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Hazardous air pollutants are plausible candidate exposures for autism spectrum disorders. They have been explored in recent studies for their role in the development of these disorders.
We used a prevalent case-control design to screen perinatal exposure to 35 hazardous air pollutants for further investigation in autism etiology. We included 383 children with autism spectrum disorders and, as controls, 2829 children with speech and language impairment. All participants were identified from the records-based surveillance of 8-year-old children conducted by the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network in North Carolina (for children born in 1994 and 1996) and West Virginia (born in 1992 and 1994). Exposures to ambient concentrations of metal, particulate, and volatile organic air pollutants in the census tract of the child's birth residence were assigned from the 1996 National Air Toxics Assessment annual-average model. We estimated odds ratios (ORs) for autism spectrum disorders and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs), comparing across the 20th and 80th percentiles of log-transformed hazardous air pollutant concentration among the selected controls, using semi-Bayes logistic models and adjusting for sampling variables (surveillance year and state), a priori demographic confounders from the birth certificate and census, and covarying air pollutants.
We estimated many near-null ORs, including those for metals, established human neurodevelopmental toxicants, and several pollutants that were elevated in a similar study in California. Hazardous air pollutants with more precise and elevated OR estimates included methylene chloride, 1.4 (95% CI = 0.7–2.5), quinoline, 1.4 (1.0–2.2), and styrene, 1.8 (1.0–3.1).
Our screening design was limited by exposure misclassification of air pollutants and the use of an alternate developmental disorder as the control group, both of which may have biased results toward the null. Despite these limitations, methylene chloride, quinoline, and styrene emerged (based on this analysis and prior epidemiologic evidence) as candidates that warrant further investigation for a possible role in autism etiology.
Hazardous air pollutants include hundreds of metal, particulate, and volatile organic compounds known to harm human health. Many are plausible candidate exposures in autism etiology because they have neurotoxic or immunotoxic properties,1 and theories of autism etiology include damage to the developing nervous system and immune perturbation.2–4 Airborne chemical exposures may be especially important in contributing to neurodevelopmental disorders because inhaled particles or metals have been found to be delivered directly to the brain through the olfactory bulb.5,6
Although hazardous air pollutants are not routinely monitored in the United States, emissions data have been used to model annual-average census-tract ambient concentrations in the National Air Toxics Assessment (NATA) program. A study in California studied hazardous air pollutants and autism,7 using NATA output to assign exposures. Children with autism spectrum disorders from a state developmental service agency and a large health maintenance organization were compared with children from birth certificate rosters. Hazardous air pollutants were examined individually and combined into composite scores based on chemical structure or mechanism (eg, endocrine disruptors). From a selected list of 25 air pollutants, positive associations were found for the chlorinated solvent group, the metal group, and several individual pollutants.
Despite calls for data to fill gaps in our understanding of associations between environmental agents and autism,8,9 this California study remains one of the few studies contributing actual data. Intense investigation of many environmental agents is time- and cost-prohibitive. The NATA model presents an opportunity to screen a large number of pollutants with biologic plausibility for a role in autism. Results of such screenings can be considered in combination with toxicologic literature to identify the candidates that deserve more indepth research. Semi-Bayes hierarchical methods are useful in multiple-comparisons situations in which investigators must choose which comparisons to investigate further. This is true especially when there is substantial cost associated with future investigations,10,11 as there is with autism and environmental exposures.
We conducted a screening analysis of hazardous air pollutants and autism spectrum disorders using a prevalent case-control design in North Carolina and West Virginia. As in the California study,7 exposure was assigned using output from the NATA model, but we additionally included some design improvements. We included a more complete group of autism spectrum disorders cases by reviewing records from schools in addition to other sources12 and verified residency of our control group at age 8. To account for the fact that hazardous air pollutants are highly correlated and that more than one of them might have effects on autism, we simultaneously adjusted for measured air pollutants and stabilized the estimates using semi-Bayes models.
Cases with autism spectrum disorders and controls with speech and language impairment were identified from the Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network (ADDM) in North Carolina and West Virginia.12 The monitoring network screens developmental records of children in health and educational settings through the 8th year of life, an age at which most affected children have been identified.13 Autism spectrum disorders diagnoses are fairly stable.14 The North Carolina site evaluated children living in the counties of Alamance, Chatham, Davidson, Durham, Forsyth, Guilford, Orange, and Randolph in 2002 and 2004 (born in 1994 and 1996). The West Virginia site evaluated children living in the entire state in 2000 and 2002 (born in 1992 and 1994). We limited participants in this study to children who had resided in the surveillance region at the time of birth, to obtain in-state birth certificate data and to preclude a potential selection bias induced by differential case versus control in-migration from regions with different concentrations of air pollutants.
Cases were all children with developmental records documenting characteristics and behaviors that met a standardized definition for autism spectrum disorders based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV-TR),15 regardless of whether a previous diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders had been documented.
Controls were defined as all children in the surveillance system in North Carolina and West Virginia with a school designation of speech and language impairment without documentation of other serious developmental problems (eg, autism spectrum disorders, intellectual disabilities etc). We assumed that speech and language impairments would not be appreciably affected by air pollution. We selected this control group because (1) the children had equivalent access to developmental evaluations, and (2) we could confirm their residency at age 8. Family residential mobility is common, and has been associated with lifestyle factors such as maternal age and income.16 Children who out-migrate may have different air pollution exposures, necessitating the selection of a control group meeting the same residency requirements as cases.
To obtain the residential address in early life and demographic characteristics, we linked each child to corresponding birth certificate data. In West Virginia, we randomly sampled one-third of all children identified with speech and language impairment within each surveillance year to reduce the burden on the vital statistics department performing birth certificate matches.
We assigned exposures during the perinatal period because it is a period of susceptibility to exogenous agents in autism etiology.17 Ambient hazardous air pollutant concentrations were not directly measured in North Carolina or West Virginia in the early to mid-1990s, so we assigned exposure using modeled concentrations from the NATA program. NATA was developed as a tool to prioritize geographic areas and individual pollutants requiring study or intervention.18 We selected NATA 1996 estimates over those from 1990 or 1999 because the 1996 model had improved data input compared with earlier models and was closer in time to the birth-years of our cohort.19
NATA-1996 included diesel particulate matter, components of vehicle exhaust of concern to the Office of Transportation and Air Quality (ethylbenzene, hexane, methyl-tert-butyl ether, propionaldehyde, styrene, toluene, and xylenes), and 32 priority pollutants of concern in urban areas (selected based on toxicity-weighted emission levels). Our analytic method required independent exposure groups. Therefore, we selected the combined group of 7 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from NATA instead of the encompassing group of 16 compounds termed polycyclic organic matter because previous studies suggesting human neurodevelopmental toxicity have focused on PAH.20
The NATA model assumes Gaussian air dispersion and uses overlapping spatial grids to predict annual-average ambient concentrations of 41 hazardous air pollutants for each census tract.21 The primary source of inputs into the model is the National Emissions Inventory, which includes the location and rate of pollutant release from point sources such as manufacturing, power-generating, and waste incineration facilities, area sources such as dry cleaners and gas stations, and motor vehicles. Inputs also include meteorologic and secondary-pollutant formation data. We used total ambient concentrations obtained by adding modeled concentrations to an invariant clean background level which is known only for a few hazardous air pollutants.
We assigned individual exposures using the modeled concentrations corresponding to the census tract of the residential address from the birth certificate. Census tracts were determined using a variety of methods, including the US Census Internet-based address search feature22 (n = 2321), geocoding in ArcGIS 9.2 (n = 155), Internet delivery databases of the US Postal Service23 (n = 214), identifying rural zip codes that were enclosed by census tracts (n = 156), and assigning to a random location within a zip code when other methods were unsuccessful (n = 366). Some methods provided year 2000 census tracts, which were translated to 1990 boundaries using census tract relationship files.24
We examined distributions of hazardous air pollutant concentrations by state and by level of urbanicity. We examined pairwise Spearman rank correlations for all pollutants.
We estimated prevalence odds ratios for each air pollutant and autism spectrum disorders by calculating odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using logistic regression. ORs from categorical coding of air pollutants and from quadratic splines of pollutants and autism spectrum disorders suggested monotonic trends. Air pollutant concentrations were log-transformed because resultant ORs were similar in magnitude to ORs with categorical coding of air pollutants but more precise. We calculated ORs corresponding to the odds of autism spectrum disorders for high air pollutant concentrations (80th percentile) over odds estimated for low concentrations (20th percentile). Percentile values were derived from controls from both states combined. All ORs were adjusted for study design factors of surveillance year and state to account for the stratified sampling and the different control sampling fraction in West Virginia.
We used a directed acyclic graph to evaluate covariates for the potential to confound the ORs.25 Adjusted models included suspected autism spectrum disorders risk factors (maternal age26 and smoking in pregnancy27) social class variables potentially related to air pollutants and unknown environmental causes of autism spectrum disorders (marital status, maternal education, race, and census tract median household income) and urbanicity (because air pollution and prevalence of autism28 are higher in urban areas).
Hazardous air pollutants share sources and are therefore correlated with each other. To accurately estimate ORs attributable to a given pollutant, and also to account for multiple comparisons, we simultaneously included all hazardous air pollutants in one semi-Bayes hierarchical model, which improves the plausibility and stability of estimates.29 The semi-Bayes model adjusted the beta coefficient for each hazardous air pollutant toward the mean of its exchangeability group, with the magnitude of shrinkage dependent on the precision of its conventional likelihood estimate and a pre-specified variance of the assumed normal distribution for that parameter (τ2). We selected a τ2 of 0.209 corresponding to expectations that 95% of ORs would fall within a 6-fold range. Semi-Bayes models were fit using SAS IML code developed by Witte et al.30 In this 2-stage hierarchical model, coefficients and covariance matrices from a conventional logistical model were regressed on second-stage data including exchangeability variables and the value for τ2.
We included exchangeability variables expected to predict the magnitude of ORs, considering both determinants of the true OR and determinants of the observed OR, such as exposure misclassification. Hazardous air pollutants were grouped by the following categorical exchangeability variables: an indicator of demonstrated human developmental neurotoxicity,20,31,32 any evidence of placental transfer,33 similarity between NATA model estimates and measured ambient concentrations categorized as low, medium, and high,34 and an indicator that outdoor pollutant concentrations differ from indoor concentrations.35,36 However, including these exchangeability predictors produced results that were similar to those assuming that all estimates arose from one exchangeability group.
We evaluated modification by state because emission inventories are created at the state level and because polluting sources and sample characteristics exhibited variation between North Carolina and West Virginia. We used likelihood ratio tests of cross-products between pollutants and state, and between pollutants and urbanicity, with an alpha level of 0.10 adjusting for a priori demographic confounders in single-pollutant logistic models to evaluate whether estimated prevalence ratios should be combined across these strata. We used likelihood ratio tests and inspection of stratified ORs to examine whether boys or girls were more susceptible to the effects of exposure. We also repeated analyses limiting cases to those with autism spectrum disorders and comorbid intellectual disabilities (n = 161), and autism spectrum disorders without evidence of this comorbidity (n = 234), in case one subgroup was more susceptible to effects of exposure than the other. Finally, we performed a sensitivity analysis of potentially greater misclassification of exposures for children born prior to NATA-1996, by performing analyses separately for North Carolina children born in 1996 and 1994.
In North Carolina, 220 of the 311 children identified with autism spectrum disorders had a matching North Carolina birth certificate. We determined a census tract for all 220, of whom 206 were born in the surveillance counties. In West Virginia, 189 of the 257 children identified with autism spectrum disorders had a West Virginian birth certificate, and we determined a census tract for 177. In North Carolina, 1947 of the 2584 children with speech and language impairment had a matching North Carolina birth certificate. We determined a census tract for 1901, of whom 1733 were born in the surveillance counties. In West Virginia, 4287 children with speech and language impairment were identified. Of these, 1420 were randomly selected for birth certificate matching, 1146 were found, and we determined a census tract for 1096. For North Carolina children with autism spectrum disorders we had evidence that 86% without a matching birth certificate were born out of state, suggesting that most children excluded from further analyses because of a lack of birth certificate match were not part of our intended sample because they were born out of state.
Children with autism spectrum disorders were more likely to be boys, to be firstborn, to have mothers with higher education, and to reside in urban areas, compared with children with speech and language impairment (Table 1). In North Carolina, most children lived in 100% urban or mixed-urbanicity census tracts. In West Virginia, most children lived in 100% rural or mixed census tracts.
We excluded the following air pollutants from further analysis because they had no detectable variation above background levels: carbon tetrachloride, ethylene dibromide, ethylene dichloride, hexachlorobenzene, and polychlorinated biphenyls (Table 2). Coke-oven emissions were present only in West Virginia. Concentrations of all pollutants were higher in urban than nonurban areas. Concentrations were higher in North Carolina than West Virginia for most pollutants even when comparing regions of similar urbanicity. Variability of most pollutants was greater in nonurban areas. Most air pollutants were correlated with all other air pollutants, with Spearman rank correlations of at least 0.5 and often much higher—except for coke oven emissions, which were not correlated with any other pollutant. Air pollutants known to be emitted from mobile sources37 were especially correlated (>0.8).
In unadjusted analyses, ORs were elevated above the null for many pollutants (Fig.). After adjustment for a priori demographic confounders, all estimates were attenuated, so that most adjusted estimates were near-null. For example, the OR for beryllium compounds was 1.5 (95% CI = 1.1–2.0) before adjustment and 1.0 (0.6 –1.4) after adjustment. For xylenes, the unadjusted was 1.5 (1.2–2.0) and the adjusted was 1.0 (0.6–1.6). After adjusting for other air pollutants in semi-Bayes models, ORs were less precise and many remained near-null, but some were shifted upwards or downwards. Estimates shifted upward included those for chromium compounds, dichloropropene, methylene chloride, propionaldehyde, quinoline, styrene, and tetrachloroethane. Estimates shifted downward below the null included ethylbenzene and toluene.
Associations between many pollutants and autism spectrum disorders differed by both state and level of urbanicity when tested in single-pollutant adjusted models. This modification was less pronounced after adjusting for other pollutants in semi-Bayes models (Table 3). Level of urbanicity and state were associated in our sample, with North Carolina having a greater proportion of children living in urban areas than West Virginia. There was a suggestion that urbanicity partly accounted for differences in the magnitude of estimates stratified by state for some pollutants. For example, the ORs for methylene chloride, quinoline, and styrene were more elevated in North Carolina than in West Virginia, and in urban compared with nonurban areas.
Most stable ORs from the fully-adjusted semi-Bayes models were near-null overall, in both states, and within levels of urbanicity (Table 3). Pollutants that had more-precise elevated associations overall and within states and levels of urbanicity were methylene chloride, quinoline, and styrene, whereas hydrazine and lead had negative associations.
Sex of the child satisfied our screening criteria for interaction with many pollutants. After adjusting for other pollutants in semi-Bayes models, confidence intervals of ORs stratified by sex were imprecise for girls and exhibited substantial overlap with those for boys, so that differences could be due to chance. Point estimates were not consistently greater for either boys or girls. Some estimates that showed differences were butadiene (boys, 1.5 [0.7–3.4] and girls, 0.9 [0.3–2.9]); mercury compounds (boys, 1.0 [0.5–1.9] and girls, 1.8 [0.7–4.4]); styrene (boys, 2.2 [1.1–4.1] and girls, 0.7 [0.2–2.6]); and tetrachloroethane (boys, 1.6 [0.5–4.6] and girls, 0.7 [0.1–3.9]).
When models were fit separately for autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid intellectual disabilities, resultant ORs from semi-Bayes models were mostly within the confidence intervals of the estimate from the other case group, with no clear patterns of increased point estimates for one or the other case group. Some estimates with greater differences were coke oven emissions (with intellectual disabilities, 1.9 [1.1–3.2] and without, 1.0 [0.6–1.6]), dichloropropene (with comorbidity, 1.0 [0.3–3.1] and without, 2.2 [0.8–6.2]), mercury compounds (with comorbidity, 1.7 [0.8–3.6] and without, 0.9 [0.5–1.8]), and methylene chloride (with comorbidity, 1.7 [0.8–3.7] and without, 1.0 [0.5–2.1]).
When North Carolina models were fit separately for children born in 1994 and 1996, ORs were very unstable (results not shown).
We used semi-Bayes analyses to screen perinatal exposure to 35 hazardous air pollutants for a role in contributing to autism spectrum disorders at age 8. These methods can outperform conventional maximum-likelihood-estimation techniques for prediction,38 and are useful in settings where multiple exposures are evaluated for prioritization in future studies.10 After accounting for family and census-tract social characteristics, urbanicity, and potential confounding by correlated air pollutants, we estimated mostly near-null associations, including pollutants that are established human developmental neurotoxicants: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,20 arsenic, lead, manganese, mercury, and toluene.31 Some pollutants stood out with estimates that were precise but elevated compared with those for all other air pollutants—especially quinoline and styrene. Our results are mostly divergent from those from a previous study of hazardous air pollutants and autism spectrum disorders in California,7 except for methylene chloride.
Methylene chloride is a solvent and propellant widely used in manufacturing, and is emitted from point and area sources. Ambient airborne exposure to methylene chloride was positively associated with autism spectrum disorders prevalence in the previous California study.7 We found an elevated OR for methylene chloride, but with a confidence interval including the null. Chronic exposure to methylene chloride has established central nervous system effects.33 A study examining maternal exposure to solvents including methylene chloride found decrements in child cognitive, language, and behavioral functioning.39 Methylene chloride is a pollutant that should be further studied for a role in autism spectrum disorders etiology, using improved exposure assessment.
Unlike the previous study, we estimated elevated associations for quinoline and styrene. The California study did not examine quinoline because of a lack of evidence of developmental toxicity or endocrine-disrupting characteristics of quinoline. Styrene was examined only as part of a composite score that included 5 aromatic solvents, with a resultant null estimate. It is possible that any effect of styrene in the previous study was diluted by its inclusion in a group with other pollutants, if the other pollutants had null or inverse associations with autism spectrum disorders. Neurodevelopmental effects of quinoline and styrene have not been previously reported. Quinoline is a chemical intermediate used in organic processing such as petroleum refining and coal mining, with emissions primarily from area sources. Traffic is the primary source of styrene emissions.
We estimated near-null associations for several pollutants that had positive associations in previous studies: cadmium, mercury, nickel, trichloroethylene, and vinyl chloride.7,40,41 Estimates for cadmium, mercury, and nickel were elevated prior to adjustment in our study but were attenuated upon adjustment. This suggests that the earlier positive associations for these metals may have been due to confounding by urbanicity, other pollutants, or unknown factors associated with urbanicity or pollutant concentrations. In contrast, trichloroethylene and vinyl chloride estimates were near-null both before and after adjustment for confounding in our study. Low-exposure levels in our study sample could have contributed to null findings, especially for vinyl chloride, for which outdoor concentrations were 10 times higher in the California sample. Overall our study areas were characterized by outdoor pollutant concentrations 2–3 times lower than those in the California study. The range of ambient concentrations of these chemicals that may impair neurodevelopment is largely unknown for these pollutants, limiting our ability to discern the impact of studying potentially low levels. In contrast, null findings could reflect that inhalation exposure to these chemicals from ambient sources is not as important as other routes of exposure for these chemicals. Several of the included pollutants have substantial sources of human exposure from diet, tobacco smoke, and indoor environments.
Differences in results between our study and the California study may also have been influenced by the different control groups. Our control group had similar access to developmental testing and met the same residential requirements as the cases, thereby providing an estimate of exposure for the population source that gave rise to the case group. The age 8 address or access to developmental testing services could not be confirmed for children included from the birth certificate rosters used in the previous study.7 Speech and language impairment was chosen over other disorders included in the ADDM surveillance network because, under this protocol, children designated with speech and language impairment but no other developmental problems never met surveillance criteria for autism spectrum disorders. In addition, speech and language impairments are relatively mild and more common than autism spectrum disorders, and therefore, provide a sufficiently-sized control sample.42
We assumed that isolated speech and language impairments were not caused by exposure to any of the included pollutants. This assumption is consistent with one study examining maternal occupational exposure and speech and language impairment that estimated near-null associations with solvents, pesticides, dusts, and metals.43 However, environmental contributions to speech and language development have been scarcely studied,43 and it remains possible that impairments may be influenced by air pollutants. The below-null estimates for lead and toluene in our study could be due to a positive association between these chemicals and speech and language impairment to a greater extent than for autism spectrum disorders. Furthermore, ORs from our study may underestimate the true association with autism spectrum disorders for any pollutant positively associated with speech and language impairment.
It is possible that only an unknown subgroup of children was susceptible to a given air pollutant. We had little information to define such subgroups, and for the few variables we did have (gender and comorbid intellectual disabilities), we had limited power to detect modification.
Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders is complex, and detection may vary geographically with access to health or educational services.40 This can complicate studies of autism spectrum disorders when the geographic gradient of environmental exposures may correlate with factors promoting case ascertainment. Our study is less likely to have been affected by an ascertainment bias, in part because our case group was not required to have a prior diagnosis and because case and control selection required similar access to developmental testing (as evidenced by their designation of speech and language impairment). We additionally controlled for urbanicity, which may serve as a proxy of increased access to health services, and is related to autism spectrum disorders prevalence and hazardous air pollutant concentrations.
We lacked information on personal exposure to pollutants during early pregnancy, and so assigned individual exposure to each pollutant using output from a temporally and spatially averaged air pollution model (NATA). NATA addresses hazardous air pollutants of highest health concern and greatest mass of emissions. NATA uses extensive national and local emissions inputs and consequently is more complete than exposure-assignment methods that use only proximity to roads or large polluting sources. Our design took advantage of the ability of NATA to distinguish persons with high exposures from those with low exposures, relying on spatial contrasts more than temporal contrasts.
NATA 1996 output has been found to underpredict monitored ambient concentrations, but to preserve rank order of pollutant level.21,35,44–46 Model accuracy varies by pollutant.46 Discrepancies between model output and measured ambient concentrations are thought to be due primarily to the completeness of emissions inventory inputs. For example, not all businesses report to the Toxic Release Inventory, which is an important source of industrial emissions model inputs. However, inputs for the 1996 model are more complete than those for previous years.19
NATA model performance varies regionally across the United States.21 Both North Carolina and West Virginia were ranked as having the highest level of participation in reporting to the National Toxics Inventory with the lowest proportion (<10%) having uncertain location.46 Still, conclusions about accuracy for our sample are limited by the lack of monitoring of pollutants in North Carolina and West Virginia for the relevant time period, precluding validation studies in these states.
Even where NATA reflects outdoor concentration rankings, there are additional levels of uncertainties in using these outputs to characterize individual exposure. Our design assigned the average concentration for the mother's residential census tract. This does not account for daily activity patterns that include leaving the tract, geocoding errors, or spatial variability in pollutant concentrations within the tract. All of these can be important determinants of individual exposure.47 Greater errors will arise in assigning exposures for persons residing in high-pollutant areas, especially for pollutants dominated by point sources.46 The ability of model output to serve as a surrogate of personal exposure has been evaluated directly and deemed reasonable for most air pollutants.35 Ability to reflect personal exposure is especially good for mobile source volatile organic compounds (eg, benzene) and less accurate for volatile organic compounds with substantial indoor sources (eg, chloroform).35
Exposure misclassification also arises from temporal averaging. NATA output pertains to an average for 1996, whereas the period of susceptibility may be a small window during gestation. Furthermore, our design assumed that the rank order of air pollutants remained stable from 1992 through 1996, the periods of birth for our subjects. Overall, concentrations of air pollutants during this period were decreasing due to regulations that address point sources and on-road vehicle emissions.48 Concentrations could have changed during these periods in North Carolina or West Virginia, for example, due to the opening or closing of a large polluting source or changes in mountain-top coal removal in West Virginia. We lacked the statistical power to determine if our results were sensitive to potentially greater misclassification for earlier birth years.
We attempted to account for uncertainties in the ability of NATA-model estimates to reflect personal exposure by including 2 exchangeability variables in our semi-Bayes models: similarity between modeled and measured concentrations, and similarity between outdoor and indoor concentrations for a given pollutant. Inclusion of these variables did not influence results. However, these exchangeability variables had limitations. For example, accuracy rankings focused on the ability to predict pollutant concentrations at the mean instead of the ability to differentiate high-exposure from low-exposure areas.35,36
The use of NATA to assign exposure in our study is certainly the largest limitation. However, because autism spectrum disorder cases and speech and language impairment controls met similar residency requirements and were derived from the same data sources, it is unlikely that this misclassification differed by outcome status. Hence, exposure misclassification has likely attenuated the reported estimates toward the null, so that true effects may be larger. In addition, exposure misclassification limited our ability to control for confounding due to correlated pollutants. Simultaneously adjusting for multiple pollutants measured at the ecologic level may have produced unexpected results. For example, outdoor measurements of some criteria pollutants are more correlated with personal exposure to another pollutant than the measured pollutant.49 If this were true in these data, it is possible that we may have inadvertently adjusted a given pollutant for a proxy of itself, thereby biasing estimates toward the null.
In summary, several facets of our study may have produced estimates biased toward the null, including the use of a control group that may have associations with the exposure, exposure misclassification, and our use of semi-Bayes shrinkage estimators. For these reasons our design may have failed to screen in chemicals that could potentially have a role in autism etiology. Despite these limitations, we estimated elevated associations for some hazardous air pollutants. Our results are consistent with previous findings regarding methylene chloride7 and suggest quinoline and styrene as possible targets for follow-up in future investigation of autism etiology.
We thank Barbara Becker-Cottrill, Julie O'Malley, and Tom Leonard for their help with West Virginia surveillance and birth certificate data, Cynthia Cassell and Bob Meyer for assistance with North Carolina birth certificate data, Ted Palma for information regarding the NATA program, and Kristen Rappazzo for geocoding assistance.
Supported in part by grants from the Centers for Disease Control Prevention and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES10126 and T32 ES007018).
The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
PubMed Central Canada is a service of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) working in partnership with the National Research Council's national science library in cooperation with the National Center for Biotechnology Information at the U.S. National Library of Medicine(NCBI/NLM). It includes content provided to the PubMed Central International archive by participating publishers.


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|03 Jun 2009
Windows 7 won't boot. Error message?
Hi, I can't boot to Windows 7. It says that Windows could not verify something about this object. \Windows\system32\winboot.exe
Anyone got anyway to fix it so I can boot to windows 7?
PS: I used Vista Boot Pro, and for the boot loader option, I clicked Install Longhorn Bootloader. Could this be the problem?
I think it could be Winload.exe
|My System Specs
|03 Jun 2009
Do you mean winload.exe?
Post a screenshot of Disk Management window, like this:
Open an elevated command prompt, type:
bcdedit {enter}
and post the results, like this:
|My System Specs
|07 Jun 2009
Boot the 7 dvd, and run Startup Repair.
|My System Specs
|07 Jun 2009
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In Ghosts of the Golden West, Hans Holzer and medium Sybil Leek head out west in search of the haunted, and the possessed. There's San Diego's Whaley House Ghosts; Count Wurmbrand, now deceased, who may or may not be the fulfillment of an ancient curse; an ambulance driver possessed by two victims; a disgruntled, displaced mother-in-law; sailors; Indians; Carole Lombard; Spanish monks; a disenchanted debutante; and last but hardly least, a "topless" psychic who also happens to be the mother of eight. There's also a doctor who takes some strange and interesting photographs. A wonderful collection of vintage paranormal investigations, told by the master himself.
©1968 Hans Holzer Estate (P)2014 David N. Wilson
"The swinging sixties, with ghosts"
Pile into the Citroen with the Holzers and Sybil Leek and join them on a wild California road trip to investigate hauntings and sightings of the early-to-mid sixties. There's a ghost-inhabited closet, a spectral Carole Lombard, the discarnate monks of Etna Springs, and of course, the recurring Holzer theme of psychic topless dancers!
The most interesting story was that of Count Degenhard von Wurmbrand. A tall, elegant Austrian officer who relocated to America in 1927, Wurmbrand had a stunning tale to tell that gives new meaning to "rara avis." The ominous ravens, a castle south of Vienna, and unusual characters could well serve as the foundation of a compelling horror novel or screenplay. (For all I know, they have done).
Tom Pile's narration is excellent. He never sounded campy or silly portraying the female characters. His voice is just right for this kind of story: sort of "Robert Englund meets Jeffrey Combs" in the best way.
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City of Elk Grove Special Waste Collection Center (SWCC)9255 Disposal LaneElk Grove, California 95624Phone: (916) 627-3232
Residents:Sunday - Wednesday9:00 a.m. - 4:00 p.m. (no appointment needed)There are no drop-off fees for eligible residents.
Reuse Room:Sunday - Wednesday9:00 a.m. - 3:30 p.m. (no appointment needed)
Small Businesses:Wednesdays, by appointment only
The facility is closed on all City Holiday's that fall on Sunday - Wednesday.
Sacramento Recycling and Transfer Station8491 Fruitridge RoadSacramento, CA (Map)Hours of Operation:Tuesday - Saturday8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.
North Area Recovery Station4450 Roseville RoadNorth Highlands, CA (Map)Hours of Operation:Tue, Thurs, Fri & Sat8:30 a.m. - 4:00 p.m.
Please call the HHW InfoLine at (916) 627-3232 or contact AskElkGrove at:Ask Elk Grove: (916) 691-2489Monday - Friday8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.Email: email@example.com
or visit:City of Elk GroveIntegrated Waste Division8401 Laguna Palms WayElk Grove, CA 95758
Please follow these guidelines when preparing to drop off Household Hazardous Waste at the facility:
Place the materials upright in your vehicle and brace them so they will not slip or tip over. For safety, transport the materials in your vehicle's trunk or truck bed, away from the passenger compartment.
NOTE: State regulations limit the transportation of household hazardous waste to 15 gallons of liquid or 125 pounds of solid material per vehicle per visit. Individual containers are limited to a 5-gallon capacity. There are no limitations on the number of visits per day to drop off hazardous waste.
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They also have since DEC15th added 6 new daylight frequencies to MIA and 4 to JFK.
But it's also a sad day because it marks the day RG will suspend their traditional NRT services (although it's technically tomorrow, IIRC).
Varig at NRT/NGO:
Photo © YK
Photo © Carlos A. Morillo Doria
Photo © Dickson Ching - HKAEC
Photo © Kazutaka Yagi
edit: typo
[Edited 2006-01-15 18:23:24]


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For patients and physicians who want the ultimate in advanced Superficial Radiation Therapy technology, Sensus Healthcare offers the SRT-100 Vision™—the next generation of innovation in our powerful arsenal against non-melanoma skin cancer and unsightly keloid scarring.
Built with all the same great features and remarkable efficacy that distinguish the original SRT-100™, the SRT-100 Vision™ delivers the precise, painless calibrated dose of Superficial Radiation Therapy patients and physicians expect, but offers additional features—most notably high-frequency ultrasound for imaging.
With a high-frequency ultra-sound guidance system, the SRT-100 Vision™ allows physicians to view areas being treated while they are being treated. This "see and treat" capability allows basal and squamous cell carcinomas, as well as keloid tissue, to be assessed more thoroughly so treatment can be targeted more precisely. When the ultrasound technology is placed over the treatment area using the laser positioning system, physicians can assess the lesion to see how deep it is and fine tune the exact amount of radiation needed. This will ultimately help tailor each patient's treatment protocol when physicians are able to see how the lesion is progressing with each treatment session. Not only this, but each treatment session is recorded for patient records with the LesionCam™.
The SRT-100 Vision™ offers physicians, institutions and healthcare systems great value on several levels. This compact, efficient and very effective mobile device makes it easy to serve new patients and more patients. By increasing patient volume, the SRT-100 Vision™ allows care providers to expand their reputation and footprint in the community. And by adding a non-surgical treatment option that delivers a 95+ percent cure rate for non-melanoma cancer, along with a 90+ percent cure rate for keloid scarring, the SRT-100 Vision™ helps reduce the overall cost of healthcare.
With a frequency of 22 MHz, treatment boundaries and margins can be better defined. In turn, better definition helps guide physicians with decisions about optimal treatment energy and applicator size.


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Thank Goodness for Geraniums (the Perennial Ones)
I love easy-growing perennials, fun foliage, and the color blue. So it's really no surprise that perennial geraniums (also called cranesbills for their beak-shaped seedheads) are among my favorite flowers.
The mourning widow geranium (Geranium phaeum 'Samobor') is currently in full bloom in my shade garden. This beauty grows about a foot tall and has clusters of dark purple-black flowers rising above the mounds of purple-splotched foliage. It's a real winner because the foliage looks great from spring to fall.
It's not blooming yet, but I'm already appreciating the tidy mound that is bloody geranium (Geranium sanguineum). I know its may sound a little morbid, but the moniker actually stems from the fact that the foliage turns bright red in autumn. This great perennial puts out a big flush of purple, pink, or white flowers in early summer, then continues to offer a spattering of bloom until autumn.
The real winner among perennial geraniums, though, is 'Rozanne', the stellar selection pictured here. 'Rozanne' offers lovely blue-purple flowers in late May or early June and continues to be in constant bloom all the way until frost. Plus it has marbled foliage that looks great in the garden while you're patiently waiting for its blooms.


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Dark Matter
A NovelBook - 2016
From the critics
Community Activity
CommentAdd a Comment
I really liked this one. A completely new premise (to me) and it was action-packed and nerve-wracking and just really well done.
Now this was great! I like a book that just "starts", and doesn't drown you in backstory which can at times become confusing, and boring. Portions of backstory and details are revealed as the story progresses.
Much of the plot and concept will be familiar to sci fi fans, but the execution, and perspective of the main character really bring a great take! T he story is a bit of a mash up of one of my favorite "shocking" games from 2012, and one of my favorite novels turned "hit" movie in 1999.
I really liked the ending, as it provided some closure, but left you thinking.
Highly suggested!
This was a quick read. It reminded me a bit of the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Parallels."
Walking home to meet his family for dinner, Jason Dessen is kidnapped, pushed into a vehicle and forced to drive to a remote, abandoned power plant in a forgotten industrial neighborhood of Chicago. There, his abductor has him change clothes and injects him with a clear liquid, upon which everything goes dark. He awakens in a seemingly different reality, one in which he has never been married. Though in this world he is the superstar he always knew he had the potential to be in his scientific field, Jason is desperate to return to his family.
It had been a while since I'd read a thriller, and this was a wild, fun, thought-provoking ride. Recommended!
More Crichton than Arthur C Clarke, it leans on the thriller pacing, letting the lofty quantum concepts play second fiddle. This is probably for the best, though, and I was surprised by how effective and enjoyable the story became with its solid action sequences and interspersed "wow" moments.
Good read. Fast read. Enough twists to keep you engaged. The author actually did his homework regarding the science involved in the story and made it understandable for the average reader.
An exciting read that takes a the theoretical science principle of Schrodinger's cat and turns it into a thriller. Jason Dessin is ripped from his life and plopped into the middle of a different version of Jason Dessin's life. He has to travel the multi-verse to get back to his family and kids and bring justice to the version of Jason that had set all this in motion. A lot of fun, that will have you flipping the pages to find out what happens next.
Dark Matter is a fast paced thriller, entertaining until the very last page. I honestly could not put it down. It was clearly written with a movie adaptation in mind (I'm already picturing Matt Damon, or Mark Ruffalo as the lead), but that did not diminish my enjoyment of the book. If you enjoy movies like Inception, or Memento - Dark Matter is for you!
This book was a thrilling adventure that had me turning the page to figure out what happens next while also forcing me to contemplate how much our choices define our reality. A great read for lovers of science fiction and general fiction alike.
A very clever premise: a rather ordinary man has his life and world stolen from him, and to get them back has to out-think different versions of himself again, and again and again. Mostly entertaining and fast paced with some slow parts - scenes in the time tunnel became repetitive. And a big disappointment in that Amanda, one of the most interesting characters, gets dropped from the story. By the ending I was also bored with the main character, though the end of his story felt right. My guess is that the movie adaptation will actually improve on the book.
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KilgoreTheTrout thinks this title is suitable for 16 years and over
professorxfm thinks this title is suitable for 18 years and over
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"Are you happy with your life?" Those are the last words Jason Dessen hears before his abductor knocks him unconscious, before he awakens to find himself strapped to a gurney, surrounded by strangers in hazmat suits, where a man Jason's never met smiles down at him and says, "Welcome back, my friend."
In this world he's woken up to, Jason's life is not the one he knows. His wife is not his wife. His son was never born. And Jason is not an ordinary college physics professor but a celebrated genius who has achieved something remarkable - something impossible. Is it this world or the other that's the dream? And even if the home he remembers is real, how can Jason possibly make it back to the family he loves?
Blake Crouch writes a gripping science fiction thriller that will hook you from the very beginning, and will have you reading late into the night. A thought-provoking read full of twists and turns, that takes you down the scientific rabbit hole, delving into questions of our own existence and the consequences our life decisions. This novel will delight those who enjoy Orphan Black, the Matrix and Inception.
College professor bored with his life, due to the routines, finds himself being kidnapped on the way home one night, after running an errand. After meeting his alternate reality and realizing his other "self" has switched places, he desperately tries to get back to the life he knows and realizes he "loves" in all its imperfections.
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What's Included
Gerber Tours strives to make every tour the best it can be. That's why we include many additional items in our tours. Every Gerber Tours tour includes the following:
Customized ToursWe work with you throughout the planning process to design a trip that meets the unique needs of your group. Whether that means catering to small groups or arranging a special itinerary, we go to great lengths to accommodate each need and attend to every detail. The sample itineraries we provide can be used as a guideline for planning your trip.
Complete Trip PlanningAfter many years planning student tours, we have developed the expertise that enables us to bring you the highest quality services every step of your tour. We handle every detail so you don't have to! You choose a city and our student travel experts work with you to create an itinerary that addresses your group's goals and interests. Days are filled with fun, educational activities and the evening programs are an exciting culmination to the day's events.
Experienced Tour GuidesAn experienced and trained Tour Guide is with your group throughout the trip. Highly educated and personable, your Guide is a native of that city and an expert at working with student groups.
TransportationYour total package will include both round-trip and local transportation. We have built strong relationships with airlines, Amtrak and the most reputable bus companies so we are able to offer you the most reliable and cost effective means of transportation for your group.
Hotel AccommodationsUnderstanding that groups need flexibility in terms of accommodations, we offer you a wide range of hotels, from budget inns, to luxury hotels so you can design your tour to meet the exact needs of your group. Typically, students are roomed in quadruple occupancy rooms and adults in double occupancy rooms. Free chaperones are roomed in double occupancy. All accommodations include private bath and TV and are inspected by our travel experts for safety and comfort.
MealsWe believe that a city's cuisine is an important part of its culture so we give you a variety of dining options ranging from hotel meals to specialty restaurants. You make the choices!
Free ChaperonesBecause of your initiative and hard work, your students will experience the benefits of an educational tour. For maximum safety and to help ease your responsibility, we encourage ample adult supervision on each tour. One chaperone is included free of cost for every 20 students traveling. Beyond that, we will build into the cost as many additional chaperons as you like. You should afford yourself the peace of mind and confidence your efforts have earned.
Trip Management ToolsTo assist you with coordinating your tour, we provide you with useful, customized tools that allow you to easily manage the details of your trip. We provide you with colorful posters to help promote the trip, parent brochures to help you send the message home and individual registration forms to help manage sign-ups. Once your trip is booked, we provide you with online tools to help you manage rooming lists, bus direction forms and more! We help you every step of the way!
The Highest StandardsAs an accredited and charter member of The Student and Youth Travel Association and recognized members of these leading travel associations, we promise you that we adhere to a strict set of ethical, financial and professional standards; a promise we keep in everything we do.


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Members on our Victorian Branch Council have voted to increase union fees by between 25 cents and 50 cents per week from 1 October, 2017.
This Is Why 23 Educators Are Travelling Overnight From Mildura To Melbourne This Friday
This Saturday, HUNDREDS of educators across Victoria are hitting the streets of Melbourne to demand equal pay. Mildura educator, Rav, is one of them. And this time, she's bringing her fellow educators.
11 Awesome Ways Hotel Cleaner Margarita Demanded A Meeting With Malcolm Turnbull
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This Is How Being Union Changed Kevin's Life
Making ends meet on insecure hours is stressful and tough. It can be difficult to pay our rent or mortgage, and provide for our families. Table games dealer and proud Casino Union member, Kevin Pham, used to have these worries. But not anymore.
How #MeetWithMargarita Conquered Canberra
For the last two weeks Margarita has waged an epic campaign to get a meeting with Malcolm Turnbull to ask him why he supports cutting her penalty rates.
Union Cleaners Are Winning
Members of the cleaners union have had some HUGE wins in our fight for good secure jobs in the industry!


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Legal Process Outsourcing
Neural IT provides high-quality legal process outsourcing services to law firms across the USA. We assist our clients to focus valuable time and resources on the substance of their cases rather than the physical act of constructing, organizing and managing their legal papers. Our trained and experienced team of Indian lawyers and paralegals ensures that you receive proficient LPO services.
Our LPO services team of qualified lawyers are especially skilled in legal drafting and legal analysis. We function as your back-office legal services provider and efficiently manage your legal drafting, documentation or research and analysis requirements. Outsource your legal needs to us, and save time and costs to a great extent.
Legal Research:
Neural IT's legal research team is well versed in using online databases such as Westlaw® as well as various legal research tools and law libraries efficiently and professionally.
Legal Documentation and Drafting:
We provide legal document production, wherein our lawyers draft documents that are embedded in the litigation process.
Our Services Includes:
- Intake/Case opening Letters
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- Motion for Special Preference trial
- Motion to Re-argue
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- Motion to Preclude
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Litigation Support:
Managing legal process outsourcing (LPO) tasks is not simple and requires the expertise of a professional, and if ignored, case management tasks can result in additional costs. We manage your voluminous case management tasks that are recursive and burdening.
Our Services Includes:
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- 86 years old
- Date of birth: Dec 4, 1926
- Date of passing: Apr 2, 2013
|Let the memory of Norma be with us forever
On Tuesday, April 2, 2013, Norma Olney Thompson peacefully passed away from this life surrounded by her loving family at the age of 86. She was born on December 4, 1926, to Wallace Lorin Olney and Mona Moore Olney. She was the oldest of four children, two sisters and one brother, Carma Peterson, Colleen Lawlor and Wallace (Wally) Olney.
Mom was raised in Smithfield, Utah, and graduated from North Cache High School where she met and married her High School sweetheart Joe Thompson. They were married in the Logan LDS Temple on May 29, 1945, and was blessed with seven children. She is survived by her husband of almost 68 years and her 6 children: Winnan (Norman) Thompson, Janet (Dennis) Kohler, Cheryl (Jan) Maughan, Rodney (Susan) Thompson, Robert (Kim) Thompson, Steven Thompson and one daughter-in-law Jackie Thompson. She was blessed with 23 grandchildren and 50 great-grandchildren. She was preceded in death by her parents and one son, Kenneth Jay Thompson and one granddaughter, Jennifer Thompson Peterson.
Throughout the years she held many church positions and had a strong testimony of the gospel. She loved working side by side with Dad where they built apartments, a motel and their new home. She was an example to her children and taught them the value of hard work. She enjoyed the many winters she and dad spent in California and St. George. They were blessed to spend this past winter in St.George.
For this is a journey that we must all take, and each must go along. "It's all part of the master's plan - A step on the way home." (unknown)
Funeral services will be held at noon Tuesday, April 9, 2013, at the Smithfield 15th Ward Chapel, 625 E. 600 South with Bishop Holland conducting. Friends may call from 6 to 8 p.m. Monday at the Nelson Funeral Home in Smithfield, and from 10:30 to 11 :30 a.m. Tuesday at the church. Interment will be in the Smithfield City Cemetery. Condolences and memories may be expressed online at www.allenmortuaries.net.
As a family we would like to send our heartfelt thanks to CNA Hospice, especially Angie and Natasha and Dr. Salisbury for their loving care of Mom.
Published in Logan Herald Journal from April 6 to April 7, 2013
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Product Description
The stars shine over your head. High in the sky.
From the popular anime series 'Your lie in April' comes a 1/8th scale figure of Kaori Miyazono. The figure is based on an illustration drawn by the original creator of the series, Naoshi Arakawa. It captures the normally energetic Kaori with a slightly uncertain smile on her face.
The violin she holds in her arms has been intricately sculpted based on a real violin, and even the details and texture of her shoes have been carefully thought out. Careful attention has been given to even the smallest parts of the accessories and details of her clothes to create a figure of Kaori that fans will be proud to own.
Product Details
- Product Name
- Kaori Miyazono (みやぞのかをり)
- Series
- Your lie in April
- Manufacturer
- Good Smile Company
- Category
- 1/8th Scale
- Release Date
- 2016/01
- Specifications
- Painted 1/8th scale ABS&PVC figure with stand included. Approximately 200mm in height.
- Sculptor
- Chikai (Windflower)
- Please note that photos shown may differ from the final product.
- Paintwork is done partially by hand and therefore final products may vary.
Additional Information
Additional Information


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Kai Ryssdal: Another day, another piece of bad news for the Wall Street bank everybody loves to hate. That'd be Goldman Sachs. Congress is looking into how the firm managed to make so much money while the rest of us were stuck in a recession. The inquiry comes at a challenging time for the bank's public relations staff. You may have heard about a recent article in Rolling Stone calling Goldman a vampire squid wrapped around the face of humanity. Goldman doesn't exactly cater to small investors, so we wondered if it really cares about the bad press. Marketplace's Amy Scott reports.
AMY SCOTT: Goldman Sachs made almost $3.5 billion last quarter. So who cares if some reporter calls it a vampire squid.
NOMI PRINS: It truly couldn't care less what we think of it, because it doesn't impact its bottom line.
Nomi Prins wrote the book "It Takes a Pillage" about the financial bailout. She's also a former managing director at Goldman Sachs. She says Goldman's clients are mostly institutions and very wealthy people. As long as the bank is making them money, she says its reputation with the masses doesn't really matter.
NOMI PRINS: It had a record profit. It's going to give either record or near record bonuses, and as long as the public doesn't really own or dump its stock, which hasn't been the case, there's no impact to its bottom line whatsoever at all.
That could change if the public outcry causes lawmakers and regulators to interfere. A Goldman Sachs spokesman told me the firm does care about what the public thinks. He says the bank has been more "proactive" lately in addressing what it considers misperceptions about the business.
Goldman's reputation on Wall Street is another matter. Gustavo Dolfino runs the financial recruiting firm White Rock Group. He says all the scrutiny could make it more difficult for Goldman to attract top talent.
GUSTAVO DOLFINO: They just were a part of the excess that went on. And I think it's going to take some time to get back the Street's respect.
Dolfino says besides, it's likely in the future the pay packages at Goldman Sachs won't be what they used to be. He says the players want to strike out on their own, or work for hedge funds or private equity firms, where the real money can be made.
In New York, I'm Amy Scott for Marketplace.


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|Publication number
|Publication type
|Application number
|Publication date
|16 Mar 1999
|Filing date
|27 Mar 1997
|Priority date
|27 Mar 1997
|Fee status
|Publication number
|Charles Ray Mathews
|Original Assignee
|Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.
|Export Citation
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Patent Citations (3), Referenced by (30), Classifications (5), Legal Events (4)
|External Links: USPTO, USPTO Assignment, Espacenet
1. Field of the Invention
The Present invention relates generally to the art of semiconductor manufacturing and, more particularly, to an apparatus and method for identifying wafers contained inside a process tool chamber.
2. Description of the Relevant Art
Particle contamination of wafers is a serious problem in semiconductor manufacturing. During manufacturing, unprotected wafers may be exposed to airborne particles particularly when the wafers are transported from one process tool to another. Often times, these particles land on the surface of an unprotected wafer and create shorts or other performance degrading deformities in the underlying semiconductor device. Accordingly, it becomes important to avoid exposing wafers to foreign particles.
Semiconductors are manufactured in clean room environments which employ sophisticated filter systems to remove a significant amount of airborne particle contaminates. In particular, the filter systems provide a constant air flow vertically directed from ceiling to floor. Micro filters placed at the beginning of the air flow trap minute particles before they enter the clean room. The air flow ends at the clean room floor where air is recirculated back to the ceiling and filter system. Although the filters remove a significant amount of contaminates from the clean room, particles remain which may cause wafer contamination.
Semiconductor manufacturing involves a succession of processing steps whereby silicon wafers are transformed into integrated circuits. Each process step usually involves using one of several different types of process tools, including ion implanters, etchers, etc., each of which is usually contained in the clean room. Between process steps, wafers in cassettes are physically moved from one tool to another. During transfer, the wafers are tracked to ensure that they are directed to the proper process tool for subsequent processing. Prior to the present invention, cassettes of wafers were tracked using a hand-held bar code scanner (not shown). A clean room worker typically would remove a cassette from one process tool, and physically transport a cassette to a subsequent process tool for further processing. Before loading the cassette into the subsequent processing tool, the clean room worker scans a bar code displayed on a side of the cassette which contains identification information of the wafers therein in order to verify the next processing step. Often times due to simple oversight the wrong cassette is loaded into the process tool after scanning thereby resulting in wafer misprocessing. Further, movement of the hand-held bar code scanner disrupts particles resting thereon causing them to become airborne thus creating an enhanced risk that exposed wafers will be contaminated.
The problems outlined above are in large part solved by the present invention which provides a bar code scanner attached to a window of a process tool load lock chamber. In this configuration the bar code scanner can read a bar code displayed on a cassette of wafers while the cassette is positioned within a high vacuum, generally particle free environment of the load lock chamber Accordingly, the cassette and wafers contained therein can be scanned before wafer processing without subjecting the exposed wafers to the risk of particle contamination.
The window is provided by forming an aperture through the load lock chamber wall. Thereafter, a window assembly, including an interface plate, a transparent member, and a retainer are attached to the load lock chamber wall, generally in alignment with the aperture formed therein. The window assembly is also provided with a seal to maintain the vacuum state within the load lock chamber. The transparent member is formed from a material which permits transmission of light generated by the bar code scanner onto the cassette displayed bar code. Additionally, the transparent member permits transmission of light reflected from the displayed bar code onto a sensor of the externally positioned bar code scanner. The bar code scanner generates a signal as a function of the detected light. This generated signal can be turn used to be a computer system to identify the wafers contained within the load lock chamber.
One advantage of the present invention is that it reduces the risk that unprotected wafers are contaminated with foreign particles.
Another advantage of the present invention is that it ensures proper tracking of wafers thereby avoiding process tool misleading.
Yet another advantage of the present invention is that it reduces cycle time to complete fabrication of devices on seminconductor wafers by eliminating the step of scanning cassettes between process tools using a hand held scanner which in turn reduces labor needed during device fabrication.
Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent upon reading the following detailed description and upon reference to the accompanying drawings in which:
FIG. 1 shows a partial side view of a semiconductor process tool employing the present invention;
FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the chamber wall and window assembly according to one embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the chamber wall and window assembly according to an alternative embodiment of the present invention, and;
FIG. 4 is a side view of the semiconductor process tool wall showing the window assembly of the present invention and a cassette bar code display aligned thereto.
While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.
FIG. 1 shows a silicon wafer processing apparatus employing the present invention. The silicon wafer processing apparatus 10 includes a process tool 12, a scanner 14, and a general purpose computer 16 connected to process tool 12 or scanner 14 or both. The present invention can be employed with any number of process tools, including ion implanters, metal deposition devices, etchers, etc. FIG. 1 describes the silicon wafer processing apparatus 10 with process tool 12 defined by a semiconductor etching device, it being understood that the present invention is employable with other types of process tools.
There are several etching techniques commonly used to etch silicon wafers, including plasma etching or a combination of plasma/reactive ion etching (RIE). Plasma and RIE techniques, often called dry etching, are relatively new and are performed in low pressure gaseous plasma. Dry etching generally involves fewer safety hazards, less spent chemical disposable problems, and also produces finer line geometric structures.
Dry etching generally requires an etching chamber capable of receiving gaseous etchant and a wafer to be etched. The etchant can be pressurized within the chamber. Operating pressure during the etching process depends upon the material being etched, the gas etchant chosen, and may range from a few torr to fractions of a militorr. After etching is completed, the gaseous material and volatile by-products can be pumped out or evacuated from the chamber.
Etching chamber 30 includes a pair of electrodes 32 and 34 at opposing sides or ends of the chamber. One electrode is charged by a controlled RF voltage supply 36, while the other electrode is grounded. Negative electron charge accumulates upon the powered electrode during one half of the RF cycle while positive ion charge accumulates during the next cycle. Since electrons are more mobile than ions, a negative potential will build upon the powered electrode and charges the electrode negative with respect to the grounded electrode and the gaseous plasma between the electrodes. Depending upon parameters set by general purpose computer 16, the voltage differential between the two electrodes may be several hundred volts.
Etching is achieved by first placing a wafer 40 on lower electrode 34. The wafer is positioned to receive positive ions directed from the plasma when the RF voltage is applied to the upper electrode 32. The ions chemically or mechanically react with the surface of the wafer 40 and cause an etching therein. After the etching process is complete, pump 64 evacuates chamber 30 to recreate a high vacuum.
Process tools, including the etching device 12 shown in FIG. 1, generally include a load lock chamber 42 configured to receive a cassette 44 containing several wafers 40 to be processed. Load lock chamber 42 provides a contamination free or reduced particle environment where wafers can be held before and after they are etched. The load lock chamber precludes exposure of the etching chamber 30 to the particle contaminated clean room in which the etching device is contained. Load lock chamber 42 is generally defined by an opaque wall 50 and includes a pump 51, a robot 52, a cassette support 54 and a scanner mounting assembly or window assembly 70 according to the present invention which will be more fully described below.
Load lock chambers act as a staging area for etching wafers. After the cassette 44 of wafers 40 is placed into load lock chamber 42 and an access door (not shown) is closed, pump 50 operates to create a high level, particle free vacuum. Ideally, this vacuum should equal the vacuum previously established in etching chamber 30 by pump 64. Once the atmospheres in etching chamber 30 and load lock chamber 42 equalize, door 56 opens thereby providing access between the two chambers. Robot arm 60 selects a wafer 40 from cassette 44, passes the selected wafer through the opening between the chambers, and places the selected wafer on lower electrode 34. Thereafter, robot arm 60 retreats back into load lock chamber 42, door 56 closes thereby isolating etch chamber 30 from load lock chamber 42.
General purpose computer 16 controls plasma source 62, voltage generator 36, etch chamber pump 64 and load lock pump 50. With the wafer 40 properly positioned on lower electrode 34, general purpose computer 16 directs plasma source 62 to provide an etching plasma within chamber 30. General purpose computer 16, acting in connection with plasma source 62, sets process parameters such as plasma density, temperature, etc., in accordance with predefined instructions which could be stored within a memory of the computer. Wafer 40 may be subjected to an etch process with parameters set to any of a variety of predefined values. It becomes important that each particular wafer 40 be subjected to the appropriate etch technique. If somehow wafer 40 is subjected to the wrong etching technique, wafer 40 will be ruined.
After wafer 40 has been properly etched, general purpose computer 16 directs pump 64 to evacuate all etching by-products from chamber 30, and return chamber 30 to a high vacuum state which equals the vacuum in load lock chamber 42. Door 56 then opens allowing robot arm 60 to retrieve wafer 40 from etch chamber 30. After the etched wafer is returned to the cassette robot arm 60 selects a subsequent wafer 40 for etching in chamber 30.
Scanner 14 is preferably a bar code scanner. Scanner 14 can be connected to general computer 16, which stores information related to the wafers, which information can be accessed by the information contained in bar codes on the cassette 44. Moreover, scanner 14 can be directly connected to load lock chamber via mounting assembly or window assembly 70 as shown in FIG. 2. The window assembly 70 can be attached to an external surface 72 of load lock chamber 50. Moreover, window assembly 70 is positioned in alignment with opening 74 through chamber wall 50 in such a way that scanner 14 may read aligned bar code 76 displayed on a side of wafer cassette 44 received in load lock chamber 42. FIG. 4 shows bar code 76 displayed upon cassette 44 while looking through window assembly 70. It is understood that window assembly 70 need not be applied externally to the chamber wall 50. Rather, window assembly 70 may be attached to an internal surface of chamber wall 50. It is, however, important that opening 74 formed through chamber wall 50 be sealed with window assembly 70 to maintain a high vacuum particle reduced environment within load lock chamber 42.
In the alternative, as shown in FIG. 3, an adjustable mirror 68 may be mounted to assembly 70 with scanner 14 positioned remotely therefrom. The mirror 68 is pivotally mounted to an arm 78 extending from assembly 70. In this configuration, light emitted from remotely positioned scanner, is redirected by mirror 68 through opening 74, and light reflected from bar code is redirected by mirror 68 to scanner 14. This configuration facilitates avoidance of space limitations on mounting scanner 14 to assembly 70.
With continuing reference to FIG. 1 and with further reference to FIGS. 2 and 3, window assembly 70 will now be more fully explained. Window assembly 70 includes an interface plate 80, a transparent member 82, a retaining member 84, fluid seals such as o-rings 86, and fasteners such as bolts 90. Transparent member 82 is formed from a suitable light transparent material having sufficient strength to withstand forces applied thereto when load lock chamber is subjected to a high vacuum. One suitable material may be plexiglass. Thickness of transparent member 82 can be selected in accordance with well known design techniques in order to accommodate proper scanning of bar code 76 by bar code scanner 14.
Interface plate 80 and retaining member 84 are formed from a sufficiently rigid material such as stainless steel. The interface plate 80 and retaining member 84 each have an aperture formed therethrough, each aperture being and in alignment with opening 74. Retaining member 84 is provided to maintain light transparent member 82 in a secure position such as shown.
O-rings 86 are provided in channels formed within interface plate. O-rings 86 establish a seal between chamber wall 50 and interface plate 80, and between interface plate 80 and light transparent member 82. The o-rings 86 prevent any fluid passage into and out of load lock chamber 42.
As shown in FIG. 2, bar code scanner 14 includes an adaptive member 92 mounted to window assembly 70 using fasteners such as bolts 94. As shown in FIG. 3, arm 78 includes an adaptive member 98 mounted to window assembly 70 using fasteners such as bolts 94.
Bar code scanner 14 includes a light generation device 100 and a light sensor 102. In operation light generator 100 generates a light which passes through both the window assembly 70 and chamber wall opening 74, and illuminates bar code 76 displayed on cassette 44. Light reflected from bar code 76 passes in an opposite direction through chamber wall opening 74 and light transparent member 82 where it is sensed by light sensor 102. Bar code scanner 14 generates a signal indicative of light sensed by sensor 102. This signal is transmitted to general purpose computer 16. The signal transmitted by the scanner can be used to access memory in computer 16 which may contain relevant data concerning the wafers contained within cassette 44 on which bar code 76 is displayed.
For example, the internal memory may contain etching parameter instructions such as etchant pressure, temperature, etc., associated with wafers 40 contained withint load lock chamber 42. The instructions can be transmitted to plasma source 62, voltage generator 36, pump 64, pump 50, and robot interface control 104.
Since scanner 14 reads bar code 76 while cassette 44 is contained within a high vacuum atmosphere in load lock chamber 42, wafers 40 are protected against particle contamination resulting from vertical air disruptions caused by bar code scanner motion or other clean room tool motion. Moreover, since computer 16 is provided with information identifying wafers 40 contained within load lock chamber 42, there is a reduced risk that wafers 40 will be subjected to an erroneous etching technique.
It will be appreciated to those skilled in the art having the benefit of this disclosure that this invention is believed to be capable of being applied with numerous types of semiconductor processing tools. Various modifications and changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the claims.
It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such modifications and changes to the foregoing invention description.
|Cited Patent
|Filing date
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|19 Dec 1995
|Texas Instruments Incorporated
|Semiconductor wafer particle extractor
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|22 Oct 1996
|Texas Instruments Incorporated
|Apparatus for semiconductor wafer identification
|5 Sep 1996
|11 Aug 1998
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|Apparatus and method for tracking inventory of multiple goods in multiple shipping cartons
|Citing Patent
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|20 Oct 1998
|17 Apr 2001
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|Protective rail with integrated workpiece sensors
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|28 Aug 2001
|International Business Machines Corporation
|Structure and method for detection of physical interference during transport of an article
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|Methods and systems for determining a critical dimension and a thin film characteristic of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|6 Jan 2004
|Kla-Tencor Technologies
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|20 Sep 2001
|17 Feb 2004
|Kla-Tencor Technologies Corp.
|Methods and systems for determining at least four properties of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|24 Aug 2004
|Kla-Tencor Technologies Corp.
|Methods and systems for determining a critical dimension an a presence of defects on a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|19 Oct 2004
|Kla-Tencor Technologies Corp.
|Methods and systems for determining at least one characteristic of defects on at least two sides of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
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|Kla-Tencor, Inc.
|Methods and systems for determining a characteristic of a specimen prior to, during, or subsequent to ion implantation
|22 Oct 2003
|16 Nov 2004
|Kla-Tencor Technologies Corp.
|Methods and systems for determining a presence of macro defects and overlay of a specimen
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|Agilent Technologies, Inc.
|Apparatus and method for manufacturing integrated circuit devices
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|7 Dec 2004
|K.L.A.-Tencor Technologies
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|Infineon Technologies Sg300 Gmbh & Co. Kg
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|20 Sep 2001
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|John Fielden
|Methods and systems for determining a composition and a thickness of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|8 Aug 2002
|Dan Wack
|Methods and systems for determining a property of a specimen prior to, during, or subsequent to lithography
|20 Sep 2001
|8 Aug 2002
|Dan Wack
|Methods and systems for determining a critical dimension and a presence of defects on a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|5 Dec 2002
|John Fielden
|Methods and systems for determining a thin film characteristic and an electrical property of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|5 Dec 2002
|John Fielden
|Methods and systems for determining flatness, a presence of defects, and a thin film characteristic of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|19 Dec 2002
|Ady Levy
|Methods and systems for determining a characteristic of micro defects on a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|16 Jan 2003
|Ady Levy
|Methods and systems for determining overlay and flatness of a specimen
|24 Sep 2003
|15 Apr 2004
|Kla-Tencor, Inc.
|Methods and systems for determining a critical dimension and a thin film characteristic of a specimen
|20 Sep 2001
|13 May 2004
|Gary Bultman
|Methods and systems for determining a presence of macro and micro defects on a specimen
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|U.S. Classification
|235/462.15, 235/454
|International Classification
|Cooperative Classification
|European Classification
|27 Mar 1997
Owner name: ADVANCED MICRO DEVICES, INC., CALIFORNIA
Free format text: ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST;ASSIGNOR:MATTHEWS, CHARLES RAY;REEL/FRAME:008488/0306
Effective date: 19970211
|2 Oct 2002
|Maintenance fee reminder mailed
|17 Mar 2003
|Lapse for failure to pay maintenance fees
|13 May 2003
|Expired due to failure to pay maintenance fee
Effective date: 20030316


text:
Three and four-beds to suit every budget
Willouise, Sallins, Co Kildare
There are 16 properties still for sale in the second phase of Willouise, a development of apartments and houses that overlooks the banks of the Grand Canal on the outskirts of Sallins.
Thirty units of the development's first phase have been occupied to date, and eight have been bought during the second phase since June. When the third and final phase is complete, there will be 116 units on the site in total.
The latest phase was designed to appeal to a range of budgets, from €159,500 for an own-door ground-floor two-bed apartment, to four and five-bed detached family homes starting at €379,500. There are also two-bed townhouses and three-bed duplexes, as well as three-bed and four-bed semi-detached.
The exterior of all of the homes are finished in red brick, with Portland white window surrounds, roughcast render to the sides and rear of the buildings. There are wrought-iron railings and paved driveways to the front of each house and walled-in gardens to the rear. Inside, there is a fully fitted kitchen, a wood-burning stove, fitted wardrobes in the bedrooms, and all attic areas are primed for conversion.
Show units for the four and five-bed detached and three-bed semi-detached are open for viewing by appointment. Floor plans and site layout can be found on willouise.com.
Enquiries to: Property Partners Brady (01) 6510000 or Conway Auctioneers (045) 522622.
Indo Property


text: Two questions about google voice app. 1) When Google voice is installed on phone and one uses google voice to place a call, are the cell phone plan minutes being used? 2) Is cell phone signal strength relevant to placing a call using Google voice? I am under the impression that google voice does not rely on signal strength but instead on the internet connection. My house does not have good cell phone signal.. can i use google voice on my phone with wifi turned on? and am I actually burning my cell phone minutes while using google voice?


text:
Visiting and want to Drop-in?
You may be eligible to attend one of our regular classes if you have at least three months of prior experience at another certified CrossFit affiliate.
If you're still new to CrossFit, under three months prior experience at another certified CrossFit affiliate, or just want to try something different, you are welcome to attend one of our Endurance classes. You will get a killer workout, without using barbells.
At CrossFit 615, safety is our primary concern. Our trainers will evaluate both your current fitness level and your knowledge of CrossFit movements and terminology. If you are able to demonstrate competency in CrossFit movements you are welcome to continue coming to the regular classes. If for any reason one of the coaches or you feel as though additional help is needed, we may require you to go to the beginners' class for a bit, or set up some one-on-one sessions to make sure you are safe and comfortable in class settings.
If you are unable to attend please cancel your class and contact us.
You may cancel your class a full 24 hours before it is scheduled.
Please come to the training session a few minutes early to ensure it starts on time. If you arrive late we will still only be able to train you until the finish of the hour that was originally scheduled.
We love nothing more than having visitors from other boxes come "throw down" with us.
To Start: Click HERE! Here's what's gonna happen:
1. Follow the link to sign up for a Drop-In class.
2. Pick the class date and time you'd like to join and follow the instructions.
3. If you have never attended our box, you'll be asked to sign our waiver (our insurance friends make us do this).
4. Payment info is the last step. Drop-In fee is $20. If you decide you'd like a T-shirt, we will be more than happy to sell you a T-shirt for a discounted rate of $15 to be paid at the gym when you receive the shirt.
You will receive an email confirming your class, feel free to email us and let us know when you will be arriving or if you have any questions. Keep in mind, we ask that you have at least 3 months CrossFit experience to join a class or 6 months experience to attend an open gym time. If you are just passing through town, we charge a drop-in fee of $20 per day or for $35 you can drop-in and get a tee. Please plan to arrive five minutes early so class can start on time. Please be aware that we start about 5 minutes after class so please come in and make yourself at home!
You may find that CrossFit 615 does things a little differently than your "box back home."
Our primary focus at 615 is teaching and we hope you learn something new while your here! We push things to the limits and we recommend drinking water or something with electrolytes to rehydrate. We hope that you enjoy your time with us in Music City. If anything makes you uncomfortable, however, please let us know. We look forward to meeting you!


text:
Content marketing – which is about creating engaging content for your followers – has been a much talked about principle in the social media world. It's been a powerful way of attracting new clients and customers. But, as things tend to do in the social media world, this is changing and it's a good idea to ask yourself if content marketing is really the best strategy for you or your organisation. Is it even a sustainable strategy? Is there a better option? Content is king, but why settle for the king when there's an ace in the deck?
The ace I'm talking about is contribution marketing (feel free to replace marketing with ministry), which means putting your beliefs into practise so that you are actively benefiting your community, and making this visible through your marketing. It's about so much more than content marketing, which is a way of simply presenting what you have to offer.
Show how you're making a difference
Christian ministry itself is about so much more than getting people to attend worship and activities, and using content marketing to draw them in. Most of our Christian life – your ministry's life and the everyday lives of the people you are reaching – is lived outside the church building. Showing how you are making a difference to those everyday lives is contribution marketing. People are far more likely to be interested in your ministry if they can see it is contributing to the community, and will hopefully one day wish to become a part of it.
Don't get me wrong: content marketing isn't wrong, but contribution marketing takes your content one step further, putting it into context and applying it to everyday life. It focuses on relationships, which is what ministry (and, in fact, social media) is all about.
One of the ways you can start your contribution marketing is through a blog. Have a core group of contributors but also encourage many members of your ministry to participate. Link to news in both local and worldwide media and show how your ministry is contributing to the community. Be an active voice in the local debate. Use Google Plus to boost your SEO. And use Google Authorship to link your blog content to your Google Account.
Strengthen your relationships
You can invest all you like in designers, photographers, writers and others to create high quality content…but, at the end of the day, what matters is the strength of your relationship with your members/customers. Everything else is secondary. Creating and fostering good, lasting relationships requires an investment of time and resource. Here are some basic principles to think about when you interact with your audiences on social media:
- Don't have standard replies that you copy and paste
- Don't automate responses
- Address people by name
- Sign comments by the company/ministry pages and accounts by name
So, to summarise: If you want to get your contribution marketing going, look at what your ministry is doing locally and globally, how you contribute to society, and tell your audiences about that.
Further reading:
How brands can move beyond content marketing (Article in The Guardian)
Content Shock Why content marketing is not a sustainable strategy (Post by @markwschaefer)
Does your website present or represent you (A previous post by me)
How to market a blog from scratch and get massive growth (Really good post about blogging by Adam Connell @adamjayc)


text:
Beautiful Silver and Indian Garnets Earrings for pierced ears
Sold for:
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- Sold Date:
- Source: eBay UK
Beautiful Indian Garnet EarringsThese are very beautiful Silver and Indian Garnets earrings for pierced ears, stamped 925 in great condition, very good quality and very well made, the Garnets are superb ! Fantastic to wear or Beautiful to give as a Gift or to add to any collection. If you have any questions please mail me, thanks for looking and ! Please view my other items
Overseas bidders please read payment instrutions before bidding.Thanks.


text:
Grandparents give kids a sense of spiritual purpose, history, identity, & heritage
As a grandparent, you play an important role in your grandchildren's lives – so important, in fact, that your influence on them has eternal significance. Making the most of this opportunity to invest in their lives will lead to great rewards.
Grandparents Matter is an initiative of the Christian Coalition Alabama, 451 Saint Lukes Drive, Montgomery, Alabama
Christian Coalition Alabama is a 501(c)(4) Organization


text:
Last week, Vornado Realty Trust (VNO) – a leading real estate investment trust (:REIT) – hiked its quarterly dividend from 69 cents to 73 cents. The new dividend is payable on Feb 19, 2013 to stockholders of record as of Jan 28, 2013.
This represents Vornado's second dividend increase since Sep 2012. If the current dividend is maintained for the remainder of the year, the annualized dividend payout of the company would be $2.92 per share.
This dividend hike reflects the company's continued robust performance, backed by disciplined acquisition policy and a diligent execution of its strategic plan. Based on the closing price of $84.63 on Jan 18, 2012, the proposed annual dividend affirms a yield of 3.45%. A steady dividend payout facilitates the long-term strategy of Vornado to provide attractive risk-adjusted returns to its stockholders.
Lately, a number of REIT firms have been observed increasing their dividend payouts. Earlier this month, one of Vornado's peers, DDR Corp. (DDR), hiked its quarterly dividend by about 12.5% to 13.5 cents.
Last year, Host Hotels & Resorts, Inc. (HST) – the largest lodging REIT – increased its fourth-quarter dividend payout by 80% year over year to 9 cents per. Another lodging REIT, RLJ Lodging Trust (RLJ), also increased its quarterly dividend by 24.0% to 20.5 cents per share.
Solid dividend payouts are arguably the biggest enticement for REIT investors as the U.S. law requires these to distribute 90% of their annual taxable income in the form of dividends to the shareholders.
We are impressed with the company's dedication towards continuously enhancing the shareholders' value. Vornado has long been focusing on increasing its ownership stake in upscale properties and acquiring premium assets. These efforts have enabled the company to strengthen the balance sheet and generate considerable cash flow for portfolio enhancement as well as increase the cash distribution to its shareholders.
Vornado currently carries a Zacks Rank #3 (Hold).
(We are reissuing this article to correct a mistake. The original article, issued yesterday, Jan 22, 2013, should no longer be relied upon.)
Read the Full Research Report on VNO
Read the Full Research Report on DDR
Read the Full Research Report on HST
Read the Full Research Report on RLJ
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