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|28. Okt. 2008
|14. März 2006
|16. Juni 2003
|Auch veröffentlicht unter
|Holger Schmidt, Aaron Roe Hawkins, David W. Deamer
|Ursprünglich Bevollmächtigter
|The Regents Of The University Of California, Brigham Young University
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|Patentzitate (14), Nichtpatentzitate (93), Referenziert von (45), Klassifizierungen (12), Juristische Ereignisse (5)
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This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/251,014, filed Oct. 14, 2005, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/868,475, filed Jun. 15, 2004, which claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/479,376, filed Jun. 16, 2003, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
The present invention relates generally to the field of integrated optics, and more particularly to an optical waveguide comprising a non-solid core layer surrounded by a solid-state material, wherein light can be transmitted with low loss through the non-solid core layer, and an electrical component is in fluid communication with the non-solid core layer. The electrical component controls movement of sample material through the non-solid core. The optical wave guide provides light confinement with structured dielectric materials. A presently preferred implementation of the invention employs anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguides (ARROWs or ARROW). Liquid-core waveguides may also be implemented using other dielectric confinement methods where the layers are periodic, such as Bragg mirrors, holey photonic crystal fiber, and omniguides. ARROWs have a number of implementation advantages when integrated on a chip.
Our invention provides a practical way to extend the field of integrated optics to non-solid waveguide core materials. That is, we describe a way for guiding light on a chip through non-solid materials such as gases and liquids. Light can not only interact with these materials at the location of the active elements in the integrated device, the connections ("optical wires") between elements can also occur through the non-solid materials. Before we explain certain background information relevant to our invention, it should be noted that, although we focus much attention to biomedical applications, the present invention is not limited to any specific application, biomedical or otherwise. The present invention may be applied to a broad range of problems, including but not limited to: the sensing of gases and liquids; single molecule spectroscopy (e.g., fluorescence); quantum optics and quantum information processing; optical measurements of extremely small volumes of gases and liquids; optical tweezers for manipulating tiny (microscopic) particles using light forces; implantable biomedical sensors, etc. Accordingly, except as they may be expressly so limited, the scope of protection of the claims at the end of this specification is by no means limited to the specific applications described herein.
Currently, there are a number of optical methods being used to improve human health and answer health-related scientific questions. These include both applications which are already well advanced (e.g., cell flow cytometry; Maltsev, V. P., Rev. Sci. Inst. 71, 243, 2000; H. M. Shapiro, "Practical Flow Cytometry", Wiley & Sons, 3rd Edition, 1995; Ivnitski, D. et al., Biosensors and Bioelectronics 14, 599, 1999; blood measurements; Gifford, S. C. et al., Biophysical Journal 84, 623, 2003) as well as very fundamental questions regarding the human body (e.g., basic understanding and counting of single DNA molecules. Levene, M. J. et al., Science 299, 682, 2003). Such single molecule studies are carried out to improve drug screening, mRNA expression profiling, and DNA sequencing. Castro, A., et al., Anal. Chem., 69, 3915, 1997; Woolley, A. T. et al., Nature Biotechnology 18, 760, 2000. At the same time, there is a continuing trend to increase the sensitivity of biomedical sensors and imaging methods, down to very small sample volumes (Webb, W. W., Applied Optics 24, 3969, 2001; Lou, H. J. et al., Instrumentation Science and Technology 30, 465, 2002) and individual molecules (DNA). Another area where exquisite sensitivity is required is detection of toxic substances in the gas phase (e.g., in air). We will describe below some specific examples of state-of-the-art methodologies that are currently being used, and describe their performance and limitations. Then we will describe our novel approach with emphasis on how existing problems are addressed and solved.
(i) DNA Fluorescence with Single Molecule Resolution
There are a couple of methods for optical measurements on single molecules. A popular one is to observe them using diffraction-limited optics (Medina, M. et al., Bioessays 24, 758, 2002). The principle of one technique—fluorescence correlation spectroscopy—is shown in
A potentially significant improvement to some of these issues has recently been made by Levene et al. (Levene, M. J. et al., Science 299, 682, 2003), who developed a detection method with single molecule sensitivity based on evanescent coupling of light from molecules trapped in sub-micron sized holes in metal films. The principle is shown in
Using such zero-mode waveguides, the observation volume can be increased to the micromolar level. However, while this method is clearly ingenious, it can be seen from
(ii) Flow Cytometry of Small Volumes
Another area in which optical interactions with a liquid sample containing biological material are being studied is flow cytometry. This field is rather well developed and an advanced setup capable of individual particle analysis is shown in FIG. 4(a). Maltsev, V. P., Rev. Sci. Inst. 71, 243, 2000.
In this case, a microchannel containing the specimen with a width of 10 μm is used. A laser is sent into this channel and fluorescence is detected perpendicular to the excitation direction. The important facts to note are that no waveguiding within the microcuvette is involved, measurements of multiple channels is impossible with this setup and the whole setup is composed of bulk optics.
Another example for a generic flow cytometry setup is shown in
In light of the limitations and problems described above, and as discussed in greater detail below, we have invented a new approach to develop a planar integrated platform for such optical measurements with high sensitivity and the potential for massive parallelism. A presently preferred implementation of our invention is based on ARROW waveguides. Miyagi, M. et al., IEEE Trans. On Microwave Theory and Tech. 28, 298, 1980; Duguay, M. A., et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 49, 13, 1986. We will first describe the principle behind these waveguides and then explain several ways in which they may be used.
In conventional waveguides, light is guided in a medium with higher refractive index than its surroundings (e.g., silica fiber/air). When the refractive index situation is reversed (e.g., in microcapillaries), light cannot be guided in the central low-index region (core) and will leak out as shown in
It is important to note that these structures are well-known in optoelectronics and photonics where they have mainly been used as design tools for high-power and cascade lasers. Mawst, L. J. et al., IEEE Phot. Technol. Lett. 4, 1204, 1992; Patterson, S. G. et al., Electronics Letters 35, 395, 1999. In all applications, however, the ARROW waveguides were made using only solid-state semiconductor or dielectric materials. We are interested in ARROW waveguides where the low-index core is liquid or gaseous. Schmidt, H. et al., Integrated Photonics Research Conference, Washington, D.C., 2003. It should also be pointed out that light guiding in low-index media is also possible using photonic bandgap structures (Joannopoulus, J. D. et al., "Photonic crystals," Princeton University Press, 1995). However, such structures are extremely complicated to fabricate and cannot be used for some of the applications of interest here. They also rely on structures with long range periodicity which is not required for ARROW structures. In addition, fabrication of hollow core ARROW waveguides has been proposed using a different fabrication method. R. Bernini et al., IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quant. Elec. 8, 106-110, 2002. Finally, a method for index-guiding through aqueous liquids in large diameter (several 100 microns) Teflon waveguides was demonstrated. (Datta A et al., [Journal Paper] IEEE Sensors Journal, 3, 788-95, 2003). Single-mode propagation and light confinement in gases is not possible with this approach.
In an embodiment of the invention, an optical waveguide is constructed so as to comprise a non-solid core layer surrounded by a solid-state material, and an electrical component that may be placed in fluid communication with a sample material/analyte in the non-solid core layer. The electrical component may be employed to control movement of the sample material or analyte within the sample material through the non-solid core. The electrical component can be an electrophoretic component or an electroosmotic component. The analyte within the sample material can include, but is not limited to, a nucleic acid molecule, a protein molecule, or an amino acid molecule. The analyte can be a single molecule or a single particle. The nucleic acid molecule, protein molecule, or amino acid molecule can be separated from a mixture in the sample material. In a detailed aspect, a single nucleic acid molecule, a single protein molecule, a single amino acid molecule or a single particle can be separated from the mixture. The single nucleic acid molecule, single protein molecule, single amino acid molecule or single particle can be detected within the optical waveguide. The single particle in the sample material can be one cell or one viral particle. In particular, unlike the micromachined structure disclosed by Bernini, et al., in "Silicon Micromachined Hollow Optical Waveguides for Sensing Applications", supra, the optical waveguide includes a substrate and multiple layers of solid state material deposited on the substrate, and a non-solid core extending through at least one of the multiple layers. The substrate can be made of Silicon (Si) or other solid material. The waveguides in question could be made on different semiconductor substrates but also on a smooth metal, ceramic, or plastic surface.
The non-solid core may be used to contain a sample material whose light transmission, absorption, and/or interference characteristics are to be measured. The sample may have an index of refraction which is lower than the index of refraction of the surrounding solid-state material, and light can be transmitted with low loss through the non-solid core layer and sample material.
The optical waveguide is provided in which the electrical component can be a first electrode and a second electrode applying a current across a length of the non-solid core. In a detailed aspect, the optical waveguide further comprises a first reservoir and a second reservoir at opposite ends of the non-solid core in fluid communication with the non-solid core, the first reservoir in fluid communication with the first electrode and the second reservoir in fluid communication with the second electrode. In a detailed aspect, the electrodes are microelectrodes integrated on the substrate. The electrodes include, but are not limited to, platinum or silver/silver chloride.
The optical waveguide can further comprise a detector of light transmission, absorption, and/or interference characteristics. The detector can be an optical detector integrated with the optical waveguide on the substrate. A single nucleic acid molecule, a single protein molecule, a single amino acid molecule or a single particle from the sample material can be detected by the optical detector. The detector includes, but is not limited to, a fluorescence detector, a light detector or a Raman scattering detector.
The optical waveguide can further comprise a nanopore or micropore in fluid communication with the non-solid core, wherein a detailed aspect, the nanopore or micropore is configured to limit passage of a sample material through the nanopore or micropore to a single molecule or particle at a time.
The optical waveguide can further comprise one or more antiresonant reflecting layers adjacent to the non-solid core, whereby light is substantially prevented from leaking out of the core in a transverse direction. The one or more antiresonant reflecting layers can comprise a Fabry-Perot reflector adjacent to the non-solid core. The substrate can comprise silicon (Si) and the multiple layers comprise SiO2 and SiN. The optical waveguide can further comprise the non-solid core having an index of refraction which is lower than the index of refraction of the surrounding solid-state material, and wherein light can be transmitted with low loss through the non-solid core. The optical waveguide can be generally structured as an anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguide (ARROW). In a detailed aspect, the one or more antiresonant reflecting layers is a Fabry-Perot reflector adjacent to the non-solid core.
The optical waveguide can further comprise a perpendicular waveguide portion for use in injecting light into the non-solid core for measuring fluorescence characteristics associated with a sample material. The cross section of the non-solid core can include, but is not limited to, a substantially square cross-section, a substantially rectangular cross-section, or a substantially arched cross-section. The optical waveguide can further comprise a sample-injection port in fluid communication with the non-solid core for injecting the sample material into the non-solid core. In one aspect, the sample injection port is oriented substantially perpendicular with respect to a longitudinal axis of the non-solid core. In a further aspect, the sample injection port is oriented above the non-solid core.
The present invention may also be embodied in an optical waveguide generally structured as an anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguide (ARROW), comprising a substrate and multiple layers of solid state material disposed on the substrate, and a non-solid core extending through at least one of the multiple layers, wherein the non-solid core has an index of refraction which is lower than the index of refraction of the surrounding solid-state material, and wherein light can be transmitted with low loss through the non-solid core, a Fabry-Perot reflector adjacent to the non-solid core, for substantially preventing light from leaking out of the core in a transverse direction, a perpendicular waveguide portion for use in injecting light into the non-solid core for measuring fluorescence characteristics associated with the sample material, a sample-injection port in fluid communication with the non-solid core for injecting a sample fluid into the non-solid core, the sample injection port being oriented substantially perpendicular with respect to a longitudinal axis of the non-solid core, and an electrical control component in fluid communication with the non-solid core to control movement of an analyte in the sample fluid through the non-solid core.
In accordance with another aspect of the invention, a measurement system is provided comprising an optical waveguide comprising a channel surrounded by a solid-state material, including a Fabry-Perot reflector adjacent to the channel, whereby light is substantially prevented from leaking out of the channel in a transverse direction, a perpendicular waveguide portion for use in injecting light into the channel, means for injecting into the channel an analyte in a sample fluid, an electrical component in fluid communication with the non-solid core to control movement of the analyte through the non-solid core, and means for measuring selected optical and electrical properties associated with the analyte in the sample.
A system for making parallel optical and electrical measurements is provided comprising an optical waveguide comprising a generally planar solid-state material and a plurality of parallel channels within the solid-state material, including a Fabry-Perot reflector adjacent to each channel, whereby light injected into the channels is substantially prevented from leaking out of the channels in a transverse direction; a port for injecting through each of the channels a sample material; a perpendicular waveguide portion for use in injecting light into the channels in a direction which is generally perpendicular to the orientation of the channels; means for measuring selected optical and/or electrical properties associated with an analyte in the sample material; and an electrical component in fluid communication with the channels to control movement of the analyte in the sample material through the plurality of parallel channels.
Other features and advantages of the present invention are described below.
The file of this patent contains at least one drawing/photograph executed in color. Copies of this patent with color drawings/photographs will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.
Currently, cutting edge optical studies of biological agents such as DNA molecules or cells do not take advantage of the established technologies that have made optoelectronic and photonic integrated circuits so successful. Optical setups for biomedical applications typically involve bulky three-dimensional setups and often times the use of microscope objectives for excitation and/or collection. The main reason behind this fact is the inability to guide light through the media in which the cells and molecules are hosted (typically aqueous solutions or gas phase), as these media have lower refractive indices than the surrounding solid-state material.
Here, we present the invention of a radically different approach to creating an experimental platform for optical studies on non-solid-state materials. By using specially designed multi-layer optical waveguides, it is possible to guide light through low-index media over macroscopic distances which will enable optical devices with both improved and novel capabilities. A further aspect is an apparatus for simultaneous optical and electrical sensing with single-molecule sensitivity or single cell sensitivity based on integration of biological and synthetic nanopores or micropores with optical waveguides.
Some novel aspects of this approach compared to state-of-the-art techniques include:
Shown in the drawings are two images that show an implementation of the invention on a single device level as well as in a highly integrated setting for parallel measurements. These two implementations are shown in
The dramatic effect on flow cytometry is illustrated by
Single molecule studies play an increasingly important role in developing our understanding of biosystems on the nanoscale. The ability to isolate and probe individual biomolecules is desirable for several reasons. It allows access to intrinsic molecular behavior and functionality by eliminating ensemble effects due to statistical averaging. It also enables detection, identification, and analysis of the smallest possible quantities and therefore molecular sensing with ultimate sensitivity in environments with minute amounts of sample material. Single molecules can be studied using both electrical and optical techniques. Electrical current blockades caused by molecules transversing a nanoscopic pore in a membrane provide a means to study individual DNA and RNA molecules. Fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy are well-developed optical techniques to probe single molecules. A combination of both electrical and optical methods in a single device integrated on a semiconductor chip is an intriguing possibility that can significantly advance our knowledge of molecular processes on the nanoscale.
Raman scattering refers to an inelastic scattering of light by elementary excitations of matter. When a photon interacts with a medium, it can be scattered in one of the three ways: a) it can be elastically scattered and thus retain its incident energy, e.g., Rayleigh scattering, b) it can be inelastically scattered by quasi-particle excitations of the medium, thereby either giving energy to the medium, e.g., Stokes scattering, or, c) removing energy from it, e.g., anti-Stokes scattering. Thus, Raman scattering involves a coupling between incident photons and the quasi-particle excitations such as phonons (lattice vibrations), magnons and electronic single particle or collective excitations within a sample, which results in the emission of light from the sample that is shifted in frequency from the incident "excitation" light. Raman scattering is an inherently weak nonlinear process that is orders of magnitude less efficient that fluorescence detection. Only when particles such as molecules are bound to metallic nanoparticle surfaces, is the efficiency increased sufficiently to be able to observe surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) from single particles. See e.g., K. Kneipp, et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 84: 3470-3473, 2000.)
An optical waveguide and a measurement system are provided for fluorescence detection in two-dimensional interconnected solid and liquid-core ARROW waveguides. Single molecule sensitivity and electrical control of analyte flow through the liquid core ARROW waveguides was demonstrated for deterministic generation of optical signals, such as fluorescent signals, with ultra-high sensitivity.
It has been demonstrated that integrated liquid core ARROW waveguides with fully planar beam paths are very desirable for single molecule detection due to their high efficiency, sensitivity, and inherent advantages of integrated optics. Yin, et al., Applied Physics Letters, 87: 211111, 2005; Yin, et al., Applied Physics Letters, 85: 3477, 2004. Electrical control of analyte movement in fluidic channels by methods such as capillary electrophoresis allows for faster and higher-resolution analyte separation than slab gel electrophoresis. Woolley et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91: 11348-11352, 1994. Moreover, when combined with laser-induced fluorescence techniques, minute amounts of fluorescently labeled analytes, for example, nucleic acids A or amino acids, can be detected with high efficiency and precision. Schwartz et al, Anal. Chem. 64: 1737-1740, 1992; Sromovasan, et al., Journal of Chromatography A, 652: 83-91, 1993. Therefore, further integration of components for electrical control with liquid-core ARROWs will make these devices very attractive for molecular level separation of many biomolecules such as nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, protein, amino acids and PCR products in a fully planar approach.
Sensitivity limits and electrical control in integrated ARROW waveguides are discussed, in which ARROWs with liquid and solid core are interconnected with each other at 90 degrees. In order to determine the sensitivity limit of the intersection ARROW waveguides, we performed concentration-dependent fluorescence measurements on waveguides with open liquid cores as shown in the SEM image in
To add electrical control of the sample molecules to the waveguides described above, two reservoirs were glued right on top of the two ends of S-shape liquid cores on the surface of the chip, and the two optical outputs of the liquid core were sealed by two solid core waveguides with aligned cores (
Single molecule sensitivity and electrical control of fluorescence detection has been demonstrated in an integrated semiconductor chip based on integrated intersection ARROW waveguides with fully planar beam geometry.
An apparatus is provided for simultaneous optical and electrical sensing with single-molecule sensitivity based on integration of biological and synthetic nanopores or micropores with optical waveguides. The nanopore acts "a smart gate" for controlling the number and position of molecules in numerous parallel waveguide channels on a single chip. Such an integrated device has applications in genomics, proteomics, disease detection, homeland security, toxicology, gas and liquid sensing. Integrated nanopore waveguide devices not only afford single molecule resolution for electrical and optical measurements independently, they also enable novel approaches that are based on this unique combination of both concepts.
This approach compared to other state-of-the-art techniques further provides:
The integration of nanopores with the ARROW waveguides will enable controlled insertion and translocation of single molecules through synthetic nanopores into the waveguide channel. Because both ARROW and nanopore technologies rely on the same material (silicon nitride), their integration has a natural affinity. In addition, the diameters of biomolecules, such as a prokaryotic ribosomes (20 nm for E. coli), are a perfect match for the capabilities of synthetic pore fabrication technology. Integration will address the opening of a nanopore on the ARROW waveguide, provision of suitable fluidic connections for introduction and extraction of biological material in solution, and placement of electrical connections to promote the directional movement of the sample molecules through the waveguide core.
Implementation of a fully integrated sensor is shown in
Finally, integration of fluidic reservoirs is required for controlled introduction of biomolecules in the liquid-core waveguide. We have demonstrated that poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA) reservoirs can be attached to these samples and demonstrated electrophoretic separation of amino acids inside hollow-core channels similar to ARROWs but without optical confinement. This demonstrates that biomolecules can indeed be moved through our structures using applied electric fields. The fluidic reservoirs and their placement on top of the envisioned waveguide geometry is shown in
In particular,
The present invention demonstrates that ARROW waveguides can be used to guide light through small volumes of liquid solution on a chip, that biological and synthetic nanopores can provide single molecule resolution through electrical measurements, for example, in the study of biomolecules such as ribosomes. The translation mechanism in ribosomes is an area for research in molecular biology that can benefit from optical studies on the single molecule level. A further example of implementation of the present invention is nucleic acid sequencing of a single DNA molecule, as shown in
One goal of ours is to have highly functional, highly parallel structures naturally combined with other integrated elements such as interferometers and detectors on the same chip. The research described herein provides the first crucial steps in this direction: the demonstration of waveguiding in ARROW structures with liquid core layers and the fabrication of simple elements suitable for fluorescence measurements on DNA molecules. We point out that the ARROW principle is well understood and being used in other areas. This will also be the first planar setup relying entirely on techniques successfully used in integrated optics.
As a result of our research, better measurement tools will evolve that will improve both our fundamental understanding of health-related processes in cells and molecules as well as lead to improved flow cytometry methods.
Below we provide a more detailed description of exemplary embodiments and applications of the present invention. The bulk focuses on fluid applications, however, these parts are also applicable to gases. In addition, it should be noted that invention may be carried out with a variety of substrate and waveguide materials, including the materials discussed in connection with the examples described below as well as those listed below (this list is not intended to be exhaustive):
Exemplary substrates:
Exemplary waveguide materials:
Exemplary sacrificial layer materials:
Exemplary nanopore materials:
Detailed Description of Exemplary Implementations and Applications
We will now explain our invention in sufficient detail to enable a person of ordinary skill in the field of integrated optics to make and use the invention without undue experimentation. The following description is not intended (nor would it be possible) to serve as an exhaustive discussion of every possible embodiment, application or method of manufacturing a device within the scope of our invention. It is sufficient, however, to enable the skilled artisan to practice our invention. We will first briefly discuss our preliminary studies and then we will explain a method for fabricating exemplary embodiments of the invention, optical measurements for characterization and testing, a phase-shift device based on electromagnetically induced transparency, and a possible implementation of an integrated "optical tweezers" in accordance with the present invention. Other possible implementations include nucleotide sequencing of a single DNA molecule or a single RNA molecules, measurement of cell flow cytometry of a single cell or of a single ribosome.
Preliminary Studies
To date, we have fabricated and tested hollow-core ARROW waveguides with both gaseous and liquid cores and demonstrated low-loss propagation through both types.
1. Waveguides with Air Cores
For the design of the hollow-core ARROW waveguides, we chose cladding materials that are compatible with silicon microfabrication and offer the best potential for further integration. Hence, the transverse profile of the waveguide consists of alternating layers of silicon nitride and oxide (n=2.1 and 1.46, respectively, see
where ni and nc are the cladding and core refractive indexes, respectively. For nc=1 (air), this results in layers of 109 nm (SiN) and 184 nm (SiO2) in the lowest order (N=0). One advantage of the ARROW approach is that the layers do not have to be periodic. As long as the correct di for a given material is chosen that layer will reduce the propagation loss.
The second important design consideration is the realization of lateral confinement for effective single mode propagation. We analyzed different types of lateral confinement.
After determining the structure for lowest loss, two major issues were addressed in order to fabricate the waveguides: The first was finding a suitable sacrificial core layer with lateral dimensions on the order of microns and lengths up to several centimeters. The second issue was growing sufficiently thick top layers over the hollow core to provide mechanical stability.
1) Alternating oxide and nitride layers were deposited on a silicon substrate using plasma-enhanced vapor deposition (PECVD) to form the bottom cladding layers. Deposition was carried out at temperatures between 250° C. and 300° C. Deposition rates for nitride and oxide layers were 70 Å/min and 200 Å/min, respectively. See
2) Subsequently, a 3.5 μm thick photosensitive polyimide (SU-8) layer was deposited on the substrate and then patterned into 2 cm-long ridges of varying width (6-50 μm). See
3) The top ARROW layers and a 2.944 μm SiO2 cap layer for mechanical stability were grown. The thickness of the top layer was chosen such that it provides additional confinement according to eqn. (1). See
4) To create the hollow waveguide cores, the sacrificial SU-8 layer was removed using a solution of H2O2 and H2SO4 at 85° C. providing the required high directional etch selectivity. A photoresist ridge was then patterned on top of the waveguide and transferred into the top SiO2 layer using CF4 based plasma etching. (It should be noted that one can do this processing using different materials as sacrificial layers, such as metals (aluminum), polyimides (SU-8), and photoresist.) This ridge was added to evaluate the possibility for lateral confinement. As can be seen from
The completed samples were cleaved into 0.5-8 mm long waveguides and light from a diode laser at 785 nm with 0.25 mW power was coupled into the structures. The near-field image of the mode profile at the output facet was recorded using magnifying optics (0.85 NA lens, 60:1 magnification) and a CCD camera (BeamPro Model 2320, Photon Inc.) while simultaneously illuminating the output facet to image both facet and ARROW mode directly. For the first time, low loss propagation through an integrated ARROW waveguide with a hollow air core was observed. The mode image is shown in
The waveguide loss of the ARROW structure was determined by recording the transmitted power as a function of waveguide length (input polarization along y). The result is shown in
and the resulting curve is shown in
2. Liquid Cores
Here, we designed a waveguide with layers of 110 nm (SiN) and 281 nm (SiO2) for low loss propagation in water (n=1.33) at 690 nm. This optimizes the structure for fluorescence emission of dye molecules that are excited by a He—Ne laser at 635 nm. The waveguides were fabricated in the same way as for air cores.
For optical characterization, the samples were cleaved into waveguides with variable length (0.5 to 8 mm) and light from a He-NE laser at 635 nm or a diode laser at 785 with up to 1 mW power was coupled into the waveguide cores using single-mode fiber. For measurements with liquid cores, the cores were filled with ethylene glycol and then mounted on a translation stage for transmission measurements. Ethylene glycol (n=1.43) was used instead of water because it evaporates more slowly and allows for longer measurement times.
The near-field image of the mode profile at the output facet was recorded in the same way as for the air core sample and led to the same results, i.e., observation of a confined and propagating mode inside the non-solid ARROW waveguide core.
The waveguide loss was determined by measuring the intensity throughput as a function of waveguide length. By fitting the data to a decaying exponential, a loss of 2.4 cm−1, is observed at 635 nm for a sample with core width 24 μm. At 785 nm, we could not observe any transmission, which implies a loss of at least 10 cm−1 based on the current sensitivity of our setup. The experimental values are in qualitative agreement with the expectation of higher loss at longer wavelengths and the discrepancy is mainly due to contributions from coupling into higher order ARROW modes with significantly higher loss and scattering losses in the waveguide. We emphasize that the wavelength dependence of the loss is strong and can effectively be used to suppress propagation at certain wavelengths. In addition, this dependence can be tailored by choosing the ARROW layer thicknesses while maintaining low loss at one design wavelength. This wavelength selectivity makes these waveguides especially attractive for fluorescence and Raman scattering applications where filtering of a pump beam from a signal at longer wavelengths is required. Together with the high coupling efficiency of fluorescence into the ARROW mode, this feature makes liquid core ARROW waveguides ideally suited for optical measurements with single molecule resolution.
Based on the preliminary results on single waveguides described above, ARROW waveguides with non-solid cores can be used for highly parallel sensor architectures with multiple ARROW sensor waveguides on the same chip. A possible implementation of such a device is shown in
Other Approaches to Quantum Optics on a Chip
Very recently, researchers have started to develop experimental platforms to perform quantum optical experiments on the surface of a chip using mechanisms to trap, manipulate, and move atoms. Bartenstein, M. et al., IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics 36, 1364, 2000; Hansel, W. et al., Nature 413, 498, 2001. In addition, the use of quantum coherence for the realization of atomic clocks has been proposed. Kitching, J. et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 553, 2002. This shows that the knowledge acquired from integrating EIT with a semiconductor chip will influence non-EIT-based research and science as well.
Proposed Approaches
The discussion above has made it clear that ideally we would like to have an EIT medium with the optical qualities of alkali vapor atoms and the practical advantages of a semiconductor. Since no single medium seems to exist that inherently combines both features, we propose a way to actually use alkali atoms, but integrate them on a semiconductor chip as a host medium. The advantages inherent to such an approach are:
A comprehensive program to realize such integrated structures needs to address several areas: These are sample design and simulations, development of suitable fabrication methods, building a spectroscopy setup, and testing of structures and devices. The following approaches to address these issues are described.
Materials and Waveguide Design
One of the main new contributions of this work is the insertion of a low index (essentially air) gap into a (ideally single-mode) waveguide structure. A main consideration is to choose a suitable material system in which to realize the waveguides. The material system needs to have the following properties:
Antiresonant Waveguide (ARROW) Structures on Silicon
Non-solid core ARROW waveguides are ideally suited for realizing longer cavities in combination with single-mode waveguides. As described above, if the layer thicknesses are chosen such that the thickness of a low-index core and a high-index cladding are mλ/2 and (2m+1)λ/4, respectively, light propagation occurs in the low-index layer and the structure forms a so-called antiresonant reflecting optical waveguide (ARROW). Duguay, M. A. et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 49, 13, 1986; Koch, T. L. et al., Elec. Lett. 23, 244, 1987.
This concept can be used to our advantage by fabricating an ARROW structure where air is the low-index core in which light propagation occurs. Since the index of the Rb cavity is similar, the wave will remain confined in this region and diffraction and coupling losses are significantly reduced. A thin transmissive wall of silicon would separate the air core from the Rb cell. While MEMS-based methods can be used to realize ARROW structures for integrated optics (Nathan, A. et al., Proc. SPIE 2686, 2, 1996) and ARROW structures can be integrated with photodetectors on the same chip (Benaissa, K. et al., J. of Lightwave Technology 16, 1423, 1998), the fabrication of such a structure is more challenging than the simpler slab waveguides.
ARROWs or ARROW waveguides also encompasses other dielectric confinement methods where the layers are periodic, such as Bragg mirrors, one-dimensional photonic crystals and omniguides.
Optical Tweezers
Optical tweezers provide a method to hold, direct and manipulate small particles of micron or sub-micron size such as cells or cell parts using light (Ashkin A. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 6, 841-56, 2000 and references therein). This has the advantage that no mechanical interaction is present that could damage the specimen. The effect is based on light pressure, i.e., the notion that light carries with it a certain amount of momentum that can be transferred to material objects.
An optical tweezer is generally understood as being a single-beam optical trap as shown in
Fluorescence Measurements
After characterizing various structural and optical properties of the waveguides, we carried out fluorescence studies on conventional organic dye molecules (Alexa 647, © Molecular Probes, in glycol) and clearly demonstrated the applicability of the ARROW concept to molecular sensing.
Recently, we demonstrated fluorescence detection from intersecting waveguides, i.e., in the desired geometry for the sensor application.
Finally, we observed fluorescence excitation at multiple locations along the liquid channels which demonstrates that highly parallel 2D waveguide arrays can be built and which will be important for our proposed FRET measurements on ribosomes (see below).
Nanopores or Micropores
An optical waveguide is provided comprising a substrate and multiple layers of solid state material disposed on the substrate, a non-solid core extending through at least one of the multiple layers, and a nanopore or micropore in fluid communication with the core. Current studies on single DNA molecules have used current blockade measurements in α-hemolysin pores. D. Deamer and D. Branton, Acc. Chem. Res., 35, 817, 2002. In the present application, we focus on results of optical waveguides with synthetic nanopores or micropores formed in a layer of solid material, such as a dielectric or metal. The layer of solid material can be a silicon nitride membrane or a silicon membrane. The nanopore or micropore can be formed or drilled into the layer of solid material, for example, a silicon nitride membrane or a silicon membrane.
The nanopore in fluid communication with the non-solid core is configured to limit passage of a sample material through the nanopore to a single molecule at a time. A nanopore is an opening with nanoscopic dimensions, for example, a diameter of from about 1 nanometer to about 500 nanometers. Depending on the dimensions of a single molecule or ribosome, the diameter dimensions of the nanopore can be from about 1 nm to about 500 nm, from about 1 nm to about 100 nm, or from about 1 nm to about 2 nm. A micropore is an opening of microscopic dimensions, for example, the diameter can be from about 1 micron to about 500 microns. For use in cell flow cytometry, the micropore can be, for example, from about 1 μm to about 500 μm, from about 1 μm to about 100 μm, from about 1 μm to about 10 μm, or from about 1 μm to about 5 μm. The nanopore can be configured to limit passage to a single molecule or a single particle at a time. The single molecule or particle can include, but is not limited to, one double-stranded nucleic acid molecule, one single-stranded nucleic acid molecule, one polypeptide molecule or one ribosome. The micropore can be configured to limit passage to a single cell or viral particle at a time.
Synthetic nanopores. Focused ion beams (FIB) are used to 'drill' a nanoscopic hole with dimensions similar to the α-hemolysin pore into a synthetic SiN membrane. The advantage of this approach is the control of size and durability of the pore as well as its compatibility with other microfabrication steps. Silicon nitride nanopores of varying size from 7 to 70 nm are provided from Agilent Technology.
Pores in hollow-core structures. In the context of this application, the use of SiN membranes is particularly attractive because the first cladding layer for the ARROW core is made of SiN as well, and provides a natural approach to incorporating a nanopore with optical waveguides.
We have demonstrated that nanopores can be formed or drilled into our hollow-core channels with 1 μm thick top walls using FIB.
Micron-scale pores for cell flow cytometry can be etched into waveguides using conventional lithography and etching.
While earlier work on ribosome structure was directed towards deducing ribosome structure from biochemical probing and x-ray crystallography, emphasis is now starting to shift towards the dynamics of the translation process and the movement of the ribosome parts. Hydroxyl radical probing was used to identify locations and arrangements of various ribosomal proteins, inter-atomic distances between tRNAs were determined, position and orientation of translation factors were measured, and the coupled movement of mRNA and tRNA during translation was studied using "toeprinting." Lancaster, L., et al., RNA. 6, 717-29, 2000; Lieberman, K. R., et al., J Mol Biol. 297, 1129-43, 2000; Wilson, K. S., et al., Nat Struct Biol. 7, 866-70, 2000; Hartz, D. et al., Genes Dev. 3, 1899-912, 1989. In addition, the crystal structure for the complete ribosomes was determined with 5.5 A resolution. Yusupov, M., et al., Science. 292, 883-896, 2001. Here, the focus is on recent results that are relevant to optical studies of individual ribosomes.
Ribosome labeling. Being able to label different parts of the ribosomes with fluorescent dye is essential for carrying out fluorescence studies. For FRET, two different molecules (donor and acceptor) need to be placed in close proximity to each other. Doubly fluorescent-labeled ribosomes will be constructed using an in vitro reconstitution strategy similar to the one that was used successfully in earlier tethered Fe(II) directed hydroxyl radical probing studies. Culver, G. M. and H. F. Noller, Methods Enzymol. 318, 461-75, 2000. In this strategy, single cysteine residues are introduced into non-conserved surface positions on individual ribosomal proteins by site-directed mutagenesis. The mutant proteins are overexpressed, purified and derivatized with a fluorescent dye, and then reconstituted into ribosomal subunits in vitro, together with the other non-labeled proteins and ribosomal RNA. Using the system for overexpression and FPLC purification of recombinant ribosomal proteins, large (˜10 mg or more) amounts of individual purified proteins can readily be producde for derivatization with fluorescent probes and in vitro reconstitution of doubly-labeled ribosomes. Culver, G. M. and H. F. Noller, Methods Enzymol. 318, 446-60, 2000. So far, single-cysteine substitutions have been made at 18 different positions in 9 different ribosomal proteins. Several of these mutant proteins have been derivatized with fluorescent donor and acceptor probes (fluoresceine and tetramethylrhodamine in trial experiments), and successfully reconstituted functionally active, doubly-labeled ribosomes in vitro. The emission signals for these dyes peak around 530 and 580 nm, respectively. FRET was observed from the 30S subunit. So far, enough different cysteine-substituted protein positions have been synthesized to provide more than 20 different donor-acceptor pairs whose intermolecular distances are potentially useful for ribosome dyamics experiments, including Cy3 and Cy5.
Fluorescence measurements. The fluorescence from labeled ribosomes is studied using the conventional 3D inverted microscopy setup to observe fluorescence from small sample amounts using an avalanche photodetector in photon counting mode.
ARROW waveguides have been used to study active ribosomes (E. coli) that were unspecifically labeled with Cy5 dye (spectra identical to Alexa 647). The ribosome preparation followed established protocols. For the labeling with Cy5 dye, the individual small and large subunits were activated at 42° C. for 10 minutes, and then associated at 37° C. for 10 minutes. The 70S ribosomes (final concentration 7.5 μM) were obtained and labeled in 50 mM Hepes, pH 7.6, 20 mM MgCl2, 100 mM KCL, 1 mM TCEP in the presence of 375 μM Cy5-maleimide at 37° C. for 40 minutes. Ribosomes were purified of unbound dye and 30S subunits by centrifugation in sucrose gradient. Ribosomes were concentrated and washed of sucrose using Centricon with 100 kDa cut off. The labeling ratio was measured as 1.15 dye molecule per ribosome and the sucrose content was increased to 40% to avoid rapid evaporation from the currently open ARROW cores. Single-channel ARROWs (3.5 μm×15 μm×5 mm cores) were filled with the solution and fluorescence was excited and collected as shown in
This constitutes the first demonstration of the use of integrated ARROW waveguides for sensing of functional biomolecules in a natural environment and is a promising and essential step towards use of these waveguides as a biomedical instrumentation tool.
The previous sections have demonstrated that all components for integrated sensors with single molecule sensitivity are in place. ARROW waveguides provide the required optical guiding, and can be fabricated in various shapes and lengths, specifically in two-dimensional arrays. They can be integrated with microfluidic reservoirs and were used to detect fluorescence at the level of single dye molecule sensitivity as well as from a single active biomolecule in buffer solution. Synthetic nanopores can successfully be formed or drilled in ARROW-like structures and have been shown by others to deliver current blockade signals. Finally, different components of the ribosome machine can be labeled and be detected in integrated waveguides.
Sensitivity limits and electrical control in integrated ARROW waveguides are discussed, in which ARROWs with liquid and solid core are interconnected with each other at 90 degrees. In order to determine the sensitivity limit of the intersection ARROW waveguides, we performed concentration-dependent fluorescence measurements on waveguides with open liquid cores as shown in the SEM image in
Single-molecule Sensitivity in ARROW Waveguides
The present invention provides a device or method to incorporate synthetic nanoscale pores into an instrument that can detect a wide range of analytes, including nucleic acids, proteins, ribosomes, and viruses. The instrument incorporates a novel chip-based technology that will permit a portable device to be manufactured for both laboratory and field applications. The core technology is a sensor that incorporates a micron-scale ARROW microfluidic compartment which is cross-illuminated with exciting light from a laser source. (ARROW=antiresonant reflecting optical waveguide. See
Integrated ARROW waveguides can be fabricated in a completely monolithic process that does not require any wafer bonding steps and is fully compatible with conventional CMOS fabrication. A nanopore is used as a gate to guide single analyte particles into the laser excitation volume. As each particle passes through the illuminated femtoliter volume by electophoretic flow, a fluorescent marker on the particle emits photons, and these are collected by the waveguide and sent by fiber optics to an avalanche photodiode detector. See
The uniqueness of the ARROW principle lies in the fact that we are able to guide light through picoliter volumes over large distances (order of centimeters) on the chip. This is possible because we fabricated waveguides in micron-sized cross sections using a specially designed dielectric multilayer sequence around the liquid channel (
Integrated structures using ARROW waveguides are already close to producing the sensitivity to reach the single molecule detection limit. Nevertheless, the optical waveguide and the system for making parallel optical and electrical measurements will achieve single molecule detection from dye molecules in a liquid core waveguide. Single molecule sensitivity will first be demonstrated by dilution of the dye solution in a single waveguide, and subsequently simultaneously from multiple waveguides on a single chip. This will be achieved using the following approaches.
Waveguide loss, coupling, and filtering. Low waveguide loss is the most essential requirement for reaching single-molecule detection and increasing the signal-to-noise ratio in future applications.
Secondly, we will study the radiation coupling efficiency of a dipole in the ARROW core as a function of orientation and location.
In addition, we will demonstrate the integrated wavelength filter function of the ARROW waveguide that was discussed above by determining the waveguide loss at different wavelengths. We will measure the wavelength dependent loss over a large spectral range using a tunable laser source and compare the observed dispersion with our theoretical expectations.
Single molecule sensitivity: Several approaches can be taken to reduce the number of detectable molecules from 40 to 1 such as: reduction of the waveguide loss through pre-etching of the silicon substrate as described above; reduction of the excitation volume in the intersection geometry, and improvement of the detection setup.
The detection setup was improved by incorporating a more sensitive single photon avalanche detector (Perkin Elmer). This was sufficient to demonstrate single molecule fluorescence detection sensitivity in integrated ARROW waveguides (D. Yin et al., submitted to Optics Letters). Using two of these detectors in photon counting mode, single molecule detection can be verified in a Hanbury-Brown-Twiss intensity correlation measurement. Hollars C W et al., Chemical Physics Letters, 370, 393-8, 2003; Basche T et al., Experimental Technique of Physics, 41, 197, 1995.
The excitation volume in the intersection geometry is given by the product of the core cross section and the width of the solid-core waveguide. After improving the waveguide loss, the liquid-core width can be reduced from 12 μm to at least 9 μm. The core height will be reduced from 5.8 to 3-4 μm, but needs to remain large enough to ensure good fiber coupling at the output. The solid-core width can be reduced by a factor of 3 from 15 to 5 μm. In fact, our calculations show that this width will optimize the coupling of the excitation beam from single-mode fiber into the fundamental mode of the solid-core waveguide. This corresponds to a volume reduction by a factor of 6-7 which translates directly into a reduction of the number of excited molecules.
A combination of three approaches will make single molecule detection even easier than in the already demonstrated implementation and most importantly, will allow to achieve this level of sensitivity for various levels of integration: first using open channels with intersecting waveguides as described above, then in ARROW structures with integrated fluidic reservoirs (see
Integration of Nanopore with ARROW Sensor
The second major goal will be the integration of the nanopores with the ARROW waveguides to enable controlled insertion and translocation of single molecules through synthetic nanopores into the waveguide channel. Because both ARROW and nanopore technologies rely on the same material (silicon nitride), their integration has a natural affinity. In addition, the diameters of prokaryotic ribosomes (20 nm for E. coli) are a perfect match for the capabilities of synthetic pore fabrication technology. Integration needs to address the opening of a nanopore on the ARROW waveguide, provision of suitable fluidic connections for introduction and extraction of biological material in solution, and placement of electrical connections to promote the directional movement of the sample molecules through the waveguide core.
We have shown that ARROW waveguides can be used to guide light through small volumes of liquid solution on a chip, that biological and synthetic nanopores can provide single molecule resolution through electrical measurements, and that the translation mechanism in ribosomes is a rich and relevant area for research in molecular biology that can benefit from optical studies on the single molecule level.
The present invention will combine these areas into a coherent program on optical and electrical sensing of single biomolecules on a chip. We will work towards building a fully integrated sensor whose implementation is shown in
Fluid delivery and flow characterization. So far, liquid has been introduced into the ARROW cores from the end facets using capillary forces. In an integrated device, control of the liquid and molecules therein will be done using electrically induced fluid flow. The overview picture in
Electrophoretic movement of ribosomes and other biomolecules (e.g., proteins or DNA) through ARROW structures will be demonstrated. The first approach will be to insert electrical probes directly into the PMMA reservoirs to apply the drive voltage. B. A. Peeni et al., Lab on a chip, 5, 501-505, 2005. Another integration step will be added by depositing electrical contact pads on the structure as shown in
Incorporation of nanopore in ARROW waveguide.
The pores will then be tested for electrical detection of translocation of single ribosomes using the nanopore characterization setup. These measurements will provide the first nanopore studies on ribosomes and will also yield the first demonstration of integration of a nanopore with another (optical) sensor. Other biomolecules will be studied, for example, DNA, using a combination of current blockade measurements in synthetic nanopores and optical excitation in ARROW waveguides on a chip.
Single-ribosome Studies in Integrated Waveguides
A further goal of the present invention is to demonstrate the applicability of the ARROW-based single-molecule detection to the study of fundamental problems in molecular biology, in particular the dynamics of translation in the ribosome. Ultimately, we envision that single ribosomes will be introduced into the liquid-core waveguides from fluidic reservoirs or fluidic channels from other parts of a larger analysis system. Introduction would occur through a synthetic nanopore of approximately 20 nm diameter in the silicon nitride layer surrounding the ARROW core. Detection of the current blockade will signal the entry of the molecule into the waveguide and can be used to synchronize optical probing and other events, e.g., introduction of other materials such as messenger RNA (mRNA) into the channel. In this application, it is proposed to demonstrate the components required to realize this vision and develop the method to observe time-resolved FRET from single ribosomes. The following subsections discuss the required milestones in more detail. It is important to note that results from most of the experiments to be described below can be transferred directly to sensing of other biomolecules in the waveguide core.
Waveguide optimization for ribosome studies. We intend to study the ribosome as a particular biomolecule using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). So far, all fluorescence measurements using ARROWs were carried out with a single fluorophore. Consequently, they required optimization of the liquid-core structure for only a single wavelength. For FRET, on the other hand, we need to be able to collect fluorescence signals from both the donor and acceptor molecule. G. Haran, J. Phys., 15, R1291-R1317, 2003. Therefore, we need to ensure that the wavelength response of the waveguide is designed for this case. One donor/acceptor pair we intend to use is that of Cy3/Cy5 (equivalent to Alexa 555/647) with respective emission wavelengths of 565 and 660 nm.
It can be seen that the loss is low at 660 nm in both cases. However, light at the shorter wavelength does not propagate well through a water-filled core in the current design. Using the design rules described in H. Schmidt et al., IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 11, 519, 2005 we will design and test ARROW structures whose wavelength response is optimized for different FRET donor/acceptor pairs in water-like cores (nC˜1.33).
Ribosome adhesion to the waveguide walls. Attachment of ribosomes to the ARROW waveguide walls could present a serious problem for carrying out fluorescence measurements because fluorescence coupling to the waveguide mode is most efficient for molecules in the center of the core. This is especially true for single-ribosome detection where signal-to-noise ratios will be low.
We have already succeeded in observing ribosome fluorescence in ARROWs which indicates that many molecules do not stick to the walls. In addition, it is known that proteins and other biomolecules show reduced interactions with silicon nitride compared to silica. R. M. Guijt et al., Electrophoresis, 22, 235-241, 2001. This is yet another big advantage of using silicon nitride as the first ARROW cladding layer. We therefore expect that ribosome adhesion will not play an important role in our experiments.
However, we have not quantified this effect and propose to do so with further experiments. To this end, we will introduce ribosomes at higher concentration in the ARROW core such that the emitted fluorescence can be imaged with our CCD camera (Photon Inc.) as shown in
"Bulk"-FRET in current waveguides. As discussed in section above, fluorescence from labeled ribosomes in ARROW waveguides has been successfully detected. Based on these results, our next step will be to demonstrate the capability of measuring FRET in the same setup and subsequently in structures as shown in
We point out that "bulk" in this context refers to ribosome concentrations of 1 nM and approximately 105 ribosomes in the waveguide.
Ribosome labeling. The capabilities for providing more than 20 different donor-acceptor pairs has been developed with potentially useful intermolecular spacings based on cysteine-substituted proteins. FRET was demonstrated with the fluoresceine/tetramethylrhodamine pair (FITC/Rhod-2, 520/576 nm). Within this project, labeling with other FRET pairs will be carried out and tested. In particular, we will focus on the Cy3/Cy5 and Alexa555/Alexa647 pairs. Both have emission wavelengths around 565/660 nm. However, the Alexa family exhibits better fluorescence properties, in particular higher photostability, and is therefore a better candidate for single-molecule FRET detection. www.probes.invitrogen.com.
Ribosome detection through synthetic nanopore. We will test whether individual labeled ribosomes can be transported through a synthetic nanopore and be detected using optical microscopy. This will first be done by the Deamer group using the Agilent nanopore chip and the bulk setup based on an inverted microscope as described above. This has the advantage that detection of single silica spheres was already demonstrated and transition to the nanopore/ribosome case can occur rapidly.
These measurements will provide important feedback for the translocation behavior of the ribosome without the added complication of first integrating the pore with the ARROW chip.
Single-ribosome fluorescence. The conclusion from the ARROW fluorescence measurements to date was that sensitivity is highest and can reach the single molecule limit if orthogonally intersecting pump and collection waveguides are used. We will use this geometry to detect fluorescence from single ribosomes after having established ARROW sensitivity to single dye molecules and "bulk" FRET.
A preferred embodiment of the experimental method will be to introduce the ribosome through the nanopore gate using electrophoresis and use the electrical current blockade signal as an indicator of molecule entry into the core. The molecule will then be excited by the pump laser as it passes the intersection and fluorescence will be detected in the usual way. If the nanopore works well, the electrical signal should be helpful in analyzing and eliminating spurious background photon counts on the optical detector. It should also be possible to determine the velocity of the ribosome in the channel by correlating the detection times of optical and electrical signals. This would be the first demonstration of enhancing single molecule studies through simultaneous use of electrical and optical detection.
Time-resolved single-ribosome FRET. Finally, we will develop the capability of detecting time-resolved FRET to study the dynamics of translation of the genetic code to answer some of the questions that were mentioned in the introduction. FRET pairs can be placed in different parts of the ribosome including head and body of the 30S subunit, platform and body, and different positions of mRNA and tRNA (e.g., elbow region). We will focus on monitoring FRET generated within the 30S subunit upon association of 30S and 50S subunits. These pilot studies will pave the way for investigating more controversial processes in the future.
In contrast to other recent FRET studies on ribosomes, our measurements will be on freely moving ribosomes that are not immobilized on a surface. S. C. Blanchard et al., PNAS 101, 12893-12898, 2004; S. C. Blanchard et al., Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, 11, 1008-1014, 2004. In order to carry out time-dependent studies, the ribosome must, of course, be localized in an excitation volume for a sufficiently long period of time. To ensure this, we will pursue two approaches as shown in
The first is to move the ribosome along the ARROW channel using DC electrophoresis. Once it reaches the intersection shown in
The second approach is to make use of the parallel excitation capability of the ARROW waveguide that was already demonstrated above. Here, we propose to use spatio-temporal mapping to achieve time resolution for the FRET detection. As shown in
The experiments described in this subsection would constitute the first dynamic optical studies on freely moving ribosomes and open the way for a detailed look at many aspects of translocation.
DNA Hybridization Detection
The first experiment that utilizes optical waveguiding in conjunction with the nanopore will be hybridization detection of single molecules. A single DNA strand will be introduced in the ARROW core through the hemolysin nanopore. Entrance of the molecule is monitored by observation of a current blockade. The core will contain molecules with the matching base pair sequence and TO-PRO dye. These can be introduced in advance from the other end of the core. Upon hybridization, fluorescence from intercalated dye can be observed. This measurement will combine the gating properties of the nanopore and the fluorescence sensing characteristics of the ARROW. In addition, the measurement will be carried out on several channels in parallel. These can be filled with different oligonucleotides and fluorescence will only be observed from the channel that contains the correct sequence. This will be a demonstration for rapid, parallel nucleotide identification.
DNA Sequencing
A large part of the promise of single molecule studies lies in the potential for rapid, high-throughput sequencing of genomic DNA at rates of thousands of base pairs per second (bp/sec). Several approaches using single molecule fluorescence are being pursued. J. Joannopoulos et al., Photonic Crystals, Princeton, 1995; Y. Fink et al., Science, 282, 1679, 1998; P. Yeh et al., J. Opt. Soc. Am., 67, 423, 1977; G. R. Hadley et al., Opt. Lett., 29, 809, 2004; P. Russell, Laser Focus World, 38, 77, 2002; H. F. Noller et al., FEBS Letters, 514, 11-16, 2002. They are based on labeling DNA with fluorophores followed by anchoring the DNA molecule in a flow stream using optical tweezers or micropipettes. J. Joannopoulos et al., Photonic Crystals, Princeton, 1995; Y. Fink et al., Science, 282, 1679, 1998; H. F. Noller et al., FEBS Letters, 514, 11-16, 2002; G. R. Hadley et al., Opt. Lett., 29, 809, 2004; P. Russell, Laser Focus World, 38, 77, 2002. Then, an exonuclease enzyme is used to sequentially release fluorophore-tagged monomers which are the excited to fluoresce at an excitation spot. In order to enable complete sequencing, only two bases per strand (e.g., G and C) can be tagged at a time to yield two-pair sequences. By analyzing all six two-pair combinations, the complete sequence can be deducted. While promising, these optical approaches have suffered from limited detection efficiency and large amounts of noise.
It is proposed to implement and improve this concept in the integrated nanopore/ARROW device.
This approach to optical sequencing combines all advantages of the nanopore/ARROW device in a unique measurement. The key components (DNA anchor, fluorescence detection) are integrated on a chip, and the electrical signal will be used to ensure proper operation. A significant advantage is that sequencing can be carried out in parallel channels simultaneously. All six two-base pair combinations can be analyzed in different channels simultaneously using the same excitation beam. This will speed up optical sequencing significantly and improve the signal-to-noise ratio. In addition, this method has the potential to be combined with sequencing based on electrical nanopore signals, further adding to the amount of available data and improving the reliability of the method. J. R. Grunwell et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 123, 4295, 2001.
Protein Analysis.
The identification and measurement of certain proteins in blood is an important clinical tool. For instance, serum lipoprotein analysis is routinely used to diagnose risk of heart disease, chorionic gonadoropin is determined in pregnancy tests, and prostate specific antigen (PSA) is commonly used to scan patients for prostate cancer. Tests for blood proteins require 5 to 10 milliliters of blood obtained by venipuncture. They are also time consuming, so that often several days pass before a physician receives needed information. We believe that the nanopore/ARROW sensor instrument will be able to provide such information in minutes using just one drop of blood obtained by a finger lancet, as diabetics routinely perform on themselves.
Virus Detection and Identification.
Measurement of viral load in the blood of hepatitis and AIDS patients is an important clinical tool, both for diagnosing the disease and for monitoring response to therapy. Detection of certain pathogenic viruses and bacteria like anthrax are useful to reduce the risk factors in bioterrorism. Current methods for determining viral load are time consuming and expensive. We believe that our instrument will be able to provide such measurements to a physician in a few minutes at minimal cost.
Flow Cytometry of Small Volumes
Another area in which optical interactions with a liquid sample containing (pathogenic) biological material are studied is flow cytometry. This field is well developed and an advanced setup capable of individual particle analysis is shown in
In this case, a microchannel containing the specimen with a width of 10 μm is used. A laser is sent into this channel and fluorescence is detected perpendicular to the excitation direction. The important facts to note are that no waveguiding within the microcuvette is involved, measurements of multiple channels are impossible with this setup and the whole setup is composed of bulk optics. Another example for a generic flow cytometry setup is shown in
Our instrument can achieve flow cytometry on a chip using a micropore to signal entry of individual cells and fluorescence from the ARROW waveguides for detection.
While the present invention has been described in connection with several presently preferred or illustrative embodiments, it is to be understood that other similar embodiments may be used or modifications and additions may be made to the described embodiments for performing the same functions of the present invention without deviating therefrom. For example, while exemplary embodiments of the invention are described as including ARROW waveguides, one skilled in the art will recognize that the present invention is not limited thereto, and that the methods described herein may apply to other implementations, and may be applied to any number of such devices and applications without departing from the invention. Therefore, the present invention should not be limited to any single embodiment, but rather should be construed in breadth and scope in accordance with the appended claims.
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text:
May Northcott is a woman at the end of her rope. She'd almost gotten used to her employer, the ex-demon lord Magoth, spending his days hanging around her home and interrupting her private moments with her lover, Gabriel. Then trouble appears on her doorstep in the form of a nearly dead man. With May fighting to control the dragon shard, Magoth wrangling to regain his position and powers, and a mysterious and deadly dragon bent on their destruction, Gabriel has his work cut out for him. Now he'll have to claw his way through all the distractions and convince May that their love is strong enough to conquer all of their enemies.
©2009 Katie MacAlister (P)2010 Recorded Books, LLC
"Love Mayling!!"
I think this is the best book of the series. The gangs all here! Magoth, Jim, Sireni and Kostya are always hilarious. Rosenblat does an excellent job portraying the characters so that you never have to puzzle out who is saying what. There is still the close involvement with Aisling and Drake so we get to see what develops in their lives also.
"Fun and Entertaining"
Katie MacAlister does it again with this third installment of the Silver Dragon series. Alot of the old characters are actively involved in this book (Drake, Ashling, Costia, Nora, Maygoth, Jim, Baltic, Fiat, red dragons). Mayling and Gabriel are challenged with having to deal with the dragon shard in Mayling...and their developing relationship. The story has great humor regarding male - female roles. The other books in the series should be read first because the story is progressive and leaves off with a cliffhangar for number 4. It is pure fun and entertainment...an escape. Great narration!
"Brrrrilliant and fun listen"
If you've listened to the other 2 books in the Silver Dragon series then you know what you're getting - but if you haven't then go back and download books 1 & 2 then this one - you won't be disappointed. It has everything, a great storyline, sexy dragons, mages, a variety of wonderful characters and of course, romance.
All this is made even better by a very talented narrator.
I think this is the last of the Silver Dragons series but it finishes with the possibility of a whole new Dragon series (please, please).
Worth the credit? DEFINATELY YES
"Demons and dragons and gold, oh my!"
Me and My Shadow ties up the storyline concerning Mayling and Garbiel. In this novel, the silver wyvern and his mate are on a mission to get the dragon shard removed from May before it destroys her. Katie Macalister loves to write about bad boys, and Gabriel is not actually one of them; so, most of this installment seems to contain Magoth and Baltic. Magoth is one of the most twisted demons around and is at the center of many of the most hilarious events in this installment including quite a funny scene with Catalina. A Magoth focused book would be a wonderful addition to Macalister???s repertoire, but is there anything that can be redeemed in Magoth? Can a good flawed babe make him heel? Perhaps a dominatrix with a heart of gold who controls Magoth???s demon powers? This book calls on characters and events from earlier books in the Aisling Grey series and the Silver Dragon series and is a fantastic listen. Barbara Rosenblat is as flawless as she always is.
"May and Gabriel are back! (and Magoth, of course!)"
I have been a faithful Katie Macalister fan from day 1.... Before I joined Audible-I READ every series she has out and in doing so, my mind had created it's own opinion of all the character's voices, traits, etc... So, when I purchased and began listening to the Audible versions- narrated by Barbara Rosenblat, I admit I was a bit worried it wouldn't do them justice.... Her voice is very distinct- BUT... Oh, how I was SOOOO wrong!!!! Barbara's unique vocal ranges and absolutely superb variations on the characters accents BLEW ME AWAY!!! There really is no other narrator who could pull it off so flawlessly! Bravo Katie, and BRAVO Barbara!!!!
"Sex Scenes over the top!"
Story line good, but had to fast forward through sex scenes...too much and too long...I wanted to Scream...get on with the story!!!!!
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Art's better when it's adhesive. Get 10 stickers, save 50%.
A close up shot of one of the three yellow roses in my flower basket.Taken with Fujifilm FinePix S7007.1MP & 10X zoom lens
Gorgeous Rose! Excellent close-up!
Thank you so much Stephen for visiting and for leaving beautiful words. It is truly appreciated by me. All the best
Thank you JULIE for your beautiful word. I always appreciate your visit. Adding this image to your favorites is very much appreciated by me. My best regards and a huge thanks
This is a perfect rose picture! Pin sharp and the differing tones of yellow in the whorls of the petals is very beautiful.
Hello Bette – Thanks for your wonderful comments about my image. I really appreciate your visit. Advance merry Christmas and a happy New Year! Best wishes
This is a beauty..can you please add your camera model to the tags or description please.Clicking the banner takes you to the group….please enjoy it.
Hello dgscotland – thank you very much for your very uplifting comment on my image. Adding this to the group is truly appreciated by me. All the best
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