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February 2nd, 2013 (9:10 PM).
Platinum Tier
Join Date:
Jul 2009
Sunnyshore City
Originally Posted by
Yeah I did. So why don't you educate me and tell me exactly how the universe came into being. Please! I've been wanting someone to fill the void of my absent years in grade school for so very long.
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model that describes the early development of the Universe.[1] According to the theory, the Big Bang occurred approximately 13.77 billion years ago,[2] which is thus considered the age of the universe.[3][4][5][6] After this time, the Universe was in an extremely hot and dense state and began expanding rapidly. After the initial expansion, the Universe cooled sufficiently to allow energy to be converted into various subatomic particles, including protons, neutrons, and electrons. Though simple atomic nuclei could have formed quickly, thousands of years were needed before the appearance of the first electrically neutral atoms. The first element produced was hydrogen, along with traces of helium and lithium. Giant clouds of these primordial elements later coalesced through gravity to form stars and galaxies, and the heavier elements were synthesized either within stars or during supernovae.
The Big Bang is a well-tested scientific theory and is widely accepted within the scientific community. It offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure, and the Hubble diagram for Type Ia supernovae.[7] The core ideas of the Big Bang—the expansion, the early hot state, the formation of helium, and the formation of galaxies—are derived from these and other observations that are independent of any cosmological model. As the distance between galaxy clusters is increasing today, it is inferred that everything was closer together in the past. This idea has been considered in detail back in time to extreme densities and temperatures,[8][9][10] and large particle accelerators have been built to experiment in such conditions, resulting in further development of the model. On the other hand, these accelerators have limited capabilities to probe into such high energy regimes. There is little evidence regarding the absolute earliest instant of the expansion. Thus, the Big Bang theory cannot and does not provide any explanation for such an initial condition; rather, it describes and explains the general evolution of the universe going forward from that point on.
Georges Lemaître first proposed what became the Big Bang theory in what he called his "hypothesis of the primeval atom." Over time, scientists built on his initial ideas to form the modern synthesis. The framework for the Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein's general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space. The governing equations had been formulated by Alexander Friedmann. In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that the distances to far away galaxies were generally proportional to their redshifts—an idea originally suggested by Lemaître in 1927. Hubble's observation was taken to indicate that all very distant galaxies and clusters have an apparent velocity directly away from our vantage point: the farther away, the higher the apparent velocity.[11]
While the scientific community was once divided between supporters of the Big Bang and those of the Steady State theory,[12] most scientists became convinced that some version of the Big Bang scenario best fit observations after the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum (i.e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength) was found to match that of thermal radiation from a black body. Since then, astrophysicists have incorporated a wide range of observational and theoretical additions into the Big Bang model, and its parametrization as the Lambda-CDM model serves as the framework for current investigations of theoretical cosmology.
Extrapolation of the expansion of the Universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past.[13] This singularity signals the breakdown of general relativity. How closely we can extrapolate towards the singularity is debated—certainly no closer than the end of the Planck epoch. This singularity is sometimes called "the Big Bang",[14] but the term can also refer to the early hot, dense phase itself,[15][notes 1] which can be considered the "birth" of our Universe. Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae, measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, and measurements of the correlation function of galaxies, the Universe has a calculated age of 13.772 ± 0.059 billion years.[17] The agreement of these three independent measurements strongly supports the ΛCDM model that describes in detail the contents of the Universe.
The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation. In the most common models the Universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high energy density and huge temperatures and pressures and was very rapidly expanding and cooling. Approximately 10−37 seconds into the expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which the Universe grew exponentially.[18] After inflation stopped, the Universe consisted of a quark–gluon plasma, as well as all other elementary particles.[19] Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle–antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions. At some point an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number, leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons—of the order of one part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present Universe.[20]
Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF)
XDF size compared to the size of the moon - several thousand galaxies, each consisting of billions of stars, are in this small view.
XDF (2012) view - each light speck is a galaxy - some of these are as old as 13.2 billion years[21] - the universe is estimated to contain 200 billion galaxies.
XDF image shows fully mature galaxies in the foreground plane - nearly mature galaxies from 5 to 9 billion years ago - protogalaxies, blazing with young stars, beyond 9 billion years.
The Universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing. Symmetry breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form.[22] After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments. At about 10−6 seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton–antiproton pairs (similarly for neutrons–antineutrons), so a mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles. A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons. After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the Universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).
A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion (one thousand million; 109; SI prefix giga-) kelvin and the density was about that of air, neutrons combined with protons to form the Universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis.[23] Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei. As the Universe cooled, the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation. After about 379,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly hydrogen); hence the radiation decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is known as the cosmic microwave background radiation.[24]
Over a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today. The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the Universe. The four possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter, warm dark matter, hot dark matter, and baryonic matter. The best measurements available (from WMAP) show that the data is well-fit by a Lambda-CDM model in which dark matter is assumed to be cold (warm dark matter is ruled out by early reionization[25]), and is estimated to make up about 23% of the matter/energy of the universe, while baryonic matter makes up about 4.6%.[26] In an "extended model" which includes hot dark matter in the form of neutrinos, then if the "physical baryon density" Ωbh2 is estimated at about 0.023 (this is different from the 'baryon density' Ωb expressed as a fraction of the total matter/energy density, which as noted above is about 0.046), and the corresponding cold dark matter density Ωch2 is about 0.11, the corresponding neutrino density Ωvh2 is estimated to be less than 0.0062.[26]
Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the Universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which apparently permeates all of space. The observations suggest 73% of the total energy density of today's Universe is in this form. When the Universe was very young, it was likely infused with dark energy, but with less space and everything closer together, gravity had the upper hand, and it was slowly braking the expansion. But eventually, after numerous billion years of expansion, the growing abundance of dark energy caused the expansion of the Universe to slowly begin to accelerate. Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.[27]
All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and Einstein's General Relativity. As noted above, there is no well-supported model describing the action prior to 10−15 seconds or so. Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier. Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the Universe is currently one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics.
Underlying assumptions
The Big Bang theory depends on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws and the cosmological principle. The cosmological principle states that on large scales the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic.
These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but today there are efforts to test each of them. For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that largest possible deviation of the fine structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10−5.[28] Also, general relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the Solar System and binary stars.[notes 2]
If the large-scale Universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth, the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican principle, which states that there is no preferred (or special) observer or vantage point. To this end, the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10−5 via observations of the CMB.[notes 3][citation needed] The Universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales at the 10% level.[29]
FLRW metric
Main articles: Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric and Metric expansion of space
General relativity describes spacetime by a metric, which determines the distances that separate nearby points. The points, which can be galaxies, stars, or other objects, themselves are specified using a coordinate chart or "grid" that is laid down over all spacetime. The cosmological principle implies that the metric should be homogeneous and isotropic on large scales, which uniquely singles out the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric (FLRW metric). This metric contains a scale factor, which describes how the size of the Universe changes with time. This enables a convenient choice of a coordinate system to be made, called comoving coordinates. In this coordinate system the grid expands along with the Universe, and objects that are moving only due to the expansion of the Universe remain at fixed points on the grid. While their coordinate distance (comoving distance) remains constant, the physical distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the scale factor of the Universe.[30]
The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our Universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.
Main article: Cosmological horizon
An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of horizons. Since the Universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not had time to reach us. This places a limit or a past horizon on the most distant objects that can be observed. Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never "catch up" to very distant objects. This defines a future horizon, which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence. The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our Universe. Our understanding of the Universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the Universe at early times. So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space. If the expansion of the Universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well.[31]
Main article: History of the Big Bang theory
See also: Timeline of cosmology
Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term Big Bang during a 1949 radio broadcast. It is popularly reported that Hoyle, who favored an alternative "steady state" cosmological model, intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models.[32][33][34]
Artist's depiction of the WMAP satellite gathering data to help scientists understand the Big Bang
The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the Universe and from theoretical considerations. In 1912 Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth. He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were "island universes" outside our Milky Way.[35][36] Ten years later, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the Friedmann equations from Albert Einstein's equations of general relativity, showing that the Universe might be expanding in contrast to the static Universe model advocated by Einstein at that time.[37] In 1924 Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies. Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, proposed that the inferred recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the Universe.[38]
In 1931 Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe, if projected back in time, meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was, until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the Universe was concentrated into a single point, a "primeval atom" where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence.[39]
Starting in 1924, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the 100-inch (2,500 mm) Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured, mostly by Slipher. In 1929 Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recession velocity—now known as Hubble's law.[11][40] Lemaître had already shown that this was expected, given the Cosmological Principle.[27]
In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state Universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory.[41] This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang theory, Monsignor Georges Lemaître, was a Roman Catholic priest.[42] Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time, viz., that matter is eternal. A beginning in time was "repugnant" to him.[43][44] Lemaître, however, thought that
If the world has begun with a single quantum, the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning at the beginning; they would only begin to have a sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta. If this suggestion is correct, the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space and time.[45]
During the 1930s other ideas were proposed as non-standard cosmologies to explain Hubble's observations, including the Milne model,[46] the oscillatory Universe (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard Tolman)[47] and Fritz Zwicky's tired light hypothesis.[48]
After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged. One was Fred Hoyle's steady state model, whereby new matter would be created as the Universe seemed to expand. In this model the Universe is roughly the same at any point in time.[49] The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN)[50] and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB).[51] Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as "this big bang idea" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949.[52][notes 4] For a while, support was split between these two theories. Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio source counts, began to favor Big Bang over Steady State. The discovery and confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964[54] secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding the physics of the Universe at earlier and earlier times, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.
Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology have been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as COBE,[55] the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP.[56] Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the Universe appears to be accelerating.
Observational evidence
"[T]he big bang picture is too firmly grounded in data from every area to be proved invalid in its general features."
Lawrence Krauss[57]
The earliest and most direct kinds of observational evidence are the Hubble-type expansion seen in the redshifts of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, and today also the large scale distribution and apparent evolution of galaxies[58] predicted to occur due to gravitational growth of structure in the standard theory. These are sometimes called "the four pillars of the Big Bang theory".[59]
Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics. Of these features, dark matter is currently subjected to the most active laboratory investigations.[60] Remaining issues include the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter. Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists, but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible.[61] Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models.[notes 5][citation needed] Viable, quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought. These are currently unsolved problems in physics.
Hubble's law and the expansion of space
Main articles: Hubble's law and Metric expansion of space
See also: Distance measures (cosmology) and Scale factor (universe)
Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted—the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission lines or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light. These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions. If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated. For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder. When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed:[11]
v = H0D,
v is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object,
D is the comoving distance to the object, and
H0 is Hubble's constant, measured to be 70.4 +1.3
−1.4 km/s/Mpc by the WMAP probe.[26]
Hubble's law has two possible explanations. Either we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies—which is untenable given the Copernican principle—or the Universe is uniformly expanding everywhere. This universal expansion was predicted from general relativity by Alexander Friedmann in 1922[37] and Georges Lemaître in 1927,[38] well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson, and Walker.
The theory requires the relation v = HD to hold at all times, where D is the comoving distance, v is the recessional velocity, and v, H, and D vary as the Universe expands (hence we write H0 to denote the present-day Hubble "constant"). For distances much smaller than the size of the observable Universe, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity v. However, the redshift is not a true Doppler shift, but rather the result of the expansion of the Universe between the time the light was emitted and the time that it was detected.[62]
That space is undergoing metric expansion is shown by direct observational evidence of the Cosmological principle and the Copernican principle, which together with Hubble's law have no other explanation. Astronomical redshifts are extremely isotropic and homogenous,[11] supporting the Cosmological principle that the Universe looks the same in all directions, along with much other evidence. If the redshifts were the result of an explosion from a center distant from us, they would not be so similar in different directions.
Measurements of the effects of the cosmic microwave background radiation on the dynamics of distant astrophysical systems in 2000 proved the Copernican principle, that, on a cosmological scale, the Earth is not in a central position.[63] Radiation from the Big Bang was demonstrably warmer at earlier times throughout the Universe. Uniform cooling of the cosmic microwave background over billions of years is explainable only if the Universe is experiencing a metric expansion, and excludes the possibility that we are near the unique center of an explosion.
Cosmic microwave background radiation
Main article: Cosmic microwave background radiation
9 year WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation (2012).[17][64] The radiation is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000.[65]
In 1964 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation, an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band.[54] Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions: the radiation was found to be consistent with an almost perfect black body spectrum in all directions; this spectrum has been redshifted by the expansion of the universe, and today corresponds to approximately 2.725 K. This tipped the balance of evidence in favor of the Big Bang model, and Penzias and Wilson were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1978.
The surface of last scattering corresponding to emission of the CMB occurs shortly after recombination, the epoch when neutral hydrogen becomes stable. Prior to this, the universe comprised a hot dense photon-baryon plasma sea where photons were quickly scattered from free charged particles. Peaking at around 372±14 kyr,[25] the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent.
The cosmic microwave background spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite is the most-precisely measured black body spectrum in nature.[66] The data points and error bars on this graph are obscured by the theoretical curve.
In 1989 NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE). Its findings were consistent with predictions regarding the CMB, finding a residual temperature of 2.726 K (more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2.725 K) and providing the first evidence for fluctuations (anisotropies) in the CMB, at a level of about one part in 105.[55] John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded the Nobel Prize for their leadership in this work. During the following decade, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based and balloon experiments. In 2000–2001 several experiments, most notably BOOMERanG, found the shape of the Universe to be spatially almost flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies.
In early 2003 the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but are consistent with the inflation theory in general.[56] The Planck space probe was launched in May 2009. Other ground and balloon based cosmic microwave background experiments are ongoing.
Abundance of primordial elements
Main article: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of helium-4, helium-3, deuterium, and lithium-7 in the Universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen.[23] The relative abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons. This value can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for 4He/H, about 10−3 for 2H/H, about 10−4 for 3He/H and about 10−9 for 7Li/H.[23]
The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for 4He, and off by a factor of two 7Li; in the latter two cases there are substantial systematic uncertainties. Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by Big Bang nucleosynthesis is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to "tune" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium.[67] Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young Universe (i.e., before star formation, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He, and in constant ratios, too.
Galactic evolution and distribution
Main articles: Galaxy formation and evolution, Large-scale structure of the cosmos, and Structure formation
This panoramic view of the entire near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The galaxies are color-coded by redshift.
Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars are in agreement with the current state of the Big Bang theory. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters. Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early Universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the Universe and are helping to complete details of the theory.[68][69]
Primordial gas clouds
In 2011 astronomers found pristine clouds of the primordial gas that they believe formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang. The composition of the gas matches theoretical predictions, providing evidence in support of the modern cosmological explanation for the origins of elements in the universe. The researchers discovered the two clouds of pristine gas by analyzing the light from distant quasars, using the HIRES spectrometer on the Keck I Telescope at the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii. They saw absorption lines in the spectrum where the light was absorbed by the gas, and that allows them to measure the composition of the gas.[70][71]
Other lines of evidence
The age of Universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in good agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.[72]
The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift.[73] This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift. Observations have found this to be roughly true, but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time, making precise measurements difficult.[74][75]
Related issues in physics
Baryon asymmetry
Main article: Baryon asymmetry
It is not yet understood why the Universe has more matter than antimatter.[76] It is generally assumed that when the Universe was young and very hot, it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons. However, observations suggest that the Universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied. These require that baryon number is not conserved, that C-symmetry and CP-symmetry are violated and that the Universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium.[77] All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry.
Dark energy
Main article: Dark energy
Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the Universe has been accelerating since the Universe was about half its present age. To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the Universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed "dark energy". Dark energy, though speculative, solves numerous problems. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the Universe is very nearly spatially flat, and therefore according to general relativity the Universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass/energy. But the mass density of the Universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering, and is found to have only about 30% of the critical density.[27] Since theory suggests that dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the "missing" energy density. Dark energy also helps to explain two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the Universe, one using the frequency of gravitational lenses, and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure as a cosmic ruler.
Negative pressure is believed to be a property of vacuum energy, but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a cosmological constant and quintessence. Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos.[26] According to theory, the energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the Universe, but the dark energy density remains constant (or nearly so) as the Universe expands. Therefore matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the Universe in the past than it does today, but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant.
Dark matter
Main article: Dark matter
A pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the Universe, according to the best ΛCDM model fits – roughly 95% is in the exotic forms of dark matter and dark energy
During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the Universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the Universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter. In addition, the assumption that the Universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the Universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter has always been controversial, it is inferred by various observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and X-ray measurements of galaxy clusters.[78]
Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories. Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.[79]
Globular cluster age
In the mid-1990s observations of globular clusters appeared to be inconsistent with the Big Bang theory. Computer simulations that matched the observations of the stellar populations of globular clusters suggested that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with the 13.77 billion year age of the Universe. This issue was partially resolved in the late 1990s when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters.[80] There remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, but it is clear that observations of globular clusters no longer appear inconsistent with the Big Bang theory.
There are generally considered to be three outstanding problems with the Big Bang theory: the horizon problem, the flatness problem, and the magnetic monopole problem. The most common answer to these problems is inflationary theory; however, since this creates new problems, other options have been proposed, such as the Weyl curvature hypothesis.[81][82]
Horizon problem
Main article: Horizon problem
The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light. In a Universe of finite age this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact.[83] The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the Universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky. There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature.
A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the Universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis). During inflation, the Universe undergoes exponential expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable Universe are well inside each other's particle horizon. The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations, which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the Universe. Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian, which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB.
If inflation occurred, exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon.
Flatness problem
Main article: Flatness problem
The overall geometry of the Universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. Shown from top to bottom are a closed Universe with positive curvature, a hyperbolic Universe with negative curvature and a flat Universe with zero curvature.
The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric.[83] The Universe may have positive, negative, or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density. Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density, positive if greater, and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be flat. The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the Universe today remains very close to flat.[notes 6] Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10−43 seconds, the fact that the Universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires some explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the Universe density must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today.[84]
A resolution to this problem is offered by inflationary theory. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that its curvature would have been smoothed out. Thus, it is theorized that inflation drove the Universe to a very nearly spatially flat state, with almost exactly the critical density.
Magnetic monopoles
Main article: Magnetic monopole
The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s. Grand unification theories predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles. These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early Universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles. This problem is also resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable Universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.[85]
The future according to the Big Bang theory
Main article: Ultimate fate of the universe
Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the Universe. If the mass density of the Universe were greater than the critical density, then the Universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch.[86] Alternatively, if the density in the Universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop. Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the Universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the Universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.
Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible Universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The ΛCDM model of the Universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, will remain together, and they too will be subject to heat death as the Universe expands and cools. Other explanations of dark energy, called phantom energy theories, suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei, and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called Big Rip.[87]
Speculative physics beyond Big Bang theory
This is an artist's concept of the Universe expansion, where space (including hypothetical non-observable portions of the Universe) is represented at each time by the circular sections. Note on the left the dramatic expansion (not to scale) occurring in the inflationary epoch, and at the center the expansion acceleration. The scheme is decorated with WMAP images on the left and with the representation of stars at the appropriate level of development.
While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest moments of the Universe's history. The equations of classical general relativity indicate a singularity at the origin of cosmic time, although this conclusion depends on several assumptions. Moreover, general relativity must break down before the Universe reaches the Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of quantum gravity may avoid the would-be singularity.[88]
Some proposals, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are:
Models including the Hartle–Hawking no-boundary condition in which the whole of space-time is finite; the Big Bang does represent the limit of time, but without the need for a singularity.[89]
Big Bang lattice model states that the Universe at the moment of the Big Bang consists of an infinite lattice of fermions which is smeared over the fundamental domain so it has both rotational, translational, and gauge symmetry. The symmetry is the largest symmetry possible and hence the lowest entropy of any state.[90]
Brane cosmology models in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory; the pre-Big Bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically. In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the Universe endlessly cycles from one process to the other.[91][92][93][94]
Eternal inflation, in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion, each end-point leading to a bubble universe expanding from its own big bang.[95][96]
Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and older Universe, or in a multiverse.
Religious and philosophical implications
Main article: Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory
As a theory relevant to the origin of the universe, the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy.[97][98] As a result, it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between science and religion.[99] Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator,[100] while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous.[98][101]
That should cover it, I think.
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text: My SMS and MMS messages all disappeared today. Lots of posts describing the lossage. Me? No problem! I have SpriteMobile Backup set to run at 3:xx AM every night and back up all the stuff it can to DropBox. Fired up SpriteMobile, told it to restore SMS and MMS (separate categories) only. 5 min later, I had everything but the few that came in today. Wallah!!! No root needed.


text:
A long day ahead of us as we leave for Africa
Los Osos Travel Blog› entry 2 of 4 › view all entries
Ok, so 5am happened and I think I got an hour sleep. Dave got less. We've got a rented van in the driveway and our plan is to leave here at 5:20, go to Daudi's apartment (across from Dan's shop) and pick him up. He's still got two bags that weren't loaded last night. Next it's to the church to load up with people, carry-on luggage, maybe a little coffee, and head to San Luis Obispo where we'll pick up Tim (the geologist who's coming on the trip to scout out suitable sites for water well drilling). We'll meet up with the other rental van and the Tahoe that's pulling the trailer full of luggage somewhere on the 101 South.
That's the plan.
Church was hopping when we go there. Don had gone to Starbucks and gotten a carton of coffee with all the fixins. He was the perfect barista as he helped me get my perfect cup of coffee.
Moms, dads, husbands, wives, siblings, etc were there to say, 'bye-bye for now,' to all of us. Since Dave, Amber, and I were all going, no one was there to wish us goodbye but we're fine.
Our van has Dave driving, Daudi riding shotgun, me and Tim in the center seat, and Cassie and Amber in the back. It's a fantastic group of people. The men will bore me to death with chatter all the way to LAX. The teenagers will get to know each other a little more. Cassie's going into 9th grade and Amber's a senior. Amber has been a helper in junior high youth group for a couple of years so they're not complete strangers.
Daudi has a challenge for us; notice the things that surprise us and tell him about it when he joins us in a week. He's leaving us in Nairobi to do some work for Lifewater International ( http://www.lifewater.org )when we fly to Kigali. He's the country coordinator for Kenya. So now I have an assignment. What will I see that I didn't expect to see in Rwanda?
I'll knit. I'll listen to the voices in my head. I'll argue with them silently. I'll have a blast.
Ok, we've found the other van and Tahoe. We're officially a caravan. Magda is driving the other van and she's setting the pace by speeding up and slowing down and speeding up and slowing down. It's amazing. She also passes at odd times where there's no way the Tahoe+trailer can possibly pass. Thank God she's not a road captain on a motorcycle ride. She'd get people killed. Note to self: Show Magda where the cruise control is located and show her how to use it.
Breakfast was a full bladder too far for most. Magda is a world traveler who has no sense of direction or distance. She wouldn't stop in Buelton or Santa Barbara. She had to go a little further (about 40 miles) and then had no idea what she was looking for. Thank God now for cell phones. Dave found a restaurant and called everyone. They showed up a few minutes later. Why do the pushy, type A personalities always get to lead the pack even if they're failing miserably at it? DING DING DING I have an answer: Because everyone else is too scared to tell her she's lousy at it and take away her balls. Did I win?
LAX here we come. Magda is in the lead of course. Once at the airport, just for fun, let's drive around in circles twice, pull over at the wrong terminal, tell everyone to unload their stuff, and still refuse to give up control. OK! Thank you Dave for telling everyone they were at the wrong terminal. We knew this because we'd already driven past it TWICE. Ok, now Dave is in the lead. Dave knows where he's going. He gets there. We park. We unload. We WON! He and Magda took the vans to the rental desk and walked back to us. I'm so glad he's patient with her type. I'd say something hurtful.
LAX wasn't expecting us. Some in our group of 16 got to the counter to check baggage and get boarding passes and the entire process ground to a halt. Something is wrong with our tickets. Well, none of us actually have tickets...we have something that I was told is an e-ticket but it's nothing at all like a real e-ticket. I guess that's what the agents at the counter are telling everyone in our group. You don't have tickets. I was really suspicious last night when I opened my folder and saw what they said was an e-ticket: a photocopy with our itinerary, a list of names, our ticket numbers. No real e-ticket. I thought, "Dang, e-tickets have really changed in the last year since I got my last one. This looks like an itinerary and a list of names and ticket numbers." I was right.
Our whole group was yanked out of line and put in the corner. The, 'Wait Until We Figure Out What to do With You' corner. After an hour and a half, we're all checked in and have our boarding passes through to Heathrow only. All except....... Molly and Tim can't get seats. They've been bumped. Molly and Tim have never met. She's 19 and he's in his 50's. They'll have fun though. Ron was upset because the travel agent was supposed to have all our seats in the same area of the plane and no one was supposed to get bumped. I think he's learning a fact in group travel: it's the same as solo travel - things happen.
I don't mind sitting next to strangers because almost no one is stranger than I am. I happen to have been seated next to Dave. Not bad. We'll share stuff. I have a lot of stuff in my carry-on bag: knitting stuff, a change of clothes, a wash cloth, books, magazines, gum, mints, tooth brush & paste, cards, Clif Bars, etc. It's heavy and I hate it but I've had my luggage lost in the past and I know to never pack light when it comes to carry-on because it may end up being my ONLY luggage on the two week trip. I wish it had wheels though.
I refuse to get involved in the seat drama happening over my right shoulder. I hear Magda telling people where to move and it's getting complicated. I'll think about something else or listen to the voices in my head instead. Much better.
Flight delayed. I call Beth and Mom while we're sitting in the plane waiting to take-off. A light associated with one of the seats is not functioning right. We sit for half an hour while it's researched and fixed. At this point, I think Molly and Tim may be on their other flight. We'll see them in London.
We're leaving on Friday afternoon, August 1st and arriving in London on August 2 at around 11 am (I think). I wonder if I'll sleep. Nope.
United Airlines doesn't serve great food on their flights. They do have a great selection of movies and TV shows if you're into that. You can also watch your travel progress. So many choices and not many that interest me. I watched movies. A lot of movies.


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|18 Jun 2011
Screen Blinking/Flashing Continously
Hello there,
This is my first post here, only yesterday I installed Windows 7 Ultimate Edition 64 bit and since then my monitor screen has been continuously blinking every few seconds or so (its blinking while I am writing this). My computer's specs screenshot is already attached in this post, I am using a Dell CRT monitor at the highest refresh rate possible (85 Hertz) and native resolution (1024x768). I've got the latest Nvidia drivers installed (Version 275.33 Windows 7 64 bit WHQL), still the screen blinks. Also, altohugh the screen is blinking my programs such as playing songs, movies etc do not get interrupted. Could this be a problem with the monitor or a clash between windows 7 and onboard GPU (Geforce 6150)? The screen was also blinking when i Had not installed the latest nvidia drivers but it does not blink in safe mode, only in normal mode). The system temperature is also fine.
I am ready to provide any other details you want but plz do help me get this problem solved asap.
Thank you
|My System Specs
|18 Jun 2011
try powering down the monitor then power it back up. this occasionaly happens with mine and thats all it takes for me
|My System Specs
|18 Jun 2011
so that means that the problem is with the monitor and the my onboard graphic card or windows 7? i did switch my monitor off and on again and it hasnt blinked since then but it has only been few minutes.
Thank you boohbah, as long as it works
|My System Specs
|18 Jun 2011
|My System Specs
|18 Jun 2011
sorry i didnt,i just thought it was worth a try of powering down. glad its resolved, let us know if it starts again.
|My System Specs
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MOVIE SYNOPSIS [ General Audiences ] In January 2009, during the War of Gaza, two brave Israeli directors grabbed their cameras and filmed along the common border. The pumps are registered in the distance, unfocused and distant planes: the point of view of the tourist. The impact of the bombs in the distance is silenced, why the visual contrast between foreground and general plan draws attention to the words spoken, direct and without mercy. The result of your trip is a disturbing essay on war and tourism, a surreal and absurd journey. Like a bullring, Gaza is portrayed in a run with his Matador and Toro ; a cycle in which perpetrator and victim combined offer no answers or decisions, except addiction man the myth of power and continuous gravitation toward the darkest corners of the soul. You can watch Matador haümilühama online on TV cable or theaters with original audio in Hebrew at different dates. This film premiered in theaters in 2011.
Rating: 5 by 220 users./
Runtime: 70 minutes
70-minute film (full movie) directed by Avner Faingulernt and Macabit Abramson.
The original audio of Matador haümilühama has dialogues in or Hebrew, it was produced in Israel.
It premiered in cinemas or television in 2011.
Screenplay written by Avner Faingulernt and Macabit Abramson.
Macabit Abramson and Avner Faingulernt.
Without commercial breaks, the full movie Matador haümilühama has a duration of 70 minutes; the official trailer can be watched in streaming on the Internet. You can watch this full movie free in English or Hebrew in movie TV channels, renting the DVD or with VoD services (Video On Demand player, Hulu) and PPV (Pay Per View, Netflix).
See the page of this full movie, Matador haümilühama in FULLTV Movies.


text:
Thursday 1 February 1923
It was Thursday, under the sign of Aquarius. The US president was Warren G. Harding (Republican).
Famous people born on this day include Rika Backer and Jean-Dominique Fratoni.
The Blue Lagoon, directed by W. Bowden, was one of the most viewed movies released in 1923
while Babbitt by Sinclair Lewis was one of the best selling books.
But much more happened that day: find out below..
You can also have a look at the whole 1923 or at February 01 across the years.
Old Newspapers
Have a look at the old newspapers from 1 February 1923 and get them!
Which were the most popular movies released in the last months ?
Find out your future
Get a FREE Numerology report based on the digits of 1 February 1923!
Wish him/her..
Historical Events
Which were the important events of 1 February 1923 ?
- St. Brigid of Kildare - one of the three patron saints of Ireland, the others being St. Patrick and St. Columcille.
- In Roald Dahl's Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, the fictional character Willy Wonka gives an unprecedented tour of his chocolate factory on February 1 (year unspecified).
- Blessed Reginald of Sint-Gillis
- The start of LGBT History Month in the United Kingdom.
- The start of Black History Month in the United States.
- Imbolc - the first day of Spring in Ireland (Irish Calendar), one of the eight solar holidays in the Wheel of the Year.
- St. Veridiana
Famous Birthdays:
- Rika Backer: Belgian politician; elected to the Senate in 1971.
- Jean-Dominique Fratoni: French businessman, known in the 1970s and 1980s on the French Riviera because of his involvement in the management of several casinos and for his alleged links with the Mafia.
- Jean Houdart: Melun Journalist.
- Ben Weider: Canadian businessman co-founded the International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness (d. 2008).
- Fascists Voluntary Militia forms in Italy under Benito Mussolini.
- Allied ultimatum on Lithuanian occupation of Memel.
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Which were the top hits in that special week of February 1923 ?
Top #3 songs in the USA
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text:
Just a quick post today.
Mrs. SoSock is back in the hospital.
Her portacatheter ( the implanted device that they use to run the chemotherapy drugs) has become infected and she was running fevers of 102 - 104 and delirious Friday night. They've been running IV antibiotics since then.
The infection seems to have subsided, at least enough for them to feel safe opening her up and removing the port. She is still feverish, but not nearly as severely as before.
All in all she seems to be out of the danger zone, although she'll most likely be in several more days.
I'm running like a chicken with my head cut off right now, but I'll post a more complete story later.
Oh, very quickly - on a more positive note. The Rockies finally got their first win of the season yesterday. That would be the WSNLL Jr. Division Rockies. My Little League team. Finally!
I'll fill in details later. It was much needed!
Sunday, April 20, 2008
Cancer Rears It's Ugly Head
Labels: Health, Little League, Personal
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WINGS' support groups would not be possible without our amazing volunteer facilitators. Every WINGS group is facilitated by a master's level psychotherapist, each of whom is carefully screened and trained by WINGS' staff. Their role is to provide safety, stability, and structure to the group, allowing group members to focus on their own issues rather than taking care of each other. Many of WINGS' facilitators join us as Master's level interns dedicated to learning about trauma and group work. We are grateful to all of our amazing partnering schools for their collaboration, including Regis University, Denver Seminary, Naropa University, University of Phoenix, Argosy University, and the University of Colorado at Denver. Below is our list of our current facilitators, and the supervisors who support their professional growth and development:
Meagan Hoffman's education includes a Master's Degree in School Counseling from the University of Northern Colorado, and a Bachelor's Degree in Psychology from the University of Wyoming.
She is a Licensed Professional Counselor and a National Certified Counselor. Her clinical background includes work experience with children and adolescents in school settings, community settings and inpatient facility settings.
In more recent years, she has worked with adults and trauma in community settings. She currently works at Rocky Mountain Counseling Coaching and Consulting with adults and children. She is also in her fourth year of a PhD program in Counselor Education and Supervision at UNC. Starting in 2014 she has taken extensive courses on clinical supervision through my PhD program, and she has supervised master counseling students in their practicum and internship experiences since then.
Casey Burnett is a graduate of Naropa University's Contemplative Psychotherapy program. He has worked in residential treatment and lead groups in various settings. Casey is invested in supporting your empowerment and renewal in the present moment. Whether with friends, family, co-workers, or one's self, Casey has built a practice focused on relationships. He works with individuals, children and couples who want or need help finding their way navigating life.
Animal Assisted WINGS Group
Maura Hall and Jaque Maben
Maura Hall is a graduate level Social Work intern at the University of Denver where she will graduate from in the Spring of 2017. She is currently working as an clinical intern at Animal Assisted Therapy Programs of Colorado where she sees individual clients of all ages and assists with running a drug and alcohol recovery group.She has a clinical focus of family systems, trauma, and animal assisted social work. She has experience working with a variety of populations including youth of all ages as well as adults. She grew up around animals and gave horseback riding lessons for several years in rural Colorado where she grew up. She believes in the therapeutic power of partnering with animals to achieve positive change for clients.
Jacque Maben M.A., NCC, became a WINGS Foundation support group co-facilitator in June 2016 after earning her Master's degree in counseling psychology at the University of Colorado Denver. She is a registered psychotherapist, a National Certified Counselor and is completing her hours towards licensure as a Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) in the state of Colorado. Jacque is passionate about working with people who face trauma-related issues with a focus on children, teens, and women. She also enjoys working with parents who struggle with parenting issues, providing them with support and guidance. Jacque is currently the Ranch Manager at Animal Assisted Therapy Programs of Colorado (AATPC) in which she directs animal and facility care through organizing volunteers, interns and other staff members. She also works as a therapist at AATPC serving children, adolescents, and adults. Jacque enjoys incorporating her love of animals into the realm of therapy where she facilitates the process of empowering people in finding their true sense of self, with the assistance of animal co-therapists.
Aurora Women's Group
Carron Maclean
Carron Maclean graduated from Regis University with her Master of Arts in Counseling and has a Bachelor's degree in Human Services with an emphasis in Mental Health and Counseling. She is a Licensed Professional Counselor Candidate, as well as a Nationally Certified Counselor. She is currently in private practice at New Pathways Counseling, focusing on working with individuals who have experienced crisis and/or trauma, grief, anxiety or depression. She also works with families who deal with a Bipolar Disorder diagnosis. She is trained in Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) which is foundational in the work she does. She is actively working on becoming a certified EMDR clinician and consultant through advanced workshops and trainings in areas of trauma. In her free time Carron loves spending time enjoying theatre, hiking, skiing and traveling with her husband and two sons.
Boulder Women's Group
Kim Thomas, MA, LPC & Sylvie Lam
Kim Thomas has been facilitating with the WINGS Foundation for 15 years. She is excited about helping people become aware of how they create barriers to authentic human contact in their relationships and helping to transform those that don't serve them in a healthy way. She enjoys working with people who are willing to learn to take personal responsibility in how they make contact in their relationships, and who want to really engage with their own growth.
Kim is a Licensed Professional Counselor. Her experience includes working with children and teens in foster care and their foster and adoptive families. She also works with people struggling with their relationships to self and others, attachment issues and trauma and the difficulties these issues bring with them. Kim has extensive training in Gestalt Therapy and in human development, family systems and uses a down-to- earth eclectic approach. You can read more about Kim here.
Sylvie Lam is currently a student at Naropa University studying Mindfulness-based Transpersonal Counseling and simultaneously training in the Hakomi Method. With a background in dance, yoga, and alternative healthcare she is dedicated to the holistic study of mind-body wellness and its particular relevance in healing trauma. She is honored to work with WINGS in its quest to break cycles of violence and create an inclusive and confidential safe space within which survivors can explore their inner capacity for health and healing.
Boulder Men's Group
Stephen Gentuso
Stephen Gentuso received his Bachelors in Psychology from the University of Tennessee, and has assisted clients in both a social work and mentorship capacity. Currently, Stephen is pursuing his Masters in Contemplative Psychotherapy and Buddhist Psychology at Naropa University. He is especially interested in helping clients work through past traumas, as well as gender and intimacy issues. Stephen feels honored each week to be a part of the dynamic healing process that WINGS offers to its members.
Capitol Hill Monday Group
Michele Hart and Stephanie Wolfe
Michele Hart is a graduate student at Naropa University enrolled in the Mindfulness-Based Transpersonal Counseling Psychology program. Upon graduation she plans to open her own practice working with survivors healing from complex childhood trauma. Michele's deep passion for working with this clientele stems from her own healing journey. She understands that it takes a lot of courage and hard work to face what often feels insurmountable, but that with the proper help and support the healing journey can be made. Her desire is to offer a healing space where all can come to find safety, support and a remembrance of who they truly are.
Stephanie Wolfe MA, LPCC, NCC is a graduate of the Clinical Counseling program at Denver Seminary and holds a BFA in Art Therapy and Painting. She is currently working as a family therapist, trained in Multisystemic therapy. Stephanie works with adolescents and their families with co-occurring mental health symptoms, addictions, and trauma histories. Stephanie's experience working with trauma survivors in Philadelphia, West Africa, and Denver has given her a passion to empower her clients to learn the skills and obtain the resources needed to find restoration and healing. In her free time she loves backpacking, camping, traveling and painting. In the future, Stephanie foresees herself working cross-culturally to advocate for mental health services for trauma survivors in African communities.
Capitol Hill Saturday Group
Bronwyn Hockersmith & Peggy Johnson
Bronwyn Hockersmith is a Licensed Professional Counselor Candidate and is undergoing clinical training at Regis University. Along with being a co-facilitator at WINGS, she works with clients who have Medicaid and are receiving behavioral health services in Arapahoe, Adams, and Douglas counties. She provides weekly psychoeducational wellness groups based on Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's (SAMHSA) Eight Dimensions of Wellness. Bronwyn currently holds a Bachelor's Degree in Psychology and International Affairs from the University of Colorado at Boulder. She is passionate about working with survivors of sexual assault and providing a safe and therapeutic arena for survivors to process through their recovery stories. In the future, Bronwyn foresees herself working on a university campus advocating for survivors and de-stigmatizing mental health through educational campaigns.
Peggy Johnson is an MA Candidate and counseling intern at People House, where she sees individual clients, specializing in sexual trauma. She obtained a Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice with an emphasis on domestic violence from the State University of New York College at Brockport. She is passionate about working with trauma survivors and humbled every day by the spirit, strength, and resiliency of survivors. She believes that group work is a powerful piece in the healing journey and is honored to bear witness to the process.
Colorado Springs Tuesday Group
Carol Gugat
Carol Gugat has a BA-University of South Dakota and MA- University of Colorado. She has a private practice in downtown Colorado Springs specializing in eating disorders, and sexual abuse issues. She is married with 3 daughters, Cara, Brooke, and Paige, and 2 grandsons, Reed and Calvin. Carol has been a WINGS facilitator for an amazing 15 years!
Colorado Springs Tuesday Group
Cher Johnson
Denver Men's Group
Joshua Rudder and Ian Birlem
Joshua Rudder is a second year graduate student in mindfulness based counseling psychology at Naropa University and a registered psychotherapist with the state of Colorado. He has received additional trainings in the neurobiology of group facilitation, motivational interviewing, and trauma informed care. Josh is also an active member of the Colorado Group Psychotherapy Society and a scholarship recipient for the American Group Psychotherapy Association annual conference in 2017. As a recovering member of the corporate business world, he maintains a small career coaching practice in Denver and semi-regular speed golfing habit.
Ian Birlem: is a Masters candidate in in the Mindfulness-Based Transpersonal Counseling program at Naropa University and has a BA degree in Contemplative Counseling from Naropa. He believes that healing arises when we have empathetic support, compassionate attention is brought to our deepest wounds, and we learn to tune into our own internal wisdom. Ian intends to work in private practice upon graduation working with a diverse clientele focused on healing from trauma.
DTC Women's Group
Charlotte Anderson and Stephanie Hartman
Stephanie Hartman: is finishing up her Masters in Counseling from Regis University and hopes to open a private practice after she graduates. She is currently interning at People House, which offers affordable counseling for individuals, couples and families. In her free time she loves hiking, camping and catching up on the latest novel.
Charlotte Anderson: began her professional career working as a massage therapist in 2007. After several years of practice, she decided she wanted to further her education in the helping field; graduated with her Bachelors degree in Behavioral Science from Metropolitan State University in 2014. In addition to massage therapy, she has also worked as a teacher and a direct care professional with high risk youth.
Currently, Charlotte works as a substance abuse specialist for mental health partners. She is also working towards her Master's Degree in Transpersonal Counseling Psychology at Naropa University. After graduation, Charlotte intends to focus her professional career helping survivors of sexual trauma. Charlotte is deeply passionate about trauma recovery and believes that all individuals, when provided a safe, empathetic and non-judgmental environment, have the ability to heal.
GLBTQ All Gender Group
Jenny Marx
Jenny Marx has been working as a School Counselor for the past 10+ years. Currently, she has a private practice where she sees mostly Medicaid clients in their homes and communities. She enjoys working with adults, children, and families. She is in the process of getting trained in EMDR and appreciates all that she can learn about trauma-informed care.
Loved Ones Group
Sarah Eisenbud, MA, LPCC & Brittany Wingfield, MS
Brittany Wingfield: has her Master's of Science in Clinical Mental Health Counseling. She is a therapist with a private practice in the Lone Tree/Littleton area. She has an overall love of working with people and feels that counseling is an extremely powerful process. Brittany finds herself to be very privileged in that she gets the opportunity to be a part of other's journeys in such a delicate time of their life. Brittany has a passion for working with Survivors in helping them find healing and taking their power back, as they move on through life after abuse. In her free time, she enjoys being outside with her husband and two dogs. Please contact her at 720-336-0913 or visit www.nurturedheartscounseling.com.
Sarah Eisenbud, MA, LPCC
Sarah has been facilitating with WINGS since 2014. She received her Master of Arts in Counseling degree from Regis University and was certified as a narrative therapist by The Kenwood Center in Minneapolis. Sarah is a passionate advocate and incorporates her an awareness of culture and social dynamics into her counseling with individuals and groups. As an integrative narrative therapist, she works from the perspective that people aren't problems and works to help re-define relationships between individuals and the problems that influence them. She is the founder of the Denver Narrative Therapy Project, LLC, a private therapy practice and narrative consulting business, www.denvernarrativetherapy.com where she specializes in working with men, survivors of sexual abuse, and the LGBTQ community.
Lakewood Monday
Stephanie Hartman & Leah Raulerson
Stephanie Hartman: is finishing up her Masters in Counseling from Regis University and hopes to open a private practice after she graduates. She is currently interning at People House, which offers affordable counseling for individuals, couples and families. In her free time she loves hiking, camping and catching up on the latest novel.
Leah Raulerson is a Body Psychotherapist and Dance/Movement Therapist working with trauma survivors across the Denver Metro area. Leah's previous careers in bodywork and the performing arts have led her to somatic counseling, which focuses on the use of the body in stillness and in movement to heal the body and the mind together. Leah works with particular attention to social justice issues and family systems, while supporting individuals as they engage in a variety of relationships. Leah is appreciative of the WINGS Foundation, and the support and advocacy it provides to members of the community. Leah is proud to be a part of the Foundation since 2014.
Lakewood Thursday
Anne Phannick & Fran Becker, M.A.
Fran Becker: believes in the healing power of relationship and collaborative creativity. She is dedicated to uncovering the inherent gifts in each client that will enable them to flourish.
She believes that through all struggles, one has the power to grasp hold of change. She is accepting and wanting to hold the space for personal growth. Everyone's journey is different and Fran has the special gift to guide, follow and help you through your transitions.
Fran received her Master of Arts degree in Psychology from Meridian University of Petaluma, California and is currently working toward completion of the Ph.D. in Psychology.
Fran's specialty areas include but are not limited to:
- Narrative therapy
- Journal therapy
- Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
- Play therapy
- Parenting
- Complex trauma, including depression, anxiety, and attachment issues
You can find more information about Fran's practice at http://www.brightsidecounseling.net/meet-the-therapists/
Anne Phannick is a student in the Graduate School of Social Work at the University of Denver. Anne is also the MSW Student Intern at the WINGS Office. She is interested in learning about trauma and its effects on the mind, body, and spirit, but mostly she is passionate about the process of healing from trauma. Anne wants to hold a safe and comfortable space for members to share their stories, continue on their journey to fulfillment, and discover the beauty in their own lives.
Lakewood Wednesday
Masako Suzuki, MA, NCC, LPCC
Masako Suzuki, MA, NCC, LPCC, is a psychotherapist largely serving the Denver metro area. She has completed her Master's degree in Counseling at Regis University and BA in Philosophy at University of Colorado Denver. Masako's group experiences with WINGS include Aurora Women, Lakewood Women, and two seasons of Speak Out!. Besides group facilitation, Masako works with children, individual adults, couples, and families, specializing in crime victims, complex trauma, child abuse and neglect, cultural issues, and suicide. Masako provides counseling at her private office in the South Washington Park area and at Rose Andom Center in downtown Denver. For more information: Masako Suzuki."
Lakewood Wed. Men
Trevor Brown & Randy Bruening
Trevor Brown is a Registered Psychotherapist and a second-year graduate student in the Mindfulness-Based Transpersonal Counseling program at Naropa University. His therapeutic approach is the result of studying the techniques and teachings of Lisa Dion (Synergetic Play Therapy), Duey Freeman (Gestalt), Elizabeth Olson (Modern Psychoanalysis), Bruce Tift (The Fruitional Approach) and Carl Rogers (The Humanistic Approach). He believes that each one of us is doing the absolute best that we can given our current circumstances and life histories. He believes that positive change is the result of self-acceptance and considers it his job to help the client bring awareness and kindness to their patterns and habitual ways of responding.
Randy Bruening: Bio coming soon!
Littleton Women's Group
Rebecca Frank & Toni Johnson
Rebecca Frank, MA, LPCC, NCC has her Bachelors Degree in Psychology and a Masters Degree in Counseling. She is a licensed professional counselor candidate, and is trained in EMDR, Motivational Interviewing, and is currently working toward her certificate in animal-assisted psychotherapy. Rebecca has always had a passion for helping people who are have come across hardships in life. Rebecca works with adults and adolescents with histories of trauma, anxiety, depression, grief, relational troubles, and low self-esteem. Rebecca's goal is to help people find a sense of purpose and meaning, self-love, compassion, understanding, and connection to the world around them. Rebecca currently works with her therapy dog Lula at her private practice, "Courage to Connect Counseling, PLLC", in Littleton. She currently is living her dream of connecting and walking with people through life's journeys. To learn more about Rebecca please visit: www.courage2connect.com
Toni Johnson is a Master of Arts in Counseling student at Regis University in her third year, and has a Bachelor of Science degree in Business Marketing. She currently works at Behavioral Healthcare Inc. as the Integrated Care Coordinator where she promotes the importance of whole-person wellness, combining physical health and mental health. Toni has a passion for mind-body healing and knows it takes vulnerability and courage to recover from childhood trauma. Toni feels honored to support CSA survivors on their journey to self-acceptance, self-empowerment and most importantly, self-love. In her free time, Toni loves being in nature, as it provides an abundance of healing. Toni enjoys hiking, camping, traveling, yoga, meditation and spending time with her Pug, Buddha.
Loveland Women
Abby Schreiber, MA, LPC & Megan Foutch
Abby Schreiber MA, LPC has been a WINGS facilitator since September of 2014. Abby is passionate about the positive force group work can have in the lives of members and facilitators. She feels honored to bear witness to the strength and courage of the members of her group. Abby has a private practice in Loveland where she works with clients from a holistic perspective engaging heart, mind, body and spirit. Please visit Abby's website for more information: www.solsticecounseling.org.
Megan Foutch is in the Master's of counseling program at Regis. This is her first year working for WINGS. She is excited to work with the individuals and WINGS foundation in giving back to the community with all she has learned.
Naropa Counseling Center: All Genders
Patricia Ward & Vincent Perrone
Vincent Perrone is a devoted student of the human experience. He integrates over 7 years of mind/body practices and his training as a 3rd year Contemplative Psychotherapy student in order to guide his clients towards greater self awareness, personal freedom and health. The view of Contemplative Psychotherapy is an acceptance-based approach, seeking to appreciate each individual as inherently whole and healthy, while utilizing the therapeutic relationship to encourage growth, self love, and the ability to overcome difficulties in life. Vinny is driven to learn about his clients, help them to understand themselves, and discover the best course of therapy as a team.
Patricia Ward holds a Master's degree in social work from The Catholic University of America. As a single mother of two daughters, survivor's stories touch her deeply. She has returned to school after raising her children. She attends Regis University's Masters in Counseling program. Her interests are in the area of human development and the impact of adaptations in attachment on soma, psyche, culture and society. She finds that she is often amazed at how sensitive and how strong survivors are on their journeys homeward.
Northglenn Women
Rebecca Bundy and Kim DaHarb
Rebecca Bundy is finishing her Masters of Arts in Counseling at Regis University. She is a bilingual counselor (Spanish/English) who is passionate about supporting clients on their healing journeys. Her clinical work focuses on life transitions, cross-cultural issues, grief, trauma, anxiety, and depression. In addition to being a co-facilitator at WINGS, she is currently interning at People House (http://peoplehouse.org/) in Denver. She enjoys traveling, reading, sharing meals, and spending time with her spouse and two children.
Kim DaHarb is a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist Candidate. Kim has her own private practice in Broomfield. She enjoys working with Couples and individuals who want to enrich and strengthen their current relationships. She and her husband Drew also facilitate marriage classes in Boulder County. You can find out more about Kim on her website at http://www.daharbcounseling.com
South Denver Men
David Franklin & Maxxwell Meyers
David Franklin has a Masters degree in Transpersonal Counseling Psychology from Naropa University. He is also a retired medical doctor who practiced for 30 years as an anesthesiologist. He is passionate about combining spiritual and psychological growth and in finding ways to stop numbing the pain and start waking up! He is currently interested in healing individual and collective trauma, particularly as it relates to childhood physical and/or sexual abuse.
Maxx Meyers: is a third year counseling graduate student from Regis University. Maxx has been working in mental health for 6 years, and has a passion for healing. He takes a holistic approach that considers environment, social connections, and the connection between body and mind. He supports his clients by helping them recognize their strengths, and by helping to guide them as they seek out their own path to wellness.
Wednesday Women
Regina Patton & Annie Vail
Regina Patton graduated with her Masters in Counseling Specializing in Clinical Mental Health. She now works full-time for Shiloh House/Arapahoe County Department of Human Services as a Therapeutic Parenting Time Specialist and also works with Consultants for Children Inc. as a part-time Applied Behavior Analysis Line Technician. She is very passionate about families and children and hope to one day have her own nonprofit organization that focuses on empowering girls from elementary school age to college age.
Annie Vail: Bio coming soon!
Westminster Women
Stephanie Winkler & Claire Elliott
Claire Elliott, MA, LPCC, NCC is a graduate of Regis University's Master of Arts in Counseling program and is credentialed as an LPCC (Licensed Professional Counselor Candidate). She completed her clinical internship with Agape Hospice in December 2016, serving patients, family members, and loved ones through her work on the bereavement team. Claire's clinical focus includes serving clients experiencing the effects of trauma, grief (disenfranchised or otherwise), and/or loss (i.e., death, relationship, identity/self, employment, pet, etc.). She is moved and inspired by WINGS group members and is grateful to be part of this amazing community of survivors.
Stephanie Winkler is a second year graduate student in the Mindfulness-based Transpersonal Counseling program at Naropa University. As a therapist in training she values an approach which emphasizes the use of mindfulness, an understanding of the body, and inclusion of the spirit. Being a co-facilitator at WINGS has been a long time aspiration of hers. Stephanie plans to make a career out of counseling trauma survivors because she is inspired by their resilience and wisdom. The work she has found most rewarding has been volunteering at Mother House, a local nonprofit organization that gives support to pregnant and newly parenting women in need. A single mother of a nine year old boy named Dante, Stephanie loves to spend the little free time she has laughing with and learning from her child, who reminds her everyday how precious and beautiful life is.
Writing Group I
Sarah Amberg and Adrienne Schmidt
Sarah Amberg is a second year graduate student in Naropa University's Mindfulness-based Transpersonal Counseling program. She has an MFA in Creative Writing and spent thirteen years teaching English before her transition into the counseling field. Sarah is excited to be working with WINGS where she has the opportunity to combine two of her passions- writing and counseling. She believes in the power of finding our voices and sharing our stories.
Adrienne Schmidt: Bio coming soon!
Writing Group II
Maegen Horton & Yuko Lawrence
Maegen Horton received her Master of Arts in School Counseling from the University of Northern Colorado in 2013, and is also a National Certified Counselor. Her previous experience includes working with children and adolescents in school settings and she also has experience with adults in community counseling settings. She strives to provide a non-judgemental space, with realness, caring, and understanding so that clients can freely vent and explore their feelings, and current life circumstances.
Yuko Lawrence is currently working towards her M.A. in Transpersonal Counseling at Naropa University. She has also completed two years of training in Dr. Peter Levine's body-based trauma modality, Somatic Experiencing, and is working towards certification. She is particularly passionate about using somatic practices to heal stored emotions and trauma in the body. Yuko also has over 10 years of Mindfulness and Meditation training and is a Meditation Guide in the Shambhala tradition.


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The program involves radical changes to the way young drivers qualify for a driver's licence and includes education as part of the school curriculum.
A 10-week trial involving 650 year 10 students from nine government and private schools in the ACT has just been completed and the scheme will be adopted fully from the next school year.
It appears to go a long way towards answering criticisms of many licensing methods which focus on passing driving tests rather than educating young drivers in the responsibilities of driving and giving them broad experience.
Project manager Keith Wheatley, of the NRMA-ACT Road Safety Trust, said: "Everyone is trying to crack the nut of young driver education and we have probably integrated various programs more than anyone else."
Results of both the trial and of the scheme when it is introduced in the ACT next year are being watched by road licensing authorities in other Australian States, particularly NSW and Victoria, which are represented in the program's working groups.
Also involved are representatives from other countries, including the UK, Canada, Sweden and the Netherlands, who are monitoring the scheme closely.
The program addresses attitude to driving as well as the physical aspects. It begins with a pre-learner course in which parents are involved in helping 15-year-olds to become aware of the road environment and the complexities of driving. Parents receive instruction brochures giving guidelines.
The program was a result of concern that drivers between 17 and 25 made up more than 50 percent of serious road crash victims in the ACT, Urban Services Minister Brendan Smyth said.
Under the new scheme, learner licences are available to students aged 15 years and nine months, three months earlier than is now the case. However, the learner licence involves the student completing a 15-element driver education course in year 10, focusing on a behavioural approach to road safety in addition to a road rules test.
This segment of the program, which is free to students, is also available outside schools at a cost of about $60 from accredited providers.
This will be followed by a 12-month learn-to-drive program for people aged from 16 to 17 in which the student is required to undertake 50 hours of practice under parental guidance. Again, resources will be made available to parents to assist in this task.
The learner licence will be valid for two years - nine months longer than now - and existing testing arrangements for the granting of a provisional licence will continue.
The provisional licence would be available to people aged from 17, as is the present case, and would continue to be available for three years during which a .02 blood alcohol limit would apply.
After six months P-platers will be given two incentives to complete a $35, five-hour adult education course: removal of P plate (otherwise it stays on for the full three years) and increase of demerit points allowance from four to eight.
The course is called Road Ready, a name decided on by students during the trial, and which has been financed by a $2 million grant from the NRMA-ACT Road Safety Trust.
Its aims are to teach young drivers to recognise road safety hazards and to develop mental and physical skills to deal with them.
A key component is for novice drivers to gain as much practical experience as possible before they are let loose on the roads on L and P plates.
Step 1: Intensive driver education course in year 10.
Step 2: Learn to drive program for 16- and 17-year-olds. Includes 50 hours' practice under parental supervision. Learner licence lasts two years.
Step 3: Provisional licence for people aged from 17. Blood alcohol limit of .02 for three years. After six months P-platers given two incentives to complete a $35, five-hour adult education course: removal of P-plate and increase of demerit points allowance from four to eight.


text: A.S. Apothecary Origin: Sussex, EnglandPatient and precise, Amanda Saurin is the founder, plant grower and gatherer, distiller and maker at A.S. Apothecary. Amanda has worked with herbs and homeopathy for many years developing effective, gentle, bespoke preparations. Whilst living in the Levant, she learned and gradually perfected the art of distillation to create exquisite aromatics and essential oils from plants that she collected in the gardens of Sufis, the mountains of Kyrenia, and the citrus groves bordering the Mediterranean. Through A.S. Apothecary she brings together her love of plants, growing, making, healing and collaboration to produce beautiful products that capture the essence and vitality of plants with the benefit of illuminating and rejuvenating your own natural beauty.All A.S. Apothecary products are handcrafted from the finest natural ingredients. A.S. Apothecary products are NOT tested on animals.View the entire A.S. Apothecary collection.


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CIB Bank on Wednesday said its owner, Italy's Intesa Sanpaolo, would raise its capital by HUF 38 bln, MTI news agency reported.
Intesa Sanpaolo decided to raise capital at the bank by HUF 13.7 bln in October and by HUF 15.4 bln in July. CIB Bank had a first-half loss of HUF 33.8 bln, as it set aside provisions for refunds it must pay under borrowers' relief legislation approved this summer.
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Located 21 km from Norwich, Sunnyside offers accommodation in Bungay. The property is 50 km from Ipswich and boasts views of the garden.
An oven and a toaster can be found in the kitchen and there is a private bathroom. Towels and bed linen are provided in this cottage.
Great Yarmouth is 25 km from Sunnyside, while Aldeburgh is 36 km away. The nearest airport is Norwich International Airport, 26 km from Sunnyside.
Please note that the full amount of the reservation is due before arrival. Cottages.com will send a confirmation with detailed payment information. After full payment is taken, the property's details, including the address and where to collect keys, will be emailed to you.


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GraphicRiver Hockey 3032826
Stock Vector \ Conceptual \ Sports \ Activity
Hockey \ Winter \ SportsSet \ Washer \ Symbol \ Vector \ Sticks \ Backgrounds
Stock Vector - Hockey 3032826 by Si1anti @ GraphicRiver
Stock Vector \ Conceptual \ Sports \ Activity
Set of hockey sticks on black and white backgrounds.
Layered: No; Graphics Files Included: JPG Image, Vector EPS; Minimum Adobe CS Version: CS2.
Blank Voucher; Background from Gears; Set of Electronic Timers; Icons timer; Pieces of Cake; Ancient Weapon; Armor Knight Set.
Keywords: attribute, black, competition, crossed, crossover, game, hockey, Hockey Stick, ice, ice rink, isolated, nhl, object, puck, race, set, silhouette, skating rink, sport, sports, stick, subject, symbol, vector, washer, white, winter sports.