical leave for four months.
The announcement said a recent physical exam showed Theodosius, 68, had suffered two minor strokes, then a more serious one. His last duty was attendance at a May summit for all North American Orthodox bishops.
Archbishop Herman of Philadelphia is the church's temporary administrator.
This article published in the Athens Banner-Herald on Saturday, June 2, 2001.
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image can be found here
friends and family have asked us where we are in the process and have we found a house yet and they want to know know know. i look at them and give a little eye roll about the whole thing and then laugh. because you know, i want to know too.
we can't put an offer on a house until we sell our house, we can't sell our house until we actually have someone interested, and we can't really start looking for a house until we have an exact location of where we can go because it's possible the area could be changing again.
oh we will certainly still be moving to alabama but where in alabama is beyond us. and that's the frustrating thing. it's not like we can just drive around and get a feel for neighborhoods or anything. so i've simply stopped looking. until we know for sure at least, i have closed up the discussion and put "until further notice" on it.
it's okay though. we will get there. it's going to take time and if you know me you know i am the least patient person in the history of all people. so. poor andrew.
now to keep me busy, i am going back into nesting mode. yes it's real post pregnancy. it's also known as my word for 2014. i am going back to the basics and simplifying. i am once again sorting through my closets and drawers and in the last two days i've accumulated a few more bins of things i'm going to donate to goodwill.
a few dresses here, some hats there, t-shirts that i didn't even know i had anymore, purses that i haven't used in ages but i had to keep them because you know, that one occasion this purse will be perfect for. it's all going.
to me, less is more. and the more we can get outta here, the less we have to deal with in the end.


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François Boucher
Portrait of the Marquise de Pompadour, 1756
Leinwand, 201 x 157 cm
Dauerleihgabe der HypoVereinsbank, Member of UniCredit. - 1971 erworben durch die Bayerische Hypotheken- und Wechsel-Bank.
Inv. Nr. HUW 18
Portrait of the Marquise de Pompadour
Four years after her marriage to Charles-Guillaume Le Normant d'Etioles in 1745, Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson became the mistress of Louis XV. Owing to her intellectual propensity, which impressed the king, she soon attained an elevated position at court: the climax of which was her being named on February 7, 1756 as the queen's lady-in-waiting (dame du palais). To commemorate the occasion a combination private and official portrait was painted by Boucher.


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Applecross Studio
1 bedroom Self-contained apartment for rent in Applecross
$160.51 - $192.61*per dayprice range estimate for 2 guests*
Guest rating: 5 / 1 review
Where the Swan River is at your doorstep, this modern one bedroom studio is spacious and comfortable. Just relax with all the necessities, such as kitchen, Television and DVD player.
Outdoor courtyard with outdoor sitting. Queen size bed and bathroom with shower. Open plan sitting room Fully equipped with TV, DVD & CD. Dinning room and large kitchen with microwave. Free Wireless internet Linen & towels provided. Hairdryer. Air-condition. Off street parking.
Within walking distances to Swan River, South Perth Yacht Club, Heathcote Park and Canning Bridge Station.
- Cycling
- Linens
- Towels
- WiFi
- Entertainment
- CD Player
Included Services
- Free Parking on Premises
- Heating
- Shampoo
- Smoke Detector
- Washer
- Wireless Internet
- "Kitchen
- Air Conditioning
- DVD Player
- Hair Dryer
- Iron/Board
- Microwave
Kitchen Equipment
- Kettle
- Kitchen Utensils
- Oven
- Refrigerator
- Stove
- Toaster
Other Amenities
- Heater
- Washing Machine
Outside Amenities
- Kayaking
- Patio
- Sailing
- No Pets Allowed
- No Smoking
- Long Term
- Senior Friendly
- Singles Friendly
Make a booking request now
Excellent place, very clean, everything you need, just buy food and settle in.This is like a home away from home, will recommend to my friends.5/5 by Don Gapper, Suva Fiji 12/11/2015


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Inter Rail by Alessandro Gallenzi
Inter Railing around Europe is the dream of many young people, whether embarking on their first, or their fortieth European adventure. In fact Inter Railing as a vacation idea has been gaining a lot of steam in the travel blogging world, with many prominent bloggers embarking on Inter Railing trips recently. And of course, OurOyster.com is even considering an Inter Rail trip next time we find ourselves in Europe.
So this new book by Alessandro Gallenzi comes at just the right moment to peak quite a bit of interest in travel lovers and travel dreamers.
Inter Rail Book Details
Publisher: Alma Books Ltd
Copy courtesy of Alma Books Ltd
Inter Rail Official Plot Synopsis
"When Francesco decides to embark on his first trip outside his native Italy, he leaves behind a difficult relationship with his father, the narrow vistas of a small provincial town and the stifling atmosphere of a country he feels has become degraded. All he brings with him are a change of clothes, a map of Europe and the desire to discover new places, new people and, perhaps, a new life. But a chance encounter in Munich takes him off course, on an incredible journey that will see him fall in love in Sweden, lose all his money in Amsterdam, pan-handle in the streets of London, win big in Monte Carlo and get caught up in an international imbroglio."
Inter Rail Book Review – My Thoughts
Main character Francesco's inter rail itinerary takes him to some of the top city break destinations in Europe; Munich, Berlin, Amsterdam, Paris, London and Rome. What aspiring traveller of Europe can say that none of those destinations are on their must see list? Therefore, the book offers a way to see these iconic cities through the eyes of another awe struck young traveller – a great resource for travel dreamers out there.
I have personally been to all the cities that Francesco visit's – with the exception of Munich – and it was interesting to me to compare just how different our experiences of each city were. Of course, for the sake of the plot Francesco get's himself into all kinds of crazy adventures, including loosing all his money and then later winning a fortune at a casino, getting wound up in the affairs of an international con man, and falling in love with not one, but two girls. Quite different from the typical sight seeing and stuffing my face with food that I usually do when visiting European cities!
What I found most interesting about the book was not the somewhat over the top and suspenseful plot (although lovers of mystery and international intrigue literature will love this aspect), but was the description of travel during the 90's.
Francesco travels through Europe – his first time leaving home – without a guide book, without a laptop, without a mobile phone, and without facebook! CAN YOU BELIEVE IT? As a travel blogger who has fully embraced all aspects of social media and travel, this is a completely foreign world for me. Even during my recent one week long trip to Tonga, where I knew I would have hardly any internet access, I took my laptop – you know, just in case.
Imagine finding yourself in a new city without your confirmation email from a hostel booking site securely stored on your phone, detailing the exact directions to your accommodation? Imagine not having google maps on hand at all times? Imagine using…. *gasp*… FILM!
As much as the idea of travel during the 90's without the technological conveniences I have grown accustomed to freaks me out a little bit, it is also an extremely novel and interesting thing to imagine how I would have reacted to some of the situations that Francesco found himself in without my technological aids.


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Sheena Easton
Music genres
Sheena Easton, birth name Sheena Shirley Orr, was born on April 27, 1959 in Bellshill, Scotland, the UK. She is a Scottish singer who was very popular in 1980s. In total, she has released 16 studio albums, 19 extended plays, 23 singles and contributed to 12 soundtracks. She rose to fame in 1980 with her debut album Take My Time. The album was supported by such hit singles like "Modern Girl" and "9 to 5" / "Morning Train". There were also minor hits like "Take My Time" and, "When He Shines". The single "9 to 5" / "Morning Train" reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and it is her the only one top single. It reached number 3 in the UK. Her other hit singles include such famous songs like "For Your Eyes Only", "You Could Have Been with Me", "We've Got Tonight" and others. You can download The best of Sheena Easton in mp3 from our site.


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